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1-hop neighbor's text information: cisco_systems.cisco systems cisco systems inc. american multinational technology conglomerate headquartered san jose california center silicon valley cisco develops manufactures sells networking hardware telecommunications equipment high-technology services products numerous acquired subsidiaries opendns webex jabber jasper cisco specializes specific tech markets internet things iot domain security energy management cisco stock added dow jones industrial average june 8 2009 also included p 500 index russell 1000 index nasdaq-100 index russell 1000 growth stock index cisco systems founded december 1984 leonard bosack sandy lerner two stanford university computer scientists pioneered concept local area network lan used connect geographically disparate computers multiprotocol router system time company went public 1990 cisco market capitalization 224 million end dot-com bubble year 2000 cisco 500 billion market capitalization cisco systems founded december 1984 sandy lerner director computer facilities stanford university graduate school business lerner partnered husband leonard bosack charge stanford university computer science department computers cisco initial product roots stanford university campus technology early 1980s students staff stanford including bosack used technology campus link school computer systems talk one another creating box functioned multiprotocol router called blue box blue box used software originally written stanford research engineer william yeager due underlying architecture ability scale well yeager well-designed invention became key cisco early success 1985 bosack stanford employee kirk lougheed began project formally network stanford campus adapted yeager software became foundation cisco ios despite yeager claims denied permission sell blue box commercially july 11 1986 bosack lougheed forced resign stanford university contemplated filing criminal complaints cisco founders theft software hardware designs intellectual properties 1987 stanford licensed router software two computer boards cisco addition bosack lerner lougheed greg satz programmer richard troiano handled sales completed early cisco team company first ceo bill graves held position 1987 1988 1988 john morgridge appointed ceo name cisco derived city name san francisco company engineers insisted using lower case cisco early years logo intended depict two towers golden gate bridge february 16 1990 cisco systems went public market capitalization 224 million listed nasdaq stock exchange august 28 1990 lerner fired upon hearing news husband bosack resigned protest couple walked away cisco 170 million 70 committed charity although cisco first company develop sell dedicated network nodes one first sell commercially successful routers supporting multiple network protocols classical cpu-based architecture early cisco devices coupled flexibility operating system ios allowed keeping evolving technology needs means frequent software upgrades popular models time cisco 2500 managed stay production almost decade virtually unchanged company quick capture emerging service provider environment entering sp market product lines cisco 7000 cisco 8500 1992 1994 cisco acquired several companies ethernet switching kalpana grand junction notably mario mazzola crescendo communications together formed catalyst business unit time company envisioned layer 3 routing layer 2 ethernet token ring switching complementary functions different intelligence architecture—the former slow complex latter fast simple philosophy dominated company product lines throughout 1990s 1995 john morgridge succeeded john chambers internet protocol ip became widely adopted mid-to-late 1990s cisco introduced products ranging modem access shelves as5200 core gsr routers making major player market late march 2000 height dot-com bubble cisco became valuable company world market capitalization 500 billion july 2014 market cap us 129 billion still one valuable companies perceived complexity programming routing functions silicon led formation several startups determined find new ways process ip mpls packets entirely hardware blur boundaries routing switching one juniper networks shipped first product 1999 2000 chipped away 30 cisco sp market share response cisco later developed homegrown asics fast processing cards gsr routers catalyst 6500 switches 2004 cisco also started migration new high-end hardware crs-1 software architecture ios-xr part rebranding campaign 2006 cisco systems adopted shortened name cisco created human network advertising campaign efforts meant make cisco household brand—a strategy designed support low-end linksys products future consumer products traditional business side cisco continued develop routing switching security portfolio quickly growing importance ethernet also influenced company product lines limits ios aging crescendo architecture also forced cisco look merchant silicon carrier ethernet segment resulted new asr9000 product family intended consolidate company carrier ethernet subscriber management business around ezchip-based hardware ios-xr throughout mid-2000s cisco also built significant presence india establishing globalization centre east bangalore 1 billion cisco also expanded new markets acquisition—one example 2009 purchase mobile specialist starent networks cisco continued challenged domestic alcatel-lucent juniper networks overseas competitors huawei due lower-than-expected profit 2011 cisco reduced annual expenses 1 billion company cut around 3,000 employees early-retirement program accepted buyout planned eliminate many 10,000 jobs around 14 percent 73,400 total employees curtailment 2011 analyst call cisco ceo john chambers called several competitors name including juniper hp july 24 2012 cisco received approval eu acquire nds tv software developer us 5 billion 2013 cisco sold linksys home-router unit belkin international inc. signaling shift sales businesses rather consumers july 23 2013 cisco systems announced definitive agreement acquire sourcefire 2.7 billion august 14 2013 cisco systems announced would cut 4,000 jobs workforce roughly 6 starting 2014 end 2013 cisco announced poor revenue due depressed sales emerging markets caused economic uncertainty fears national security agency planting backdoors products april 2014 cisco announced funding early-stage firms focus internet things investment fund allocated investments iot accelerators startups alchemist accelerator ayla networks evrythng later year company announced laying another 6,000 workers 8 global workforce part second restructuring november 4 2014 cisco announced investment stratoscale may 4 2015 cisco announced ceo chairman john chambers would step ceo july 26 2015 remain chairman chuck robbins senior vice president worldwide sales operations 17-year cisco veteran announced next ceo july 23 2015 cisco announced divesture television set-top-box cable modem business technicolor sa 600 million division originally formed cisco 6.9 billion purchase scientific atlanta deal came part cisco gradual exit consumer market part effort cisco new leadership focus cloud-based products enterprise segments cisco indicated would still collaborate technicolor video products november 19 2015 cisco alongside arm holdings dell intel microsoft princeton university founded openfog consortium promote interests development fog computing january 2016 cisco invested velocloud software-defined wan sd-wan start-up cloud offering configuring optimizing branch office networks cisco contributed velocloud 27 million series c round led march capital partners february 2017 cisco launched cloud-based secure internet gateway called cisco umbrella provide safe internet access users n't use corporate networks vpns connect remote data centers immediately reporting fourth quarter earnings 2017 cisco price-per-share value jumped 7 earnings per share ratio increased 60 61 cents per share due part cisco outperformance analyst expectations september 2017 chambers announced would step executive chairman role end term board december 2017 december 11 2017 robbins elected succeed chambers executive chairman retaining role ceo chambers given title chairman emeritus reuters reported cisco systems inc ’ csco.o product revenue russia grew 20 percent 2017 ahead cisco ’ technology product revenue growth so-called bric countries brazil china india may 1 2018 cisco systems agreed buy ai-driven business intelligence startup accompany 270 million june 2018 cisco systems ranked 444th forbes global 2000 list 221.3 billion market cap fiscal year 2017 cisco reported earnings us 0.1 billion annual revenue us 49.3 billion increase 2.8 previous fiscal cycle cisco shares traded 43 per share market capitalization valued us 213.2 billion september 2018 low net income fiscal year 2018 attributed one time tax charge allowed cisco bring back capital overseas cisco used money able bring back lower tax rate fund share buybacks acquisitions cisco acquired variety companies spin products talent company 1995–1996 company completed 11 acquisitions several acquisitions stratacom biggest deals industry occurred internet boom 1999 company acquired cerent corporation start-up company located petaluma california us 7 billion expensive acquisition made cisco date acquisition scientific atlanta larger 1999 cisco also acquired stake 1 billion kpmg consulting enable establishing internet firm metrius founded keyur patel fuse several acquired companies grown 1bn+ business units cisco including lan switching enterprise voice internet protocol voip platform webex home networking latter came result cisco acquiring linksys 2003 2010 supplemented new product line dubbed cisco valet cisco announced january 12 2005 would acquire airespace us 450 million reinforce wireless controller product lines cisco announced january 4 2007 would buy ironport deal valued us 830 million completed acquisition june 25 2007 ironport best known ironport antispam senderbase email reputation service email security appliances accordingly ironport integrated cisco security business unit ironport senderbase renamed sensorbase take account input database cisco devices provide sensorbase allows devices build risk profile ip addresses therefore allowing risk profiles dynamically created http sites smtp email sources cisco announced march 15 2012 would acquire nds group 5bn transaction completed july 30 2012 recent merger deals cisco bought starent networks mobile packet core company moto development group product design consulting firm helped develop cisco flip video camera also 2010 cisco became key stakeholder e-skills week march 2011 cisco completed acquisition privately held network configuration change management software company pari networks although many buy-ins crescendo networks 1993 tandberg 2010 resulted acquisition flagship technology cisco many others failed—partially completely instance 2010 cisco occupied meaningful share packet-optical market revenues still par us 7 billion price tag paid 1999 cerent acquired technologies flip pure digital saw product lines terminated january 2013 cisco systems acquired israeli software maker intucell around 475 million cash move expand mobile network management offerings month cisco systems acquired cognitive security company focused cyber threat protection cisco also acquired solvedirect cloud services march 2013 ubiquisys mobile software april 2013 cisco acquired cyber-security firm sourcefire october 2013 june 16 2014 cisco announced completed acquisition threatgrid company provided dynamic malware analysis threat intelligence technology june 17 2014 cisco announced intent acquire privately held tail-f systems leader multi-vendor network service orchestration solutions traditional virtualized networks april 2 2015 cisco announced plans buy embrane software-defined networking startup deal give cisco embrane software platform provides layer 3–7 network services things firewalls vpn termination server load balancers ssl offload may 7 2015 cisco announced plans buy tropo cloud api platform simplifies addition real-time communications collaboration capabilities within applications june 30 2015 cisco acquired privately held opendns company best known dns service adds level security monitoring domain name requests august 6 2015 cisco announced completed acquisition privately held maintenancenet us-based company best known cloud-based contract management platform serviceexchange month cisco acquired pawaa privately held company bangalore india provides secure on-premises cloud-based file-sharing software september 30 2015 cisco announced intent acquire privately held portcullis computer security uk-based company provides cybersecurity services enterprise clients government sectors october 26 2015 cisco announced intent acquire parstream privately held company based cologne germany provides analytics database allows companies analyze large amounts data store near real time anywhere network october 27 2015 cisco announced would acquire lancope company focuses detecting threat activity 452.5 million cash-and-equity deal june 28 2016 cisco announced intent acquire cloudlock privately held cloud security company founded 2011 three israeli military veterans 293 million deal expected close first quarter 2017 august 2016 cisco announced getting closer making deal acquire springpath startup whose technology used cisco hyperflex systems cisco already owns undisclosed stake hyper-converged provider january 2017 cisco announced would acquire appdynamics company monitors application performance 3.7 billion acquisition came one day appdynamics set ipo january 26 2017 cisco founded innovation alliance germany eleven companies bringing together 40 sites 2,000 staff provide small businesses germany expertise august 1 2017 cisco completed acquisition viptela inc. 610 million cash assumed equity awards viptela privately held software-defined wide area network sd-wan company based san jose ca october 23 2017 cisco systems announced would acquiring broadsoft 1.9 billion entrench cloud communication collaboration area 2017 cisco systems shares mainly held institutional investors vanguard group blackrock state street corporation others cisco products services focus upon three market segments—enterprise service provider midsize small business cisco provides products services across five major technology areas networking including ethernet optical wireless mobility security collaboration including voice video data data center internet things cisco grown increasingly popular asia-pacific region last three decades dominant vendor australian market leadership across market segments uses australian office one main headquarters asia-pacific region offering diverse product portfolio long-term stability integration sustainable competitive advantage cisco became major provider voice ip enterprises moving home user market acquisitions scientific atlanta linksys scientific atlanta provides voip equipment cable service providers time warner cablevision rogers communications upc others linksys partnered companies skype microsoft yahoo integrate consumer voip services wireless cordless phones cisco partners offer cloud-based services based cisco virtualized unified computing system ucs part cisco unified services delivery solution includes hosted versions cisco unified communications manager ucm cisco unified contact center cisco unified mobility cisco unified presence cisco unity connection unified messaging cisco webex meeting center part tactical operations initiative cisco maintains several network emergency response vehicles nerv s. vehicles maintained deployed cisco employees natural disasters public crises vehicles self-contained provide wired wireless services including voice radio interoperability voice ip network-based video surveillance secured high-definition video-conferencing leaders first responders crisis areas 3 mbit/s bandwidth via 1.8-meter satellite antenna nervs based cisco headquarters sites san jose california research triangle park north carolina allowing strategic deployment north america become fully operational within 15 minutes arrival high-capacity diesel fuel-tanks allow largest vehicles run 72 hours continuously nerv deployed incidents october 2007 california wildfires hurricanes gustav ike katrina 2010 san bruno gas pipeline explosion tornado outbreaks north carolina alabama 2011 hurricane sandy 2012 tactical operations team maintains deploys smaller portable communication kits emergencies outside north america 2010 team deployed assist earthquake recovery haiti christchurch new zealand 2011 deployed flooding brazil well response 2011 earthquake tsunami japan 2011 cisco received innovation preparedness award american red cross silicon valley chapter development use vehicles disasters cisco systems also sponsors line professional certifications cisco products four five path network designers levels certification entry ccent associate ccna/ccda professional ccnp/ccdp expert ccie/ccde recently architect ccar ccde previous well nine different paths routing switching design industrial network network security service provider service provider operations storage networking voice datacenter wireless number specialist technician sales datacenter certifications also available cisco also provides training certifications via portal called cisco networking academy qualifying schools become members cisco networking academy provide ccna level level courses cisco academy instructors must ccna certified ccai certified instructor cisco often finds involved technical education 10,000 partnerships 65 countries cisco academy program operates many exotic locations example march 2013 cisco announced interest myanmar investing two cisco networking academies yangon mandalay channel partner network cisco products including ip phones telepresence seen movies tv series company featured documentary film something ventured premiered 2011 cisco 2002–03 recipient ron brown award u.s. presidential honor recognize companies exemplary quality relationships employees communities cisco included part fortune 100 best companies work ranking 20 2011 according report technology consulting firm lexinnova cisco one leading recipients network security-related patents largest portfolio within companies 6,442 security-related patents 2015 class action lawsuit filed april 20 2001 accused cisco making misleading statements relied purchasers cisco stock insider trading cisco denied allegations suit august 18 2006 cisco liability insurers directors officers paid plaintiffs us 91.75 million settle suit december 11 2008 free software foundation filed suit cisco regarding cisco failure comply gpl lgpl license models make applicable source code publicly available may 20 2009 cisco settled lawsuit complying fsf licensing terms making monetary contribution fsf cisco criticized involvement censorship people republic china according author ethan gutmann cisco telecommunications equipment providers supplied chinese government surveillance internet infrastructure equipment used block internet websites track online activities china cisco stated customize develop specialized unique filtering capabilities enable governments block access information sells equipment china sells worldwide wired news uncovered leaked confidential cisco powerpoint presentation detailed commercial opportunities golden shield project internet control may 2011 group falun gong practitioners filed lawsuit alien tort statute alleging cisco knowingly developed customized product assist chinese government prosecution abuse falun gong practitioners lawsuit dismissed september 2014 united states district court northern district california decision appealed united states court appeals ninth circuit september 2015 october 2007 employees cisco brazilian unit arrested charges imported equipment without paying import duties response cisco stated import directly brazil instead use middlemen december 1 2008 multiven filed antitrust lawsuit cisco systems inc. multiven complaint alleges cisco harmed multiven consumers bundling tying bug fixes/patches updates operating system software maintenance services smartnet may 2010 cisco accused person filed antitrust suit british-nigerian technology entrepreneur peter alfred-adekeye hacking pressured us government extradite canada cisco settled antitrust lawsuit two months alfred-adekeye arrest making software updates available multiven customers cisco linksys e2700 e3500 e4500 devices reported remotely updated firmware version forces users register cloud service allows cisco monitor network use ultimately shut cloud service account thus render affected router unusable according german magazine der spiegel nsa developed jetplow gaining access asa series 5505 5510 5520 5540 5550 500-series pix firewalls cisco chief security officer addressed allegations publicly denied working government weaken cisco products exploitation implement security back doors document included trove national security agency files released glenn greenwald book place hide details agency tailored access operations tao unit nsa employees intercept servers routers network gear shipped organizations targeted surveillance install covert firmware onto delivered trojan horse systems described nsa manager “ productive operations tao pre-position access points hard target networks around world. ” cisco denied allegations customer document saying information included specific cisco products supply chain intervention implant techniques new security vulnerabilities cisco general counsel also said cisco work government including united states government weaken products allegations reported prompted company ceo express concern president united states march 2014 cisco systems sued patent infringement spherix says 43 billion cisco sales infringe old nortel patents owned spherix officials spherix saying wide range cisco products switches routers infringe 11 former nortel patents company owns january 2008 cisco announced investment 10 million three years towards job creation technology sector development palestinian territories according cisco project cooperation palestinian authority president mahmoud abbas ramallah-based exalt technologies handles software development cisco outsources palestinian territories 1-hop neighbor's text information: john_michael_mcconnell.john michael mcconnell john michael mcconnell born july 26 1943 former vice admiral united states navy naval career served director national security agency 1992 1996 civilian career includes serving united states director national intelligence 20 february 2007 27 january 2009 bush administration seven days obama administration currently vice chairman booz allen hamilton mcconnell born grew greenville south carolina mcconnell received commission united states navy 1967 worked intelligence officer j2 chairman joint chiefs staff united states secretary defense operation desert shield/storm dissolution soviet union developed improving information flow among intelligence agencies combat forces gulf war 1992 1996 mcconnell served director national security agency nsa led nsa adapted multi-polar threats brought end cold war leadership nsa routinely provided global intelligence information security services white house cabinet officials united states congress broad array military civilian intelligence customers also served member director central intelligence senior leadership team address major intelligence programmatic substantive issues 1992 1996 1996 mcconnell retired navy vice admiral 29 years service – 26 career intelligence officer addition many nation highest military awards meritorious service holds nation highest award service intelligence community also served chairman intelligence national security alliance mcconnell second person hold position director national intelligence nominated president george w. bush january 5 2007 sworn bolling air force base washington d.c. february 20 2007 mcconnell appointment post initially greeted broad bipartisan support although since attracted criticism advocating bush administration controversial policies nomination dni mcconnell served senior vice president consulting firm booz allen hamilton focusing intelligence national security areas 2005 confirmation dni 2007 also chairman board intelligence national security alliance premier not-for-profit nonpartisan private sector professional organization providing structure interactive forum thought leadership sharing ideas networking within intelligence national security communities whose members include leaders industry government academia tuesday august 14 2007 mcconnell visited texas house intelligence committee chairman silvestre reyes review border security granted wide-ranging interview el paso times newspaper surprised many intelligence community candor sensitive topics recent changes foreign intelligence surveillance act nsa warrantless surveillance controversy end interview mcconnell cautioned reporter chris roberts consider whether enemies u.s. could gain information shared leaving paper decide publish el paso times put entire unexpurgated interview website august 22 executive editor dionicio flores saying n't believe damaged national security endangered people resurgent taliban back charge parts afghanistan mcconnell told cnn february 27 2008 assessment differed one made january 2008 defense secretary robert gates january 24 2009 announced mcconnell would return booz allen senior vice president two months taking office mcconnell created series initiatives designed build foundation increased cooperation reform u.s. intelligence community ic plan dubbed 100 day plan integration collaboration focused efforts enable ic act unified enterprise collaborative manner focused six enterprise integration priorities 100 day plan accomplished launch civilian joint duty program improved security clearance processing times increased diversity intelligence workforce information sharing across community 500 day plan designed sustain momentum expanded set initiatives greater level participation set deepen integration community people processes technologies plan address new performance management framework entail six performance elements agencies must entail 100 day plan meant jump start series initiatives based deliberate planning process specific deadlines measures ensure needed reforms implemented 500 day plan started august 2007 designed accelerate sustain momentum expanded set initiatives broader ic participation contains 10 core initiatives tracked senior leadership intelligence community 33 enabling initiatives initiatives based six focus areas described 100 day plan top initiatives director mcconnell ended office near 400th day 500-day plan mcconnell approached congress early august 2007 need modernize fisa claiming two changes needed initial efforts began april – see factsheet first intelligence community required technology changes since 1978 obtain court orders effectively collect foreign intelligence foreign targets located overseas also argued telecoms sued violating nation wiretapping laws must protected liability—regardless veracity charges shortly thereafter mcconnell took active role capitol hill legislation drafted congress august 3 mcconnell announced strongly oppose house proposal n't strong enough heated debate congress updated fisa passing protect america act 2007 september 10 2007 testimony senate committee homeland security governmental affairs mcconnell asserted recently passed protect america act 2007 eased restrictions fisa helped foil major terror plot germany u.s. intelligence-community officials questioned accuracy mcconnell testimony urged office correct statement issued september 12 2007 critics cited incident example bush administration exaggerated claims contradictory statements surveillance activities counterterrorism officials familiar background mcconnell testimony said believe made inaccurate statements intentionally part strategy administration persuade congress make new eavesdropping law permanent officials said believed mcconnell gave wrong answer overwhelmed information merely mixed facts testimony mcconnell blamed death kidnapped american soldier iraq requirements fisa slowness courts however timeline later released showed delays mostly inside nsa casting doubt mcconnell truthfulness mcconnell speaking congressional panel defense protect america act said russian chinese foreign intelligence services nearly active cold war september 18 2007 testimony house judiciary committee mcconnell addressed nsa warrantless surveillance controversy saying agency conducted telephone surveillance americans without obtaining warrant advance since became director national intelligence february 2007 mcconnell called fisa foundational law important legacy protecting rights americans passed era watergate aftermath church pike investigations stressed changes honor legacy privacy foreign threats july 2008 director mcconnell issued directive icd 205 analysts build relationships outside experts topics concern intelligence community—a recommendation highlighted wmd commission report director mcconnell worked white house overhaul executive order 12333 outlines fundamental guidance intelligence agencies mcconnell believes update necessary incorporate intelligence community ’ new organizations new technologies methods redo expected help sixteen intelligence agencies work together reflect post 9/11 threat environment july 2008 president bush issued executive order 13470 amended 12333 one mcconnell last acts dni signed icd501 discovery dissemination retrieval information within intelligence community dramatically increase access several databases held various agencies community policy establishes rules govern disputes access granted dni final adjudicator resolve disputes organizations also established intelligence information integration program i2p leadership then-cio patrick gorman nsa-cio dr. prescott winter goal i2p create shared infrastructure family shared services means increase information access sharing collaboration throughout us intelligence community mcconnell led effort create integrated planning programming budgeting system fully integrate optimize capabilities intelligence community previously agency budget developed independently aggregated congress issuance icd106 strategic enterprise management ic sem intelligence community budget closely aligned strategic goals objectives requirements performance criteria icd 106 replaced icd 116 2011 early april 2010 admiral mcconnell called expanding powers dni giving tenure creating department intelligence dni oversee fully control settle continued fighting amongst agencies within various departments Target text information: melissa_hathaway.melissa hathaway melissa hathaway born november 10 1968 leading expert cyberspace policy cybersecurity served two u.s. presidential administrations 2007 2009 including 8 months white house spearheading cyberspace policy review president barack obama leading comprehensive national cybersecurity initiative cnci president george w. bush president hathaway global strategies llc senior fellow member board regents potomac institute policy studies distinguished fellow centre international governance innovation canada non-resident research fellow kosciuszko institute poland previously senior adviser harvard kennedy school ’ belfer center hathaway received b.a american university graduated us armed forces staff college special certificate information operations hathaway employed consulting firm evidence based research work included developing models detection cocaine movement united states june 1993 february 2007 hathaway worked consulting firm booz allen hamilton focusing information operations long-range strategy policy support business units work included evaluations new force options across electromagnetic spectrum design development novel techniques mapping social business process infrastructure relationships hathaway served senior advisor director national intelligence mike mcconnell cyber coordination executive chaired national cyber study group ncsg role ncsg contributed development comprehensive national cybersecurity initiative cnci hathaway appointed director joint interagency cyber task force january 2008 hathaway named acting senior director cyberspace national security homeland security councils february 9 2009 placed charge 60-day inter-agency review plan programs activities underway throughout government dedicated cyber security january 2009 request assistant president national security affairs ms. hathaway asked lead 60-day cyberspace policy review president obama assembled team experienced government cyber experts identified 250 recommendations may 2009 president obama presented blueprint cyberspace policy review announced cybersecurity would one administration priorities recognized ms. hathaway leadership noted president said “ opportunities everyone—academia industry governments—to work together build trusted resilient communications information infrastructure. ” august 3 2009 announced hathaway would return private sector resignation taking effect august 21 2009 departing cited frustration yet selected new position cyber coordinator n't willing continue wait longer 'm empowered right continue drive change october 1 2009 till project conclusion 2015 hathaway served senior adviser project minerva harvard kennedy school also one lead instructors executive program cybersecurity intersection policy technology hathaway president hathaway global strategies consulting firm also serves advisor companies including cisco one thirty commissioners global commission internet governance I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	2,405	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: consensus_(computer_science).consensus computer science fundamental problem distributed computing multi-agent systems achieve overall system reliability presence number faulty processes often requires processes agree data value needed computation examples applications consensus include whether commit transaction database agreeing identity leader state machine replication atomic broadcasts real world applications include clock synchronization pagerank opinion formation smart power grids state estimation control uavs multiple robots/agents general load balancing blockchain others consensus problem requires agreement among number processes agents single data value processes agents may fail unreliable ways consensus protocols must fault tolerant resilient processes must somehow put forth candidate values communicate one another agree single consensus value consensus problem fundamental problem control multi-agent systems one approach generating consensus processes agents agree majority value context majority requires least one half available votes process given vote however one faulty processes may skew resultant outcome consensus may reached reached incorrectly protocols solve consensus problems designed deal limited numbers faulty processes protocols must satisfy number requirements useful instance trivial protocol could processes output binary value 1 useful thus requirement modified output must somehow depend input output value consensus protocol must input value process another requirement process may decide upon output value decision irrevocable process called correct execution experience failure consensus protocol tolerating halting failures must satisfy following properties variations definition integrity may appropriate according application example weaker type integrity would decision value equal value correct process proposed – necessarily integrity condition also known validity literature protocol correctly guarantee consensus amongst n processes fail said t-resilient evaluating performance consensus protocols two factors interest running time message complexity running time given big notation number rounds message exchange function input parameters typically number processes and/or size input domain message complexity refers amount message traffic generated protocol factors may include memory usage size messages varying models computation may define consensus problem models may deal fully connected graphs others may deal rings trees models message authentication allowed whereas others processes completely anonymous shared memory models processes communicate accessing objects shared memory also important area research models communication protocol participants communicate authenticated channels means messages anonymous receivers know source every message receive models assume stronger form authentication message signed sender receiver knows immediate source every message participant initially created message stronger type authentication achieved digital signatures stronger form authentication present protocols tolerate larger number faults two different authentication models often called oral communication written communication models oral communication model immediate source information known whereas stronger written communication models every step along receiver learns immediate source message communication history message special case consensus problem called binary consensus restricts input hence output domain single binary digit 0,1 two types failures process may undergo crash failure byzantine failure crash failure occurs process abruptly stops resume byzantine failure failures absolutely conditions imposed example may occur result malicious actions adversary process experiences byzantine failure may send contradictory conflicting data processes may sleep resume activity lengthy delay two types failures byzantine failures far disruptive thus consensus protocol tolerating byzantine failures must resilient every possible error occur stronger version consensus tolerating byzantine failures given strengthening integrity constraint consensus problem may considered case asynchronous synchronous systems real world communications often inherently asynchronous practical often easier model synchronous systems given asynchronous systems naturally involve issues synchronous ones synchronous systems assumed communications proceed rounds one round process may send messages requires receiving messages processes manner message one round may influence messages sent within round fully asynchronous message-passing distributed system one process may crash failure proved consensus impossible however impossibility result derives worst-case scenario process schedule highly unlikely reality process scheduling degree randomness asynchronous model forms failures handled synchronous consensus protocol instance loss communication link may modelled process suffered byzantine failure three agreement problems interest follows collection formula_5 processes numbered formula_6 formula_7 communicate sending messages one another process formula_6 must transmit value formula_1 processes also known general problem formal requirements consensus protocol may include n processes partially synchronous system system alternates good bad periods synchrony process chooses private value processes communicate rounds determine public value generate consensus vector following requirements shown variations problems equivalent solution problem one type model may solution another problem another type model example solution weak byzantine general problem synchronous authenticated message passing model leads solution weak interactive consistency interactive consistency algorithm solve consensus problem process choose majority value consensus vector consensus value t-resilient anonymous synchronous protocol solves byzantine generals problem formula_14 weak byzantine generals case number failures n number processes systems formula_5 processors formula_16 byzantine shown exists algorithm solves consensus problem formula_17 oral-messages model proof constructed first showing impossibility three-node case formula_18 using result argue partitions processors written-messages model protocols tolerate formula_19 fully asynchronous system consensus solution tolerate one crash failures even requiring non triviality property result sometimes called flp impossibility proof named authors michael j. fischer nancy lynch mike paterson awarded dijkstra prize significant work flp result state consensus never reached merely model assumptions algorithm always reach consensus bounded time practice highly unlikely occur example polynomial time binary consensus protocol tolerates byzantine failures phase king algorithm garay berman algorithm solves consensus synchronous message passing model n processes f failures provided n 4 f phase king algorithm f 1 phases 2 rounds per phase process keeps track preferred output initially equal process input value first round phase process broadcasts preferred value processes receives values processes determines value majority value count second round phase process whose id matches current phase number designated king phase king broadcasts majority value observed first round serves tie breaker process updates preferred value follows count majority value process observed first round greater n /2 f process changes preference majority value otherwise uses phase king value end f 1 phases processes output preferred values google implemented distributed lock service library called chubby chubby maintains lock information small files stored replicated database achieve high availability face failures database implemented top fault-tolerant log layer based paxos consensus algorithm scheme chubby clients communicate paxos master order access/update replicated log i.e. read/write files bitcoin uses proof work maintain consensus peer-to-peer network nodes bitcoin network attempt solve cryptographic proof-of-work problem probability finding solution proportional computational effort hashes per second expended node solves problem version block transactions added peer-to-peer distributed timestamp server accepted nodes node network attempt solve proof-of-work problem sybil attack becomes unfeasible unless attacker 50 computational resources network many peer-to-peer online real-time strategy games use modified lockstep protocol consensus protocol order manage game state players game game action results game state delta broadcast players game along hash total game state player validates change applying delta game state comparing game state hashes hashes agree vote cast players whose game state minority disconnected removed game known desync another well-known approach called msr-type algorithms used widely computer science control theory solve consensus problem shared-memory system concurrent objects must introduced concurrent object shared object data structure helps concurrent processes communicate reach agreement two main methods design concurrent object traditionally designers use critical section solve problem means one process allowed visit concurrent object time others must wait process exits critical section method straightforward easy implement however systems critical sections face risk crashing process dies inside critical section sleeps intolerably long time another implementation concurrent object called wait-free implementation guarantee consensus finite number steps given kind object powerful enough solve consensus problems maurice herlihy gave impossibility universality hierarchy consensus number hierarchy means maximum number processes system reach consensus given object objects higher consensus number implemented objects lower consensus number according hierarchy read/write registers solve consensus even 2-process-system data structure like stack queue solve consensus two processes ca n't objects solve consensus among processes efficient way prove take advantage bivalence assume output binary state bivalent two outputs possible output reachable state 0/1 state called 0-valent/1-valent basic idea make contradiction executing operations get state 0-valent 1-valent however concurrent objects universal means solve consensus among number processes simulate objects way simulate objects universal objects build operations sequence concurrent object 1-hop neighbor's text information: fault_tolerance.fault tolerance fault tolerance property enables system continue operating properly event failure one faults within components operating quality decreases decrease proportional severity failure compared naively designed system even small failure cause total breakdown fault tolerance particularly sought high-availability life-critical systems ability maintaining functionality portions system break referred graceful degradation fault-tolerant design enables system continue intended operation possibly reduced level rather failing completely part system fails term commonly used describe computer systems designed continue less fully operational perhaps reduction throughput increase response time event partial failure system whole stopped due problems either hardware software example another field motor vehicle designed continue drivable one tires punctured structure able retain integrity presence damage due causes fatigue corrosion manufacturing flaws impact within scope individual system fault tolerance achieved anticipating exceptional conditions building system cope general aiming self-stabilization system converges towards error-free state however consequences system failure catastrophic cost making sufficiently reliable high better solution may use form duplication case consequence system failure catastrophic system must able use reversion fall back safe mode similar roll-back recovery human action humans present loop highly fault-tolerant system might continue level performance even though one components failed example building backup electrical generator provide voltage wall outlets even grid power fails system designed fail safe fail-secure fail gracefully whether functions reduced level fails completely way protects people property data injury damage intrusion disclosure computers program might fail-safe executing graceful exit opposed uncontrolled crash order prevent data corruption experiencing error similar distinction made failing well failing badly fail-deadly opposite strategy used weapon systems designed kill injure targets even part system damaged destroyed system designed experience graceful degradation fail soft used computing similar fail safe operates reduced level performance component failures example building may operate lighting reduced levels elevators reduced speeds grid power fails rather either trapping people dark completely continuing operate full power computing example graceful degradation insufficient network bandwidth available stream online video lower-resolution version might streamed place high-resolution version progressive enhancement example computing web pages available basic functional format older small-screen limited-capability web browsers enhanced version browsers capable handling additional technologies larger display available fault-tolerant computer systems programs considered robust designed continue operation despite error exception invalid input instead crashing completely software brittleness opposite robustness resilient networks continue transmit data despite failure links nodes resilient buildings infrastructure likewise expected prevent complete failure situations like earthquakes floods collisions system high failure transparency alert users component failure occurred even continues operate full performance failure repaired imminent complete failure anticipated likewise fail-fast component designed report first point failure rather allow downstream components fail generate reports allows easier diagnosis underlying problem may prevent improper operation broken state single fault condition situation one means protection hazard defective single fault condition results unavoidably another single fault condition two failures considered one single fault condition source offers following example redundancy provision functional capabilities would unnecessary fault-free environment consist backup components automatically kick one component fails example large cargo trucks lose tire without major consequences many tires one tire critical exception front tires used steer generally carry less load total four 16 less likely fail idea incorporating redundancy order improve reliability system pioneered john von neumann 1950s two kinds redundancy possible space redundancy time redundancy space redundancy provides additional components functions data items unnecessary fault-free operation space redundancy classified hardware software information redundancy depending type redundant resources added system time redundancy computation data transmission repeated result compared stored copy previous result current terminology kind testing referred 'in service fault tolerance testing isftt short providing fault-tolerant design every component normally option associated redundancy brings number penalties increase weight size power consumption cost well time design verify test therefore number choices examined determine components fault tolerant example component passes tests car occupant restraint system normally think primary occupant restraint system gravity vehicle rolls undergoes severe g-forces primary method occupant restraint may fail restraining occupants accident absolutely critical safety pass first test accidents causing occupant ejection quite common seat belts pass second test cost redundant restraint method like seat belts quite low economically terms weight space pass third test therefore adding seat belts vehicles excellent idea supplemental restraint systems airbags expensive pass test smaller margin another excellent long-term example principle put practice braking system whilst actual brake mechanisms critical particularly prone sudden rather progressive failure case necessarily duplicated allow even balanced application brake force wheels would also prohibitively costly double-up main components would add considerable weight however similarly critical systems actuating brakes driver control inherently less robust generally using cable rust stretch jam snap hydraulic fluid leak boil develop bubbles absorb water thus lose effectiveness thus modern cars footbrake hydraulic brake circuit diagonally divided give two smaller points failure loss either reducing brake power 50 causing much dangerous brakeforce imbalance straight front-back left-right split hydraulic circuit fail completely relatively rare occurrence failsafe form cable-actuated parking brake operates otherwise relatively weak rear brakes still bring vehicle safe halt conjunction transmission/engine braking long demands line normal traffic flow cumulatively unlikely combination total foot brake failure need harsh braking emergency likely result collision still one lower speed would otherwise case comparison foot pedal activated service brake parking brake less critical item unless used one-time backup footbrake cause immediate danger found nonfunctional moment application therefore redundancy built per se typically uses cheaper lighter less hardwearing cable actuation system suffice happens hill use footbrake momentarily hold vehicle still driving find flat piece road stop alternatively shallow gradients transmission shifted park reverse first gear transmission lock engine compression used hold stationary need include sophistication first bring halt motorcycles similar level fail-safety provided simpler methods firstly front rear brake systems entirely separate regardless method activation cable rod hydraulic allowing one fail entirely whilst leaving unaffected secondly rear brake relatively strong compared automotive cousin even powerful disc sports models even though usual intent front system provide vast majority braking force overall vehicle weight central rear tyre generally larger grippier rider lean back put weight therefore allowing brake force applied wheel locks cheaper slower utility-class machines even front wheel use hydraulic disc extra brake force easier packaging rear usually primitive somewhat inefficient exceptionally robust rod-actuated drum thanks ease connecting footpedal wheel way importantly near impossibility catastrophic failure even rest machine like lot low-priced bikes first years use point collapse neglected maintenance basic characteristics fault tolerance require addition fault-tolerant systems characterized terms planned service outages unplanned service outages usually measured application level hardware level figure merit called availability expressed percentage example five nines system would statistically provide 99.999 availability fault-tolerant systems typically based concept redundancy spare components address first fundamental characteristic fault tolerance three ways implementations raid redundant array independent disks except raid 0 examples fault-tolerant storage device uses data redundancy lockstep fault-tolerant machine uses replicated elements operating parallel time replications element state inputs provided replication outputs expected outputs replications compared using voting circuit machine two replications element termed dual modular redundant dmr voting circuit detect mismatch recovery relies methods machine three replications element termed triple modular redundant tmr voting circuit determine replication error two-to-one vote observed case voting circuit output correct result discard erroneous version internal state erroneous replication assumed different two voting circuit switch dmr mode model applied larger number replications lockstep fault-tolerant machines easily made fully synchronous gate replication making state transition edge clock clocks replications exactly phase however possible build lockstep systems without requirement bringing replications synchrony requires making internal stored states started fixed initial state reset state alternatively internal state one replica copied another replica one variant dmr pair-and-spare two replicated elements operate lockstep pair voting circuit detects mismatch operations outputs signal indicating error another pair operates exactly way final circuit selects output pair proclaim error pair-and-spare requires four replicas rather three tmr used commercially fault-tolerant design advantages obvious many disadvantages hardware fault tolerance sometimes requires broken parts taken replaced new parts system still operational computing known hot swapping system implemented single backup known single point tolerant represents vast majority fault-tolerant systems systems mean time failures long enough operators time fix broken devices mean time repair backup also fails helps time failures long possible specifically required fault-tolerant system fault tolerance notably successful computer applications tandem computers built entire business machines used single-point tolerance create nonstop systems uptimes measured years fail-safe architectures may encompass also computer software example process replication data formats may also designed degrade gracefully html example designed forward compatible allowing new html entities ignored web browsers understand without causing document unusable difference fault tolerance systems rarely problems instance western electric crossbar systems failure rates two hours per forty years therefore highly fault resistant fault occur still stopped operating completely therefore fault tolerant 1-hop neighbor's text information: paxos_(computer_science).paxos computer science paxos family protocols solving consensus network unreliable processors processors may fail consensus process agreeing one result among group participants problem becomes difficult participants communication medium may experience failures consensus protocols basis state machine replication approach distributed computing suggested leslie lamport surveyed fred schneider state machine replication technique converting algorithm fault-tolerant distributed implementation ad-hoc techniques may leave important cases failures unresolved principled approach proposed lamport et al ensures cases handled safely paxos protocol first published 1989 named fictional legislative consensus system used paxos island greece later published journal article 1998 paxos family protocols includes spectrum trade-offs number processors number message delays learning agreed value activity level individual participants number messages sent types failures although deterministic fault-tolerant consensus protocol guarantee progress asynchronous network result proved paper fischer lynch paterson paxos guarantees safety consistency conditions could prevent making progress difficult provoke paxos usually used durability required example replicate file database amount durable state could large protocol attempts make progress even periods bounded number replicas unresponsive also mechanism drop permanently failed replica add new replica topic predates protocol 1988 lynch dwork stockmeyer demonstrated solvability consensus broad family partially synchronous systems paxos strong similarities protocol used agreement viewstamped replication first published oki liskov 1988 context distributed transactions notwithstanding prior work paxos offered particularly elegant formalism included one earliest proofs safety fault-tolerant distributed consensus protocol reconfigurable state machines strong ties prior work reliable group multicast protocols support dynamic group membership example birman work 1985 1987 virtually synchronous gbcast protocol however noted gbcast unusual supporting durability addressing partitioning failures reliable multicast protocols lack properties required implementations state machine replication model point elaborated paper lamport malkhi zhou paxos protocols members theoretical class solutions problem formalized uniform agreement crash failures lower bounds problem proved keidar shraer derecho c++ software library cloud-scale state machine replication offers paxos protocol integrated self-managed virtually synchronous membership protocol matches keidar shraer optimality bounds maps efficiently modern remote dma rdma datacenter hardware uses tcp rdma available order simplify presentation paxos following assumptions definitions made explicit techniques broaden applicability known literature covered article general consensus algorithm make progress using formula_1 processors despite simultaneous failure formula_2 processors words number non-faulty processes must strictly greater number faulty processes however using reconfiguration protocol may employed survives number total failures long f fail simultaneously paxos describes actions processors roles protocol client acceptor proposer learner leader typical implementations single processor may play one roles time affect correctness protocol—it usual coalesce roles improve latency and/or number messages protocol quorums express safety consistency properties paxos ensuring least surviving processor retains knowledge results quorums defined subsets set acceptors two subsets two quorums share least one member typically quorum majority participating acceptors example given set acceptors b c majority quorum would three acceptors b c c b b c generally arbitrary positive weights assigned acceptors case quorum defined subset acceptors summary weight greater half total weight acceptors attempt define agreed value v performed proposals may may accepted acceptors proposal uniquely numbered given proposer e.g. proposal may form n v n unique identifier proposal v actual proposed value value corresponding numbered proposal computed part running paxos protocol need order guarantee safety also called consistency paxos defines three properties ensures always held regardless pattern failures deployments paxos participating process acts three roles proposer acceptor learner reduces message complexity significantly without sacrificing correctness merging roles protocol collapses efficient client-master-replica style deployment typical database community benefit paxos protocols including implementations merged roles guarantee safety properties typical implementation message flow covered section multi-paxos protocol basic paxos family instance execution basic paxos protocol decides single output value protocol proceeds several rounds successful round 2 phases phase 1 divided parts b phase 2 divided parts b see description phases remember assume asynchronous model e.g processor may one phase another processor may another accept message interpreted request accept proposal please note acceptor accept multiple proposals happen another proposer unaware new value decided starts new round higher identification number n case acceptor promise later accept new proposed value even though accepted another one earlier proposals may even different values presence certain failures however paxos protocol guarantee acceptors ultimately agree single value following diagrams represent several cases/situations application basic paxos protocol cases show basic paxos protocol copes failure certain redundant components distributed system note values returned promise message null first time proposal made since acceptor accepted value round diagram 1 client 1 proposer 3 acceptors i.e quorum size 3 2 learners represented 2 vertical lines diagram represents case first round successful i.e process network fails v last va vb vc simplest error cases failure acceptor quorum acceptors remains alive failure redundant learner cases protocol requires recovery i.e still succeeds additional rounds messages required shown next two diagrams/cases following diagram one acceptors quorum fails quorum size becomes 2 case basic paxos protocol still succeeds following case one redundant learners fails basic paxos protocol still succeeds case proposer fails proposing value agreement reached specifically fails middle accept message one acceptor quorum receives value meanwhile new leader proposer elected shown detail note 2 rounds case rounds proceed vertically top bottom complex case multiple proposers believe leaders instance current leader may fail later recover proposers already re-selected new leader recovered leader learned yet attempts begin one round conflict current leader diagram 4 unsuccessful rounds shown could suggested bottom diagram typical deployment paxos requires continuous stream agreed values acting commands distributed state machine command result single instance basic paxos protocol significant amount overhead would result leader relatively stable phase 1 becomes unnecessary thus possible skip phase 1 future instances protocol leader achieve round number included along value incremented round leader multi-paxos reduces failure-free message delay proposal learning 4 delays 2 delays following diagram one instance execution basic paxos protocol initial leader proposer shown note multi-paxos consists several instances basic paxos protocol v last va vb vc case subsequence instances basic paxos protocol represented i+1 use leader phase 1 subsequent instances basic paxos protocol consist prepare promise sub-phases skipped note leader stable i.e crash change common deployment multi-paxos consists collapsing role proposers acceptors learners servers end clients servers following diagram represents first instance basic paxos protocol roles proposer acceptor learner collapsed single role called server subsequent instances basic paxos protocol leader previous instances basic paxos protocol phase 1 skipped number optimisations performed reduce number exchanged messages improve performance protocol etc optimisations reported cheap paxos extends basic paxos tolerate f failures f+1 main processors f auxiliary processors dynamically reconfiguring failure reduction processor requirements comes expense liveness many main processors fail short time system must halt auxiliary processors reconfigure system stable periods auxiliary processors take part protocol two processors p q one processor distinguish failure processor failure communication medium third processor needed however third processor participate choosing sequence commands must take action case p q fails nothing either p q continues operate system third processor therefore small/slow/cheap one processor primarily devoted tasks example involving three main acceptors one auxiliary acceptor quorum size three showing failure one main processor subsequent reconfiguration fast paxos generalizes basic paxos reduce end-to-end message delays basic paxos message delay client request learning 3 message delays fast paxos allows 2 message delays requires 1 system comprised 3f+ 1 acceptors tolerate f faults instead classic 2f+1 2 client send request multiple destinations intuitively leader value propose client could send accept message acceptors directly acceptors would respond basic paxos sending accepted messages leader every learner achieving two message delays client learner leader detects collision resolves collision sending accept messages new round accepted usual coordinated recovery technique requires four message delays client learner final optimization occurs leader specifies recovery technique advance allowing acceptors perform collision recovery thus uncoordinated collision recovery occur three message delays two message delays learners also acceptors generalized consensus explores relationship operations replicated state machine consensus protocol implements main discovery involves optimizations paxos conflicting proposals could applied order i.e. proposed operations commutative operations state machine cases conflicting operations accepted avoiding delays required resolving conflicts re-proposing rejected operations concept generalized ever-growing sequences commutative operations known stable thus may executed protocol tracks sequences ensuring proposed operations one sequence stabilized allowing operation non-commuting become stable order illustrate generalized paxos example shows message flow two concurrently executing clients replicated state machine implementing read/write operations two distinct registers b note table indicates operations non-commutative possible sequence operations since codice_1 commutes codice_2 codice_3 one possible permutation equivalent previous order following practice commute occurs operations proposed concurrently message flow shows us generalized paxos leverage operation semantics avoid collisions spontaneous ordering network fails allows protocol practice quicker fast paxos however collision occurs generalized paxos needs two additional round trips recover situation illustrated operations writeb readb schema general case round trips unavoidable come fact multiple commands accepted round makes protocol expensive paxos conflicts frequent hopefully two possible refinements generalized paxos possible improve recovery time paxos may also extended support arbitrary failures participants including lying fabrication messages collusion participants selective non-participation etc types failures called byzantine failures solution popularized lamport byzantine paxos introduced castro liskov adds extra message verify acts distribute knowledge verify actions processors fast byzantine paxos introduced martin alvisi removes extra delay since client sends commands directly acceptors note accepted message fast byzantine paxos sent acceptors learners fast paxos sends accepted messages learners failure scenario protocols learner waits receive f+1 identical messages different acceptors occur acceptors also aware since exchanged messages broadcast round correct acceptors re-broadcast agreed value emergence high speed reliable datacenter networks support remote dma rdma substantial interest optimizing paxos leverage hardware offloading network interface card network routers provide reliability network-layer congestion control freeing host cpu tasks derecho c++ paxos library open-source paxos implementation explores option derecho offers classic paxos data durability across full shutdown/restart sequences vertical paxos atomic multicast in-memory replication state-machine synchronization paxos protocols employed derecho needed adapted maximize asynchronous data streaming remove sources delay leader critical path enables derecho sustain full bidirectional rdma data rate contrast although traditional paxos protocols migrated rdma network simply mapping message send operations native rdma operations leaves round-trip delays critical path high-speed rdma networks even small delays large enough prevent utilization full potential bandwidth Target text information: brooks–iyengar_algorithm.brooks–iyengar algorithm brooks–iyengar algorithm brooks–iyengar hybrid algorithm distributed algorithm improves precision accuracy interval measurements taken distributed sensor network even presence faulty sensors sensor network exchanging measured value accuracy value every node every node computes accuracy range measured value whole network values collected even data sensors faulty sensor network malfunction algorithm fault-tolerant distributed could also used sensor fusion method precision accuracy bound algorithm proved 2016 brooks–iyengar hybrid algorithm distributed control presence noisy data combines byzantine agreement sensor fusion bridges gap sensor fusion byzantine fault tolerance seminal algorithm unified disparate fields first time essentially combines dolev ’ algorithm approximate agreement mahaney schneider ’ fast convergence algorithm fca algorithm assumes n processing elements pes faulty behave maliciously takes input either real values inherent inaccuracy noise unknown real value apriori defined uncertainty interval output algorithm real value explicitly specified accuracy algorithm runs n log n n number pes see big notation possible modify algorithm correspond crusader ’ convergence algorithm cca however bandwidth requirement also increase algorithm applications distributed control software reliability high-performance computing etc brooks–iyengar algorithm executed every processing element pe distributed sensor network pe exchanges measured interval pes network fused measurement weighted average midpoints regions found concrete steps brooks–iyengar algorithm shown section pe performs algorithm separately input measurement sent pe k pe closed interval formula_1 formula_2 output output pe includes point estimate interval estimate example consider example 5 pes pe 5 formula_14 sending wrong values pes exchange values values received formula_15 next table draw weighted region diagram wrd intervals determine formula_16 pe 1 according algorithm formula_17 consists intervals least 4 formula_3 5−1 measurements intersect output pe 1 equal formula_19 interval estimate formula_20 similar could obtain inputs results 5 pes 1982 byzantine problem byzantine general problem extension two generals problem could viewed binary problem 1983 approximate consensus method removes values set consists scalars tolerant faulty inputs 1985 in-exact consensus method also uses scalar input 1996 brooks-iyengar algorithm method based intervals 2013 byzantine vector consensus method uses vectors input 2013 multidimensional agreement method also use vectors input measure distance different could use approximate consensus scalar-based brooks-iyengar algorithm interval-based byzantine vector consensus vector-based deal interval inputs paper proved brooks–iyengar algorithm best brooks–iyengar algorithm seminal work major milestone distributed sensing could used fault tolerant solution many redundancy scenarios also easy implement embed networking systems 1996 algorithm used minix provide accuracy precision leads development first version rt-linux 2000 algorithm also central darpa sensit program ’ distributed tracking program acoustic seismic motion detection readings multiple sensors combined fed distributed tracking system besides used combine heterogeneous sensor feeds application fielded bbn technologies bae systems penn state applied research lab arl usc/isi besides thales group uk defense manufacturer used work global operational analysis laboratory applied raytheon ’ programs many systems need extract reliable data unreliable sensor network exempts increasing investment improving sensor reliability also research developing algorithm results tools used us nav maritime domain awareness software education brooks–iyengar algorithm widely used teaching classes university wisconsin purdue georgia tech clemson university university maryland etc addition area sensor network fields time-triggered architecture safety cyber-physical systems data fusion robot convergence high-performance computing software/hardware reliability ensemble learning artificial intelligence systems could also benefit brooks–iyengar algorithm inventors brooks iyengar algorithm dr brooks dr ss iyengar received prestigious 25 year test time award pioneering research high impact brooks-iyengar algorithm high impact research work influenced numerous us government programs commercial products I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	8,025	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies 1-hop neighbor's text information: du_(unix).du unix codice_1 abbreviated disk usage standard unix program used estimate file space usage—space used particular directory files file system codice_1 utility first appeared version 1 unix version codice_1 bundled gnu coreutils written torbjorn granlund david mackenzie paul eggert jim meyering default single unix specification sus specifies codice_1 display file space allocated file directory contained current directory links displayed size link file linked size content directories displayed expected codice_1 reports allocation space absolute file space amount space file system shown codice_1 may vary shown codice_7 files deleted blocks yet freed also minfree setting allocates datablocks filesystem super user processes creates discrepancy total blocks sum used available blocks minfree setting usually set 5 total filesystem size info see core utils faq codice_1 takes single argument specifying pathname du work specified current directory used sus mandates du following options unix unix-like operating systems may add extra options example bsd gnu codice_1 specify -h option displaying disk usage format easier read user adding units appropriate si prefix e.g 10 mb sum directories -s kilobytes -k sum directories -s human-readable format -h byte kilobyte megabyte gigabyte terabyte petabyte disk usage subdirectories files including hidden files within current directory sorted filesize disk usage subdirectories files including hidden files within current directory sorted reverse filesize weight size subdirectory current directory -d 1 sum total end -c displayed human-readable format -h du gnu weight size subdirectories root directory -d 1 trailing sum total end -c displayed human-readable format -h without traversing filesystems -x useful /var /tmp directories separate storage root directory du gnu 1-hop neighbor's text information: c_(programming_language).c programming language c letter c general-purpose procedural computer programming language supporting structured programming lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations design c provides constructs map efficiently typical machine instructions found lasting use applications previously coded assembly language applications include operating systems well various application software computers ranging supercomputers embedded systems c originally developed bell labs dennis ritchie 1972 1973 make utilities running unix later applied re-implementing kernel unix operating system 1980s c gradually gained popularity nowadays one widely used programming languages c compilers various vendors available majority existing computer architectures operating systems c standardized ansi since 1989 see ansi c subsequently international organization standardization c imperative procedural language designed compiled using relatively straightforward compiler provide low-level access memory provide language constructs map efficiently machine instructions require minimal runtime support despite low-level capabilities language designed encourage cross-platform programming standards-compliant c program written portability mind compiled wide variety computer platforms operating systems changes source code language become available various platforms embedded microcontrollers supercomputers like procedural languages algol tradition c facilities structured programming allows lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations c executable code contained within subroutines also called functions though strictly sense functional programming function parameters always passed value pass-by-reference simulated c explicitly passing pointer values c program source text free-format using semicolon statement terminator curly braces grouping blocks statements c language also exhibits following characteristics c include certain features found languages object orientation garbage collection implemented emulated often use external libraries e.g. glib object system boehm garbage collector many later languages borrowed directly indirectly c including c++ c unix c shell go java javascript limbo lpc objective-c perl php python rust swift verilog systemverilog hardware description languages languages drawn many control structures basic features c. python dramatic exception also express highly similar syntax c tend combine recognizable expression statement syntax c underlying type systems data models semantics radically different origin c closely tied development unix operating system originally implemented assembly language pdp-7 dennis ritchie ken thompson incorporating several ideas colleagues eventually decided port operating system pdp-11 original pdp-11 version unix developed assembly language thompson needed programming language make utilities first tried make fortran compiler soon gave idea made new language b thompson simplified version bcpl however utilities written b b slow b could take advantage pdp-11 features byte addressability 1972 ritchie started improve b resulted creating new language c. c compiler utilities made included version 2 unix version 4 unix released nov. 1973 unix kernel extensively re-implemented c. time c language acquired powerful features codice_12 types unix one first operating system kernels implemented language assembly earlier instances include multics system written pl/i master control program mcp burroughs b5000 written algol 1961 around 1977 ritchie stephen c. johnson made changes language facilitate portability unix operating system johnson portable c compiler served basis several implementations c new platforms 1978 brian kernighan dennis ritchie published first edition c programming language book known c programmers k r served many years informal specification language version c describes commonly referred k r c second edition book covers later ansi c standard described k r introduced several language features even publication 1989 ansi standard many years k r c still considered lowest common denominator c programmers restricted maximum portability desired since many older compilers still use carefully written k r c code legal standard c well early versions c functions return types codice_30 must declared used function definition functions used without prior declaration presumed return type codice_30 example codice_30 type specifiers commented could omitted k r c required later standards since k r function declarations include information function arguments function parameter type checks performed although compilers would issue warning message local function called wrong number arguments multiple calls external function used different numbers types arguments separate tools unix lint utility developed among things could check consistency function use across multiple source files years following publication k r c several features added language supported compilers particular pcc vendors included large number extensions lack agreement standard library together language popularity fact even unix compilers precisely implemented k r specification led necessity standardization late 1970s 1980s versions c implemented wide variety mainframe computers minicomputers microcomputers including ibm pc popularity began increase significantly 1983 american national standards institute ansi formed committee x3j11 establish standard specification c. x3j11 based c standard unix implementation however non-portable portion unix c library handed ieee working group 1003 become basis 1988 posix standard 1989 c standard ratified ansi x3.159-1989 programming language c version language often referred ansi c standard c sometimes c89 1990 ansi c standard formatting changes adopted international organization standardization iso iso/iec 9899:1990 sometimes called c90 therefore terms c89 c90 refer programming language ansi like national standards bodies longer develops c standard independently defers international c standard maintained working group iso/iec jtc1/sc22/wg14 national adoption update international standard typically occurs within year iso publication one aims c standardization process produce superset k r c incorporating many subsequently introduced unofficial features standards committee also included several additional features function prototypes borrowed c++ codice_15 pointers support international character sets locales preprocessor enhancements although syntax parameter declarations augmented include style used c++ k r interface continued permitted compatibility existing source code c89 supported current c compilers c code written today based program written standard c without hardware-dependent assumptions run correctly platform conforming c implementation within resource limits without precautions programs may compile certain platform particular compiler due example use non-standard libraries gui libraries reliance compiler- platform-specific attributes exact size data types byte endianness cases code must compilable either standard-conforming k r c-based compilers codice_38 macro used split code standard k r sections prevent use k r c-based compiler features available standard c. ansi/iso standardization process c language specification remained relatively static several years 1995 normative amendment 1 1990 c standard iso/iec 9899/amd1:1995 known informally c95 published correct details add extensive support international character sets c standard revised late 1990s leading publication iso/iec 9899:1999 1999 commonly referred c99 since amended three times technical corrigenda c99 introduced several new features including inline functions several new data types including codice_39 codice_40 type represent complex numbers variable-length arrays flexible array members improved support ieee 754 floating point support variadic macros macros variable arity support one-line comments beginning codice_41 bcpl c++ many already implemented extensions several c compilers c99 part backward compatible c90 stricter ways particular declaration lacks type specifier longer codice_30 implicitly assumed standard macro codice_43 defined value codice_44 indicate c99 support available gcc solaris studio c compilers support many new features c99 c compiler microsoft visual c++ however implements c89 standard parts c99 required compatibility c++11 2007 work began another revision c standard informally called c1x official publication 2011-12-08 c standards committee adopted guidelines limit adoption new features tested existing implementations c11 standard adds numerous new features c library including type generic macros anonymous structures improved unicode support atomic operations multi-threading bounds-checked functions also makes portions existing c99 library optional improves compatibility c++ standard macro codice_43 defined codice_46 indicate c11 support available published june 2018 c18 current standard c programming language introduces new language features technical corrections clarifications defects c11 standard macro codice_43 defined codice_48 historically embedded c programming requires nonstandard extensions c language order support exotic features fixed-point arithmetic multiple distinct memory banks basic i/o operations 2008 c standards committee published technical report extending c language address issues providing common standard implementations adhere includes number features available normal c fixed-point arithmetic named address spaces basic i/o hardware addressing c formal grammar specified c standard line endings generally significant c however line boundaries significance preprocessing phase comments may appear either delimiters codice_49 codice_50 since c99 following codice_41 end line comments delimited codice_49 codice_50 nest sequences characters interpreted comment delimiters appear inside string character literals c source files contain declarations function definitions function definitions turn contain declarations statements declarations either define new types using keywords codice_12 codice_35 codice_14 assign types perhaps reserve storage new variables usually writing type followed variable name keywords codice_57 codice_30 specify built-in types sections code enclosed braces codice_59 codice_60 sometimes called curly brackets limit scope declarations act single statement control structures imperative language c uses statements specify actions common statement expression statement consisting expression evaluated followed semicolon side effect evaluation functions may called variables may assigned new values modify normal sequential execution statements c provides several control-flow statements identified reserved keywords structured programming supported codice_61 -codice_62 conditional execution codice_63-codice_4 codice_4 codice_2 iterative execution looping codice_2 statement separate initialization testing reinitialization expressions omitted codice_68 codice_69 used leave innermost enclosing loop statement skip reinitialization also non-structured codice_70 statement branches directly designated label within function codice_5 selects codice_72 executed based value integer expression expressions use variety built-in operators may contain function calls order arguments functions operands operators evaluated unspecified evaluations may even interleaved however side effects including storage variables occur next sequence point sequence points include end expression statement entry return function call sequence points also occur evaluation expressions containing certain operators codice_73 codice_10 codice_75 comma operator permits high degree object code optimization compiler requires c programmers take care obtain reliable results needed programming languages kernighan ritchie say introduction c programming language c like language blemishes operators wrong precedence parts syntax could better c standard attempt correct many blemishes impact changes already existing software basic c source character set includes following characters newline indicates end text line need correspond actual single character although convenience c treats one additional multi-byte encoded characters may used string literals entirely portable latest c standard c11 allows multi-national unicode characters embedded portably within c source text using codice_83 codice_84 encoding codice_85 denotes hexadecimal character although feature yet widely implemented basic c execution character set contains characters along representations alert backspace carriage return run-time support extended character sets increased revision c standard c89 32 reserved words also known keywords words used purposes predefined c99 reserved five words c11 reserved seven words recently reserved words begin underscore followed capital letter identifiers form previously reserved c standard use implementations since existing program source code using identifiers would affected c implementations started supporting extensions programming language standard headers define convenient synonyms underscored identifiers language previously included reserved word called codice_130 seldom implemented removed reserved word c supports rich set operators symbols used within expression specify manipulations performed evaluating expression c operators c uses operator codice_136 used mathematics express equality indicate assignment following precedent fortran pl/i unlike algol derivatives c uses operator codice_156 test equality similarity two operators assignment equality may result accidental use one place many cases mistake produce error message although compilers produce warnings example conditional expression codice_176 might mistakenly written codice_177 evaluated true codice_76 zero assignment c operator precedence always intuitive example operator codice_156 binds tightly executed prior operators codice_9 bitwise codice_149 bitwise expressions codice_182 must written codice_183 coder intent hello world example appeared first edition k r become model introductory program programming textbooks regardless programming language program prints hello world standard output usually terminal screen display original version main standard-conforming hello world program int main void first line program contains preprocessing directive indicated codice_184 causes compiler replace line entire text codice_185 standard header contains declarations standard input output functions codice_186 codice_187 angle brackets surrounding codice_185 indicate codice_185 located using search strategy prefers headers provided compiler headers name opposed double quotes typically include local project-specific header files next line indicates function named codice_190 defined codice_190 function serves special purpose c programs run-time environment calls codice_190 function begin program execution type specifier codice_30 indicates value returned invoker case run-time environment result evaluating codice_190 function integer keyword codice_15 parameter list indicates function takes arguments opening curly brace indicates beginning definition codice_190 function next line calls diverts execution function named codice_186 case supplied system library call codice_186 function passed provided single argument address first character string literal codice_199 string literal unnamed array elements type codice_57 set automatically compiler final 0-valued character mark end array codice_186 needs know codice_202 escape sequence c translates newline character output signifies end current line return value codice_186 function type codice_30 silently discarded since used careful program might test return value determine whether codice_186 function succeeded semicolon codice_206 terminates statement closing curly brace indicates end code codice_190 function according c99 specification newer codice_190 function unlike function implicitly return value codice_80 upon reaching codice_60 terminates function formerly explicit codice_211 statement required interpreted run-time system exit code indicating successful execution type system c static weakly typed makes similar type system algol descendants pascal built-in types integers various sizes signed unsigned floating-point numbers enumerated types codice_14 integer type codice_57 often used single-byte characters c99 added boolean datatype also derived types including arrays pointers records codice_12 unions codice_35 c often used low-level systems programming escapes type system may necessary compiler attempts ensure type correctness expressions programmer override checks various ways either using type cast explicitly convert value one type another using pointers unions reinterpret underlying bits data object way find c declaration syntax unintuitive particularly function pointers ritchie idea declare identifiers contexts resembling use declaration reflects use c usual arithmetic conversions allow efficient code generated sometimes produce unexpected results example comparison signed unsigned integers equal width requires conversion signed value unsigned generate unexpected results signed value negative c supports use pointers type reference records address location object function memory pointers dereferenced access data stored address pointed invoke pointed-to function pointers manipulated using assignment pointer arithmetic run-time representation pointer value typically raw memory address perhaps augmented offset-within-word field since pointer type includes type thing pointed expressions including pointers type-checked compile time pointer arithmetic automatically scaled size pointed-to data type pointers used many purposes c. text strings commonly manipulated using pointers arrays characters dynamic memory allocation performed using pointers many data types trees commonly implemented dynamically allocated codice_12 objects linked together using pointers pointers functions useful passing functions arguments higher-order functions qsort bsearch callbacks invoked event handlers null pointer value explicitly points valid location dereferencing null pointer value undefined often resulting segmentation fault null pointer values useful indicating special cases next pointer final node linked list error indication functions returning pointers appropriate contexts source code assigning pointer variable null pointer constant written codice_80 without explicit casting pointer type codice_218 macro defined several standard headers conditional contexts null pointer values evaluate false pointer values evaluate true void pointers codice_219 point objects unspecified type therefore used generic data pointers since size type pointed-to object known void pointers dereferenced pointer arithmetic allowed although easily many contexts implicitly converted object pointer type careless use pointers potentially dangerous typically unchecked pointer variable made point arbitrary location cause undesirable effects although properly used pointers point safe places made point unsafe places using invalid pointer arithmetic objects point may continue used deallocation dangling pointers may used without initialized wild pointers may directly assigned unsafe value using cast union another corrupt pointer general c permissive allowing manipulation conversion pointer types although compilers typically provide options various levels checking programming languages address problems using restrictive reference types array types c traditionally fixed static size specified compile time recent c99 standard also allows form variable-length arrays however also possible allocate block memory arbitrary size run-time using standard library codice_220 function treat array c unification arrays pointers means declared arrays dynamically allocated simulated arrays virtually interchangeable since arrays always accessed effect via pointers array accesses typically checked underlying array size although compilers may provide bounds checking option array bounds violations therefore possible rather common carelessly written code lead various repercussions including illegal memory accesses corruption data buffer overruns run-time exceptions bounds checking desired must done manually c special provision declaring multi-dimensional arrays rather relies recursion within type system declare arrays arrays effectively accomplishes thing index values resulting multi-dimensional array thought increasing row-major order multi-dimensional arrays commonly used numerical algorithms mainly applied linear algebra store matrices structure c array well suited particular task however since arrays passed merely pointers bounds array must known fixed values else explicitly passed subroutine requires dynamically sized arrays arrays accessed using double indexing workaround allocate array additional row vector pointers columns c99 introduced variable-length arrays address issues ordinary c arrays subscript notation codice_221 codice_222 designates pointer syntactic sugar codice_223 taking advantage compiler knowledge pointer type address codice_224 points base address pointed codice_222 incremented codice_27 bytes rather defined base address incremented codice_27 multiplied size element codice_222 points thus codice_221 designates codice_230th element array furthermore expression contexts notable exception operand codice_108 name array automatically converted pointer array first element implies array never copied whole named argument function rather address first element passed therefore although function calls c use pass-by-value semantics arrays effect passed reference size element determined applying operator codice_108 dereferenced element codice_222 codice_234 codice_235 number elements declared array codice_78 determined codice_237 latter applies array names variables declared subscripts codice_238 due semantics c possible determine entire size arrays pointers arrays created dynamic allocation codice_220 code codice_240 codice_241 designates pointer work since compiler assumes size pointer requested since array name arguments codice_108 converted pointers exhibit ambiguity however arrays created dynamic allocation accessed pointers rather true array variables suffer codice_108 issues array pointers thus despite apparent equivalence array pointer variables still distinction made even though name array expression contexts converted pointer first element pointer occupy storage array name l-value address constant unlike pointer variable consequently array points changed impossible assign new address array name array contents may copied however using codice_244 function accessing individual elements one important functions programming language provide facilities managing memory objects stored memory c provides three distinct ways allocate memory objects three approaches appropriate different situations various trade-offs example static memory allocation little allocation overhead automatic allocation may involve slightly overhead dynamic memory allocation potentially great deal overhead allocation deallocation persistent nature static objects useful maintaining state information across function calls automatic allocation easy use stack space typically much limited transient either static memory heap space dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation objects whose size known run-time c programs make extensive use three possible automatic static allocation usually simplest storage managed compiler freeing programmer potentially error-prone chore manually allocating releasing storage however many data structures change size runtime since static allocations automatic allocations c99 must fixed size compile-time many situations dynamic allocation necessary prior c99 standard variable-sized arrays common example see article codice_220 example dynamically allocated arrays unlike automatic allocation fail run time uncontrolled consequences dynamic allocation functions return indication form null pointer value required storage allocated static allocation large usually detected linker loader program even begin execution unless otherwise specified static objects contain zero null pointer values upon program startup automatically dynamically allocated objects initialized initial value explicitly specified otherwise initially indeterminate values typically whatever bit pattern happens present storage might even represent valid value type program attempts access uninitialized value results undefined many modern compilers try detect warn problem false positives false negatives occur another issue heap memory allocation synchronized actual usage program order reused much possible example pointer heap memory allocation goes scope value overwritten codice_249 called memory recovered later reuse essentially lost program phenomenon known memory leak conversely possible memory freed continue referenced leading unpredictable results typically symptoms appear portion program far removed actual error making difficult track problem issues ameliorated languages automatic garbage collection c programming language uses libraries primary method extension c library set functions contained within single archive file library typically header file contains prototypes functions contained within library may used program declarations special data types macro symbols used functions order program use library must include library header file library must linked program many cases requires compiler flags e.g. codice_250 shorthand link math library common c library c standard library specified iso ansi c standards comes every c implementation implementations target limited environments embedded systems may provide subset standard library library supports stream input output memory allocation mathematics character strings time values several separate standard headers example codice_185 specify interfaces standard library facilities another common set c library functions used applications specifically targeted unix unix-like systems especially functions provide interface kernel functions detailed various standards posix single unix specification since many programs written c wide variety libraries available libraries often written c c compilers generate efficient object code programmers create interfaces library routines used higher-level languages like java perl python file input output i/o part c language instead handled libraries c standard library associated header files e.g codice_185 file handling generally implemented high-level i/o works streams stream perspective data flow independent devices file concrete device high level i/o done association stream file c standard library buffer memory area queue temporarily used store data sent final destination reduces time spent waiting slower devices example hard drive solid state drive low-level i/o functions part standard c library generally part bare metal programming programming independent operating system embedded programming exceptions implementations include low-level i/o number tools developed help c programmers find fix statements undefined behavior possibly erroneous expressions greater rigor provided compiler tool lint first leading many others automated source code checking auditing beneficial language c many tools exist lint common practice use lint detect questionable code program first written program passes lint compiled using c compiler also many compilers optionally warn syntactically valid constructs likely actually errors misra c proprietary set guidelines avoid questionable code developed embedded systems also compilers libraries operating system level mechanisms performing actions standard part c bounds checking arrays detection buffer overflow serialization dynamic memory tracking automatic garbage collection tools purify valgrind linking libraries containing special versions memory allocation functions help uncover runtime errors memory usage c widely used systems programming implementing operating systems embedded system applications c code written portability used purposes yet needed system-specific code used access specific hardware addresses perform type punning match externally imposed interface requirements low run-time demand system resources c also used website programming using cgi gateway information web application server browser c often chosen interpreted languages speed stability near-universal availability one consequence c wide availability efficiency compilers libraries interpreters programming languages often implemented c. reference implementations python perl php example written c. layer abstraction thin overhead low c enables programmers create efficient implementations algorithms data structures useful computationally intense programs example gnu multiple precision arithmetic library gnu scientific library mathematica matlab completely partially written c. c sometimes used intermediate language implementations languages approach may used portability convenience using c intermediate language additional machine-specific code generators necessary c features line-number preprocessor directives optional superfluous commas end initializer lists support compilation generated code however c shortcomings prompted development c-based languages specifically designed use intermediate languages c -- c also widely used implement end-user applications however applications also written newer higher-level languages c directly indirectly influenced many later languages c go java javascript limbo lpc perl php python unix c shell pervasive influence syntactical languages mentioned combine statement less recognizably expression syntax c type systems data models and/or large-scale program structures differ c sometimes radically several c near-c interpreters exist including ch cint also used scripting object-oriented languages became popular c++ objective-c two different extensions c provided object-oriented capabilities languages originally implemented source-to-source compilers source code translated c compiled c compiler c++ programming language devised bjarne stroustrup approach providing object-oriented functionality c-like syntax c++ adds greater typing strength scoping tools useful object-oriented programming permits generic programming via templates nearly superset c c++ supports c exceptions objective-c originally thin layer top c remains strict superset c permits object-oriented programming using hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm objective-c derives syntax c smalltalk syntax involves preprocessing expressions function declarations function calls inherited c syntax object-oriented features originally taken smalltalk addition c++ objective-c ch cilk unified parallel c nearly supersets c Target text information: ncdu.ncdu ncdu ncurses disk usage disk utility unix systems name refers similar purpose du utility ncdu uses text-based user interface n curses programming library users navigate list using arrow keys delete files taking much space pressing 'd key version 1.09 later export file listing json format ncdu developed yoran heling learn c serve disk usage analyzer remote systems ssh I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	6	Computer File Systems	wikics	10,025	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: clip_os.clip os clip os linux-based operating system created anssi national cybersecurity agency france aim produce hardened operating system secure sensitive information meets needs french administration clip os development since 2008 september 2018 anssi released two version clip os public stable version 4 in-development version 5 clip os based hardened gentoo variant gentoo linux developers noted whilst similar aims qubes os environment isolation mechanism different administrators clip os system able access user data unlike qubes-based system 1-hop neighbor's text information: comparison_of_open-source_wireless_drivers.comparison open-source wireless drivers wireless network cards computers require control software make function firmware device drivers list status open-source drivers 802.11 wireless network cards following incomplete list supported wireless devices 1-hop neighbor's text information: gnu/linux_naming_controversy.gnu/linux naming controversy gnu/linux naming controversy dispute members free software community open-source software community whether refer computer operating systems use combination gnu software linux kernel gnu/linux linux proponents term linux argue far commonly used public media serves generic term systems combine kernel software multiple sources proponents term gnu/linux note gnu alone would good name gnu variants combine gnu operating system software software sources gnu/linux term promoted free software foundation fsf founder richard stallman proponents call correction extended term grounds n't give credit major contributor associated free software philosophy gnu longstanding project begun 1984 develop free operating system argued linux kernel independently created 1991 merely provided substantial missing piece several distributions employ fsf-endorsed name debian trisquel parabola gnu/linux-libre 1983 richard stallman founder free software foundation set forth plans complete unix-like operating system called gnu composed entirely free software september year stallman published manifesto dr. dobb journal detailing new project publicly outlining vision free software software development work began january 1984 1991 gnu mid-level portions operating system almost complete upper level could supplied x window system lower level kernel device drivers system-level utilities daemons still mostly lacking gnu kernel called gnu hurd hurd followed ambitious design proved unexpectedly difficult implement marginally usable independently 1991 linus torvalds released first version linux kernel early linux developers ported gnu code including gnu c compiler run linux free software community adopted use linux kernel missing kernel gnu operating system work filled remaining gaps providing completely free operating system next years several suggestions arose naming operating systems using linux kernel gnu components 1992 yggdrasil linux distribution adopted name linux/gnu/x usenet mailing-list discussions one find usages gnu/linux early 1992 gnu+linux early 1993 debian project one time sponsored free software foundation switched calling product debian gnu/linux early 1994 change followed request richard stallman initially proposed lignux suggested gnu/linux instead hearing complaints awkwardness former term gnu june 1994 bulletin describes linux free unix system 386 machines many utilities libraries gnu january 1995 bulletin switched term gnu/linux instead stallman fsf efforts include gnu name started around 1994 reportedly mostly via private communications above-mentioned request debian 1996 may 1996 stallman released emacs 19.31 autoconf system target linux changed lignux shortly thereafter changed linux-gnu emacs 19.32 included essay linux gnu system suggesting people use terms linux-based gnu system gnu/linux system lignux short later used gnu/linux exclusively essay superseded stallman 1997 essay linux gnu project modern free software open-source software systems composed software many different authors including linux kernel developers gnu project vendors behind x window system desktop- server-based distributions use gnu components gnu c library glibc gnu core utilities coreutils bash 2002 analysis source code red hat linux 7.1 typical linux distribution total size packages gnu project found much larger linux kernel later 2011 analysis ubuntu natty release popular linux distribution main repository found 8 13 consisted gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu 6 taken linux kernel 9 including direct dependencies determining exactly constitutes operating system per se matter continuing debate hand embedded systems handheld devices smartphones like google android residential gateways routers voice ip devices engineered space efficiency mind use linux kernel components gnu system running μclinux likely substitute uclibc glibc busybox coreutils google linux-based android operating system use gnu components libraries replacing glibc google bsd-based bionic c library fsf agrees gnu/linux appropriate name systems also systems use gnu userspace and/or c library top non-linux kernel example debian gnu/hurd gnu userland gnu kernel debian gnu/kfreebsd uses gnu coreutils c library kernel freebsd fsf justifies name gnu/linux primarily grounds gnu project specifically developing complete system argue linux kernel filled one final gaps large number gnu components gnu source code used systems secondary argument addition fsf also argues gnu/linux recognizes role idealism played building community helps public recognize practical importance ideals contrast focus technical advantage rather freedom linux kernel developers case linux kernel notable recurring examples focus technical advantage freedom come long-time inclusion linux kernel many non-free firmware files files non-free license terms ordinary understanding operating system includes kernel—the specific subsystem directly interfaces hardware—and userland software employed user application software control computer moreover name gnu name linux intentionally related name unix unix always conceptually included c library userland tools well kernel 1991 release notes versions 0.01 0.11 linux kernel released gnu general public license version 0.12 torvalds wrote torvalds also wrote 1992 tanenbaum-torvalds debate tanenbaum criticized torvalds developing linux monolithic kernel considered obsolete inferior microkernels mach believed linux would rejected favor gnu hurd microkernel stalled development years use word linux refer kernel operating system entire distributions often leads confusion distinctions among three many gnu packages key part almost every linux distribution particularly gnu toolchain present distros unless android included media sources sometimes make erroneous statements well claiming entire operating system rather simply kernel written torvalds confusion legal threats public relations campaigns apparently directed kernel launched sco group alexis de tocqueville institution adti misinterpreted many commentators assume whole operating system targeted sco adti even accused deliberately exploiting confusion regarding suggestions renaming efforts stem egotism personal pique stallman responded interest giving credit gnu project people think want ego fed course 'm asking call 'stallmanix stallman admitted irritation although believes justified response seeing idealistic project stymied made ineffective people n't usually give credit done concluding 're idealist like ruin whole decade response another common argument see fsf acknowledges many people contributed system short name credit argues justify calling system linux continuing speak subject 2010 stallman stated naming simply matter giving equal mention gnu project system widely referred linux people tend think linux started mr. torvalds 1991 think comes vision life really bad problem linux far widespread name eric s. raymond writes linux entry jargon file linus torvalds asked documentary revolution os whether name gnu/linux justified replied earlier comment torvalds naming controversy name gnu/linux particularly using stallman preferred pronunciation see criticized perceived clumsiness verbosity factor torvalds cited downfall operating systems 386bsd linux journal speculated stallman advocacy combined name stems frustration linus got glory stallman wanted others suggested regardless merits stallman persistence sometimes seems lost cause makes gnu look bad example larry mcvoy author bitkeeper used manage linux kernel development opined claiming credit makes one look foolish greedy many users vendors prefer name linux jim gettys one original developers x window system point inclusion non-gnu non-kernel tools kde libreoffice firefox end-user operating systems based linux kernel although gnu/linux often pronounced without slash stallman recommends explicitly saying word slash plus i.e gnu+linux order avoid mistaken suggestion linux kernel gnu package case gnu linux-libre Target text information: grsecurity.grsecurity grsecurity set patches linux kernel emphasize security enhancements patches typically used computer systems accept remote connections untrusted locations web servers systems offering shell access users grsecurity provides collection security features linux kernel including address space protection enhanced auditing process control grsecurity produced open source security inc. headquartered pennsylvania since april 2017 patches available paying customers major component bundled grsecurity pax among features patch flags data memory stack example non-executable program memory non-writable aim prevent memory overwritten help prevent many types security vulnerabilities buffer overflows pax also provides address space layout randomization aslr randomizes important memory addresses reduce probability attacks rely easily predicted memory addresses another notable component grsecurity provides full role-based access control rbac system rbac intended restrict access system normally provided unix access control lists aim creating fully least-privilege system users processes absolute minimum privileges work correctly nothing way system compromised ability attacker damage gain sensitive information system drastically reduced rbac works collection roles role individual restrictions roles restrictions form access policy amended needed list rbac features grsecurity restricts chroot variety ways prevent various vulnerabilities privilege escalation attacks well add additional checks among things configured audit specific group users mounting/unmounting devices changes system time date codice_14 logging audit types allow administrator also log denied resource attempts failed codice_15 attempts ipc creation removal codice_16 logging together arguments trusted path execution another optional feature used prevent users executing binaries owned root user world-writable binaries useful prevent users executing malicious binaries accidentally executing world-writable system binaries could modified malicious user grsecurity also hardens way chroot jails work chroot jail used isolate particular process rest system used minimise potential damage service compromised ways break chroot jail grsecurity attempts prevent also features increase security prevent users gaining unnecessary knowledge system restricting codice_17 codice_18 commands root user list additional features security improvements grsecurity patches never submitted inclusion mainline linux kernel following reasons access grsecurity stable patches restricted bruce perens speculated blog post using patches obtained oss inc. stable patch access agreement according perens adds term gpl prohibiting distribution creating penalty distribution may expose clients legal risk copyright infringement brad spengler open source security inc. sued defamation lost district court directed pay bruce perens legal team almost 260,000 presently case process appeal I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	10,933	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: floating-point_unit.floating-point unit floating-point unit fpu colloquially math coprocessor part computer system specially designed carry operations floating point numbers typical operations addition subtraction multiplication division square root bitshifting systems particularly older microcode-based architectures also perform various transcendental functions exponential trigonometric calculations though modern processors done software library routines general purpose computer architectures one fpus may integrated execution units within central processing unit however many embedded processors hardware support floating-point operations increasingly standard least 32-bit ones cpu executing program calls floating-point operation three ways carry historically systems implemented floating point via coprocessor rather integrated unit addition cpu e.g gpus coprocessors always built cpu fpus rule first generations gpus n't could single integrated circuit entire circuit board cabinet floating-point calculation hardware provided floating point calculations done software takes processor time avoids cost extra hardware particular computer architecture floating point unit instructions may emulated library software functions may permit object code run systems without floating point hardware emulation implemented several levels cpu microcode common practice operating system function user space code integer functionality available cordic floating point emulation methods commonly used modern computer architectures division floating-point operations integer operations division varies significantly architecture like intel x86 dedicated floating-point registers take far independent clocking schemes cordic routines implemented intel 8087 80287 80387 80486 coprocessor series well motorola 68881 68882 kinds floating-point instructions mainly way reduce gate counts complexity fpu sub-system floating-point operations often pipelined earlier superscalar architectures without general out-of-order execution floating-point operations sometimes pipelined separately integer operations since early 1990s many microprocessors desktops servers one fpu modular architecture bulldozer microarchitecture uses special fpu named flexfpu uses simultaneous multithreading physical integer core two per module single threaded contrast intel hyperthreading two virtual simultaneous threads share resources single physical core floating-point hardware supports simplest operations addition subtraction multiplication even complex floating-point hardware finite number operations support example none directly support arbitrary-precision arithmetic cpu executing program calls floating-point operation directly supported hardware cpu uses series simpler floating-point operations systems without floating-point hardware cpu emulates using series simpler fixed-point arithmetic operations run integer arithmetic logic unit software lists necessary series operations emulate floating-point operations often packaged floating-point library cases fpus may specialized divided simpler floating-point operations mainly addition multiplication complicated operations like division cases simple operations may implemented hardware microcode complex operations implemented software current architectures fpu functionality combined units perform simd computation example augmentation x87 instructions set sse instruction set x86-64 architecture used newer intel amd processors 1980s common ibm pc/compatible microcomputers fpu entirely separate cpu typically sold optional add-on would purchased needed speed enable math-intensive programs ibm pc xt compatibles based 8088 8086 socket optional 8087 coprocessor 80286-based systems generally socketed 80287 80386/80386sx based machines 80387 80387sx respectively although early ones socketed 80287 since 80387 exist yet companies manufactured co-processors intel x86 series included cyrix weitek coprocessors available motorola 68000 family 68881 68882 common motorola 68020/68030-based workstations like sun 3 series also commonly added higher-end models apple macintosh commodore amiga series unlike ibm pc-compatible systems sockets adding coprocessor common lower end systems also add-on fpus coprocessor units microcontroller units mcus/µcs /single-board computer sbcs serve provide floating-point arithmetic capability add-on fpus host-processor-independent possess programming requirements operations instruction sets etc often provided integrated development environments ides 1-hop neighbor's text information: microarchitecture.microarchitecture computer engineering microarchitecture also called computer organization sometimes abbreviated µarch uarch way given instruction set architecture isa implemented particular processor given isa may implemented different microarchitectures implementations may vary due different goals given design due shifts technology computer architecture combination microarchitecture instruction set architecture isa roughly programming model processor seen assembly language programmer compiler writer isa includes execution model processor registers address data formats among things microarchitecture includes constituent parts processor interconnect interoperate implement isa microarchitecture machine usually represented less detailed diagrams describe interconnections various microarchitectural elements machine may anything single gates registers complete arithmetic logic units alus even larger elements diagrams generally separate datapath data placed control path said steer data person designing system usually draws specific microarchitecture kind data flow diagram like block diagram microarchitecture diagram shows microarchitectural elements arithmetic logic unit register file single schematic symbol typically diagram connects elements arrows thick lines thin lines distinguish three-state buses require three-state buffer device drives bus unidirectional buses always driven single source way address bus simpler computers always driven memory address register individual control lines simple computers single data bus organization single three-state bus diagram complex computers usually shows multiple three-state buses help machine operations simultaneously microarchitectural element turn represented schematic describing interconnections logic gates used implement logic gate turn represented circuit diagram describing connections transistors used implement particular logic family machines different microarchitectures may instruction set architecture thus capable executing programs new microarchitectures and/or circuitry solutions along advances semiconductor manufacturing allows newer generations processors achieve higher performance using isa principle single microarchitecture could execute several different isas minor changes microcode pipelined datapath commonly used datapath design microarchitecture today technique used modern microprocessors microcontrollers dsps pipelined architecture allows multiple instructions overlap execution much like assembly line pipeline includes several different stages fundamental microarchitecture designs stages include instruction fetch instruction decode execute write back architectures include stages memory access design pipelines one central microarchitectural tasks execution units also essential microarchitecture execution units include arithmetic logic units alu floating point units fpu load/store units branch prediction simd units perform operations calculations processor choice number execution units latency throughput central microarchitectural design task size latency throughput connectivity memories within system also microarchitectural decisions system-level design decisions whether include peripherals memory controllers considered part microarchitectural design process includes decisions performance-level connectivity peripherals unlike architectural design achieving specific performance level main goal microarchitectural design pays closer attention constraints since microarchitecture design decisions directly affect goes system attention must paid issues chip area/cost power consumption logic complexity ease connectivity manufacturability ease debugging testability general cpus single-chip microprocessors multi-chip implementations run programs performing following steps instruction cycle repeated continuously power turned historically earliest computers multicycle designs smallest least-expensive computers often still use technique multicycle architectures often use least total number logic elements reasonable amounts power designed deterministic timing high reliability particular pipeline stall taking conditional branches interrupts however microarchitectures often perform instructions per unit time using logic family discussing improved performance improvement often relative multicycle design multicycle computer computer four steps sequence several cycles clock designs perform sequence two clock cycles completing successive stages alternate clock edges possibly longer operations occurring outside main cycle example stage one rising edge first cycle stage two falling edge first cycle etc control logic combination cycle counter cycle state high low bits instruction decode register determine exactly part computer design control logic one create table bits describing control signals part computer cycle instruction logic table tested software simulation running test code logic table placed memory used actually run real computer called microprogram computer designs logic table optimized form combinational logic made logic gates usually using computer program optimizes logic early computers used ad-hoc logic design control maurice wilkes invented tabular approach called microprogramming complicating simple-looking series steps fact memory hierarchy includes caching main memory non-volatile storage like hard disks program instructions data reside always slower processor step 2 often introduces lengthy cpu terms delay data arrives computer bus considerable amount research put designs avoid delays much possible years central goal execute instructions parallel thus increasing effective execution speed program efforts introduced complicated logic circuit structures initially techniques could implemented expensive mainframes supercomputers due amount circuitry needed techniques semiconductor manufacturing progressed techniques could implemented single semiconductor chip see moore law instruction sets shifted years originally simple sometimes complex various respects recent years load-store architectures vliw epic types fashion architectures dealing data parallelism include simd vectors labels used denote classes cpu architectures particularly descriptive especially cisc label many early designs retroactively denoted cisc fact significantly simpler modern risc processors several respects however choice instruction set architecture may greatly affect complexity implementing high-performance devices prominent strategy used develop first risc processors simplify instructions minimum individual semantic complexity combined high encoding regularity simplicity uniform instructions easily fetched decoded executed pipelined fashion simple strategy reduce number logic levels order reach high operating frequencies instruction cache-memories compensated higher operating frequency inherently low code density large register sets used factor much slow memory accesses possible one first powerful techniques improve performance use instruction pipelining early processor designs would carry steps one instruction moving onto next large portions circuitry left idle one step instance instruction decoding circuitry would idle execution pipelining improves performance allowing number instructions work way processor time basic example processor would start decode step 1 new instruction last one waiting results would allow four instructions flight one time making processor look four times fast although one instruction takes long complete still four steps cpu whole retires instructions much faster risc makes pipelines smaller much easier construct cleanly separating stage instruction process making take amount time—one cycle processor whole operates assembly line fashion instructions coming one side results due reduced complexity classic risc pipeline pipelined core instruction cache could placed size die would otherwise fit core alone cisc design real reason risc faster early designs like sparc mips often ran 10 times fast intel motorola cisc solutions clock speed price pipelines means limited risc designs 1986 top-of-the-line vax implementation vax 8800 heavily pipelined design slightly predating first commercial mips sparc designs modern cpus even embedded cpus pipelined microcoded cpus pipelining seen area-constrained embedded processors large cisc machines vax 8800 modern pentium 4 athlon implemented microcode pipelines improvements pipelining caching two major microarchitectural advances enabled processor performance keep pace circuit technology based long improvements chip manufacturing allowed even circuitry placed die designers started looking ways use one common add ever-increasing amount cache memory on-die cache simply fast memory accessed cycles opposed many needed talk main memory cpu includes cache controller automates reading writing cache data already cache simply appears whereas processor stalled cache controller reads risc designs started adding cache mid-to-late 1980s often 4 kb total number grew time typical cpus least 512 kb powerful cpus come 1 2 even 4 6 8 12 mb organized multiple levels memory hierarchy generally speaking cache means performance due reduced stalling caches pipelines perfect match previously n't make much sense build pipeline could run faster access latency off-chip memory using on-chip cache memory instead meant pipeline could run speed cache access latency much smaller length time allowed operating frequencies processors increase much faster rate off-chip memory one barrier achieving higher performance instruction-level parallelism stems pipeline stalls flushes due branches normally whether conditional branch taken n't known late pipeline conditional branches depend results coming register time processor instruction decoder figured encountered conditional branch instruction time deciding register value read pipeline needs stalled several cycles branch taken pipeline needs flushed clock speeds increase depth pipeline increases modern processors may 20 stages average every fifth instruction executed branch without intervention high amount stalling techniques branch prediction speculative execution used lessen branch penalties branch prediction hardware makes educated guesses whether particular branch taken reality one side branch called much often modern designs rather complex statistical prediction systems watch results past branches predict future greater accuracy guess allows hardware prefetch instructions without waiting register read speculative execution enhancement code along predicted path prefetched also executed known whether branch taken yield better performance guess good risk huge penalty guess bad instructions need undone even added complexity gates needed support concepts outlined improvements semiconductor manufacturing soon allowed even logic gates used outline processor processes parts single instruction time computer programs could executed faster multiple instructions processed simultaneously superscalar processors achieve replicating functional units alus replication functional units made possible die area single-issue processor longer stretched limits could reliably manufactured late 1980s superscalar designs started enter market place modern designs common find two load units one store many instructions results store two integer math units two floating point units often simd unit sort instruction issue logic grows complexity reading huge list instructions memory handing different execution units idle point results collected re-ordered end addition caches reduces frequency duration stalls due waiting data fetched memory hierarchy get rid stalls entirely early designs cache miss would force cache controller stall processor wait course may instruction program whose data available cache point out-of-order execution allows ready instruction processed older instruction waits cache re-orders results make appear everything happened programmed order technique also used avoid operand dependency stalls instruction awaiting result long latency floating-point operation multi-cycle operations register renaming refers technique used avoid unnecessary serialized execution program instructions reuse registers instructions suppose two groups instruction use register one set instructions executed first leave register set set assigned different similar register sets instructions executed parallel series computer architects become stymied growing mismatch cpu operating frequencies dram access times none techniques exploited instruction-level parallelism ilp within one program could make long stalls occurred data fetched main memory additionally large transistor counts high operating frequencies needed advanced ilp techniques required power dissipation levels could longer cheaply cooled reasons newer generations computers started exploit higher levels parallelism exist outside single program program thread trend sometimes known throughput computing idea originated mainframe market online transaction processing emphasized execution speed one transaction capacity deal massive numbers transactions transaction-based applications network routing web-site serving greatly increasing last decade computer industry re-emphasized capacity throughput issues one technique parallelism achieved multiprocessing systems computer systems multiple cpus reserved high-end mainframes supercomputers small-scale 2–8 multiprocessors servers become commonplace small business market large corporations large scale 16–256 multiprocessors common even personal computers multiple cpus appeared since 1990s transistor size reductions made available semiconductor technology advances multi-core cpus appeared multiple cpus implemented silicon chip initially used chips targeting embedded markets simpler smaller cpus would allow multiple instantiations fit one piece silicon 2005 semiconductor technology allowed dual high-end desktop cpus cmp chips manufactured volume designs sun microsystems ultrasparc t1 reverted simpler scalar in-order designs order fit processors one piece silicon another technique become popular recently multithreading multithreading processor fetch data slow system memory instead stalling data arrive processor switches another program program thread ready execute though speed particular program/thread increases overall system throughput reducing time cpu idle conceptually multithreading equivalent context switch operating system level difference multithreaded cpu thread switch one cpu cycle instead hundreds thousands cpu cycles context switch normally requires achieved replicating state hardware register file program counter active thread enhancement simultaneous multithreading technique allows superscalar cpus execute instructions different programs/threads simultaneously cycle 1-hop neighbor's text information: register_memory_architecture.register memory architecture computer engineering register–memory architecture instruction set architecture allows operations performed memory well registers architecture allows operands memory registers combinations called register plus memory architecture register–memory approach one operands add operation may memory register differs load/store architecture used risc designs mips operands add operation must registers add examples register memory architecture ibm system/360 successors intel x86 examples register plus memory architecture vax motorola 68000 family Target text information: cycles_per_instruction.cycles per instruction computer architecture cycles per instruction aka clock cycles per instruction clocks per instruction cpi one aspect processor performance average number clock cycles per instruction program program fragment multiplicative inverse instructions per cycle average cycles per instruction given process defined following formula_1 formula_2 number instructions given instruction type formula_3 formula_4 clock-cycles instruction type formula_5 total instruction count summation sums instruction types given benchmarking process let us assume classic risc pipeline following five stages stage requires one clock cycle instruction passes stages sequentially without pipelining new instruction fetched stage 1 previous instruction finishes stage 5 therefore number clock cycles takes execute instruction five cpi 5 1 case processor said subscalar pipelining new instruction fetched every clock cycle exploiting instruction-level parallelism therefore since one could theoretically five instructions five pipeline stages one instruction per stage different instruction would complete stage 5 every clock cycle average number clock cycles takes execute instruction 1 cpi 1 case processor said scalar single-execution-unit processor best cpi attainable 1 however multiple-execution-unit processor one may achieve even better cpi values cpi 1 case processor said superscalar get better cpi values without pipelining number execution units must greater number stages example six executions units six new instructions fetched stage 1 six previous instructions finish stage 5 therefore average number clock cycles takes execute instruction 5/6 cpi 5/6 1 get better cpi values pipelining must least two execution units example two executions units two new instructions fetched every clock cycle exploiting instruction-level parallelism therefore two different instructions would complete stage 5 every clock cycle average number clock cycles takes execute instruction 1/2 cpi 1/2 1 multi-cycle mips five types instructions program cpi formula_6 433mhz processor used execute benchmark program following instruction mix clock cycle count determine effective cpi mips millions instructions per second rate execution time program formula_7 formula_8 since formula_9 formula_10 formula_11 therefore formula_12 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	1,402	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: xop_instruction_set.xop instruction set xop extended operations instruction set announced amd may 1 2009 extension 128-bit sse core instructions x86 amd64 instruction set bulldozer processor core released october 12 2011 however amd removed support xop zen microarchitecture onward xop instruction set contains several different types vector instructions since originally intended major upgrade sse instructions integer instructions also contains floating point permutation floating point fraction extraction instructions see index list instruction types xop revised subset originally intended sse5 changed similar overlapping avx parts overlapped avx removed moved separate standards fma4 floating-point vector multiply–accumulate cvt16 half-precision floating-point conversion implemented f16c intel sse5 instructions equivalent similar instructions avx fma4 instruction sets announced intel changed use coding proposed intel integer instructions without equivalents avx classified xop extension xop instructions opcode byte 8f hexadecimal otherwise almost identical coding scheme avx 3-byte vex prefix commentators seen evidence intel allowed amd use part large vex coding space amd forced use different codes order avoid using code combination intel might possibly using development pipeline something else xop coding scheme close vex scheme technically possible without risking amd codes overlap future intel codes inference speculative since public information available negotiations two companies issue use 8f byte requires m-bits see vex coding scheme value larger equal 8 order avoid overlap existing instructions c4 byte used vex scheme restriction may prevent use m-bits purposes future xop scheme vex scheme another possible problem pp bits value 00 xop scheme value 01 vex scheme instructions legacy equivalent may complicate use pp bits purposes future similar compatibility issue difference fma3 fma4 instruction sets intel initially proposed fma4 avx/fma specification version 3 supersede 3-operand fma proposed amd sse5 amd adopted fma4 intel canceled fma4 support reverted fma3 avx/fma specification version 5 see fma history march 2015 amd explicitly revealed description patch gnu binutils package zen third-generation x86-64 architecture first iteration znver1 – zen version 1 support tbm fma4 xop lwp instructions developed specifically bulldozer family micro-architectures integer version fma instruction set four operand instructions similar fma4 operate signed integers horizontal addition instructions adds adjacent values input vector output size instructions describes wide horizontal addition performed instance horizontal byte word adds two bytes time returns result vector words byte quadword adds eight bytes together time returns result vector quadwords six additional horizontal addition subtraction instructions found ssse3 operate two input vectors two two operations set vector compare instructions take immediate extra argument immediate controls kind comparison performed eight comparison possible instruction vectors compared comparisons evaluate true set corresponding bits destination 1 false comparisons sets bits 0 result used directly vpcmov instruction vectorized conditional move vpcmov works bitwise variant blend instructions sse4 bit selector 1 selects bit first source 0 selects second source used together xop vector comparison instructions used implement vectorized ternary move second input destination conditional move cmov shift instructions differ sse2 shift unit different amount using vector register interpreted packed signed integers sign indicates direction shift rotate positive values causing left shift negative right shift intel specified different incompatible set variable vector shift instructions avx2 vpperm single instruction combines ssse3 instruction palignr pshufb adds compare altivec instruction vperm takes three registers input first two source registers third selector register byte selector selects one bytes one two input registers output selector also apply effects selected bytes setting 0 reverse bit order repeating signicating bit effects input addition inverted vpermil2pd vpermil2ps instructions two source versions vpermilpd vpermilps instructions avx means like vpperm select output fields two inputs instructions extracts fractional part floating point part would lost conversion integer 1-hop neighbor's text information: heterogeneous_system_architecture.heterogeneous system architecture heterogeneous system architecture hsa cross-vendor set specifications allow integration central processing units graphics processors bus shared memory tasks hsa developed hsa foundation includes among many others amd arm platform stated aim reduce communication latency cpus gpus compute devices make various devices compatible programmer perspective relieving programmer task planning moving data devices disjoint memories must currently done opencl cuda cuda opencl well fairly advanced programming languages use hsa increase execution performance heterogeneous computing widely used system-on-chip devices tablets smartphones mobile devices video game consoles hsa allows programs use graphics processor floating point calculations without separate memory scheduling rationale behind hsa ease burden programmers offloading calculations gpu originally driven solely amd called fsa idea extended encompass processing units gpus manufacturers dsps well modern gpus well suited perform single instruction multiple data simd single instruction multiple threads simt modern cpus still optimized branching etc originally introduced embedded systems cell broadband engine sharing system memory directly multiple system actors makes heterogeneous computing mainstream heterogeneous computing refers systems contain multiple processing units central processing units cpus graphics processing units gpus digital signal processors dsps type application-specific integrated circuits asics system architecture allows accelerator instance graphics processor operate processing level system cpu among main features hsa defines unified virtual address space compute devices gpus traditionally memory separate main cpu memory hsa requires devices share page tables devices exchange data sharing pointers supported custom memory management units render interoperability possible also ease various aspects programming hsa intended isa-agnostic cpus accelerators support high-level programming languages far hsa specifications cover hsa intermediate layer hsail virtual instruction set parallel programs mobile devices one hsa application areas yields improved power efficiency block diagrams provide high-level illustrations hsa operates compares traditional architectures hsa-specific features implemented hardware need supported operating system kernel specific device drivers example support amd radeon amd firepro graphics cards apus based graphics core next gcn merged version 3.19 linux kernel mainline released 8 february 2015 programs interact directly queue jobs utilizing hsa runtime first implementation known focuses berlin apus works alongside existing radeon kernel graphics driver additionally supports heterogeneous queuing hq aims simplify distribution computational jobs among multiple cpus gpus programmer perspective support heterogeneous memory management hmm suited graphics hardware featuring version 2 amd iommu accepted linux kernel mainline version 4.14 integrated support hsa platforms announced sumatra release openjdk due 2015 amd app sdk amd proprietary software development kit targeting parallel computing available microsoft windows linux bolt c++ template library optimized heterogeneous computing gpuopen comprehends couple software tools related hsa codexl version 2.0 includes hsa profiler amd kaveri a-series apus cf kaveri desktop processors kaveri mobile processors sony playstation 4 allowed integrated gpu access memory via version 2 amd iommu earlier apus trinity richland included version 2 iommu functionality use external gpu connected via pci express post-2015 carrizo bristol ridge apus also include version 2 iommu functionality integrated gpu arm bifrost microarchitecture implemented mali-g71 fully compliant hsa 1.1 hardware specifications arm announced software support would use hardware feature 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_linux-supported_computer_architectures.list linux-supported computer architectures basic components linux family operating systems based linux kernel gnu c library busybox forks thereof like μclinux uclibc programmed certain level abstraction mind also distinct code paths assembly language c source code support certain hardware therefore source code successfully compiled onor cross-compiled fora great number computer architectures furthermore required free open-source software also developed interface linux hardware linux executed example compilers available e.g gnu compiler collection gcc llvm/clang cross-compilation number complete toolchains available like gnu toolchain openwrt buildroot openembedded yocto project targeted embedded use cases portability section linux kernel article contains information references technical details note components like display server programs like blender present absent fundamentally software ported i.e specifically adapted kind hardware supposed executed level abstraction kept mind programming software first place dictates necessary effort relevant term porting target computer architecture comprises instruction set microarchitecture processor least cpu target also comprises system design entire system supercomputer desktop computer soc e.g case unique bus used former times memory controller part chipset motherboard cpu-die although support specific instruction set task compiler software must written certain level abstraction mind make portability possible code written assembly language specific instruction set support specific microarchitecture includes optimizations cpu cache hierarchy tlb etc additional processors particularly freescale 68000 coldfire supported mmu-less μclinux variant Target text information: pa-risc.pa-risc pa-risc instruction set architecture isa developed hewlett-packard name implies reduced instruction set computer risc architecture pa stands precision architecture design also referred hp/pa hewlett packard precision architecture architecture introduced 26 february 1986 hp 3000 series 930 hp 9000 model 840 computers launched featuring first implementation ts1 pa-risc succeeded itanium originally ia-64 isa jointly developed hp intel hp stopped selling pa-risc-based hp 9000 systems end 2008 supported servers running pa-risc chips 2013 late 1980s hp building four series computers based cisc cpus one line ibm pc compatible intel i286-based vectra series started 1986 others non-intel systems one hp series 300 motorola 68000-based workstations another series 200 line technical workstations based custom silicon sapphire sos chip design sos based 16-bit hp 3000 classic series finally hp 9000 series 500 minicomputers based 16 32-bit focus microprocessor precision architecture result known inside hewlett-packard spectrum program hp planned use spectrum move non-pc compatible machines single risc cpu family first processors introduced 1986 thirty-two 32-bit integer registers sixteen 64-bit floating-point registers number floating-point registers doubled 1.1 version 32 became apparent 16 inadequate restricted performance architects included allen baum hans jeans michael j. mahon ruby bei-loh lee russel kao steve muchnick terrence c. miller david fotland william s. worley first implementation ts1 central processing unit built discrete transistor–transistor logic 74f ttl devices later implementations multi-chip vlsi designs fabricated nmos processes ns1 ns2 cmos cs1 pcx first used new series hp 3000 machines late 1980s – 930 950 commonly known time spectrum systems name given development labs machines ran mpe-xl hp 9000 machines soon upgraded pa-risc processor well running hp-ux version unix operating systems ported pa-risc architecture include linux openbsd netbsd nextstep interesting aspect pa-risc line generations level 2 cache instead large level 1 caches used formerly separate chips connected bus integrated on-chip pa-7100lc pa-7300lc l2 caches another innovation pa-risc addition vectorized instructions simd form max first introduced pa-7100lc precision risc organization industry group led hp founded 1992 promote pa-risc architecture members included convex hitachi hughes aircraft mitsubishi nec oki prime stratus yokogawa red brick software allegro consultants inc.. isa extended 1996 64 bits revision named pa-risc 2.0 pa-risc 2.0 also added fused multiply–add instructions help certain floating-point intensive algorithms max-2 simd extension provides instructions accelerating multimedia applications first pa-risc 2.0 implementation pa-8000 introduced january 1996 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	8,944	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: tcl.tcl tcl pronounced tickle tee cee ell high-level general-purpose interpreted dynamic programming language designed goal simple powerful tcl casts everything mold command even programming constructs like variable assignment procedure definition tcl supports multiple programming paradigms including object-oriented imperative functional programming procedural styles commonly used embedded c applications rapid prototyping scripted applications guis testing tcl interpreters available many operating systems allowing tcl code run wide variety systems tcl compact language used embedded systems platforms full form several small-footprint versions popular combination tcl tk extension referred tcl/tk enables building graphical user interface gui natively tcl tcl/tk included standard python installation form tkinter tcl programming language created spring 1988 john ousterhout working university california berkeley originally born frustration according author programmers devising languages intended embedded applications tcl gained acceptance ousterhout awarded acm software system award 1997 tcl/tk name originally comes tool command language conventionally spelled tcl rather tcl tcl conferences workshops held united states europe tcl features include safe-tcl subset tcl restricted features tcl scripts harm hosting machine application file system access limited arbitrary system commands prevented execution uses dual interpreter model untrusted interpreter running code untrusted script designed nathaniel borenstein marshall rose include active messages e-mail safe-tcl included e-mail application/safe-tcl multipart/enabled-mail supported functionality safe-tcl since incorporated part standard tcl/tk releases syntax semantics tcl covered twelve rules known dodekalogue tcl script consists series command invocations command invocation list words separated whitespace terminated newline semicolon first word name command may built language found available library defined script subsequent words serve arguments command following example uses puts command display string text host console sends string hello world standard output device along appended newline character variables results commands substituted strings example uses set expr commands store result calculation variable note tcl use codice_3 assignment operator uses puts short put string print result together explanatory text codice_4 character introduces comment comments appear anywhere interpreter expecting command name seen examples one basic construct language command quoting mechanisms substitution rules determine arguments command processed one special substitution occurs parsing commands arguments final character line i.e. immediately newline backslash backslash-newline combination spaces tabs immediately following newline replaced single space provides line continuation mechanism whereby long lines source code wrapped next line convenience readers continuing normal argument processing word begins double-quote character codice_5 extends next double-quote character word thus contain whitespace semicolons without characters interpreted special meaning i.e. treated normal text characters word begins opening curly-brace character codice_6 extends next closing curly-brace character codice_7 inside curly braces forms substitution suppressed except previously mentioned backslash-newline elimination words enclosed either construct known bare words bare double-quoted words three types substitution may occur substitution proceeds left-to-right single scan word substituted text scanned possible substitutions however number substitutions appear single word tcl 8.5 onwards word may prefixed codice_12 causes word split apart constituent sub-words purposes building command invocation similar codice_13 sequence lisp quasiquote feature consequence rules result command may used argument command also operator command string concatenation language concatenates directly note unlike unix command shells tcl reparse string unless explicitly directed makes interactive use cumbersome scripted use predictable e.g. presence spaces filenames cause difficulties single equality sign codice_3 serves special role language double equality sign codice_15 test equality used expression contexts codice_16 command first argument codice_17 commands part standard library special place library replaced desired majority tcl commands especially standard library variadic codice_18 constructor scripted command procedures allows one define default values unspecified arguments catch-all argument allow code process arbitrary numbers arguments tcl statically typed variable may contain integers floats strings lists command names dictionaries value values reinterpreted subject syntactic constraints types demand however values immutable operations appear change actually return new value instead important commands refer program execution data operations usual execution control commands looping commands additionally controlled following commands codice_1 allows command script executed scope current innermost scope stack command script may call procedures use uplevel command net effect transforming call stack call tree originally implemented permit tcl procedures reimplement built-in commands like still ability manipulate local variables example following tcl script reimplementation command omitting exception handling codice_2 arranges one local variables current procedure refer variables enclosing procedure call global variables upvar command simplifies implementation call-by-name procedure calling also makes easier build new control constructs tcl procedures decr command works like built-in codice_54 command except subtracts value variable instead adding tcl 8.6 added built-in dynamic object system tcloo 2012 includes features tcl object oriented oo syntax 2012 various extension packages emerged enable object-oriented programming widespread existing tcl source code popular extensions include tcloo added build strong object oriented system also enable extension packages build object oriented abstractions using foundation release tcloo incr tcl updated use tcloo foundation tcl web server pure-tcl implementation http protocol server runs script top vanilla tcl interpreter apache rivet open source programming system apache http server allows developers use tcl scripting language creating dynamic web applications rivet similar php asp jsp rivet primarily developed damon courtney david welton massimo manghi harald oehlmann karl lehenbauer rivet use thousands publicly available tcl packages offer countless features database interaction oracle postgresql mysql sqlite etc interfaces popular applications gd graphics library tcl interfaces natively c language originally written framework providing syntactic front-end commands written c commands language including things might otherwise keywords codice_17 codice_25 implemented way command implementation function passed array values describe already substituted arguments command free interpret values sees fit digital logic simulators often include tcl scripting interface simulating verilog vhdl systemverilog hardware languages tools exist e.g swig ffidl automatically generate necessary code connect arbitrary c functions tcl runtime critcl reverse allowing embedding arbitrary c code inside tcl script compiling runtime dll tcl language always allowed extension packages provide additional functionality gui terminal-based application automation database access commonly used extensions include 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: rasmus_lerdorf.rasmus lerdorf rasmus lerdorf born 22 november 1968 danish-canadian programmer co-authored inspired php scripting language authoring first two versions language participated development later versions led group developers including jim winstead later created blo.gs stig bakken shane caraveo andi gutmans zeev suraski continues contribute project lerdorf born disko island greenland moved denmark early years lerdorf family moved canada denmark 1980 later moved king city ontario 1983 graduated king city secondary school 1988 1993 graduated university waterloo bachelor applied science systems design engineering contributed apache http server added limit clause msql dbms variant limit clause already around decade mainframe relational database management systems like oracle rdb running vax/vms formerly digital equipment corporation apparently yet picked emerging pc-based databases later adapted several sql-compatible dbms released first version php 1995 september 2002 november 2009 lerdorf employed yahoo inc. infrastructure architecture engineer 2010 joined wepay order develop application programming interface throughout 2011 roving consultant startups 22 february 2012 announced twitter joined etsy july 2013 rasmus joined jelastic senior advisor help creation new technology lerdorf frequent speaker open source conferences around world keynote presentation oscms 2007 presented security vulnerability projects represented conference year lerdorf also appeared wearedevelopers conferences 2017 2019 making speech history php new php 7 release 2017 25 years php.. 2003 lerdorf named mit technology review tr100 one top 100 innovators world age 35 Target text information: msql.msql msql mini sql lightweight database management system hughes technologies 1993–94 david hughes developed network monitoring management system called minerva design system required database management system store configuration working data enable future portability hughes elected use structured query language interface application database management system despite fact time free inexpensive sql database management implementation available hughes therefore developed translation program provided interface free postgres dbms use sql product named minisql msql time became clear postgres perform adequately low-specification systems used run minerva msql developed lightweight database management system right implementing limited subset sql standard performing well minimally specified hardware msql first low-cost sql-based database management system combined free linux operating system availability relatively powerful low-cost pc hardware development world wide web standards technologies msql important factor early development interactive dynamic web applications particularly period 1994–97 increasingly supplanted highly featured mysql msql large widespread install base late 1990s despite offered source code form strongly associated open source software msql never offered open source license msql provided free non-commercial use typical license commercial use 1997 would cost 170 compared five-digit purchase price full-featured competitors 1996 development msql began stagnate mysql arose fill void 1999 mysql surpassed msql popularity today msql less visibility time database system often licensed companies use products used end-users directly msql actively maintained developed primarily support licensees internal use within hughes technologies products projects still provided license allows use free charge non-commercial educational charitable activities msql 4.2 released april 2019. msql originally supported several host languages I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	2,727	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: unix_system_v.unix system v unix system v pronounced system five one first commercial versions unix operating system originally developed first released 1983 four major versions system v released numbered 1 2 3 4 system v release 4 svr4 commercially successful version result effort marketed unix system unification solicited collaboration major unix vendors source several common commercial unix features system v sometimes abbreviated sysv unix market divided five system v variants ibm aix hewlett-packard hp-ux oracle solaris xinuos unixware illumos distributions open-source opensolaris continuation system v successor 1982 unix system iii developed sold hardware ran system v customers ran version reseller based reference implementation standards document called system v interface definition outlined default features behavior implementations formative years computer business division went several phases system v software groups beginning unix support group usg followed unix system development laboratory usdl followed information systems attis finally unix system laboratories usl 1980s early-1990s unix system v berkeley software distribution bsd two major version unix historically bsd also commonly called bsd unix berkeley unix eric s. raymond summarizes longstanding relationship rivalry system v bsd early period hp ibm others chose system v basis unix offerings vendors sun microsystems dec extended bsd throughout development though system v infused features bsd bsd variants dec ultrix received system v features sun microsystems worked together merge system v bsd-based sunos produce solaris one primary system v descendants still use today since early 1990s due standardization efforts posix commercial success linux division system v bsd become less important system v known inside bell labs unix 5.0 succeeded previous commercial unix called system iii january 1983 unix 4.0 never released externally would designated system iv first release system v called system v.0 system v release 1 svr1 developed unix support group usg based bell labs internal usg unix 5.0 system v also included features vi editor curses 4.1 bsd developed university california berkeley also improved performance adding buffer inode caches also added support inter-process communication using messages semaphores shared memory developed earlier bell-internal cb unix svr1 ran dec pdp-11 vax minicomputers unix support group usg transformed unix system development laboratory usdl released system v release 2 1984 svr2 added shell functions svid svr2.4 added demand paging copy-on-write shared memory record file locking concept porting base formalized dec vax-11/780 chosen release porting base so-called original version release porting efforts machines emanate educational source licenses svr2 offered us 800 first cpu 400 additional cpu commercial source license offered 43,000 three months support 16,000 price per additional cpu apple computer a/ux operating system initially based release sco xenix also used svr2 basis first release hp-ux also svr2 derivative maurice j. bach book design unix operating system definitive description svr2 kernel unix system development laboratory usdl succeeded information systems attis distributed unix system v release 3 1987 svr3 included streams remote file sharing rfs file system switch fss virtual file system mechanism restricted form shared libraries transport layer interface tli network api final version release 3.2 1988 added binary compatibility xenix intel platforms see intel binary compatibility standard user interface improvements included layers windowing system dmd 5620 graphics terminal svr3.2 curses libraries offered eight color pairs time important features forms panels menus etc. 3b2 became official porting base sco unix based upon svr3.2 isc 386/ix among obscure distributions svr3.2 386 esix 3.2 everex system v release 3.2 sold intel two shipped plain vanilla codebase ibm aix operating system svr3 derivative system v release 4.0 announced october 18 1988 incorporated variety commercial unix products early 1989 onwards joint project unix system laboratories sun microsystems combined technology new features included many companies licensed svr4 bundled computer systems workstations network servers svr4 systems vendors included atari atari system v commodore amiga unix data general dg/ux fujitsu uxp/ds hitachi hi-ux hewlett-packard hp-ux ncr unix/ns nec ews-ux up-ux ux/4800 super-ux oki oki system v pyramid technology dc/osx sgi irix siemens sinix sony news-os sumitomo electric industries seiux sun microsystems solaris illumos 2010s open-source platform software porting houses also sold enhanced supported intel x86 versions svr4 software vendors included dell dell unix everex esix micro station technology svr4 microport svr4 uhc svr4 primary platforms svr4 intel x86 sparc sparc version called solaris 2 internally sunos 5.x developed sun relationship sun terminated release svr4 meaning later versions solaris inherit features later svr4.x releases sun would 2005 release source code solaris 10 sunos 5.10 open-source opensolaris project creating forks open-source albeit heavily modified system v implementation available oracle took sun solaris forked proprietary release illumos continuation project developed open-source consortium intel-based resellers including unisys icl ncr corporation olivetti developed svr4.0mp multiprocessing capability allowing system calls processed processor interrupt servicing master processor release 4.1 es enhanced security added security features required orange book b2 compliance access control lists support dynamic loading kernel modules 1992 usl engaged joint venture novell called univel year saw release system v.4.2 univel unixware featuring veritas file system vendors included uhc consensys release 4.2mp completed late 1993 added support multiprocessing released unixware 2 1995 eric s. raymond warned prospective buyers svr4.2 versions often include on-line man pages 1994 buyers guide attributes change policy unix system laboratories santa cruz operation sco owners xenix eventually acquired unixware trademark distribution rights system v release 4.2 codebase novell vendors sun ibm hp continued use extend system v release 4 novell transferred ownership unix trademark open group operating system meets single unix specification sus effectively successor system v interface definition may granted unix rights sus met apple macos bsd derivative well several operating systems derived either bsd system v. system v release 5 developed 1997 santa cruz operation sco merger sco openserver svr3-derivative unixware focus large-scale servers released sco unixware 7 sco successor sco group also based sco openserver 6 svr5 codebase used major developer reseller system v release 6 announced sco released end 2004 apparently cancelled supposed support 64-bit systems industry coalesced around open group single unix specification version 3 unix 03 see also smallfoot 1980s 1990s variety svr4 versions unix available commercially x86 pc platform however market commercial unix pcs declined linux bsd became widely available late 1994 eric s. raymond discontinued pc-clone unix software buyer guide usenet stating reason dropping run linux longer find svr4 market interesting significant 1998 confidential memo microsoft stated linux track eventually x86 unix market predicted believe linux – moreso nt – biggest threat sco near future infoworld article 2001 characterized sco unixware bleak outlook due trounced market linux solaris idc predicted sco would continue see shrinking share market project monterey started 1998 combine major features existing commercial unix platforms joint project compaq ibm intel sco sequent computer systems target platform meant intel new ia-64 architecture itanium line processors however project abruptly canceled 2001 little progress 2001 several major unix variants sco unixware compaq tru64 unix sgi irix decline three major unix versions well market ibm aix hewlett-packard hp-ux sun solaris 2006 sgi declared bankruptcy analysts questioned whether linux would replace proprietary unix altogether 2006 article written computerworld mark hall economics linux cited major factor driving migration unix linux article also cites trends high-performance computing applications evidence dramatic shift unix linux november 2015 survey top 500 supercomputers unix used 1.2 running ibm aix linux used 98.8 survey november 2017 reports 100 using linux system v derivatives continued deployed proprietary server platforms principal variants system v remain commercial use aix ibm solaris oracle hp-ux hp according study done idc 2012 worldwide unix market divided ibm 56 oracle 19.2 hp 18.6 commercial unix vendor 2 market industry analysts generally characterize proprietary unix entered period slow permanent decline opensolaris derivatives svr4 descendants open-source software core system software continues developed illumos used illumos distributions smartos openindiana others system v interprocess communication mechanisms available unix-like operating systems derived system v particular linux reimplementation unix well bsd derivative freebsd posix 2008 specifies replacement interfaces freebsd maintains binary compatibility layer coff format allows freebsd execute binaries compiled svr3.2 derivatives sco unix interactive unix modern system v linux bsd platforms use elf file format natively compiled binaries 1-hop neighbor's text information: unix_system_iii.unix system iii unix system iii system 3 discontinued version unix operating system released unix support group usg announced system iii late 1981 first released outside bell labs 1982 unix system iii mix various unixes version 7 unix pwb/unix 2.0 cb unix 3.0 unix/rt unix/32v system iii supported dec pdp-11 vax computers system apparently called system iii considered outside release unix/ts 3.0.1 cb unix 3 internally supported bell labs unices manual refers unix release 3.0 unix versions called system system ii official release unix/ts 4.0 would system iv either system iii succeeded system v based unix/ts 5.0 system iii introduced new features named pipes uname system call command run queue also combined various improvements version 7 unix outside organizations however include notable additions made bsd c shell csh screen editing third-party variants system iii include early versions hp-ux irix is/3 pc/ix pc-ux pnx sinix venix xenix 1-hop neighbor's text information: a/ux.a/ux a/ux discontinued unix-based operating system apple computer custom integrated system 7 graphical interface application compatibility launched 1988 discontinued 1995 version 3.1.1 apple first official unix-based operating system a/ux requires select models 68k-based macintosh fpu paged memory management unit pmmu including macintosh ii se/30 quadra centris series predecessor macos variant unix currently bundled apple desktop computers described infoworld open systems solution macintosh heart operating system based unix system v release 2.2 includes additional features system v releases 3 4 bsd versions 4.2 4.3 posix system v interface definition svid compliant includes tcp/ip networking version 2 onward unix-compatible posix-compliant operating system made possible apple bid large contracts supply computers u.s. federal government institutes a/ux provides graphical user interface including familiar finder windows menus controls a/ux finder customized version system 7 finder adapted run unix process designed interact underlying unix file systems a/ux includes codice_1 terminal program offers command line interface underlying unix system x window system server application called macx terminal program also used interface system run x applications alongside finder alternatively user choose run fullscreen x11r4 session without finder apple compatibility layer allows a/ux run macintosh system 7.0.1 unix hybrid applications hybrid application uses functions macintosh toolbox unix system example run macintosh application calls unix system functions unix application calls macintosh toolbox functions quickdraw hypercard stack graphical frontend command-line unix application a/ux compatibility layer uses existing toolbox functions computer ’ rom function calls translated native unix system calls cooperatively multitasks macintosh apps single address space using token-passing system access toolbox a/ux includes utility called codice_2 similar tool name included macintosh programmer workshop assist users entering unix commands opening unix executable file finder opens dialog box allows user choose command-line options program using standard controls radio buttons check boxes display resulting command line argument user executing command program feature intended ease learning curve users new unix decrease user reliance unix manual a/ux utility allows user reformat third-party scsi drives way used macs era a/ux runs 68k-based macintoshes floating point unit fpu paged memory management unit pmmu even runs select models example quadra 840av apple fastest 68k macintosh run a/ux a/ux 1.0 announced february 1988 uniforum conference seven months behind schedule initially aimed existing unix customers universities vars. ref name= apple breaks unix market a/ux /ref system initially sold pre-installed macintosh ii although one could add larger monitor higher price purchase kit upgrading existing mac ii lower price third-party software announced system first release includes ingres database statview developer tools various productivity software packages based unix system v.2.2 additional features bsd unix networking support included tcp/ip appletalk nfs implementations developed unisoft base system gui running command line capable running single mac program time using system 6 interface although 10 existing mac software would run released 1989 a/ux 1.1 supplies basic gui system 6 finder chooser desk accessories control panels provisions unix x window system x11r3 gui draft 12 posix standard overall improved speed comparable low end sun workstation. ref name= a/ux release 1.1 supports x window /ref first posix compliant platform allowed apple join growing list industry heavyweights allowed us federal government burgeoning 6 billion bid market 1991 based aim alliance apple envisioned a/ux becoming basis drastically scaling concept macintosh system architecture application compatibility across computing industry personal enterprise markets apple formed new business division enterprise systems led director jim groff serve large businesses government higher education basing division upon maturing a/ux groff admitted apple major player unix market performed merely quiet marketing operating system fully intended become major player broad-based marketing objectives 1992 apple believed alliance ibm would merge a/ux aix system 7—thus ultimately scaling execution macintosh applications mac desktops ibm huge rs/6000 systems november 1991 apple launched a/ux 3.0 planning synchronize two ongoing release schedules a/ux system 7 time company also preannounced a/ux 4.0 expected release 1993 1994 announcement expounded upon historic technology partnership apple ibm expecting merge apple user-friendly graphical interface desktop applications market ibm highly scalable unix server market allowing two companies enter apple believed emerging general desktop open systems market upcoming a/ux 4.0 would target poweropen environment abi merge features ibm aix variant unix a/ux use osf/1 kernel open software foundation a/ux 3.0 would serve important migration path new system making unix system 7 applications compliant poweropen specification future a/ux 4.0 aix operating systems intended run variety ibm power powerpc hardware apple powerpc-based hardware april 1992 c2-level secure version a/ux released coincidentally aim alliance launched apple/ibm partner corporation taligent inc. one month earlier mission bringing pink market grandly universal operating system application framework contrary announcements apple eventually abandoned plans a/ux 4.0 never releasing product 1995 company withdrew taligent partnership poweropen discontinued 1996 discontinued two-year copland project intended become mac os 8 host taligent software 1996 1997 company deployed short-lived platform apple network server systems based upon powerpc hardware customized ibm aix operating system company overall failed operating system strategy left badly aged system 7 successor following apple 1996 acquisition next apple introduced 1999 mac os x server descendant unix-based nextstep operating system final release a/ux version 3.1.1 1995 apple abandoned a/ux platform completely 1996 a/ux 1.0 criticized 1988 infoworld review largely command-driven user interface unix variants rather graphical system 6 networking support praised though byte 1989 listed a/ux 1.1 among excellence winners byte awards stating could make unix multitasking operating system choice next decade challenge os/2 compared contemporary workstations unix vendors however macintosh hardware lacks features demand paging first two versions a/ux consequently suffer poor performance poor sales users also complained amount disk space uses standard macintosh though comparable unix system august 1992 issue infoworld author favorably reviewed a/ux 3.0 describing open systems solution macintosh heart apple finally gets unix right praised gui single-button point-and-click installer one year personal tech support graphical help dialogs user manuals saying a/ux defies stereotype unix difficult use easiest version unix learn list price much higher much weaker competing pc operating systems system 7 os/2 ms-dos windows 3.1 low compared prevailing proprietary unix licenses review found system speed acceptable great even fastest quadra 950 blaming software incomplete unix optimization found apple hardware though good value system price-performance ratio judged altogether uncompetitive sun sparcstation 2 reviewers thought unlikely users want buy macs run a/ux would awarded infoworld top score os proprietary macintosh hardware tony bove bove rhodes report generally complained f unix super-users compelling reason buy apple unix apple a/ux always way sell macs unix check-off item users a/ux requires specific raw hardware access execution a/ux within macintosh emulation software impossible 2014 introduction macintosh ii emulator named shoebill vintage a/ux users one central repository a/ux applications internet server nasa called jagubox administered jim jagielski also editor a/ux faq Target text information: system_v_interface_definition.system v interface definition system v interface definition svid standard describes unix system v behavior including system calls c libraries available programs devices first attempt standardizations document industry trade association /usr/group published standard 1984 based system iii system call additions bsd important effort early standardization unix period unix variants multiplying rapidly portability problematic best 1986 required conformance svid issue 2 vendors actually brand products system v r3 1990s however importance largely eclipsed posix single unix specification based part upon svid part reason undoubtedly vendor-independent approach see unix wars I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	1,595	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: sun_microsystems.sun microsystems sun microsystems inc. american company sold computers computer components software information technology services created java programming language solaris operating system zfs network file system nfs sparc sun contributed significantly evolution several key computing technologies among unix risc processors thin client computing virtualized computing sun founded february 24 1982 height sun headquarters santa clara california part silicon valley former west campus agnews developmental center april 20 2009 announced oracle corporation would acquire sun 7.4 billion deal completed january 27 2010 sun products included computer servers workstations built risc-based sparc processor architecture well x86-based amd opteron intel xeon processors sun also developed storage systems suite software products including solaris operating system developer tools web infrastructure software identity management applications technologies included java platform nfs general sun proponent open systems particularly unix also major contributor open-source software evidenced 1 billion purchase 2008 mysql open-source relational database management system various times sun manufacturing facilities several locations worldwide including newark california hillsboro oregon linlithgow scotland however time company acquired oracle outsourced manufacturing responsibilities initial design became sun first unix workstation sun-1 conceived andy bechtolsheim graduate student stanford university palo alto california bechtolsheim originally designed sun workstation stanford university network communications project personal cad workstation designed around motorola 68000 processor advanced memory management unit mmu support unix operating system virtual memory support built first ones spare parts obtained stanford department computer science silicon valley supply houses february 24 1982 scott mcnealy andy bechtolsheim vinod khosla stanford graduate students founded sun microsystems bill joy berkeley primary developer berkeley software distribution bsd joined soon counted one original founders sun name derived initials stanford university network sun profitable first quarter july 1982 1983 sun known producing 68k-based systems high-quality graphics computers dec vax run 4.2bsd licensed computer design manufacturers typically used build multibus-based systems running unix unisoft sun initial public offering 1986 stock symbol sunw sun workstations later sun worldwide symbol changed 2007 java sun stated brand awareness associated java platform better represented company current strategy sun logo features four interleaved copies word sun form rotationally symmetric ambigram designed professor vaughan pratt also stanford initial version logo orange sides oriented horizontally vertically subsequently rotated stand one corner re-colored purple later blue dot-com bubble sun began making much money shares rose dramatically also began spending much hiring workers building genuine demand much web start-up companies anticipating business would never happen 2000 bubble burst sales sun important hardware division went free-fall customers closed shop auctioned high-end servers several quarters steep losses led executive departures rounds layoffs cost cutting december 2001 stock fell 1998 pre-bubble level 100 kept falling faster many tech companies year later dipped 10 tenth even 1990 bounced back 20 mid-2004 sun closed newark california factory consolidated manufacturing hillsboro oregon 2006 rest newark campus put market 2004 sun canceled two major processor projects emphasized high instruction-level parallelism operating frequency instead company chose concentrate processors optimized multi-threading multiprocessing ultrasparc t1 processor codenamed niagara company also announced collaboration fujitsu use japanese company processor chips mid-range high-end sun servers servers announced april 17 2007 m-series part sparc enterprise series february 2005 sun announced sun grid grid computing deployment offered utility computing services priced us 1 per cpu/hour processing per gb/month storage offering built upon existing 3,000-cpu server farm used internal r 10 years sun marketed able achieve 97 utilization august 2005 first commercial use grid announced financial risk simulations later launched first software service product january 2005 sun reported net profit 19 million fiscal 2005 second quarter first time three years followed net loss 9 million gaap basis third quarter 2005 reported april 14 2005 january 2007 sun reported net gaap profit 126 million revenue 3.337 billion fiscal second quarter shortly following news announced kohlberg kravis roberts kkr would invest 700 million company sun engineering groups bangalore beijing dublin grenoble hamburg prague st. petersburg tel aviv tokyo trondheim 2007–2008 sun posted revenue 13.8 billion 2 billion cash first-quarter 2008 losses 1.68 billion revenue fell 7 12.99 billion sun stock lost 80 value november 2007 november 2008 reducing company market value 3 billion falling sales large corporate clients sun announced plans lay 5,000 6,000 workers 15–18 work force expected save 700 million 800 million year result moves also taking 600 million charges may 11 2009 following shareholders held 100,000 common shares sun 9.50 per share offered oracle received amounts indicated acquisition closed first decade sun history company positioned products technical workstations competing successfully low-cost vendor workstation wars 1980s shifted hardware product line emphasize servers storage high-level telecom control systems operational support systems service predominantly used sun equipment sun originally used motorola 68000 family central processing units sun-1 sun-3 computer series sun-1 employed 68000 cpu sun-2 series 68010 sun-3 series based 68020 later sun-3x using 68030 1987 company began using sparc risc processor architecture design computer systems starting sun-4 line sparc initially 32-bit architecture sparc v7 introduction sparc v9 architecture 1995 added 64-bit extensions sun developed several generations sparc-based computer systems including sparcstation ultra sun blade series workstations sparcserver netra enterprise sun fire line servers early 1990s company began extend product line include large-scale symmetric multiprocessing servers starting four-processor sparcserver 600mp followed 8-processor sparcserver 1000 20-processor sparccenter 2000 based work done conjunction xerox parc 1995 company introduced sun ultra series machines equipped first 64-bit implementation sparc processors ultrasparc late 1990s transformation product line favor large 64-bit smp systems accelerated acquisition cray business systems division silicon graphics 32-bit 64-processor cray superserver 6400 related sparccenter led 64-bit sun enterprise 10000 high-end server otherwise known starfire september 2004 sun made available systems ultrasparc iv first multi-core sparc processor followed ultrasparc iv+ september 2005 revisions higher clock speeds 2007 cpus used powerful enterprise class high-end cc-numa servers developed sun sun fire e25k november 2005 sun launched ultrasparc t1 notable ability concurrently run 32 threads execution 8 processor cores intent drive efficient use cpu resources particular importance data centers increasing need reduce power air conditioning demands much comes heat generated cpus t1 followed 2007 ultrasparc t2 extended number threads per core 4 8 sun open sourced design specifications t1 t2 processors via opensparc project 2006 sun ventured blade server high density rack-mounted systems market sun blade distinct sun blade workstation april 2007 sun released sparc enterprise server products jointly designed sun fujitsu based fujitsu sparc64 vi later processors m-class sparc enterprise systems include high-end reliability availability features later t-series servers also badged sparc enterprise rather sun fire april 2008 sun released servers ultrasparc t2 plus smp capable version ultrasparc t2 available 2 4 processor configurations first coolthreads cpu multi-processor capability made possible build standard rack-mounted servers could simultaneously process massive 256 cpu threads hardware sun sparc enterprise t5440 considered record industry since 2010 development sun machines based sparc architecture including new sparc t-series servers sparc t3 t4 chips done part oracle corporation hardware division late 1980s sun also marketed intel 80386-based machine sun386i designed hybrid system running sunos time supporting dos applications remained market brief time follow-up 486i upgrade announced prototype units ever manufactured sun brief first foray x86 systems ended early 1990s decided concentrate sparc retire last motorola systems 386i products move dubbed mcnealy wood behind one arrowhead even sun kept hand x86 world release solaris pc compatibles began shipping 1993 1997 sun acquired diba inc. followed later acquisition cobalt networks 2000 aim building network appliances single function computers meant consumers sun also marketed network computer term popularized eventually trademarked oracle javastation diskless system designed run java applications although none business initiatives particularly successful cobalt purchase gave sun toehold return x86 hardware market 2002 sun introduced first general purpose x86 system lx50 based part previous cobalt system expertise also sun first system announced support linux well solaris 2003 sun announced strategic alliance amd produce x86/x64 servers based amd opteron processor followed shortly sun acquisition kealia startup founded original sun founder andy bechtolsheim focusing high-performance amd-based servers following year sun launched opteron-based sun fire v20z v40z servers java workstation w1100z w2100z workstations september 12 2005 sun unveiled new range opteron-based servers sun fire x2100 x4100 x4200 servers designed scratch team led bechtolsheim address heat power consumption issues commonly faced data centers july 2006 sun fire x4500 x4600 systems introduced extending line x64 systems support solaris also linux microsoft windows january 22 2007 sun announced broad strategic alliance intel intel endorsed solaris mainstream operating system mission critical unix xeon processor-based systems contributed engineering resources opensolaris sun began using intel xeon processor x64 server line starting sun blade x6250 server module introduced june 2007 may 5 2008 amd announced operating system research center osrc expanded focus include optimization sun opensolaris xvm virtualization products amd based processors although sun initially known hardware company software history began founding 1982 co-founder bill joy one leading unix developers time contributed vi editor c shell significant work developing tcp/ip bsd unix os sun later developed software java programming language acquired software staroffice virtualbox mysql sun used community-based open-source licensing major technologies support products open source technologies gnome-based desktop software called java desktop system originally code-named madhatter distributed solaris operating system one point linux sun supported java enterprise system middleware stack linux released source code solaris open-source common development distribution license via opensolaris community sun positioning includes commitment indemnify users software intellectual property disputes concerning software offers support services variety pricing bases including per-employee per-socket 2006 report prepared eu unu-merit stated sun largest corporate contributor open source movements world according report sun open source contributions exceed combined total next five largest commercial contributors sun best known unix systems reputation system stability consistent design philosophy sun first workstation shipped unisoft v7 unix later 1982 sun began providing sunos customized 4.1bsd unix operating system workstations late 1980s tapped sun help develop next release branded unix 1988 announced would purchase 20 stake sun unix system v release 4 svr4 jointly developed sun sun used svr4 foundation solaris 2.x became successor sunos 4.1.x later retrospectively named solaris 1.x mid-1990s ensuing unix wars largely subsided sold unix interests relationship two companies significantly reduced 1992 sun also sold interactive unix operating system acquired bought interactive systems corporation eastman kodak company popular unix variant pc platform major competitor market leader sco unix sun focus interactive unix diminished favor solaris sparc x86 systems dropped product 2001 sun dropped solaris 2.x version numbering scheme solaris 2.6 release 1997 following version branded solaris 7 first 64-bit release intended new ultrasparc cpus based sparc v9 architecture within next four years successors solaris 8 solaris 9 released 2000 2002 respectively following several years difficult competition loss server market share competitors linux-based systems sun began include linux part strategy 2002 sun supported red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server x64 systems companies canonical ltd. wind river systems montavista also supported versions linux sun sparc-based systems 2004 cultivated reputation one microsoft vocal antagonists sun entered joint relationship resolving various legal entanglements two companies receiving us 1.95 billion settlement payments sun supported microsoft windows x64 systems announced collaborative agreements microsoft including plans support virtualization environments 2005 company released solaris 10 new version included large number enhancements operating system well novel features previously unseen industry solaris 10 update releases continued next 8 years last release sun microsystems solaris 10 10/09 following updates released oracle new license agreement final release solaris 10 1/13 previously sun offered separate variant solaris called trusted solaris included augmented security features multilevel security least privilege access model solaris 10 included many capabilities trusted solaris time initial release solaris 10 11/06 included solaris trusted extensions give remaining capabilities needed make functional successor trusted solaris releasing solaris 10 source code opened cddl free software license developed open contributing opensolaris community sxce used svr4 .pkg packaging supported opensolaris releases used ips following acquisition sun oracle opensolaris continued develop open illumos illumos distributions oracle corporation continued develop opensolaris next solaris release changing back license proprietary released oracle solaris 11 november 2011 java platform developed sun james gosling early 1990s objective allowing programs function regardless device used sparking slogan write run anywhere wora objective entirely achieved prompting riposte write debug everywhere java regarded largely hardware- operating system-independent java initially promoted platform client-side applets running inside web browsers early examples java applications hotjava web browser hotjava views suite however since java successful server side internet platform consists three major parts java programming language java virtual machine jvm several java application programming interfaces apis design java platform controlled vendor user community java community process jcp java object-oriented programming language since introduction late 1995 became one world popular programming languages java programs compiled byte code executed jvm regardless environment java apis provide extensive set library routines apis evolved standard edition java se provides basic infrastructure gui functionality enterprise edition java ee aimed large software companies implementing enterprise-class application servers micro edition java used build software devices limited resources mobile devices november 13 2006 sun announced would licensing java implementation gnu general public license released java compiler jvm time february 2009 sun entered battle microsoft adobe systems promoted rival platforms build software applications internet javafx development platform music video applications builds java programming language 1999 sun acquired german software company star division office suite staroffice sun later released openoffice.org gnu lgpl sissl sun industry standards source license openoffice.org supported microsoft office file formats though perfectly available many platforms primarily linux microsoft windows mac os x solaris used open source community principal differences staroffice openoffice.org staroffice supported sun available either single-user retail box kit per-user blocks licensing enterprise included wider range fonts document templates commercial quality spellchecker staroffice also contained commercially licensed functions add-ons openoffice.org either replaced open-source free variants present packages native support opendocument format 2007 sun announced sun xvm virtualization datacenter automation product suite commodity hardware sun also acquired virtualbox 2008 earlier virtualization technologies sun like dynamic system domains dynamic reconfiguration specifically designed high-end sparc servers logical domains supports ultrasparc t1/t2/t2 plus server platforms sun marketed sun ops center provisioning software datacenter automation client side sun offered virtual desktop solutions desktop environments applications could hosted datacenter users accessing environments wide range client devices including microsoft windows pcs sun ray virtual display clients apple macintoshes pdas combination supported devices variety networks supported lan wan public internet virtual desktop products included sun ray server software sun secure global desktop sun virtual desktop infrastructure sun acquired mysql ab developer mysql database 2008 us 1 billion ceo jonathan schwartz mentioned blog optimizing performance mysql one priorities acquisition february 2008 sun began publish results mysql performance optimization work sun contributed postgresql project java platform sun contributed supported java db sun offered software products software development infrastructure services many developed house others came acquisitions including tarantella waveset technologies seebeyond vaau sun acquired many netscape non-browser software products part deal involving netscape merger aol software products initially offered iplanet brand sun-netscape alliance ended re-branded sun one sun open network environment sun java system sun middleware product branded java enterprise system jes marketed web application serving communication calendaring directory identity management service-oriented architecture sun open esb software suites available free charge systems running solaris red hat enterprise linux hp-ux windows support available optionally sun developed data center management software products included solaris cluster high availability software grid management package called sun grid engine firewall software sunscreen network equipment providers telecommunications customers sun developed sun netra high-availability suite sun produced compilers development tools sun studio brand building developing solaris linux applications sun entered software service saas market zembly social cloud-based computing platform project kenai open-source project hosting service sun sold storage systems complement system offerings also made several storage-related acquisitions june 2 2005 sun announced would purchase storage technology corporation storagetek us 4.1 billion cash 37.00 per share deal completed august 2005 2006 sun introduced sun storagetek 5800 system first application-aware programmable storage solution 2008 sun contributed source code storagetek 5800 system bsd license sun announced sun open storage platform 2008 built open source technologies late 2008 sun announced sun storage 7000 unified storage systems codenamed amber road transparent placement data systems solid-state drives ssd conventional hard drives managed zfs take advantage speed ssds economy conventional hard disks storage products included sun fire x4500 storage server sam-qfs filesystem storage management software sun marketed sun constellation system high-performance computing hpc even introduction sun constellation system 2007 sun products use many top500 systems supercomputing centers sun hpc clustertools product set message passing interface mpi libraries tools running parallel jobs solaris hpc clusters beginning version 7.0 sun switched implementation mpi open mpi donated engineering resources open mpi project sun participant openmp language committee sun studio compilers tools implemented openmp specification shared memory parallelization 2006 sun built tsubame supercomputer june 2008 fastest supercomputer asia sun built ranger texas advanced computing center tacc 2007 ranger peak performance 500 tflops 6th powerful supercomputer top500 list november 2008 sun announced opensolaris distribution integrated sun hpc products others notable sun employees included john gilmore whitfield diffie radia perlman marc tremblay sun early advocate unix-based networked computing promoting tcp/ip especially nfs reflected company motto network computer coined john gage james gosling led team developed java programming language jon bosak led creation xml specification w3c sun staff published articles company blog site staff encouraged use site blog aspect work personal life restrictions placed staff commercially confidential material jonathan i. schwartz one first ceos large companies regularly blog postings frequently quoted analyzed press 2005 sun microsystems one first fortune 500 companies instituted formal social media program sun sold oracle corporation 2009 5.6b sun staff asked share anecdotes experiences sun web site containing videos stories photographs 27 years sun made available september 2 2009 october sun announced second round thousands employees laid blamed partially delays approval merger transaction completed early 2010 january 2011 oracle agreed pay 46 million settle charges submitted false claims us federal government agencies paid kickbacks systems integrators february 2011 sun former menlo park california campus sold announced would become headquarters facebook sprawling facility built around enclosed courtyard nicknamed sun quentin september 1 2011 sun india legally became part oracle delayed due legal issues indian court 1-hop neighbor's text information: sparcstation_20.sparcstation 20 sparcstation 20 a.k.a ss20 codename kodiak discontinued sun microsystems workstation based supersparc hypersparc cpu last model sparcstation family sun pizza box computers superseded ultrasparc design 1995 sparcstation 20 dual 50 mhz mbus ports allow use faster cpus sparcstation 10 two dual-cpu modules updated firmware sparcstation 20 supports maximum 4 cpus fastest cpu produced sparcstation 20 200 mhz ross hypersparc prom sparcstation 20 determines cpu compatibility version 2.25r last prom release sparcstation 20 sparcstation 20 8 200-pin dsimm slots supports maximum 512 mb memory 64 mb modules memory modules sparcstation 20 compatible sparcstation 10 sun ultra 1 computers sun4m sun4u families physically incompatible simm slots found pc computers 2 8 simm slots wider others used non-memory peripherals like caching nvsimm video vsimm cards sparcstation 20 two internal sca bays external scsi connector two bays cd-rom floppy drives earlier revisions sparcstation20 case contain cd-rom floppy bays slightly shorter standard 3.5 bay regular devices intended pc compatible computers usually fit later revisions sparcstation20 sparcstation5 narrower slot floppy drive more-standard cd-rom fit scsi host controller integrated motherboard sparcstation 20 support ide devices limitation releases openboot prom sparcstation 20 prevents booting point disk past 2 gigabyte mark sparcstation 20 one integrated amd lance 10baset ethernet interface additional ethernet interfaces added sbus card sparcstation 20 built 13w3 video socket driven optional sx cg14 framebuffer built onto vsimm vsimm available 4mb 8mb capacity capable 1280x1024 8mb 1152x900 4mb 24-bit color two vsimms installed auxiliary video board must also installed provide second 13w3 video socket alternatively sbus cards used including zx leo turbo gx cg6 others sparcstation 20 integrated sound 4 standard 3.5 mm audio jacks headphones microphone line line sparcstation 20 uses battery-backed nvram module hold data system host id serial number mac address battery chip dies nvram module must replaced modified use external battery nvram must reprogrammed mac address host id optionally m48t08-100pc1 used sunos 4.1.3_u1b onwards solaris 2.3 9 linux debian gentoo suse 7.0 7.3 probably others miros bsd netbsd openbsd run sparcstation 20 certain cpu modules sun supersparc nextstep 3.3 openstep 4.x also run 1-hop neighbor's text information: java_virtual_machine.java virtual machine java virtual machine jvm virtual machine enables computer run java programs well programs written languages also compiled java bytecode jvm detailed specification formally describes required jvm implementation specification ensures interoperability java programs across different implementations program authors using java development kit jdk need worry idiosyncrasies underlying hardware platform jvm reference implementation developed openjdk project open source code includes jit compiler called hotspot commercially supported java releases available oracle corporation based openjdk runtime eclipse openj9 another open source jvm openjdk java virtual machine abstract virtual computer defined specification garbage-collection algorithm used internal optimization java virtual machine instructions translation machine code specified main reason omission unnecessarily constrain implementers java application run inside concrete implementation abstract specification java virtual machine starting java platform standard edition j2se 5.0 changes jvm specification developed java community process jsr 924. changes specification support changes proposed class file format jsr 202 done maintenance release jsr 924 specification jvm published blue book preface states one oracle jvms named hotspot inherited bea systems jrockit clean-room java implementations include kaffe openj9 skelmir cee-j oracle owns java trademark may allow use certify implementation suites fully compatible oracle specification one organizational units jvm byte code class class loader implementation must able recognize load anything conforms java class file format implementation free recognize binary forms besides class files must recognize class files class loader performs three basic activities strict order general two types class loader bootstrap class loader user defined class loader every java virtual machine implementation must bootstrap class loader capable loading trusted classes java virtual machine specification n't specify class loader locate classes jvm operates primitive values integers floating-point numbers references jvm fundamentally 32-bit machine codice_1 codice_2 types 64-bits supported natively consume two units storage frame local variables operand stack since unit 32 bits codice_3 codice_4 codice_5 codice_6 types sign-extended except codice_6 zero-extended operated 32-bit integers codice_8 types smaller types type-specific instructions loading storing type conversion codice_3 operated 8-bit codice_4 values 0 representing codice_11 1 representing codice_12 although codice_3 treated type since java virtual machine specification second edition clarified issue compiled executed code little difference codice_3 codice_4 except name mangling method signatures type boolean arrays codice_3s method signatures mangled codice_17 codice_4s mangled codice_19 boolean arrays carry type codice_20 use 8 bits per element jvm built-in capability pack booleans bit array except type perform behave codice_4 arrays uses codice_3 type effectively unknown jvm instructions operate booleans also used operate codice_4s jvm garbage-collected heap storing objects arrays code constants class data stored method area method area logically part heap implementations may treat method area separately heap example might garbage collect jvm thread also call stack called java virtual machine stack clarity stores frames new frame created time method called frame destroyed method exits frame provides operand stack array local variables operand stack used operands computations receiving return value called method local variables serve purpose registers also used pass method arguments thus jvm stack machine register machine jvm instructions following groups tasks aim binary compatibility particular host operating system needs implementation jvm runtime jvms interpret bytecode semantically way actual implementation may different complex emulating bytecode compatibly efficiently implementing java core api must mapped host operating system instructions operate set common rather native data types specific instruction set architecture jvm language language functionality expressed terms valid class file hosted java virtual machine class file contains java virtual machine instructions java byte code symbol table well ancillary information class file format hardware- operating system-independent binary format used represent compiled classes interfaces several jvm languages old languages ported jvm completely new languages jruby jython perhaps well-known ports existing languages i.e ruby python respectively new languages created scratch compile java bytecode clojure apache groovy scala kotlin may popular ones notable feature jvm languages compatible example scala libraries used java programs vice versa java 7 jvm implements jsr 292 supporting dynamically typed languages java platform new feature supports dynamically typed languages jvm feature developed within da vinci machine project whose mission extend jvm supports languages java basic philosophy java inherently safe standpoint user program crash host machine otherwise interfere inappropriately operations host machine possible protect certain methods data structures belonging trusted code access corruption untrusted code executing within jvm furthermore common programmer errors often led data corruption unpredictable behavior accessing end array using uninitialized pointer allowed occur several features java combine provide safety including class model garbage-collected heap verifier jvm verifies bytecode executed verification consists primarily three types checks first two checks take place primarily verification step occurs class loaded made eligible use third primarily performed dynamically data items methods class first accessed another class verifier permits bytecode sequences valid programs e.g jump branch instruction target instruction within method furthermore verifier ensures given instruction operates fixed stack location allowing jit compiler transform stack accesses fixed register accesses jvm stack architecture imply speed penalty emulation register-based architectures using jit compiler face code-verified jvm architecture makes difference jit compiler whether gets named imaginary registers imaginary stack positions must allocated target architecture registers fact code verification makes jvm different classic stack architecture efficient emulation jit compiler complicated typically carried slower interpreter original specification bytecode verifier used natural language incomplete incorrect respects number attempts made specify jvm formal system security current jvm implementations thoroughly analyzed potential security exploits prevented also possible optimize jvm skipping unnecessary safety checks application run proven safe virtual machine architecture allows fine-grained control actions code within machine permitted take assumes code semantically correct successfully passed formal bytecode verifier process materialized tool possibly off-board virtual machine designed allow safe execution untrusted code remote sources model used java applets secure code downloads bytecode-verified downloaded code runs restricted sandbox designed protect user misbehaving malicious code addition bytecode verification process publishers purchase certificate digitally sign applets safe giving permission ask user break sandbox access local file system clipboard execute external pieces software network formal proof bytecode verifiers done javacard industry formal development embedded verifier java card byte code hardware architecture different java bytecode interpreter needed computer java bytecode interpreter run java bytecode program program run computer interpreter java bytecode executed interpreter execution always slower execution program compiled native machine language problem mitigated just-in-time jit compilers executing java bytecode jit compiler may translate java bytecode native machine language executing program translated parts program executed much quickly could interpreted technique gets applied parts program frequently executed way jit compiler significantly speed overall execution time necessary connection java programming language java bytecode program written java compiled directly machine language real computer programs written languages java compiled java bytecode java bytecode intended platform-independent secure jvm implementations include interpreter consist just-in-time compiler start java platform lifetime jvm marketed web technology creating rich internet applications web browsers operating systems bundling web browsers ship java plug-in permit side-loading non-flash plug-in java browser plugin deprecated jdk 9 npapi java browser plug-in designed allow jvm execute so-called java applets embedded html pages browsers plug-in installed applet allowed draw rectangular region page assigned plug-in includes jvm java applets restricted java programming language language targeting jvm may run plug-in restricted set apis allow applets access user microphone 3d acceleration although applets able modify page outside rectangular region adobe flash player main competing technology works way respect may 2016 javapoly allows users import unmodified java libraries invoke directly javascript javapoly allows websites use unmodified java libraries even user java installed computer continuing improvements javascript execution speed combined increased use mobile devices whose web browsers implement support plugins efforts target users compilation javascript possible either compile source code jvm bytecode javascript compiling jvm bytecode universal across jvm languages allows building upon language existing compiler bytecode main jvm bytecode javascript compilers teavm compiler contained dragome web sdk bck2brwsr j2js-compiler leading compilers jvm languages javascript include java-to-javascript compiler contained google web toolkit clojurescript clojure grooscript apache groovy scala.js scala others java runtime environment jre released oracle freely available software distribution containing stand-alone jvm hotspot java standard library java class library configuration tool and—until discontinuation jdk 9—a browser plug-in common java environment installed personal computers laptop desktop form factor mobile phones including feature phones early smartphones ship jvm likely include jvm meant run applications targeting micro edition java platform meanwhile modern smartphones tablet computers handheld pcs run java apps likely support android operating system includes open source virtual machine incompatible jvm specification instead google android development tools take java programs input output dalvik bytecode native input format virtual machine android devices jvm specification gives lot leeway implementors regarding implementation details since java 1.3 jre oracle contains jvm called hotspot designed high-performance jvm speed-up code execution hotspot relies just-in-time compilation speed-up object allocation garbage collection hotspot uses generational heap java virtual machine heap area memory used jvm dynamic memory allocation hotspot heap divided generations permanent generation permgen used class definitions associated metadata prior java 8 permanent generation part heap permanent generation removed java 8 originally permanent generation objects classes stored together area class unloading occurs much rarely objects collected moving class structures specific area allowed significant performance improvements oracle jre installed large number computers end users out-of-date version jre therefore vulnerable many known attacks led widely shared belief java inherently insecure since java 1.7 oracle jre windows includes automatic update functionality discontinuation java browser plug-in web page might potentially run java applet provided easily accessible attack surface malicious web sites 2013 kaspersky labs reported java plug-in method choice computer criminals java exploits included many exploit packs hackers deploy onto hacked web sites java applet removed java 11 launched september 25th 2018 Target text information: sun_enterprise.sun enterprise sun enterprise range unix server computers produced sun microsystems 1996 2001 line launched sun ultra enterprise series ultra prefix dropped around 1998 systems based 64-bit ultrasparc microprocessor architecture related contemporary ultra series computer workstations like ultra series run solaris various models single-processor entry-level servers large high-end multiprocessor servers produced enterprise brand phased favor sun fire model line 2001 onwards first ultrasparc-i-based servers produced sun launched 1995 ultraserver 1 ultraserver 2 server configurations ultra 1 ultra 2 workstations respectively later renamed ultra enterprise 1 ultra enterprise 2 consistency server models later joined ultra enterprise 150 comprises ultra 1 motherboard tower-style enclosure 12 internal disk bays 1998 sun launched server configurations ultrasparc-iii-based ultra 5 ultra 10 workstations called enterprise ultra 5s enterprise ultra 10s respectively sun enterprise 450 rack-mountable entry-level multiprocessor server launched 1997 capable four ultrasparc ii processors sun enterprise 250 two-processor version launched 1998 later joined enterprise 220r enterprise 420r rack-mount servers 1999 220r 420r models respectively based motherboards ultra 60 ultra 80 workstations 250 replaced sun fire v250 450 sun fire v880 220r superseded sun fire 280r 420r sun fire v480 1996 sun replaced sparcserver 1000e sparccenter 2000e models ultra enterprise 3000 4000 5000 6000 servers multiprocessor servers based common hardware architecture incorporating gigaplane packet-switched processor/memory bus ultrasparc-i ii processors high availability fault-tolerance features included x000 systems intended mission-critical applications 3000 model deskside server configurable six processors 10 internal disks 4000 rack-mount system 14 processors 5000 essentially 4000 rack cabinet 6000 cabinet-housed data center server 30 processors 1999 enterprise 3500 4500 5500 6500 models announced upgraded x000 systems faster gigaplane bus 100 mhz depending processor clock speed compared 83 mhz 3500 also differs 3000 additional gigaplane slot resulting increased maximum eight processors enterprise x500 series replaced sun fire 3800/4800/6800 line enterprise 10000 e10k starfire development code name also used marketing purposes high-end multiprocessor data center server capable configured 64 ultrasparc ii processors largely designed cray research business systems division successor cray superserver 6400 related sun earlier sun-4d architecture servers cray acquired silicon graphics 1996 division sold sun launched starfire ultra enterprise 10000 1997 starfire based around fault-tolerant gigaplane-xb processor/memory interconnect like x000 x500 series servers starfire incorporates many high-availability features including ability partitioned multiple domains booted individually run instance solaris also possible remove resources running domain short notice reassign freed resources domains domain granularity one cpu board single system may 1-16 single cpu board carry 4 processors 4gb ram 4 sbus io boards rare option replace 4 sbus boards dual pci boards starfire first server vendor exceed 2000 tpc-d 300 gb benchmark starfire systems used number high-profile customers dot-com boom notably ebay typically sold well 1 million fully configured system starfire contains one two controller modules connected via ethernet external computer system service processor ssp controller modules interface system centerplane via jtag control partitioning available cpus memory i/o devices one domains effect distinct computer system partitioned booted without original ssp contains encrypted keys issued manufacturer e10k preserved computer history museum mountain view starfire superseded sun fire 12k/15k models I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	3,247	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: compiler-compiler.compiler-compiler computer science compiler-compiler compiler generator programming tool creates parser interpreter compiler form formal description programming language machine common type compiler-compiler precisely called parser generator handles syntactic analysis input grammar typically written bnf ebnf defines syntax programming language output source code parser programming language parser generators handle semantics programming language generation machine code target machine metacompiler software development tool used chiefly construction compilers translators interpreters programming languages input metacompiler computer program written specialized programming metalanguage designed chiefly purpose constructing compilers language compiler produced called object language minimal input producing compiler metaprogram specifying object language grammar semantic transformations object program typical parser generator associates executable code rules grammar executed rules applied parser pieces code sometimes referred semantic action routines since define semantics syntactic structure analyzed parser depending upon type parser generated routines may construct parse tree abstract syntax tree generate executable code directly one earliest 1964 surprisingly powerful versions compiler-compilers meta ii accepted analytical grammar output facilities produce stack machine code able compile languages experimental compiler-compilers take input formal description programming language semantics typically using denotational semantics approach often called 'semantics-based compiling pioneered peter mosses semantic implementation system sis 1978 however generated compiler code produced inefficient time space production compilers currently built way research continues production quality compiler-compiler project carnegie-mellon university formalize semantics semi-formal framework machine description compiler-compilers exist many flavors including bottom-up rewrite machine generators see jburg used tile syntax trees according rewrite grammar code generation attribute grammar parser generators e.g antlr used simultaneous type checking constant propagation parsing stage metacompilers reduce task writing compilers automating aspects regardless object language makes possible design domain-specific languages appropriate specification particular problem metacompiler reduces cost producing translators domain-specific object languages point becomes economically feasible include solution problem domain-specific language design metacompiler metalanguage powerful string symbol processing languages also useful generating wide range software engineering analysis tools besides useful domain-specific language development metacompiler prime example domain-specific language designed domain compiler writing metacompiler metaprogram usually written metalanguage existing computer programming language process metacompiler written metalanguage compiling equivalent self-hosting compiler common compilers written today self-hosting compilers self-hosting powerful tool many metacompilers allowing easy extension metaprogramming metalanguage feature separates metacompiler apart compiler compilers takes input specialized metaprogramming language describes aspects compilers operation metaprogram produced metacompiler complete program program written c++ basic general programming language metaprogramming metalanguage powerful attribute allowing ease development computer programming languages computer tools command line processors text string transforming analysis easily coded using metaprogramming metalanguages metacompilers full featured development package includes linker run-time support library usually machine oriented language required writing support library c c++ could used machine oriented language library consisting support functions required compilation process usually rounds full metacompiler package computer science prefix meta commonly used mean category metadata data data describing data language used describe languages metalanguage meta may also mean higher level abstraction metalanguage operates higher level abstraction order describe properties language backus–naur form bnf formal metalanguage originally used define algol 60 bnf weak metalanguage describes syntax says nothing semantics meaning metaprogramming writing computer programs ability treat programs data metacompiler takes input metaprogram written specialized metalanguages higher level abstraction specifically designed purpose metaprogramming output executable object program analogy drawn c++ compiler takes input c++ programming language program metacompiler takes input metaprogramming metalanguage program many forth advocates call process creating new implementation forth meta-compilation constitutes metacompiler forth definition metacompiler forth use metacompiler disputed mainstream computer science see forth programming language history compiler construction actual forth process compiling combination forth self-hosting extensible programming language sometimes cross compilation long established terminology computer science metacompilers general compiler writing system besides forth metacompiler concept indistinguishable self-hosting extensible language actual process acts lower level defining minimum subset forth words used define additional forth words full forth implementation defined base set sounds like bootstrap process problem almost every general purpose language compiler also fits forth metacompiler description replace x common language c c++ pascal cobol fortran ada modula-2 etc x would meta compiler according forth usage metacompiler metacompiler operates abstraction level compiler compiles operates self-hosting compiler level compiling one see problem definition metacompiler applied language however examining concept programming forth adding new words dictionary extending language way metaprogramming metaprogramming forth makes metacompiler programming forth adding new words language changing language way metaprogramming forth metacompiler forth language specifically designed metaprogramming programming forth extending forth adding words forth vocabulary creates new forth dialect forth specialized metacompiler forth language dialects first compiler-compiler use name written tony brooker 1960 used create compilers atlas computer university manchester including atlas autocode compiler early history metacompilers closely tied history sig/plan working group 1 syntax driven compilers group started primarily effort howard metcalfe los angeles area fall 1962 howard metcalfe designed two compiler-writing interpreters one used bottom-to-top analysis technique based method described ledley wilson used top-to-bottom approach based work glennie generate random english sentences context-free grammar time val schorre described two meta machines one generative one analytic generative machine implemented produced random algebraic expressions meta first metacompiler implemented schorre ibm 1401 ucla january 1963 original interpreters metamachines written directly pseudo-machine language meta ii however written higher-level metalanguage able describe compilation pseudo-machine language lee schmidt bolt beranek newman wrote metacompiler march 1963 utilized crt display time-sharing pdp-l compiler produced actual machine code rather interpretive code partially bootstrapped meta i. schorre bootstrapped meta ii meta spring 1963 paper refined metacompiler system presented 1964 philadelphia acm conference first paper metacompiler available general reference syntax implementation technique schorre system laid foundation systems followed system implemented small 1401 used implement small algol-like language many similar systems immediately followed roger rutman a. c. sparkplug developed implemented logik language logical design simulation ibm 7090 january 1964 compiler used algorithm produced efficient code boolean expressions another paper 1964 acm proceedings describes meta iii developed schneider johnson ucla ibm 7090 meta iii represents attempt produce efficient machine code large class languages meta iii implemented completely assembly language two compilers written meta iii codol compiler-writing demonstration compiler puregol dialect algol 60 pure gall call algol late 1964 lee schmidt bootstrapped metacompiler eqgen pdp-l beckman 420 eqgen logic equation generating language 1964 system development corporation began major effort development metacompilers effort includes powerful metacompilers bookl book2 written lisp extensive tree-searching backup capability outgrowth one q-32 systems sdc meta 5 meta 5 system incorporates backup input stream enough facilities parse context-sensitive language system successfully released wide number users many string-manipulation applications compiling many elaborate push-down stacks attribute setting testing facilities output mechanisms fact meta 5 successfully translates jovial programs pl/l programs clearly demonstrates power flexibility lot system developed 1966 stanford research institute modeled closely meta ii new special-purpose constructs allowing generate compiler would turn able compile subset pl/l system extensive statistic-gathering facilities used study characteristics top-down analysis simple specialized translator system designed aid writing pre-processors pl/i simple written pl/i composed three components executive syntax analyzer semantic constructor tree meta compiler developed stanford research institute menlo park california april 1968 early metacompiler history well documented tree meta manual tree meta paralleled sdc developments unlike earlier metacompilers separated semantics processing syntax processing syntax rules contained tree building operations combined recognized language elements tree nodes tree structure representation input processed simple form unparse rules unparse rules used node recognition attribute testing matched resulted associated action performed addition like tree element could also tested unparse rule unparse rules also recursive language able call unparse rules passing elements thee tree action unparse rule performed concept metarnachine originally put forth glennie simple three hardware versions designed one actually implemented latter washington university st. louis machine built macro-modular components instructions codes described schorre cwic compiler writing implementing compilers last known schorre metacompiler developed systems development corporation erwin book dewey val schorre steven j. sherman full power lisp 2 list processing language optimizing algorithms could operate syntax generated lists trees code generation cwic also symbol table built language resurgence domain-specific languages need parser generators easy use easy understand easy maintain metacompilers becoming valuable tool advanced software engineering projects examples parser generators yacc vein antlr coco/r cup gnu bison eli fsl sablecc sid syntax improving device javacc useful pure parser generators address parsing part problem building compiler tools broader scope pqcc coco/r dms software reengineering toolkit provide considerable support difficult post-parsing activities semantic analysis code optimization generation earliest schorre metacompilers meta meta ii developed d. val schorre ucla schorre based metacompilers followed adding improvements language analysis and/or code generation programming common use programming language name refer compiler programming language context distinguishing meaning c++ program compiled using c++ compiler also applies following example meta ii compiler language metalanguages schorre line metacompilers functional programming languages use top grammar analyzing syntax equations embedded output transformation constructs syntax equation compiled test function returning success failure name function name body form logical expression consisting tests may grouped alternates output productions test like bool languages success true failure false defining programming language analytically top natural example program could defined defining program sequence zero declaration schorre meta x languages driving rule program rule example driving rule program rule test function calls declaration test rule returns success failure loop operator repeatedly calling declaration failure returned operator always successful even zero declaration program would always return success cwic long fail bypass declaration long-fail part backtracking system cwic character sets early compilers limited character used alternant operator b written b. parentheses used grouping describes construct followed b c. boolean expression would sequence x implied x meaning grouping operator order evaluation always left right input character sequence specified ordering tests special operator words whose first character used clarity .empty used last alternate previous alternant need present indicates x optionally followed b specific characteristic metalanguages programming languages backtracking avoided compiler constructor systems may declared three possible sequences left parser figure characteristics metaprogramming metalanguages common schorre metacompilers derived meta hand compiled metacompiler used compile meta ii little else known meta except initial compilation meta ii produced nearly identical code hand coded meta compiler rule consists optionally tests operators output productions rule matches part input program source character stream returning success failure success input advanced matched characters failure input advanced output productions produced form assembly code directly syntax rule tree-meta introduced tree building operators node_name number moving output production transforms unparse rules tree building operators used grammar rules directly transforming input abstract syntax tree unparse rules also test functions matched tree patterns unparse rules called grammar rule abstract syntax tree transformed output code building abstract syntax tree unparse rules allowed local optimizations performed analyzing parse tree moving output productions unparse rules made clear separation grammar analysis code production made programming easier read understand 1968-1970 erwin book dewey val schorre steven j. sherman developed cwic compiler writing implementing compilers system development corporation charles babbage institute center history information technology box 12 folder 21 cwic compiler development system composed three special-purpose domain specific languages intended permit description certain aspects translation straight forward manner syntax language used describe recognition source text construction intermediate tree structure generator language used describe transformation tree appropriate object language syntax language follows dewey val schorre previous line metacompilers resembles treemeta tree building operators syntax language unparse rules treemeta extended work object based generator language based lisp 2 cwic includes three languages generators language semantics similar lisp parse tree thought recursive list general form generator language function code process given tree included features general purpose programming language plus form stuff would emit stuff onto output file generator call may used unparse_rule generator passed element unparse_rule pattern placed return values listed example parse tree looks like add something1 something2 expr_gen x would called something1 return x variable unparse rule local variable used production_code_generator expr_gen called something2 returns generator call unparse rule passed element position occupies hopefully x registers return last transforms intended load atomic register return register first production would used generate 360 ar add register instruction appropriate values general registers example part generator every generator expression evaluates value con processed last transform could well written case load returns first parameter register returned getreg functions load getreg cwic generators authors cwic metacompiler assists task compiler-building automating non creative aspects aspects regardless language produced compiler translate makes possible design languages appropriate specification particular problem reduces cost producing processors languages point becomes economically feasible begin solution problem language design 1-hop neighbor's text information: domain-specific_language.domain-specific language domain-specific language dsl computer language specialized particular application domain contrast general-purpose language gpl broadly applicable across domains wide variety dsls ranging widely used languages common domains html web pages languages used one pieces software mush soft code dsls subdivided kind language include domain-specific markup languages domain-specific modeling languages generally specification languages domain-specific programming languages special-purpose computer languages always existed computer age term domain-specific language become popular due rise domain-specific modeling simpler dsls particularly ones used single application sometimes informally called mini-languages line general-purpose languages domain-specific languages always sharp language may specialized features particular domain applicable broadly conversely may principle capable broad application practice used primarily specific domain example perl originally developed text-processing glue language domain awk shell scripts mostly used general-purpose programming language later contrast postscript turing complete language principle used task practice narrowly used page description language design use appropriate dsls key part domain engineering using language suitable domain hand – may consist using existing dsl gpl developing new dsl language-oriented programming considers creation special-purpose languages expressing problems standard part problem-solving process creating domain-specific language software support rather reusing existing language worthwhile language allows particular type problem solution expressed clearly existing language would allow type problem question reappears sufficiently often pragmatically dsl may specialized particular problem domain particular problem representation technique particular solution technique aspects domain domain-specific language created specifically solve problems particular domain intended able solve problems outside although may technically possible contrast general-purpose languages created solve problems many domains domain also business area examples business areas include domain-specific language somewhere tiny programming language scripting language often used way analogous programming library boundaries concepts quite blurry much like boundary scripting languages general-purpose languages domain-specific languages languages often declared syntaxes grammars specific goals design implementation domain-specific language one visual diagramming language created generic eclipse modeling system programmatic abstractions eclipse modeling framework textual languages instance command line utility grep regular expression syntax matches patterns lines text sed utility defines syntax matching replacing regular expressions often tiny languages used together inside shell perform complex programming tasks line domain-specific languages scripting languages somewhat blurred domain-specific languages often lack low-level functions filesystem access interprocess control functions characterize full-featured programming languages scripting otherwise many domain-specific languages compile byte-code executable code various kinds media objects graphviz exports postscript gif jpeg etc. csound compiles audio files ray-tracing domain-specific language like pov compiles graphics files computer language like sql presents interesting case deemed domain-specific language specific specific domain sql case accessing managing relational databases often called another application sql keywords functions many scripting languages often thought language right perhaps prevalence database manipulation programming amount mastery required expert language blurring line many domain-specific languages exposed apis accessed programming languages without breaking flow execution calling separate process thus operate programming libraries domain-specific languages expand time include full-featured programming tools complicates question whether language domain-specific good example functional language xslt specifically designed transforming one xml graph another extended since inception allow particularly 2.0 version various forms filesystem interaction string date manipulation data typing model-driven engineering many examples domain-specific languages may found like ocl language decorating models assertions qvt domain-specific transformation language however languages like uml typically general-purpose modeling languages summarize analogy might useful little language like knife used thousands different ways cutting food cutting trees domain-specific language like electric drill powerful tool wide variety uses specific context namely putting holes things general purpose language complete workbench variety tools intended performing variety tasks domain-specific languages used programmers looking current workbench realize need better drill find particular domain-specific language provides exactly dsls implemented via independent interpreter compiler known external domain specific languages well known examples include latex awk separate category known embedded internal domain specific languages typically implemented within host language library tend limited syntax host language though depends host language capabilities several usage patterns domain-specific languages many domain-specific languages used one way dsl code embedded host language may special syntax support regexes sed awk perl javascript may passed strings adopting domain-specific language approach software engineering involves risks opportunities well-designed domain-specific language manages find proper balance domain-specific languages important design goals contrast general-purpose languages programming idioms methods imposed programmers handle common development tasks e.g general purpose programming languages rarely support idioms domain-specific languages describe e.g examples domain-specific languages include html logo pencil-like drawing verilog vhdl hardware description languages matlab gnu octave matrix programming mathematica maple maxima symbolic mathematics specification description language reactive distributed systems spreadsheet formulas macros sql relational database queries yacc grammars creating parsers regular expressions specifying lexers generic eclipse modeling system creating diagramming languages csound sound music synthesis input languages graphviz grgen software packages used graph layout graph rewriting gml scripting language used gamemaker studio domain-specific language targeted novice programmers easily able learn programming language serves blend multiple languages including delphi c++ basic lack structures data types features full-fledged programming language many built-in functions sandboxed purpose easy portability language primarily serves make easy anyone pick language develop game unix shell scripts give good example domain-specific language data organization manipulate data files user input many different ways domain abstractions notations include streams stdin stdout operations streams redirection pipe abstractions combine make robust language describe flow organization data language consists simple interface script running controlling processes perform small tasks tasks represent idioms organizing data desired format tables graphs charts etc tasks consist simple control-flow string manipulation mechanisms cover lot common usages like searching replacing string files counting occurrences strings frequency counting even though unix scripting languages turing complete differ general purpose languages practice scripting languages used weave together small unix tools grep ls sort wc coldfusion associated scripting language another example domain-specific language data-driven websites scripting language used weave together languages services java .net c++ sms email email servers http ftp exchange directory services file systems use websites coldfusion markup language cfml includes set tags used coldfusion pages interact data sources manipulate data display output cfml tag syntax similar html element syntax erlang open telecom platform originally designed use inside ericsson domain-specific language language offers platform libraries create finite state machines generic servers event managers quickly allow engineer deploy applications support libraries shown industry benchmarks outperform languages intended mixed set domains c c++ language officially open source downloaded website filtermeister programming environment programming language based c specific purpose creating photoshop-compatible image processing filter plug-ins filtermeister runs photoshop plug-in load execute scripts compile export independent plug-ins although filtermeister language reproduces significant portion c language function library contains features used within context photoshop plug-ins adds number specific features useful specific domain template feature mediawiki embedded domain-specific language whose fundamental purpose support creation inclusion reference mediawiki pages mediawiki pages much interest domain-specific languages improve productivity quality software engineering domain-specific language could possibly provide robust set tools efficient software engineering tools beginning make way development critical software systems software cost reduction toolkit example toolkit suite utilities including specification editor create requirements specification dependency graph browser display variable dependencies consistency checker catch missing cases well-formed formulas specification model checker theorem prover check program properties specification invariant generator automatically constructs invariants based requirements newer development language-oriented programming integrated software engineering methodology based mainly creating optimizing using domain-specific languages complementing language-oriented programming well forms domain-specific languages class compiler writing tools called metacompilers metacompiler useful generating parsers code generators domain-specific languages metacompiler compiles domain-specific metalanguage specifically designed domain metaprogramming besides parsing domain-specific languages metacompilers useful generating wide range software engineering analysis tools meta-compiler methodology often found program transformation systems metacompilers played significant role computer science computer industry include meta-ii descendant treemeta unreal unreal tournament unveiled language called unrealscript allowed rapid development modifications compared competitor quake using id tech 2 engine id tech engine used standard c code meaning c learned properly applied unrealscript optimized ease use efficiency similarly development recent games introduced specific languages one common example lua scripting various business rules engines developed automating policy business rules used government private industry ilog oracle policy automation dtrules drools others provide support dsls aimed support various problem domains dtrules goes far define interface use multiple dsls within rule set purpose business rules engines define representation business logic human-readable fashion possible allows subject matter experts developers work understand representation business logic rules engines provide approach simplifying control structures business logic example using declarative rules decision tables coupled alternatives programming syntax favor dsls statistical modelers developed domain-specific languages bugs jags stan languages provide syntax describing bayesian model generate method solving using simulation generate object handling services based interface description language domain-specific language javascript web applications html documentation c++ high-performance code etc done cross-language frameworks apache thrift google protocol buffers gherkin language designed define test cases check behavior software without specifying behavior implemented meant read used non-technical users using natural language syntax line-oriented design tests defined gherkin must implemented general programming language steps gherkin program acts syntax method invocation accessible non-developers prominent examples domain-specific languages include advantages disadvantages 1-hop neighbor's text information: backus–naur_form.backus–naur form computer science backus–naur form backus normal form bnf notation technique context-free grammars often used describe syntax languages used computing computer programming languages document formats instruction sets communication protocols applied wherever exact descriptions languages needed instance official language specifications manuals textbooks programming language theory many extensions variants original backus–naur notation used exactly defined including extended backus–naur form ebnf augmented backus–naur form abnf idea describing structure language using rewriting rules traced back least work pāṇini ancient indian sanskrit grammarian revered scholar hinduism lived sometime 7th 4th century bce notation describe sanskrit word structure notation equivalent power backus many similar properties western society grammar long regarded subject teaching rather scientific study descriptions informal targeted practical usage first half 20th century linguists leonard bloomfield zellig harris started attempts formalize description language including phrase structure meanwhile string rewriting rules formal logical systems introduced studied mathematicians axel thue 1914 emil post 1920s–40s alan turing 1936 noam chomsky teaching linguistics students information theory mit combined linguistics mathematics taking essentially thue formalism basis description syntax natural language also introduced clear distinction generative rules context-free grammars transformation rules 1956 john backus programming language designer ibm proposed metalanguage metalinguistic formulas describe syntax new programming language ial known today algol 58 1959 notation first used algol 60 report bnf notation chomsky context-free grammars apparently backus familiar chomsky work proposed backus formula defined classes whose names enclosed angle brackets example codice_1 names denotes class basic symbols development algol led algol 60 committee 1963 report peter naur called backus notation backus normal form donald knuth argued bnf rather read backus–naur form normal form conventional sense unlike instance chomsky normal form name pāṇini backus form also suggested view fact expansion backus normal form may accurate pāṇini independently developed similar notation earlier bnf described peter naur algol 60 report metalinguistic formula another example algol 60 report illustrates major difference bnf metalanguage chomsky context-free grammar metalinguistic variables require rule defining formation formation may simply described natural language within brackets following algol 60 report section 2.3 comments specification exemplifies works purpose including text among symbols program following comment conventions hold equivalence meant three structures shown left column may replaced occurrence outside strings symbol shown line right column without effect action program naur changed two backus symbols commonly available characters := symbol originally ≡ symbol originally word bar expr := term expr addop term first symbol alternative may class defined repetition explained naur function specifying alternative sequence recursively begin previous alternative repeated number times example codice_3 defined codice_4 followed number codice_5 later metalanguages schorre meta ii bnf recursive repeat construct replaced sequence operator target language symbols defined using quoted strings codice_6 codice_7 bracket removed mathematical grouping codice_8 added codice_3 rule would appear meta ii expr term '+ term .out 'add '- term .out 'sub changes made meta ii derivative programming languages able define extend metalanguage ability use natural language description metalinguistic variable language construct description lost many spin-off metalanguages inspired bnf see meta ii tree-meta metacompiler bnf class describes language construct formation formation defined pattern action forming pattern class name expr described natural language codice_4 followed sequence codice_5 class abstraction talk independent formation talk term independent definition added subtracted expr talk term specific data type expr evaluated specific combinations data types even reordering expression group data types evaluation results mixed types natural-language supplement provided specific details language class semantics used compiler implementation programmer writing algol program natural-language description supplemented syntax well integer rule good example natural metalanguage used describe syntax integer := digit integer digit specifics white space far rule states could space digits natural language complement bnf metalanguage explaining digit sequence white space digits english one possible natural languages translations algol reports available many natural languages origin bnf important impact programming language development period immediately following publication algol 60 report bnf basis many compiler-compiler systems directly used bnf like syntax directed compiler algol 60 developed edgar t. irons compiler building system developed brooker morris others changed programming language schorre metacompilers made programming language changes codice_12 became symbol identifiers dropping enclosing using quoted strings symbols target language arithmetic like grouping provided simplification removed using classes grouping value meta ii arithmetic expression rule shows grouping use output expressions placed meta ii rule used output code labels assembly language rules meta ii equivalent class definitions bnf unix utility yacc based bnf code production similar meta ii yacc commonly used parser generator roots obviously bnf bnf today one oldest computer-related languages still use bnf specification set derivation rules written symbol nonterminal __expression__ consists one sequences symbols sequences separated vertical bar indicating choice whole possible substitution symbol left symbols never appear left side terminals hand symbols appear left side non-terminals always enclosed pair := means symbol left must replaced expression right example consider possible bnf u.s. postal address opt-suffix-part := sr. jr. roman-numeral translates english note many things format first-name apartment specifier zip-code roman numeral left unspecified necessary may described using additional bnf rules bnf syntax may represented bnf like following note empty string original bnf use quotes shown codice_13 rule assumes whitespace necessary proper interpretation rule codice_14 represents appropriate line-end specifier ascii carriage-return line-feed depending operating system codice_15 codice_16 substituted declared rule name/label literal text respectively u.s. postal address example entire block-quote syntax line unbroken grouping lines rule example one rule begins codice_17 part rule aside line-end expression consists two lists separated pipe codice_18 two lists consists terms three terms two terms respectively term particular rule rule-name many variants extensions bnf generally either sake simplicity succinctness adapt specific application one common feature many variants use regular expression repetition operators codice_19 codice_20 extended backus–naur form ebnf common one another common extension use square brackets around optional items although present original algol 60 report instead introduced years later ibm pl/i definition notation universally recognised augmented backus–naur form abnf routing backus–naur form rbnf extensions commonly used describe internet engineering task force ietf protocols parsing expression grammars build bnf regular expression notations form alternative class formal grammar essentially analytic rather generative character many bnf specifications found online today intended human-readable non-formal often include many following syntax rules extensions Target text information: tree-meta.tree-meta tree-meta tree meta treemeta translator writing system compiler-compiler system context-free languages originally developed 1960s parsing statements metalanguage resemble augmented backus–naur form embedded tree-building directives unparsing rules include extensive tree-scanning code-generation constructs tree-meta instrumental development on-line system ported many systems including univac 1108 ge 645 sds-940 icl 1906a perq ucsd p-system complete example tree-meta program extracted untested complete declarations conditionals blocks example appendix 6 icl 1900 tree-meta manual document also definition tree-meta tree-meta appendix 3 program recognizer also outputs assembly language input demonstrates one key features tree-meta tree pattern matching used lhs get val example rhs add sub algol-style comment delimited I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	2,751	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: geexbox.geexbox geexbox free linux distribution providing media center software suite personal computers geexbox 2.0 later uses xbmc media playback implemented live usb live cd options system need permanently installed hard drive modern operating systems would instead computer booted geexbox cd media playback desired reasonable approach need media playback services performing tasks computer users wish repurpose older computers media centers seeking free alternative windows xp media center edition unofficial port geexbox 1.x also runs wii geexbox 1.x versions also came utility called iso-generator allowed user customize geexbox discs following options configurable via 1-hop neighbor's text information: boxee_box.boxee box boxee box d-link officially d-link boxee box dsm-380 linux-based set-top device media extender first began shipping 33 countries worldwide 10 november 2010 designed easily bring internet television video television via boxee software comes pre-installed boxee media center software hardware based intel ce4110 system-on-a-chip platform intel atom cpu powervr sgx535 integrated graphics processor ram nand flash memory dm-380 features hdmi port version 1.3 optical digital audio s/pdif rca connector analog stereo audio two usb ports sd card slot wired 100base-t ethernet built-in 2.4 ghz 802.11n wifi live tv dongle started shipping february 2012 enables users watch digital ota clear qam cable television channels epg boxee box also ships small two-sided rf remote control four-way d-pad navigation full qwerty keypad standard remote also sold separately usb receiver d-link boxee box remote dsm-22 used boxee installed computer one use remote without owning d-link boxee box look case remote prototypes boxee box designed san francisco-based astro studios designer xbox 360 microsoft zune 16 october 2012 boxee team announced intend discontinue distribution releasing additional major updates 1-hop neighbor's text information: libreelec.libreelec libreelec short libre embedded linux entertainment center non-profit fork openelec open source software appliance enough linux distro kodi fork openelec announced march 2016 split openelec team creative differences taking active developers time join new libreelec project conservative fork openelec project stronger focus pre-release testing post-release change management Target text information: tvheadend.tvheadend tvheadend sometimes tvh short server application reads video streams linuxtv sources publishes internet streams supports multiple inputs dvb-t usb tuner stick sat ip tuner instance combining together single channel listing tvh servers ip signal providers allowing networks tvh servers combined tvh typically used send video receiver devices like smart televisions set top boxes throughout household network also used forward signals long distance links even countries also includes electronic program guide information available ability record programs like dvr including ability transcode mpeg2 h264 h265 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	7,602	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: programming_language.programming language programming language formal language comprises set instructions produce various kinds output programming languages used computer programming implement algorithms programming languages consist instructions computers programmable machines use set specific instructions rather general programming languages early ones preceded invention digital computer first probably automatic flute player described 9th century brothers musa baghdad islamic golden age since early 1800s programs used direct behavior machines jacquard looms music boxes player pianos programs machines player piano scrolls produce different behavior response different inputs conditions thousands different programming languages created created every year many programming languages written imperative form i.e. sequence operations perform languages use declarative form i.e desired result specified achieve description programming language usually split two components syntax form semantics meaning languages defined specification document example c programming language specified iso standard languages perl dominant implementation treated reference languages basic language defined standard extensions taken dominant implementation common programming language notation writing programs specifications computation algorithm authors restrict term programming language languages express possible algorithms traits often considered important constitutes programming language include markup languages like xml html troff define structured data usually considered programming languages programming languages may however share syntax markup languages computational semantics defined xslt example turing complete language entirely using xml syntax moreover latex mostly used structuring documents also contains turing complete subset term computer language sometimes used interchangeably programming language however usage terms varies among authors including exact scope one usage describes programming languages subset computer languages similarly languages used computing different goal expressing computer programs generically designated computer languages instance markup languages sometimes referred computer languages emphasize meant used programming another usage regards programming languages theoretical constructs programming abstract machines computer languages subset thereof runs physical computers finite hardware resources john c. reynolds emphasizes formal specification languages much programming languages languages intended execution also argues textual even graphical input formats affect behavior computer programming languages despite fact commonly turing-complete remarks ignorance programming language concepts reason many flaws input formats early computers colossus programmed without help stored program modifying circuitry setting banks physical controls slightly later programs could written machine language programmer writes instruction numeric form hardware execute directly example instruction add value two memory location might consist 3 numbers opcode selects add operation two memory locations programs decimal binary form read punched cards paper tape magnetic tape toggled switches front panel computer machine languages later termed first-generation programming languages 1gl next step development so-called second-generation programming languages 2gl assembly languages still closely tied instruction set architecture specific computer served make program much human-readable relieved programmer tedious error-prone address calculations first high-level programming languages third-generation programming languages 3gl written 1950s early high-level programming language designed computer plankalkül developed german z3 konrad zuse 1943 1945 however implemented 1998 2000 john mauchly short code proposed 1949 one first high-level languages ever developed electronic computer unlike machine code short code statements represented mathematical expressions understandable form however program translated machine code every time ran making process much slower running equivalent machine code university manchester alick glennie developed autocode early 1950s programming language used compiler automatically convert language machine code first code compiler developed 1952 mark 1 computer university manchester considered first compiled high-level programming language second autocode developed mark 1 r. a. brooker 1954 called mark 1 autocode brooker also developed autocode ferranti mercury 1950s conjunction university manchester version edsac 2 devised d. f. hartley university cambridge mathematical laboratory 1961 known edsac 2 autocode straight development mercury autocode adapted local circumstances noted object code optimisation source-language diagnostics advanced time contemporary separate thread development atlas autocode developed university manchester atlas 1 machine 1954 fortran invented ibm john backus first widely used high-level general purpose programming language functional implementation opposed design paper still popular language high-performance computing used programs benchmark rank world fastest supercomputers another early programming language devised grace hopper us called flow-matic developed univac remington rand period 1955 1959 hopper found business data processing customers uncomfortable mathematical notation early 1955 team wrote specification english programming language implemented prototype flow-matic compiler became publicly available early 1958 substantially complete 1959 flow-matic major influence design cobol since direct descendant aimaco actual use time increased use high-level languages introduced requirement low-level programming languages system programming languages languages varying degrees provide facilities assembly languages high-level languages used perform tasks require direct access hardware facilities still provide higher-level control structures error-checking period 1960s late 1970s brought development major language paradigms use languages spawned descendants modern programming languages count least one ancestry 1960s 1970s also saw considerable debate merits structured programming whether programming languages designed support edsger dijkstra famous 1968 letter published communications acm argued goto statements eliminated higher level programming languages 1980s years relative consolidation c++ combined object-oriented systems programming united states government standardized ada systems programming language derived pascal intended use defense contractors japan elsewhere vast sums spent investigating so-called fifth-generation languages incorporated logic programming constructs functional languages community moved standardize ml lisp rather inventing new paradigms movements elaborated upon ideas invented previous decades one important trend language design programming large-scale systems 1980s increased focus use modules large-scale organizational units code modula-2 ada ml developed notable module systems 1980s often wedded generic programming constructs rapid growth internet mid-1990s created opportunities new languages perl originally unix scripting tool first released 1987 became common dynamic websites java came used server-side programming bytecode virtual machines became popular commercial settings promise write run anywhere ucsd pascal popular time early 1980s developments fundamentally novel rather refinements many existing languages paradigms although syntax often based c family programming languages programming language evolution continues industry research current directions include security reliability verification new kinds modularity mixins delegates aspects database integration microsoft linq fourth-generation programming languages 4gl computer programming languages aim provide higher level abstraction internal computer hardware details 3gls fifth-generation programming languages 5gl programming languages based solving problems using constraints given program rather using algorithm written programmer programming languages primitive building blocks description data processes transformations applied like addition two numbers selection item collection primitives defined syntactic semantic rules describe structure meaning respectively programming language surface form known syntax programming languages purely textual use sequences text including words numbers punctuation much like written natural languages hand programming languages graphical nature using visual relationships symbols specify program syntax language describes possible combinations symbols form syntactically correct program meaning given combination symbols handled semantics either formal hard-coded reference implementation since languages textual article discusses textual syntax programming language syntax usually defined using combination regular expressions lexical structure backus–naur form grammatical structure simple grammar based lisp grammar specifies following following examples well-formed token sequences grammar codice_1 codice_2 codice_3 syntactically correct programs semantically correct many syntactically correct programs nonetheless ill-formed per language rules may depending language specification soundness implementation result error translation execution cases programs may exhibit undefined behavior even program well-defined within language may still meaning intended person wrote using natural language example may possible assign meaning grammatically correct sentence sentence may false following c language fragment syntactically correct performs operations semantically defined operation codice_4 meaning value complex type codice_5 defined value codice_6 null pointer type declaration first line omitted program would trigger error undefined variable p compilation however program would still syntactically correct since type declarations provide semantic information grammar needed specify programming language classified position chomsky hierarchy syntax programming languages specified using type-2 grammar i.e. context-free grammars languages including perl lisp contain constructs allow execution parsing phase languages constructs allow programmer alter behavior parser make syntax analysis undecidable problem generally blur distinction parsing execution contrast lisp macro system perl codice_7 blocks may contain general computations c macros merely string replacements require code execution term semantics refers meaning languages opposed form syntax static semantics defines restrictions structure valid texts hard impossible express standard syntactic formalisms compiled languages static semantics essentially include semantic rules checked compile time examples include checking every identifier declared used languages require declarations labels arms case statement distinct many important restrictions type like checking identifiers used appropriate context e.g adding integer function name subroutine calls appropriate number type arguments enforced defining rules logic called type system forms static analyses like data flow analysis may also part static semantics newer programming languages like java c definite assignment analysis form data flow analysis part static semantics data specified machine must instructed perform operations data example semantics may define strategy expressions evaluated values manner control structures conditionally execute statements dynamic semantics also known execution semantics language defines various constructs language produce program behavior many ways defining execution semantics natural language often used specify execution semantics languages commonly used practice significant amount academic research went formal semantics programming languages allow execution semantics specified formal manner results field research seen limited application programming language design implementation outside academia type system defines programming language classifies values expressions types manipulate types interact goal type system verify usually enforce certain level correctness programs written language detecting certain incorrect operations decidable type system involves trade-off rejects many incorrect programs also prohibit correct albeit unusual programs order bypass downside number languages type loopholes usually unchecked casts may used programmer explicitly allow normally disallowed operation different types typed languages type system used type check programs number languages usually functional ones infer types relieving programmer need write type annotations formal design study type systems known type theory language typed specification every operation defines types data operation applicable example data represented codice_8 string many programming languages dividing number string meaning executed invalid operation may detected program compiled static type checking rejected compiler compilation error message may detected program running dynamic type checking resulting run-time exception many languages allow function called exception handler handle exception example always return -1 result special case typed languages single-typed languages often scripting markup languages rexx sgml one data type–—most commonly character strings used symbolic numeric data contrast untyped language assembly languages allows operation performed data generally sequences bits various lengths high-level untyped languages include bcpl tcl varieties forth practice languages considered typed type theory verifying rejecting operations modern languages offer degree typing many production languages provide means bypass subvert type system trading type-safety finer control program execution see casting static typing expressions types determined prior program executed typically compile-time example 1 2+2 integer expressions passed function expects string stored variable defined hold dates statically typed languages either manifestly typed type-inferred first case programmer must explicitly write types certain textual positions example variable declarations second case compiler infers types expressions declarations based context mainstream statically typed languages c++ c java manifestly typed complete type inference traditionally associated less mainstream languages haskell ml however many manifestly typed languages support partial type inference example c++ java c infer types certain limited cases additionally programming languages allow types automatically converted types example int used program expects float dynamic typing also called latent typing determines type-safety operations run time words types associated run-time values rather textual expressions type-inferred languages dynamically typed languages require programmer write explicit type annotations expressions among things may permit single variable refer values different types different points program execution however type errors automatically detected piece code actually executed potentially making debugging difficult lisp smalltalk perl python javascript ruby examples dynamically typed languages weak typing allows value one type treated another example treating string number occasionally useful also allow kinds program faults go undetected compile time even run time strong typing prevents program faults attempt perform operation wrong type value raises error strongly typed languages often termed type-safe safe alternative definition weakly typed refers languages perl javascript permit large number implicit type conversions javascript example expression codice_9 implicitly converts codice_10 number conversion succeeds even codice_10 codice_12 codice_13 codice_14 string letters implicit conversions often useful mask programming errors strong static generally considered orthogonal concepts usage literature differs use term strongly typed mean strongly statically typed even confusingly mean simply statically typed thus c called strongly typed weakly statically typed may seem odd professional programmers c could weakly statically typed however notice use generic pointer void* pointer allow casting pointers pointers without needing explicit cast extremely similar somehow casting array bytes kind datatype c without using explicit cast codice_15 codice_16 programming languages associated core library sometimes known 'standard library especially included part published language standard conventionally made available implementations language core libraries typically include definitions commonly used algorithms data structures mechanisms input output line language core library differs language language cases language designers may treat library separate entity language however language core library often treated part language users language specifications even require library made available implementations indeed languages designed meanings certain syntactic constructs even described without referring core library example java string literal defined instance codice_17 class similarly smalltalk anonymous function expression block constructs instance library codice_18 class conversely scheme contains multiple coherent subsets suffice construct rest language library macros language designers even bother say portions language must implemented language constructs must implemented parts library programming languages share properties natural languages related purpose vehicles communication syntactic form separate semantics showing language families related languages branching one another artificial constructs also differ fundamental ways languages evolved usage significant difference programming language fully described studied entirety since precise finite definition contrast natural languages changing meanings given users different communities constructed languages also artificial languages designed ground specific purpose lack precise complete semantic definition programming language many programming languages designed scratch altered meet new needs combined languages many eventually fallen disuse although attempts design one universal programming language serves purposes failed generally accepted filling role need diverse programming languages arises diversity contexts languages used one common trend development programming languages add ability solve problems using higher level abstraction earliest programming languages tied closely underlying hardware computer new programming languages developed features added let programmers express ideas remote simple translation underlying hardware instructions programmers less tied complexity computer programs computing less effort programmer lets write functionality per time unit natural language programming proposed way eliminate need specialized language programming however goal remains distant benefits open debate edsger w. dijkstra took position use formal language essential prevent introduction meaningless constructs dismissed natural language programming foolish alan perlis similarly dismissive idea hybrid approaches taken structured english sql language designers users must construct number artifacts govern enable practice programming important artifacts language specification implementation specification programming language artifact language users implementors use agree upon whether piece source code valid program language behavior shall programming language specification take several forms including following implementation programming language provides way write programs language execute one configurations hardware software broadly two approaches programming language implementation compilation interpretation generally possible implement language using either technique output compiler may executed hardware program called interpreter implementations make use interpreter approach distinct boundary compiling interpreting instance implementations basic compile execute source line time programs executed directly hardware usually run much faster interpreted software one technique improving performance interpreted programs just-in-time compilation virtual machine execution translates blocks bytecode going used machine code direct execution hardware although commonly used programming languages fully open specifications implementations many programming languages exist proprietary programming languages implementation available single vendor may claim proprietary language intellectual property proprietary programming languages commonly domain specific languages internal scripting languages single product proprietary languages used internally within vendor others available external users programming languages exist border proprietary open example oracle corporation asserts proprietary rights aspects java programming language microsoft c programming language open implementations parts system also common language runtime clr closed environment many proprietary languages widely used spite proprietary nature examples include matlab vbscript wolfram language languages may make transition closed open example erlang originally ericsson internal programming language thousands different programming languages created mainly computing field software commonly built 5 programming languages programming languages differ forms human expression require greater degree precision completeness using natural language communicate people human authors speakers ambiguous make small errors still expect intent understood however figuratively speaking computers exactly told understand code programmer intended write combination language definition program program inputs must fully specify external behavior occurs program executed within domain control program hand ideas algorithm communicated humans without precision required execution using pseudocode interleaves natural language code written programming language programming language provides structured mechanism defining pieces data operations transformations may carried automatically data programmer uses abstractions present language represent concepts involved computation concepts represented collection simplest elements available called primitives programming process programmers combine primitives compose new programs adapt existing ones new uses changing environment programs computer might executed batch process without human interaction user might type commands interactive session interpreter case commands simply programs whose execution chained together language run commands interpreter unix shell command-line interface without compiling called scripting language determining widely used programming language difficult since definition usage varies context one language may occupy greater number programmer hours different one lines code third may consume cpu time languages popular particular kinds applications example cobol still strong corporate data center often large mainframes fortran scientific engineering applications ada aerospace transportation military real-time embedded applications c embedded applications operating systems languages regularly used write many different kinds applications various methods measuring language popularity subject different bias measured proposed combining averaging information various internet sites stackify.com reported ten popular programming languages descending order overall popularity java c c++ python c javascript vb .net r php matlab dialect programming language data exchange language relatively small variation extension language change intrinsic nature languages scheme forth standards may considered insufficient inadequate illegitimate implementors often deviate standard making new dialect cases dialect created use domain-specific language often subset lisp world languages use basic s-expression syntax lisp-like semantics considered lisp dialects although vary wildly say racket clojure common one language several dialects become quite difficult inexperienced programmer find right documentation basic programming language many dialects explosion forth dialects led saying 've seen one forth ... 've seen one forth overarching classification scheme programming languages given programming language usually single ancestor language languages commonly arise combining elements several predecessor languages new ideas circulation time ideas originate one language diffuse throughout family related languages leap suddenly across familial gaps appear entirely different family task complicated fact languages classified along multiple axes example java object-oriented language encourages object-oriented organization concurrent language contains built-in constructs running multiple threads parallel python object-oriented scripting language broad strokes programming languages divide programming paradigms classification intended domain use general-purpose programming languages distinguished domain-specific programming languages traditionally programming languages regarded describing computation terms imperative sentences i.e issuing commands generally called imperative programming languages great deal research programming languages aimed blurring distinction program set instructions program assertion desired answer main feature declarative programming refined paradigms include procedural programming object-oriented programming functional programming logic programming languages hybrids paradigms multi-paradigmatic assembly language much paradigm direct model underlying machine architecture purpose programming languages might considered general purpose system programming languages scripting languages domain-specific languages concurrent/distributed languages combination general purpose languages designed largely educational goals programming language may also classified factors unrelated programming paradigm instance programming languages use english language keywords minority languages may classified deliberately esoteric 1-hop neighbor's text information: compile_time.compile time computer science compile time refers either operations performed compiler compile-time operations programming language requirements must met source code successfully compiled compile-time requirements properties program reasoned compilation compile time refers time duration statements written programming language checked errors operations performed compile time usually include syntax analysis various kinds semantic analysis e.g. type checks instantiation template code generation programming language definitions usually specify compile time requirements source code must meet successfully compiled example languages may stipulate amount storage required types variables deduced properties program reasoned compile time include range-checks e.g. proving array index exceed array bounds deadlock freedom concurrent languages timings e.g. proving sequence code takes allocated amount time compile time occurs link time output one compiled files joined together runtime program executed programming languages may necessary compilation linking occur runtime trade-off compile-time link-time many compile time operations deferred link-time without incurring extra run-time compile time also refer amount time required compilation 1-hop neighbor's text information: data_type.data type computer science computer programming data type simply type attribute data tells compiler interpreter programmer intends use data programming languages support common data types real integer boolean data type constrains values expression variable function might take data type defines operations done data meaning data way values type stored type value expression may take value data types used within type systems offer various ways defining implementing using different type systems ensure varying degrees type safety almost programming languages explicitly include notion data type though different languages may use different terminology common data types include example java programming language type int represents set 32-bit integers ranging value −2,147,483,648 2,147,483,647 well operations performed integers addition subtraction multiplication colors hand represented three bytes denoting amounts red green blue one string representing color name allowable operations include addition subtraction multiplication programming languages also allow programmer define additional data types usually combining multiple elements types defining valid operations new data type example programmer might create new data type named complex number would include real imaginary parts data type also represents constraint placed upon interpretation data type system describing representation interpretation structure values objects stored computer memory type system uses data type information check correctness computer programs access manipulate data data types statistics comparable types computer programming vice versa shown following table identified five definitions type used—sometimes implicitly—in literature types including behavior align closely object-oriented models whereas structured programming model would tend include code called plain old data structures five types definition terms representation often done imperative languages algol pascal definition terms value space behaviour used higher-level languages simula clu primitive data types typically types built-in basic language implementation data computers based digital electronics represented bits alternatives 0 1 lowest level smallest addressable unit data usually group bits called byte usually octet 8 bits unit processed machine code instructions called word typically 32 64 bits instructions interpret word binary number 32-bit word represent unsigned integer values 0 formula_1 signed integer values formula_2 formula_3 two complement machine language machine n't need distinguish unsigned signed data types part floating point numbers used floating point arithmetic use different interpretation bits word see https //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/floating-point_arithmetic details machine data types need exposed made available systems low-level programming languages allowing fine-grained control hardware c programming language instance supplies integer types various widths codice_1 codice_2 corresponding native type exist target platform compiler break code using types exist instance 32-bit integer requested 16 bit platform compiler tacitly treat array two 16 bit integers higher level programming machine data types often hidden abstracted implementation detail would render code less portable exposed instance generic codice_3 type might supplied instead integers specific bit-width boolean type represents values true false although two values possible rarely implemented single binary digit efficiency reasons many programming languages explicit boolean type instead interpreting instance 0 false values true boolean data refers logical structure language interpreted machine language case boolean 0 refers logic false true always non zero especially one known boolean 1 composite types derived one primitive type done number ways ways combined called data structures composing primitive type compound type generally results new type e.g array-of-integer different type integer many others possible tend variations compounds example linked list store data array provides sequential access rather random built records dynamic memory though arguably data structure rather type per se also common distinct enough including discussion composite types justified enumerated type distinct values compared assigned necessarily particular concrete representation computer memory compilers interpreters represent arbitrarily example four suits deck playing cards may four enumerators named club diamond heart spade belonging enumerated type named suit variable v declared suit data type one assign four values implementations allow programmers assign integer values enumeration values even treat type-equivalent integers character string types store sequences characters character set ascii since character sets include digits possible numeric string codice_7 however many languages treat belonging different type numeric value codice_8 character string types different subtypes according required character width original 7-bit wide ascii found limited superseded 8 16-bit sets encode wide variety non-latin alphabets hebrew chinese symbols strings may either stretch-to-fit fixed size even programming language may also subtyped maximum size note strings primitive languages instance c composed array characters types based derived basic types explained languages c functions type derived type return value main non-composite derived type pointer data type whose value refers directly points another value stored elsewhere computer memory using address primitive kind reference everyday terms page number book could considered piece data refers another one pointers often stored format similar integer however attempting dereference look pointer whose value never valid memory address would cause program crash ameliorate potential problem pointers considered separate type type data point even underlying representation type specify implementation abstract data type instance stack abstract type implemented array contiguous block memory containing multiple values linked list set non-contiguous memory blocks linked pointers abstract types handled code know care underlying types contained programming agnostic concrete data types called generic programming arrays records also contain underlying types considered concrete specify contents elements laid memory examples include convenience high-level languages may supply ready-made real world data types instance times dates monetary values memory even language allows built primitive types type system associates types computed values examining flow values type system attempts prove type errors occur type system question determines constitutes type error type system generally seeks guarantee operations expecting certain kind value used values operation make sense compiler may use static type value optimize storage needs choice algorithms operations value many c compilers data type example represented 32 bits accord ieee specification single-precision floating point numbers thus use floating-point-specific microprocessor operations values floating-point addition multiplication etc. depth type constraints manner evaluation affect typing language programming language may associate operation varying concrete algorithms type case type polymorphism type theory study type systems although concrete type systems programming languages originate practical issues computer architecture compiler implementation language design type systems may variously static dynamic strong weak typing forth Target text information: link_time.link time computer science link time refers period time creation computer program linker applied program link time occurs compile time runtime program executed common speak link time operations operations performed linker link time requirements programming language requirements must met compiled source code successfully linked operations performed link time usually include fixing addresses externally referenced objects functions various kinds cross module checks e.g type checks externally visible identifiers languages instantiation templates optimizing compilers delay code generation link time information complete program available resolving external variables program also done link time definition programming language may specify link time requirements source code must meet successfully compiled e.g maximum number characters externally visible identifier must considered significant programming languages may necessary compilation linking occur runtime I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	11,160	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: windows_nt.windows nt windows nt family operating systems produced microsoft first version released july 27 1993 processor-independent multiprocessing multi-user operating system first version windows nt windows nt 3.1 produced workstations server computers intended complement consumer versions windows based ms-dos including windows 1.0 windows 3.1x gradually windows nt family expanded microsoft general-purpose operating system product line personal computers deprecating windows 9x family nt formerly expanded new technology longer carries specific meaning starting windows 2000 nt removed product name included product version string nt first purely 32-bit version windows whereas consumer-oriented counterparts windows 3.1x windows 9x 16-bit/32-bit hybrids multi-architecture operating system initially supported several instruction set architectures including ia-32 mips dec alpha support powerpc itanium x64 arm added later latest versions support x86 specifically ia-32 x64 arm major features windows nt family include windows shell windows api native api active directory group policy hardware abstraction layer ntfs bitlocker windows store windows update hyper-v suggested dave cutler intended initialism wnt play vms incrementing letter one however project originally intended follow-on os/2 referred nt os/2 receiving windows brand one original nt developers mark lucovsky states name taken original target processor—the intel i860 code-named n10 n-ten 1998 question-and-answer session bill gates revealed letters previously expanded new technology longer carry specific meaning letters dropped names releases windows 2000 later though microsoft described product built nt technology main design goal nt hardware software portability various versions nt family operating systems released variety processor architectures initially ia-32 mips dec alpha powerpc itanium x86-64 arm supported later releases idea common code base custom hardware abstraction layer hal platform however support mips alpha powerpc later dropped windows 2000 broad software compatibility achieved support several api personalities including windows api posix os/2 apis – latter two phased starting windows xp partial ms-dos compatibility achieved via integrated dos virtual machine – although feature phased x86-64 architecture nt supported per-object file function role access control lists allowing rich set security permissions applied systems services nt supported windows network protocols inheriting previous os/2 lan manager networking well tcp/ip networking microsoft would implement tcp/ip stack derived first streams-based stack spider systems later rewritten in-house windows nt 3.1 first version windows use 32-bit flat virtual memory addressing 32-bit processors companion product windows 3.1 used segmented addressing switches 16-bit 32-bit addressing pages windows nt 3.1 featured core kernel providing system api running supervisor mode ring 0 x86 referred windows nt kernel mode platforms set user-space environments apis included new win32 environment os/2 1.3 text-mode environment posix environment full preemptive multitasking kernel could interrupt running tasks schedule tasks without relying user programs voluntarily give control cpu windows 3.1 windows applications although ms-dos applications preemptively multitasked windows starting windows/386 notably windows nt 3.x several i/o driver subsystems video printing user-mode subsystems windows nt 4 video server printer spooler subsystems moved kernel mode windows nt first gui strongly influenced programmatically compatible windows 3.1 windows nt 4 interface redesigned match brand new windows 95 moving program manager windows shell design ntfs journaled secure file system created nt windows nt also allows installable file systems starting versions 3.1 nt could installed fat hpfs file systems windows nt introduced driver model windows nt driver model incompatible older driver frameworks windows 2000 windows nt driver model enhanced become windows driver model first introduced windows 98 based nt driver model windows vista added native support windows driver foundation also available windows xp windows server 2003 extent windows 2000 microsoft decided create portable operating system compatible os/2 posix supporting multiprocessing october 1988 development started november 1989 windows nt known os/2 3.0 third version operating system developed jointly microsoft ibm ensure portability initial development targeted intel i860xr risc processor switching mips r3000 late 1989 intel i386 1990 microsoft also continued parallel development dos-based less resource-demanding windows environment resulting release windows 3.0 may 1990 windows 3 eventually successful microsoft decided change primary application programming interface still unreleased nt os/2 known extended os/2 api extended windows api decision caused tension microsoft ibm collaboration ultimately fell apart ibm continued os/2 development alone microsoft continued work newly renamed windows nt though neither operating system would immediately popular microsoft ms-dos windows products windows nt would eventually far successful os/2 microsoft hired group developers digital equipment corporation led dave cutler build windows nt many elements design reflect earlier dec experience cutler vms rsx-11 also unreleased object-based operating system developed dave cutler dec prism team joined selected members disbanded os/2 team including moshe dunie operating system designed run multiple instruction set architectures multiple hardware platforms within architecture platform dependencies largely hidden rest system kernel mode module called hal hardware abstraction layer windows nt kernel mode code distinguishes kernel whose primary purpose implement processor- architecture-dependent functions executive designed modified microkernel windows nt kernel influenced mach microkernel developed carnegie mellon university meet criteria pure microkernel kernel executive linked together single loaded module ntoskrnl.exe outside module little distinction kernel executive routines directly accessible example kernel-mode device drivers api sets windows nt family implemented subsystems atop publicly undocumented native api allowed late adoption windows api win32 subsystem windows nt one earliest operating systems use unicode internally windows nt 3.1 3.51 incorporated program manager file manager windows 3.1x series windows nt 4.0 onwards replaced programs windows explorer including taskbar start menu originally appeared windows 95 first release given version number 3.1 match contemporary 16-bit windows magazines era claimed number also used make version seem reliable .0 release also novell ipx protocol apparently licensed 3.1 versions windows software nt version number generally used marketing purposes still used internally said reflect degree changes core operating system however application compatibility reasons microsoft kept major version number 6 releases following vista changed later 10 windows 10 build number internal identifier used microsoft developers beta testers windows nt written c c++ small amount written assembly language c mostly used kernel code c++ mostly used user-mode code assembly language avoided possible would impede portability order prevent intel x86-specific code slipping operating system developers used developing x86 chips windows nt 3.1 initially developed using non-x86 development systems ported x86 architecture work initially based intel i860-based dazzle system later mips r4000-based jazz platform systems designed internally microsoft windows nt 3.1 released intel x86 pc compatible pc-98 dec alpha arc-compliant mips platforms windows nt 3.51 added support powerpc processor 1995 specifically prep-compliant systems ibm power series desktops/laptops motorola powerstack series despite meetings michael spindler bill gates power macintosh prep compliant power macintosh project failed ship intergraph corporation ported windows nt clipper architecture later announced intention port windows nt 3.51 sun microsystems sparc architecture neither version sold public retail product two windows nt 4.0 variants ia-32 alpha full set service packs available ports done third parties motorola intergraph etc publicly available updates windows nt 4.0 last major release support alpha mips powerpc though development windows 2000 alpha continued august 1999 compaq stopped support windows nt architecture three days later microsoft also canceled alphant program even though alpha nt 5 windows 2000 release reached rc1 status microsoft announced january 5 2011 next major version windows nt family include support arm architecture microsoft demonstrated preliminary version windows version 6.2.7867 running arm-based computer 2011 consumer electronics show eventually led commercial release windows 8-derived windows rt october 26 2012 implementation nt ce windows phone 8 according microsoft common misconception xbox xbox 360 use modified windows 2000 kernel xbox operating system built scratch implements subset windows apis 64-bit versions windows nt originally intended run itanium dec alpha latter used internally microsoft early development 64-bit windows continued time microsoft publicly announced cancelling plans ship 64-bit windows alpha alpha versions windows nt 32-bit windows 2000 supports intel ia-32 32-bit windows xp server 2003 server 2008 server 2008 r2 one edition dedicated itanium-based systems comparison itanium microsoft adopted x64 greater scale every version windows since windows xp dedicated x64 edition x64 editions minimum hardware specification required run release professional workstation version windows nt fairly slow-moving 6.0 vista release requires minimum 15 gb free disk space 10-fold increase free disk space alone previous version 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies 1-hop neighbor's text information: rm_(unix).rm unix computing codice_1 short remove basic command unix unix-like operating systems used remove objects computer files directories symbolic links file systems also special files device nodes pipes sockets similar codice_2 command ms-dos os/2 microsoft windows command also available efi shell codice_1 command removes references objects filesystem using unlink system call objects might multiple references example file two different names objects discarded references removed programs still open handles objects allows scenarios program open file immediately remove filesystem use temporary space knowing file space reclaimed program exits even exits crashing command generally destroy file data since purpose really merely unlink references filesystem space freed may still contain leftover data removed file security concern cases hardened versions sometimes provide wiping data last link cut programs shred srm available specifically provide data wiping capability codice_1 generally seen unix-derived operating systems typically provide recovery deleted files mechanism like recycle bin hence tendency users enclose codice_1 kind wrapper limit accidental file deletion undelete utilities attempt reconstruct index bring file back parts reused old versions unix codice_1 command would delete directories empty behaviour still obtained versions codice_1 codice_8 flag e.g. bsds freebsd netbsd openbsd macos derived 4.4bsd-lite2 version codice_1 bundled gnu coreutils written paul rubin david mackenzie richard stallman jim meyering version also provides codice_8 option help compatibility functionality provided standard codice_11 command codice_12 option version 7 replaced codice_13 delete switches debuted version 1 doug mcilroy wrote codice_13 desperation tool designed clean files unutterable names kolibrios includes implementation command codice_1 deletes file specified options added users use full path relative file path specify files delete codice_1 n't delete directory default deletes file foo directory user currently codice_1 like commands uses options specify behave codice_1 overlain shell alias c shell alias bourne shell bash function codice_27 avoid accidental deletion files user still wishes delete large number files without confirmation manually cancel codice_12 argument adding codice_20 option option specified later expanded command line codice_30 takes precedence unfortunately approach generates dangerous habits towards use wildcarding leading version accidental removals codice_31 variously codice_32 codice_33 others frequently used jokes anecdotes unix disasters. ref name= linux/unix delete file /ref codice_32 variant command run superuser would cause every file accessible present file system deleted machine codice_1 often used conjunction xargs supply list files delete remove png images directories current one usually filesystems deleting file requires write permission parent directory execute permission order enter directory first place note confusingly beginners permissions file irrelevant however gnu codice_1 asks confirmation write-protected file deleted unless -f option used delete directory codice_37 one must delete contents recursively requires one must read write execute permission directory empty non-empty subdirectories recursively read permissions needed list contents directory order delete sometimes leads odd situation non-empty directory deleted one n't write permission delete contents directory empty one would able delete file resides directory sticky bit set deleting file requires one owner file sun microsystems introduced codice_32 protection solaris 10 first released 2005 upon executing command system reports removal allowed shortly functionality introduced freebsd version codice_1 utility gnu codice_1 refuses execute codice_32 codice_42 option given default since version 6.4 gnu core utilities released 2006 newer systems failsafe always active even without option run command user must bypass failsafe adding option codice_43 even superuser systems administrators designers even users often attempt defend accidentally deleting files creating alias function along lines results codice_1 asking user confirm file-by-file basis whether deleted pressing n key unfortunately tends train users careless wildcards hand codice_1 commands well encouraging tendency alternately pound codice_46 return key affirm removes past one file needed keep users even seen going far codice_47 automatically inserts yes file compromise allows users confirm encourages proper wildcarding makes verification list easier achieved something like important note function made shell script would run risk found ahead system codice_1 search path allowed non-interactive shells could break batch jobs enclosing definition codice_49 construct protects latter exist third-party alternatives prevent accidental deletion important files safe-rm trash gnu core utilities implementation used multiple linux distributions limited command line arguments bytes number pages allocated within kernel command-line arguments kernel 2.6.23 released 9 october 2007 defined kernel compile time variable codice_50 codice_51 file new kernels limits maximum argument length 25 maximum stack limit ulimit -s error codice_52 prompt command-line argument limit exceed Target text information: superuser.superuser computing superuser special user account used system administration depending operating system os actual name account might root administrator admin supervisor cases actual name account determining factor unix-like systems example user user identifier uid zero superuser regardless name account systems implement role based security model user role superuser synonyms carry actions superuser account principle least privilege recommends users applications run ordinary account perform work superuser account capable making unrestricted potentially adverse system-wide changes unix-like computer oses linux root conventional name user rights permissions files programs modes single- multi-user alternative names include baron beos avatar unix variants bsd often provides toor root written backward account addition root account regardless name superuser always user id 0 root user many things ordinary user changing ownership files binding network ports numbered 1024 name root may originated root user account permission modify root directory unix system directory originally considered root home directory unix filesystem hierarchy standard recommends root home /root first process bootstrapped unix-like system usually called init runs root privileges spawns processes directly indirectly inherit parents privileges process running root allowed change user id another user done way back sometimes called dropping root privileges often done security measure limit damage possible contamination process another case login programs ask users credentials case successful authentication allow run programs privileges accounts often recommended no-one use root normal user account since simple typographical errors entering commands cause major damage system instead normal user account used either su substitute user sudo substitute user command used su approach requires user know root password sudo method requires user set power run root within /etc/sudoers file typically indirectly made member wheel adm admin sudo group number reasons sudo approach generally preferred – example leaves audit trail used command administrative operations performed oses macos linux distributions notably ubuntu automatically give initial user created ability run root via sudo – configure ask password administrative actions cases actual root account disabled default ca n't directly used mobile platform-oriented oss apple ios android superuser access inaccessible design generally security system exploited order obtain systems plan 9 superuser windows nt later systems derived windows 2000 windows xp windows server 2003 windows vista/7/8/10 must least one administrator account windows xp earlier one able elevate privileges superuser windows vista/7/8/10 via user account control windows xp earlier systems built-in administrator account remains hidden user administrator-equivalent account exists built-in administrator account created blank password poses security risks local users would able access computer via built-in administrator account password left blank account disabled default windows vista later systems due introduction user account control uac remote users unable access built-in administrator account windows administrator account exact analogue unix root account – administrator built-in administrator account user administrator account level privileges default user account created windows systems administrator account unlike macos linux windows vista/7/8/10 administrator accounts administrator accounts windows systems without uac insulate system pitfalls full root access one pitfalls includes decreased resilience malware infections avoid maintain optimal system security pre-uac windows systems recommended simply authenticate necessary standard user account either via password set built-in administrator account another administrator account windows vista/7/8/10 administrator accounts prompt appear authenticate running process elevated privileges usually user credentials required authenticate uac prompt administrator accounts authenticating uac prompt requires entering username password administrator standard user accounts windows xp earlier systems administrator accounts authentication required run process elevated privileges poses another security risk led development uac users set process run elevated privileges standard accounts setting process run administrator using runas command authenticating prompt credentials username password administrator account much benefit authenticating standard account negated administrator account credentials used blank password built-in administrator account windows xp earlier systems hence recommended set password built-in administrator account windows nt 2000 higher root user administrator account novell netware superuser called supervisor later admin openvms system superuser account os many older oses computers intended personal home use anyone using system full privileges many systems dos concept multiple accounts although others windows 95 allow multiple accounts could preferences profile – users still full administrative control machine I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	700	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: extent_(file_systems).extent file systems extent contiguous area storage reserved file file system represented range block numbers tracks count key data devices file consist zero extents one file fragment requires one extent direct benefit storing range compactly two numbers instead canonically storing every block number range also extent allocation results less file fragmentation extent-based file systems also eliminate metadata overhead large files would traditionally taken block-allocation tree savings small compared amount stored data file sizes general make large portion metadata large files overall benefits storage efficiency performance slight order resist fragmentation several extent-based file systems allocate-on-flush many modern fault-tolerant file systems also copy-on-write although increases fragmentation similar design cp/m file system uses extents well correspond definition given cp/m extents appear contiguously single block combined directory/allocation table necessarily correspond contiguous data area disk ibm os/360 successors allocates files multiples disk tracks cylinders files could originally 16 extents restriction since lifted initial allocation size size additional extents allocated required specified user via job control language system attempts allocate initial size contiguous area although may split contiguous space available systems supporting filesystem extents include following 1-hop neighbor's text information: unionfs.unionfs unionfs filesystem service linux freebsd netbsd implements union mount file systems allows files directories separate file systems known branches transparently overlaid forming single coherent file system contents directories path within merged branches seen together single merged directory filesystem mounting branches priority one branch specified branches contain file name different branches may either read-only read-write file systems writes virtual merged copy directed specific real file system allows file system appear writable without actually allowing writes change file system also known copy-on-write may desirable media physically read-only case live cds unionfs originally developed professor erez zadok team stony brook university knoppix union file system cd-rom dvd file system contained image file called knoppix.img knoppix-data.img knoppix 7 writable drive usb memory stick made writable drive priority read-only filesystem allows user change files system new file stored image transparently used instead one cd unionfs also used create single common template number file systems security reasons sometimes used ad hoc snapshotting system docker uses unionfs layer docker images actions done base image layers created documented layer fully describes recreate action strategy enables docker lightweight images layer updates need propagated compared full vms example ubuntultsp linux terminal server project implementation ubuntu uses unionfs pxe booting thin thick clients unionfs linux two versions version 1.x standalone one built module version 2.x newer redesigned reimplemented one aufs alternative version unionfs overlayfs written miklos szeredi used openwrt considered ubuntu merged mainline linux kernel 26 october 2014 many years development discussion version 3.18 kernel unionfs-fuse independent project implemented user space filesystem program instead kernel module patch like unionfs supports copy-on-write read-only read-write branches plan 9 bell labs operating system uses union mounts extensively build custom namespaces per user processes union mounts also available bsd since least 1995 gnu hurd implementation unionfs january 2008 works results read-only mount-point mhddfs works like unionfs permits balancing files drives free space available implemented user space filesystem mergerfs fuse based union filesystem offers multiple policies accessing writing files well advanced features xattrs managing mixed ro rw drives link cow etc. sun microsystems introduced first implementation stacked layered file system copy-on-write whiteouts hiding files lower layers higher layers etc translucent file service sunos 3 circa 1986 jailbreakme 3.0 tool jailbreaking ios devices released july 2011 uses unionfs techniques speed installation process operating system modification 1-hop neighbor's text information: ext3.ext3 ext3 third extended filesystem journaled file system commonly used linux kernel used default file system many popular linux distributions stephen tweedie first revealed working extending ext2 journaling linux ext2fs filesystem 1998 paper later february 1999 kernel mailing list posting filesystem merged mainline linux kernel november 2001 2.4.15 onward main advantage ext2 journaling improves reliability eliminates need check file system unclean shutdown successor ext4 performance speed ext3 less attractive competing linux filesystems ext4 jfs reiserfs xfs ext3 significant advantage allows in-place upgrades ext2 without backup restore data benchmarks suggest ext3 also uses less cpu power reiserfs xfs also considered safer linux file systems due relative simplicity wider testing base ext3 adds following features ext2 without features ext3 file system also valid ext2 file system situation allowed well-tested mature file system maintenance utilities maintaining repairing ext2 file systems also used ext3 without major changes ext2 ext3 file systems share standard set utilities e2fsprogs includes fsck tool close relationship also makes conversion two file systems forward ext3 backward ext2 straightforward ext3 lacks modern filesystem features dynamic inode allocation extents situation might sometimes disadvantage recoverability significant advantage file system metadata fixed well-known locations data structures redundancy significant data corruption ext2 ext3 may recoverable tree-based file system may maximum number blocks ext3 2 size block vary affecting maximum number files maximum size file system three levels journaling available linux implementation ext3 three modes internal structure file system assured consistent even crash case data content files directories modified system crashed affected rest intact recovery ext3 aims backward-compatible earlier ext2 many on-disk structures similar ext2 consequently ext3 lacks recent features extents dynamic allocation inodes block sub-allocation directory 31998 subdirectories inode 32,000 links direct subdirectory increases parent folder inode link counter .. reference ext3 like current linux filesystems fsck-ed filesystem mounted writing attempting check filesystem already mounted read/write mode likely detect inconsistencies filesystem metadata filesystem metadata changing fsck applies changes attempt bring inconsistent metadata consistent state attempt fix inconsistencies corrupt filesystem online ext3 defragmentation tool works filesystem level offline ext2 defragmenter codice_1 requires ext3 filesystem converted back ext2 first however codice_1 may destroy data depending feature bits turned filesystem know handle many newer ext3 features userspace defragmentation tools like shake defrag shake works allocating space whole file one operation generally cause allocator find contiguous disk space files used time shake try write next one another defrag works copying file however strategy works file system enough free space true defragmentation tool exist ext3 however linux system administrator guide states modern linux filesystem keep fragmentation minimum keeping blocks file close together even ca n't stored consecutive sectors filesystems like ext3 effectively allocate free block nearest blocks file therefore necessary worry fragmentation linux system ext3 resistant file fragmentation ext3 get fragmented time specific usage patterns like slowly writing large files consequently ext4 successor ext3 online filesystem defragmentation utility e4defrag currently supports extents contiguous file regions ext3 support recovery deleted files ext3 driver actively deletes files wiping file inodes crash safety reasons still several techniques free proprietary software recovery deleted lost files using file system journal analysis however guarantee specific file recovery e3compr unofficial patch ext3 transparent compression direct port e2compr still needs development compiles boots well upstream kernels journaling implemented yet unlike number modern file systems ext3 native support snapshots ability quickly capture state filesystem arbitrary times instead relies less-space-efficient volume-level snapshots provided linux lvm next3 file system modified version ext3 offers snapshots support yet retains compatibility ext3 on-disk format ext3 checksumming writing journal storage device extra cache barrier=1 enabled mount option /etc/fstab hardware out-of-order write caching one runs risk severe filesystem corruption crash storage devices write caches report system data completely written even written volatile cache hard disk writes done out-of-order due modern hard disks caching writes order amortize write speeds likely one write commit block transaction relevant blocks written power failure unrecoverable crash occur blocks get written system rebooted upon reboot file system replay log normal replay winners transactions commit block including invalid transaction happened tagged valid commit block unfinished disk write thus proceed using corrupt journal data file system thus mistakenly overwrite normal data corrupt data replaying journal checksums used blocks fake winner transaction tagged mutual checksum file system could known better replayed corrupt data onto disk journal checksumming added ext4 filesystems going device mapper interface including software raid lvm implementations may support barriers issue warning mount option used also disks properly implement write cache flushing extension necessary barriers work causes similar warning situations barriers supported practical reliable write ordering possible turning disk write cache using mount option turning disk write cache may required even barriers available applications like databases expect call fsync flush pending writes disk barrier implementation n't always clear drive write cache response call also potential issue barrier implementation related error handling events drive failure also known sometimes virtualization technologies properly forward fsync flush commands underlying devices files volumes disk guest operating system similarly hard disks controllers implement cache flushing incorrectly still advertise supported return error used many ways handle fsync write cache handling incorrectly safer assume cache flushing work unless explicitly tested regardless reliable individual components believed ext3 stores dates unix time using four bytes file header 32 bits give enough scope continue processing files beyond january 18 2038 year 2038 problem geek millennium expected cause widespread disruption dealt timely fashion june 28 2006 theodore ts principal developer ext3 announced enhanced version called ext4 october 11 2008 patches mark ext4 stable code merged linux 2.6.28 source code repositories marking end development phase recommending adoption 2008 ts stated although ext4 improved features much faster ext3 major advance uses old technology stop-gap ts believes btrfs better direction offers improvements scalability reliability ease management btrfs also number design ideas reiser3/4 Target text information: high_sierra_format.high sierra format high sierra format hsf early logical file system used cd-roms 1985 1986 later ecma-119 iso 9660 standards based revised hsf compact discs originally developed recording musical data soon used storing additional digital data types equally effective archival mass data storage first every cd-rom maker created format high-level standards yellow book cd-rom standard lowest level need standard organizing data compact disks logical units files order develop cd-rom file system standard z39.60 volume file structure cdrom information interchange national information standards organization niso set standards committee sc ee compact disc data format july 1985 september/ october 1985 several companies invited experts participate development working paper standard november 1985 representatives computer hardware manufacturers gathered high sierra hotel casino currently called hard rock hotel casino near lake tahoe california group became known high sierra group hsg present meeting representatives apple computer digital equipment corporation dec hitachi laserdata microware microsoft 3m philips reference technology inc. sony corporation tms inc. videotools later meridian xebec yelick meeting report evolved yellow book cd-rom standard data cds open ended leading diversification creation many incompatible data storage methods high sierra group proposal hsgp released may 1986 draft version submitted european computer manufacturers association ecma changes led issue initial edition ecma-119 standard december 1986 ecma submitted standard international standards organization iso fast tracking refined iso 9660 compatibility second edition ecma-119 revised equivalent iso 9660 december 1987. published 1988 ecma-119 iso 9660 needed hsf geared primarily towards needs us market international extensions bulk differences formats order create incompatibilities niso suspended work z39.60 adopted niso members 28 may 1987 withdrawn final approval favour iso 9660 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	6	Computer File Systems	wikics	8,075	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: internet_protocol.internet protocol internet protocol ip principal communications protocol internet protocol suite relaying datagrams across network boundaries routing function enables internetworking essentially establishes internet ip task delivering packets source host destination host solely based ip addresses packet headers purpose ip defines packet structures encapsulate data delivered also defines addressing methods used label datagram source destination information historically ip connectionless datagram service original transmission control program introduced vint cerf bob kahn 1974 complemented connection-oriented service became basis transmission control protocol tcp internet protocol suite therefore often referred tcp/ip first major version ip internet protocol version 4 ipv4 dominant protocol internet successor internet protocol version 6 ipv6 growing adoption reaching almost 25 internet traffic october 2018 internet protocol responsible addressing host interfaces encapsulating data datagrams including fragmentation reassembly routing datagrams source host interface destination host interface across one ip networks purposes internet protocol defines format packets provides addressing system datagram two components header payload ip header includes source ip address destination ip address metadata needed route deliver datagram payload data transported method nesting data payload packet header called encapsulation ip addressing entails assignment ip addresses associated parameters host interfaces address space divided subnetworks involving designation network prefixes ip routing performed hosts well routers whose main function transport packets across network boundaries routers communicate one another via specially designed routing protocols either interior gateway protocols exterior gateway protocols needed topology network may 1974 institute electrical electronics engineers ieee published paper entitled protocol packet network intercommunication paper authors vint cerf bob kahn described internetworking protocol sharing resources using packet switching among network nodes central control component model transmission control program incorporated connection-oriented links datagram services hosts monolithic transmission control program later divided modular architecture consisting transmission control protocol user datagram protocol transport layer internet protocol internet layer model became known department defense dod internet model internet protocol suite informally tcp/ip ip versions 0 3 experimental versions used 1977 1979 following internet experiment note ien documents describe versions internet protocol prior modern version ipv4 dominant internetworking protocol internet layer use today ipv4 number 4 protocol version number carried every ip datagram ipv4 described 1981 version number 5 used internet stream protocol experimental streaming protocol successor ipv4 ipv6 ipv6 result several years experimentation dialog various protocol models proposed tp/ix pip tuba tcp udp bigger addresses prominent difference version 4 size addresses ipv4 uses 32 bits addressing yielding c. 4.3 billion addresses ipv6 uses 128-bit addresses providing ca 340 undecillion addresses although adoption ipv6 slow united states government systems demonstrated basic infrastructure support ipv6 assignment new protocol ipv6 uncertain due diligence revealed ipv6 yet used previously internet protocols assigned numbers according iana ipv7 ipv8 ipv9 ipv9 aka tcp udp big addresses resurfaced mid-2004 purportedly researched adopted china china disowns april 1 1994 ietf published april fools day joke ipv9 design internet protocol suite adheres end-to-end principle concept adapted cyclades project end-to-end principle network infrastructure considered inherently unreliable single network element transmission medium dynamic terms availability links nodes central monitoring performance measurement facility exists tracks maintains state network benefit reducing network complexity intelligence network purposely located end nodes consequence design internet protocol provides best-effort delivery service characterized unreliable network architectural language connectionless protocol contrast connection-oriented communication various error conditions may occur data corruption packet loss duplication routing dynamic meaning every packet treated independently network maintains state based path prior packets different packets may routed destination via different paths resulting out-of-order delivery receiver error conditions network must detected compensated participating end nodes upper layer protocols internet protocol suite responsible resolving reliability issues example host may buffer network data ensure correct ordering data delivered application ipv4 provides safeguards ensure header ip packet error-free routing node discards packets fail header checksum test although internet control message protocol icmp provides notification errors routing node required notify either end node errors ipv6 contrast operates without header checksums since current link layer technology assumed provide sufficient error detection dynamic nature internet diversity components provide guarantee particular path actually capable suitable performing data transmission requested one technical constraints size data packets allowed given link facilities exist examine maximum transmission unit mtu size local link path mtu discovery used entire intended path destination ipv4 internetworking layer ability automatically fragment original datagram smaller units transmission case ip provides re-ordering fragments delivered order ipv6 network perform fragmentation reassembly per end-to-end principle requires end stations higher-layer protocols avoid exceeding network mtu transmission control protocol tcp example protocol adjusts segment size smaller mtu user datagram protocol udp icmp disregard mtu size thereby forcing ip fragment oversized datagrams design phase arpanet early internet security aspects needs public international network could adequately anticipated consequently many internet protocols exhibited vulnerabilities highlighted network attacks later security assessments 2008 thorough security assessment proposed mitigation problems published ietf pursuing studies 1-hop neighbor's text information: global_information_grid.global information grid global information grid gig all-encompassing communications project united states department defense defined globally interconnected end-to-end set information capabilities collecting processing storing disseminating managing information demand warfighters policy makers support personnel gig includes owned leased communications computing systems services software including applications data security services associated services national security systems non-gig information technology includes stand-alone self-contained embedded connected enterprise network new definition removes references national security systems defined section 5142 clinger-cohen act 1996 new definition removes references gig providing capabilities operating locations bases posts camps stations facilities mobile platforms deployed sites lastly definition removes part definition discusses interfaces coalition allied non-department defense users systems dod use term gig undergoing changes department deals new concepts cyberspace operations gig 2.0 joint staff j6 initiative department defense information enterprise die gig managed construct known netops netops defined operational framework consisting three essential tasks situational awareness sa command control c2 commander cdr united states strategic command usstratcom coordination dod global netops community employs operate defend gig ensure information superiority department defense information enterprise defined dod information resources assets processes required achieve information advantage share information across department defense mission partners includes network-centric warfare ncw doctrine represents fundamental shift military culture away compartmentalized war machines toward interconnected units operating cohesively tenets network centric warfare enterprise level forging new paths components military communicate ease logistics burdens improve communication combat effectiveness war fighter decrease instances confusion-related fratricide accelerate trend minimizing collateral damage hasten flow business warfighter situational awareness would improved tremendously linking sees overhead satellite sees fog war would lifted seamless communication unit members site detection devices commanders operating behind line improved coordination may also assist delivering appropriate firepower tangible assets first responders domestic attacks natural disasters worldwide 1-hop neighbor's text information: user_datagram_protocol.user datagram protocol computer networking user datagram protocol udp one core members internet protocol suite protocol designed david p. reed 1980 formally defined udp computer applications send messages case referred datagrams hosts internet protocol ip network prior communications required order set communication channels data paths udp uses simple connectionless communication model minimum protocol mechanisms udp provides checksums data integrity port numbers addressing different functions source destination datagram handshaking dialogues thus exposes user program unreliability underlying network guarantee delivery ordering duplicate protection error-correction facilities needed network interface level application may use transmission control protocol tcp stream control transmission protocol sctp designed purpose udp suitable purposes error checking correction either necessary performed application udp avoids overhead processing protocol stack time-sensitive applications often use udp dropping packets preferable waiting packets delayed due retransmission may option real-time system udp simple message-oriented transport layer protocol documented although udp provides integrity verification via checksum header payload provides guarantees upper layer protocol message delivery udp layer retains state udp messages sent reason udp sometimes referred unreliable datagram protocol transmission reliability desired must implemented user application number udp attributes make especially suited certain applications applications use datagram sockets establish host-to-host communications application binds socket endpoint data transmission combination ip address port way udp provides application multiplexing port software structure identified port number 16 bit integer value allowing port numbers 0 65535 port 0 reserved permissible source port value sending process expect messages response internet assigned numbers authority iana divided port numbers three ranges port numbers 0 1023 used common well-known services unix-like operating systems using one ports requires superuser operating permission port numbers 1024 49151 registered ports used iana-registered services ports 49152 65535 dynamic ports officially designated specific service may used purpose may also used ephemeral ports software running host may use dynamically create communications endpoints needed udp header consists 4 fields 2 bytes 16 bits use checksum source port fields optional ipv4 pink background table ipv6 source port field optional method used compute checksum defined words 16-bit words summed using one complement arithmetic add 16-bit values addition carry-out 17th bit produced swing 17th carry bit around add least significant bit running total finally sum one complemented yield value udp checksum field checksum calculation results value zero 16 bits 0 sent one complement 1s zero-value checksum indicates checksum calculated difference ipv4 ipv6 pseudo header used compute checksum checksum optional ipv6 udp runs ipv4 checksum computed using pseudo header contains information real ipv4 header pseudo header real ipv4 header used send ip packet used checksum calculation source destination addresses ipv4 header protocol udp see list ip protocol numbers 17 0x11 udp length field length udp header data field data stands transmitted data udp checksum computation optional ipv4 checksum used set value zero udp runs ipv6 checksum mandatory method used compute changed documented computing checksum pseudo header used mimics real ipv6 header source address one ipv6 header destination address final destination ipv6 packet contain routing header destination address ipv6 header otherwise originating node address last element routing header receiving node destination address ipv6 header value next header field protocol value udp 17 udp length field length udp header data lacking reliability udp applications must generally willing accept loss errors duplication applications tftp may add rudimentary reliability mechanisms application layer needed often udp applications employ reliability mechanisms may even hindered streaming media real-time multiplayer games voice ip voip examples applications often use udp particular applications loss packets usually fatal problem application requires high degree reliability protocol transmission control protocol may used instead voip example latency jitter primary concerns use tcp would cause jitter packets lost tcp provide subsequent data application requesting re-sending missing data using udp end user applications must provide necessary handshaking real time confirmation message received numerous key internet applications use udp including domain name system dns queries must fast consist single request followed single reply packet simple network management protocol snmp routing information protocol rip dynamic host configuration protocol dhcp voice video traffic generally transmitted using udp real-time video audio streaming protocols designed handle occasional lost packets slight degradation quality occurs rather large delays lost packets retransmitted tcp udp run network many businesses finding recent increase udp traffic real-time applications hindering performance applications using tcp point sale accounting database systems tcp detects packet loss throttle back data rate usage since real-time business applications important businesses developing quality service solutions seen crucial vpn systems openvpn may use udp implementing reliable connections error checking application level transmission control protocol connection-oriented protocol means requires handshaking set end-to-end communications connection set user data may sent bi-directionally connection user datagram protocol simpler message-based connectionless protocol connectionless protocols set dedicated end-to-end connection communication achieved transmitting information one direction source destination without verifying readiness state receiver Target text information: jreap.jreap joint range extension applications protocol jreap enables tactical data messages transmitted long-distance networks e.g satellite links thereby extending range tactical data links tdls jreap documented u.s. military standard mil-std 3011 nato standardization agreement stanag 5518 interoperability standard joint range extension applications protocol jreap jreap developed due need communicate data long distances without degradation message format content jreap takes message format originally formatted changes protocol message transmitted beyond line-of sight media jreap protocol message structure transmission reception pre-formatted messages communications media messages designed jreap provides foundation joint range extension jre link 16 tactical data links overcome line-of-sight limitations radio terminals joint tactical information distribution system jtids multifunctional information distribution system mids extends coverage data links use long-haul media I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	6,861	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: dillo.dillo dillo minimalistic web browser particularly intended older slower computers embedded systems supports plain html/xhtml css rendering images http scripting ignored entirely current versions dillo run linux bsd os x irix cygwin due small size browser choice several space-conscious linux distributions released gnu general public license dillo free software chilean software engineer jorge arellano cid conceived dillo project late 1999 publishing first version dillo december year primary goal creating dillo democratize access information arellano cid believed one buy new computer pay broadband order enjoy world wide web end designed dillo small fast efficient capable performing well even intel 80486 cpu dial-up internet access dillo originally written c programming language gtk+ gui toolkit first versions based earlier browser called armadillo hence name dillo 2 written c c++ components fast light toolkit fltk released october 14 2008 text antialiasing support character sets latin-1 http compression capability improved page rendering added move fltk gtk+ also removed many project dependencies reduced dillo memory footprint 50 2011 dillo-3.x released using fltk-1.3 according changelog change prompted part lack official release fltk-2 stopped dillo-2 inclusion lightweight distributions would otherwise suitable jorge arellano cid still dillo lead developer today dillo funded private donations efforts obtain public grants corporate sponsors unsuccessful lack funding led slowdown development 2006 complete stop 2007 project restarted 2008 two months later received €115 donation distrowatch features dillo include bookmarks tabbed browsing support jpeg png including alpha transparency gif images partial support css introduced release 2.1 settings default fonts background color downloads folder home page customizable configuration files cookies supported disabled default due privacy concerns web browsers retain web cache history program closed dillo automatically clears improve privacy performance developer tool called bug meter provided lower-right corner clicked displays information validation problems unclosed tags dillo found web page unlike browsers dillo quirks mode improve compatibility web pages use invalid html instead dillo processes web pages according published web standards 2003 two linux enthusiasts successfully ran dillo intel 486 processor demonstrated even meager hardware dillo could render http //news.bbc.co.uk/ 10–15 seconds furthermore dillo run variety software platforms including linux bsd solaris mac os x dos handheld devices however dillo developers made little effort make browser work microsoft windows arellano cid stated windows goes dillo goal democratization artificially increasing hardware requirements software costs nevertheless dillo reported work windows via cygwin additionally dillo-win32 project port dillo windows defunct d+ browser dplus continues dillo-win32 left forked final dillo-win32 release 3.0p9 attempt maintain upstream compatibility dillo last version 0.5b oct 15 2013 dillo support javascript java flash right-to-left text complex text layout support frames also limited dillo presents link frame allow user view one time plug-in add https support likewise development reviews dillo praised extraordinary speed noted speed comes price visible cost dillo inability display complex web pages meant 2008 review linux.com commented dillo user interface may intimidating new users pointed scarcity plug-ins dillo dillo global usage share less one hundredth one percent many deficiencies attributed simple lack manpower behind development dillo however browser choice several space-conscious linux distributions damn small linux feather linux vectorlinux antix mustang linux 1-hop neighbor's text information: srware_iron.srware iron srware iron chromium-based web browser developed german company srware primarily aims eliminate usage tracking privacy-compromising functionality google chrome browser includes iron provide extra privacy compared chromium proper settings altered latter implement additional features distinguish google chrome iron first released beta version 18 september 2008 16 days google chrome initial release 26 may 2009 preview-release pre-alpha iron came linux 7 january 2010 beta version macos released 11 august 2010 microsoft updated browserchoice.eu website order include iron one possible choices recent versions iron released since gained features underlying chromium codebase including google chrome theme support user agent switcher extension system integrated adblocker improved linux support following google chrome features present iron added features include according lifehacker iron offers little available simply configuring google chrome privacy settings according others scamware scareware since developers bring non-existent issues chrome claim iron solves although srware claiming iron free opensource n't true least version 6 mid 2015 links given source code hosted rapidshare blocked uploader srware iron entirely closed source since least version 6 according lifehacker october 2014 srware iron supposedly open source n't released source years 2015 srware resumed releasing claim source code browser although stating page version source code 1-hop neighbor's text information: usenet.usenet usenet worldwide distributed discussion system available computers developed general-purpose unix-to-unix copy uucp dial-up network architecture tom truscott jim ellis conceived idea 1979 established 1980 users read post messages called articles posts collectively termed news one categories known newsgroups usenet resembles bulletin board system bbs many respects precursor internet forums widely used today discussions threaded web forums bbss though posts stored server sequentially name comes term users network major difference bbs web forum usenet absence central server dedicated administrator usenet distributed among large constantly changing conglomeration servers store forward messages one another so-called news feeds individual users may read messages post messages local server operated commercial usenet provider internet service provider university employer server usenet culturally historically significant networked world given rise popularized many widely recognized concepts terms faq flame sockpuppet spam 1990s internet became commonly affordable usenet connections via fidonet dial-up bbs networks made long-distance worldwide discussions communication widespread needing server local telephone service usenet conceived 1979 publicly established 1980 university north carolina chapel hill duke university decade world wide web went online general public received access internet making one oldest computer network communications systems still widespread use originally built poor man arpanet employing uucp transport protocol offer mail file transfers well announcements newly developed news software news name usenet emphasized creators hope usenix organization would take active role operation articles users post usenet organized topical categories known newsgroups logically organized hierarchies subjects instance sci.math sci.physics within sci hierarchy science talk.origins talk.atheism talk hierarchy user subscribes newsgroup news client software keeps track articles user read newsgroups majority articles responses article set articles traced one single non-reply article called thread modern newsreaders display articles arranged threads subthreads example wine-making newsgroup rec.crafts.winemaking someone might start thread called best yeast thread conversation might grow dozens replies long perhaps six eight different authors several days conversation different wine yeasts might branch several sub-threads tree-like form user posts article initially available user news server news server talks one servers newsfeeds exchanges articles fashion article copied server server eventually reach every server network later peer-to-peer networks operate similar principle usenet normally sender rather receiver initiates transfers usenet designed conditions networks much slower always available many sites original usenet network would connect twice day batch-transfer messages largely pots network typically used transfers phone charges lower night format transmission usenet articles similar internet e-mail messages difference two usenet articles read user whose news server carries group message posted opposed email messages one specific recipients today usenet diminished importance respect internet forums blogs mailing lists social media usenet differs media several ways usenet requires personal registration group concerned information need stored remote server archives always available reading messages require mail web client news client however possible read participate usenet newsgroups large degree using ordinary internet browsers since newsgroups copied several internet sites groups alt.binaries still widely used data transfer many internet service providers many internet sites operate news servers users access isps operate servers directly often offer users account another provider specifically operates newsfeeds early news implementations server newsreader single program suite running system today one uses separate newsreader client software program resembles email client accesses usenet servers instead clients mozilla thunderbird outlook express provide abilities isps run news servers news server one difficult internet services administer large amount data involved small customer base compared mainstream internet services email web access disproportionately high volume customer support incidents frequently complaining missing news articles isp fault isps outsource news operation specialist sites usually appear user though isp ran server many sites carry restricted newsfeed limited number newsgroups commonly omitted newsfeed foreign-language newsgroups alt.binaries hierarchy largely carries software music videos images accounts 99 percent article data also usenet providers specialize offering service users whose isps carry news carry restricted feed see also news server operation overview news systems implemented newsgroups typically accessed newsreaders applications allow users read reply postings newsgroups applications act clients one news servers although historically usenet associated unix operating system developed newsreaders available major operating systems modern mail clients communication suites commonly also integrated newsreader often however integrated clients low quality compared standalone newsreaders incorrectly implement usenet protocols standards conventions many integrated clients example one microsoft outlook express disliked purists misbehavior rise world wide web www web front-ends web2news become common web front ends lowered technical entry barrier requirements one application usenet nntp server account numerous websites offering web based gateways usenet groups although people begun filtering messages made web interfaces one reason another google groups one web based front end web browsers access google groups via news protocol links directly minority newsgroups moderated meaning messages submitted readers distributed directly usenet instead emailed moderators newsgroup approval moderator receive submitted articles review inject approved articles properly propagated worldwide articles approved moderator must bear approved header line moderators ensure messages readers see newsgroup conform charter newsgroup though required follow rules guidelines typically moderators appointed proposal newsgroup changes moderators follow succession plan historically mod hierarchy existed usenet reorganization moderated newsgroups may appear hierarchy typically .moderated added group name usenet newsgroups big-8 hierarchy created proposals called request discussion rfd rfd required following information newsgroup name checkgroups file entry moderated unmoderated status group moderated least one moderator valid email address must provided information beneficial required includes charter rationale moderation policy group moderated discussion new newsgroup proposal follows finished members big-8 management board making decision vote either approve disapprove new newsgroup unmoderated newsgroups form majority usenet newsgroups messages submitted readers unmoderated newsgroups immediately propagated everyone see minimal editorial content filtering vs propagation speed form one crux usenet community one little cited defense propagation canceling propagated message usenet users use command news readers offer cancellation commands part article storage expires relatively short order anyway almost unmoderated usenet groups become collections spam usenet set protocols generating storing retrieving news articles resemble internet mail messages exchanging among readership potentially widely distributed protocols commonly use flooding algorithm propagates copies throughout network participating servers whenever message reaches server server forwards message network neighbors n't yet seen article one copy message stored per server server makes available demand typically local readers able access server collection usenet servers thus certain peer-to-peer character share resources exchanging granularity exchange however different scale modern peer-to-peer system characteristic excludes actual users system connect news servers typical client-server application much like email reader rfc 850 first formal specification messages exchanged usenet servers superseded rfc 1036 subsequently rfc 5536 rfc 5537 cases unsuitable content posted usenet support automated removal posting whole network creating cancel message although due lack authentication resultant abuse capability frequently disabled copyright holders may still request manual deletion infringing material using provisions world intellectual property organization treaty implementations united states online copyright infringement liability limitation act would require giving notice individual news server administrator internet usenet transported via network news transfer protocol nntp tcp port 119 standard unprotected connections tcp port 563 ssl encrypted connections offered sites major set worldwide newsgroups contained within nine hierarchies eight operated consensual guidelines govern administration naming current big eight see also great renaming alt hierarchy subject procedures controlling groups big eight result less organized groups alt hierarchy tend specialized specific—for example might newsgroup big eight contains discussions children books group alt hierarchy may dedicated one specific author children books binaries posted alt.binaries making largest hierarchies many hierarchies newsgroups distributed alongside regional language-specific hierarchies ne serve specific countries regions japan malta new england companies projects administer hierarchies discuss products offer community technical support historical hierarchy free software foundation microsoft closed newsserver june 2010 providing support products forums users prefer use term usenet refer big eight hierarchies others include alt well general term netnews incorporates entire medium including private organizational news systems informal sub-hierarchy conventions also exist .answers typically moderated cross-post groups faqs faq would posted within one group cross post .answers group head hierarchy seen refining information news group subgroups recursive—to point silliness alt.* usenet originally created distribute text content encoded 7-bit ascii character set help programs encode 8-bit values ascii became practical distribute binary files content binary posts due size often-dubious copyright status time restricted specific newsgroups making easier administrators allow disallow traffic oldest widely used encoding method binary content uuencode unix uucp package late 1980s usenet articles often limited 60,000 characters larger hard limits exist today files therefore commonly split sections require reassembly reader header extensions base64 quoted-printable mime encodings new generation binary transport practice mime seen increased adoption text messages avoided binary attachments operating systems metadata attached files use specialized encoding formats mac os binhex special mime types used lesser known encoding systems may used one time btoa xx encoding boo usr encoding attempt reduce file transfer times informal file encoding known yenc introduced 2001 achieves 30 reduction data transferred assuming 8-bit characters safely transferred across network without first encoding 7-bit ascii space common method uploading large binary posts usenet convert files rar archives create parchive files parity files used recreate missing data every part files reaches server news server generally allocates certain amount storage space post content newsgroup storage filled time new post arrives old posts deleted make room new content network bandwidth available server high storage allocation small possible huge flood incoming content overflow allocation push everything group flood large enough beginning flood begin deleted even last part flood posted binary newsgroups able function reliably sufficient storage allocated group allow readers enough time download parts binary posting flushed group storage allocation one time posting undesired content countered newsgroup would flooded random garbage data posts sufficient quantity push content suppressed compensated service providers allocating enough storage retain everything posted day including spam floods without deleting anything average length time posts able stay group deleted commonly called retention time generally larger usenet servers enough capacity archive several years binary content even flooded new data maximum daily speed available good binaries service provider must accommodate users fast connections 3 megabit also users slow connections 256 kilobit less need time download content period several days weeks major nsps retention time 4 years results 33 petabytes 33000 terabytes storage part long retention times well growing internet upload speeds usenet also used individual users store backup data practice called usenet backup ubackup commercial providers offer easy use online backup services storing data usenet free charge although access usenet may method requires user manually select prepare upload data anyone potentially download backup files data typically encrypted files uploaded uploader control files automatically copied usenet providers multiple copies spread different geographical locations around world—desirable backup scheme binary newsgroups used distribute completely legal user-created works open-source software public domain material binary groups used illegally distribute commercial software copyrighted media pornographic material isp-operated usenet servers frequently block access alt.binaries groups reduce network traffic avoid related legal issues commercial usenet service providers claim operate telecommunications service assert responsible user-posted binary content transferred via equipment united states usenet providers qualify protection dmca safe harbor regulations provided establish mechanism comply respond takedown notices copyright holders removal copyrighted content entire usenet network nearly impossible task due rapid propagation servers retention done server petitioning usenet provider removal removes one server retention cache others possible special post cancellation message distributed remove servers many providers ignore cancel messages standard policy easily falsified submitted anyone takedown petition effective across whole network would issued origin server content posted propagated servers removal content early stage would prevent propagation modern high speed links content propagated fast arrives allowing time content review takedown issuance copyright holders establishing identity person posting illegal content equally difficult due trust-based design network like smtp email servers generally assume header origin information post true accurate however smtp email usenet post headers easily falsified obscure true identity location message source manner usenet significantly different modern p2p services p2p users distributing content typically immediately identifiable users network address origin information usenet posting completely obscured unobtainable propagated past original server also unlike modern p2p services identity downloaders hidden view p2p services downloader identifiable others network address usenet downloader connects directly server server knows address connecting usenet providers keep usage logs make logged information casually available outside parties recording industry association america existence anonymising gateways usenet also complicates tracing postings true origin newsgroup experiments first occurred 1979 tom truscott jim ellis duke university came idea replacement local announcement program established link nearby university north carolina using bourne shell scripts written steve bellovin public release news form conventional compiled software written steve daniel truscott 1980 usenet connected arpanet connections usenet arpanet mark horton graduate student set connection began feeding mailing lists arpanet usenet fa arpanet identifier usenet gained 50 member sites first year including reed college university oklahoma bell labs number people using network increased dramatically however still longer usenet users could contribute arpanet uucp networks spread quickly due lower costs involved ability use existing leased lines x.25 links even arpanet connections 1983 thousands people participated 500 hosts mostly universities bell labs sites also growing number unix-related companies number hosts nearly doubled 940 1984 100 newsgroups existed 20 devoted unix computer-related topics least third recreation mesh uucp hosts rapidly expanded became desirable distinguish usenet subset overall network vote taken 1982 usenix conference choose new name name usenet retained established applied news name uucpnet became common name overall network addition uucp early usenet traffic also exchanged fidonet dial-up bbs networks mid-1990s almost 40,000 fidonet systems operation possible communicate millions users around world local telephone service widespread use usenet bbs community facilitated introduction uucp feeds made possible ms-dos implementations uucp ufgate uucp fidonet gateway fsuucp uupc 1986 rfc 977 provided network news transfer protocol nntp specification distribution usenet articles tcp/ip flexible alternative informal internet transfers uucp traffic since internet boom 1990s almost usenet distribution nntp early versions usenet used duke news software designed one two articles day matt glickman horton berkeley produced improved version called b news could handle rising traffic 50 articles day late 1983 message format offered compatibility internet mail improved performance became dominant server software c news developed geoff collyer henry spencer university toronto comparable b news features offered considerably faster processing early 1990s internetnews rich salz developed take advantage continuous message flow made possible nntp versus batched store-and-forward design uucp since time inn development continued news server software also developed usenet first internet community place many important public developments pre-commercial internet place tim berners-lee announced launch world wide web linus torvalds announced linux project marc andreessen announced creation mosaic browser introduction image tag revolutionized world wide web turning graphical medium many jargon terms common use internet originated popularized usenet likewise many conflicts later spread rest internet ongoing difficulties spamming began usenet sascha segan pc magazine said 2008 usenet dying years segan said people pointed eternal september 1993 beginning usenet decline segan believes pornographers software crackers began putting large non-text files usenet late 1990s usenet disk space traffic increased correspondingly internet service providers questioned needed host space pornography unauthorized software state new york opened investigation child pornographers used usenet many isps dropped usenet access access alt hierarchy response john biggs techcrunch said long folks think command line better mouse original text-only social network live aol discontinued usenet access 2005 may 2010 duke university whose implementation kicked usenet 30 years earlier decommissioned usenet server citing low usage rising costs 32 years usenet news service link university north carolina chapel hill news.unc.edu retired february 4 2011 time amount usenet traffic steadily increased number text posts made big-8 newsgroups averaged 1,800 new messages every hour average 25,000 messages per day however averages minuscule comparison traffic binary groups much traffic increase reflects increase discrete users newsgroup discussions instead combination massive automated spamming increase use .binaries newsgroups large files often posted publicly small sampling change measured feed size per day follows 2008 verizon communications time warner cable sprint nextel signed agreement attorney general new york andrew cuomo shut access sources child pornography time warner cable stopped offering access usenet verizon reduced access big 8 hierarchies sprint stopped access alt hierarchies stopped access alt.binaries hierarchies cuomo never specifically named usenet anti-child pornography campaign david dejean pc world said worry isps used cuomo campaign excuse end portions usenet access costly internet service providers high demand customers 2008 aol longer offered usenet access four providers responded cuomo campaign five largest internet service providers united states 50 u.s. isp marketshare june 8 2009 announced would longer provide access usenet service july 15 2009 aol announced would discontinue integrated usenet service early 2005 citing growing popularity weblogs chat forums on-line conferencing aol community tremendous role popularizing usenet 11 years earlier august 2009 verizon announced would discontinue access usenet september 30 2009 janet announced would discontinue usenet service effective july 31 2010 citing google groups alternative microsoft announced would discontinue support public newsgroups msnews.microsoft.com june 1 2010 offering web forums alternative primary reasons cited discontinuance usenet service general isps include decline volume actual readers due competition blogs along cost liability concerns increasing proportion traffic devoted file-sharing spam unused discontinued groups isps include pressure cuomo campaign child pornography one reasons dropping usenet feeds part services isps cox atlantic communications resisted 2008 trend eventually drop respective usenet feeds 2010 public archives usenet articles existed since early days usenet system created kenneth almquist late 1982 distributed archiving usenet posts suggested november 1982 scott orshan proposed every site keep articles posted forever also november year rick adams responded post asking anyone archived netnews anyone plan stating afraid admit started archiving 'useful newsgroups september 18 june 1982 gregory g. woodbury proposed automatic access archives system consisted automatic answering fixed-format messages special mail recipient specified machines 1985 two news archiving systems one rfc posted internet first system called keepnews mark m. swenson university arizona described program attempts provide sane way extracting keeping information comes usenet main advantage system allow users mark articles worthwhile retain second system ya news archiver chuq von rospach similar keepnews designed work much larger archives wonderful quadratic search time feature unix ... becomes real problem von rospach early 1985 posted detailed rfc archiving accessing usenet articles keyword lookup rfc described program could generate maintain archive usenet articles allow looking articles based article-id subject lines keywords pulled article also included c code internal data structure system desire fulltext search index archived news articles new either one request made april 1991 alex martelli sought build sort keyword index news archive early may mr. martelli posted summary responses usenet noting popular suggestion award must definitely go 'lq-text package liam quin recently posted alt.sources huge site http //asstr.org archives indexes erotic pornographic stories posted usenet group alt.sex.stories today archiving usenet led fear loss privacy archive simplifies ways profile people partly countered introduction x-no-archive yes header controversial web-based archiving usenet posts began 1995 deja news large searchable database 2001 database acquired google google groups hosts archive usenet posts dating back may 1981 earliest posts date may 1981 june 1991 donated google university western ontario help david wiseman others originally archived henry spencer university toronto zoology department archives late 1991 early 1995 provided kent landfield netnews cd series jürgen christoffel gmd archive posts march 1995 onward started company dejanews later deja purchased google february 2001 google began archiving usenet posts starting second week august 2000 google criticized vice wired contributors well former employees stewardship archive breaking search functionality usenet whole administrators server administrator free whatever pleases long end users peer servers tolerate accept nevertheless famous administrators Target text information: vivaldi_(web_browser).vivaldi web browser vivaldi freeware cross-platform web browser developed vivaldi technologies company founded opera software co-founder former ceo jon stephenson von tetzchner tatsuki tomita officially launched april 6 2016 although intended general users first foremost targeted towards technically-inclined users well former opera users disgruntled transition presto layout engine chromium-based browser resulted loss many iconic features despite also chromium-based vivaldi aims revive features presto-based opera proprietary modifications march 2019 vivaldi 1.2 million active monthly users vivaldi began virtual community website replaced opera shut opera software march 2014 jon stephenson von tetzchner angered decision believed community helped make opera web browser tetzchner launched vivaldi community—a virtual community focused providing registered users discussion forum blogging service numerous practical web services—to make opera closure later january 27 2015 vivaldi technologies launched—with community mind—the first technical preview vivaldi web browser name comes italian composer antonio vivaldi according one creators easy name remembered understood worldwide vivaldi minimalistic user interface basic icons fonts color scheme changes based background design web page visited browser also allows users customize appearance ui elements background color overall theme address bar tab positioning start pages according ceo jon von tetzchner vivaldi vast unique customizability huge part browser caters experienced users vivaldi features ability stack tile tabs annotate web pages add notes bookmarks furthermore users place digital bookmarks speed dial page quick access harness quick commands search bookmarks browsing history open tabs settings vivaldi built around based web technologies html5 node.js react.js numerous npm modules technical preview 4 vivaldi also supports numerous mouse gestures actions like tab switching keyboard activation vivaldi also set chromeless ui gives users screen real-estate ability focus single page without distractions accommodate users prefer use large number tabs time vivaldi supports hibernation individual tabs tab stacks freeing resources user actively use tabs chromium-based browser vivaldi use many browser extensions developed google chrome users install directly chrome web store work properly vivaldi exception user interface customizations vivaldi interface quite different chrome company hopes integrate email client m3 future version vivaldi developers planning release extension platform vivaldi statcounter estimates vivaldi 0.05 market share desktop browsers december 2018 ars technica reviewer scott gilbertson wrote version 1.0 april 2016 praised innovative features tab handling noting likely remain niche browser see widespread uptake october 2018 gilbertson gave version 2.0 positive review stated vivaldi usual browser would hard put go back browser without unique features I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	3,971	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: ship_registration.ship registration ship registration process ship documented given nationality country ship documented nationality allows ship travel internationally proof ownership vessel international law requires every merchant ship registered country called flag state ship subject law flag state usual say ship sails flag country registration ship flag state exercises regulatory control vessel required inspect regularly certify ship equipment crew issue safety pollution prevention documents organization actually registers ship known registry registries may governmental private agencies cases united states alternative compliance program registry assign third party administer inspections register open ships nation known traditional national register registers open foreign-owned ships known open registries sometimes called flags convenience ship registration done since business seas important originally meant control ships carrying cargo european seaborne countries used make sure ships built local country crews predominantly local country since ship registration used document ships ownership documentation provides definite evidence nationality international purposes provides financing opportunities availability preferred mortgages documented vessels vessels operate internationally cross international borders required registered jurisdictions also require vessels operate territorial waters register national register forbid foreign-flagged vessels trading ports within country practice known cabotage country registration ship flag state determines nationality well country laws govern operation behavior crew registry rules types vessels accept registration liberian registry example registers seagoing vessels 500 net tons conduct foreign trade vessels age 20 require waiver well vessel classification society willing issue statutory certificates vessel vessels 15 years older must status report vessel special survey reviewed marine safety registries charge registration fee must genuine link vessel flag state article 5 1 geneva convention high seas 1958 came effect 1962 requires state must effectively exercise jurisdiction control administrative technical social matters ships flying flag 63 states party convention principle repeated article 91 united nations convention law sea 1982 unclos came effect 1994 convention 167 parties 1986 united nations conference trade development attempted solidify genuine link concept united nations convention conditions registration ships convention conditions registration ships would require flag state linked ships either economic stake ownership ships providing mariners crew ships come force 1986 treaty requires 40 signatories whose combined tonnage exceeds 25 world total date 14 countries signed treaty national closed registries typically require ship owned constructed national interests least partially crewed citizens open registries requirements offer on-line registration sometimes guaranteeing completion less day ships operated illegally pirates narco submarines normally registered operators although registered ship may captured used covertly illegal purposes 1-hop neighbor's text information: flag_of_convenience.flag convenience flag convenience foc business practice whereby ship owners register merchant ship ship register country ship owners ship flies civil ensign country called flag state term often used pejoratively practice regarded contentious merchant ship required international law registered registry created country ship subject laws country used also ship involved case admiralty law ship owners may elect register ship foreign country enables avoid regulations owners ’ country may example stricter safety standards may also select jurisdiction reduce operating costs bypassing laws protect wages working conditions mariners term flag convenience used since 1950s registry nationality residency requirement ship registration often described open registry panama example offers advantages easier registration often online ability employ cheaper foreign labour furthermore foreign owners pay income taxes modern practice ships registered foreign country began 1920s united states shipowners seeking serve alcohol passengers prohibition registered ships panama owners soon began perceive advantages terms avoiding increased regulations rising labor costs continued register ships panama even prohibition ended use open registries steadily increased 1968 liberia grew surpass united kingdom world largest ship register half world merchant ships registered open registries almost 40 entire world fleet terms deadweight tonnage registered panama liberia marshall islands 2006 20 high-seas fishing vessels registered states connected according ihs markit march 2017 panama 8,052 ships registry singapore 3,574 ships liberia 3,277 ships marshall islands 3,244 ships hong kong 2,594 ships open registries criticised mainly trade union organisations based developed countries especially europe one criticism shipowners want hide ownership may select flag-of-convenience jurisdiction enables legally anonymous ships flags convenience found engaging crime offer substandard working conditions negatively impact environment primarily illegal unreported unregulated fishing shipowners may select jurisdiction measurement rules reduce certified grt size ship reduce subsequent port call dock dues consideration carnival cruise line changed flag rms empress canada 1972 panama 2011 cunard cruise line registered ships bermuda besides considerations enabled ship captains marry couples sea weddings sea described lucrative market thirteen flag states found international shipping organisations substandard regulations hand maritime industry practitioners seafarers countries contend natural product globalisation supporters practice however point economic regulatory advantages increased freedom choosing employees international labour pool ship owners developed countries use practice competitive global environment ships thirteen flags convenience targeted special enforcement countries visit ports countries called port state control international law requires every merchant ship registered country country ship registered flag state flag state gives ship right fly civil ensign ship operates laws flag state laws used ship involved admiralty case ship flag state exercises regulatory control vessel required inspect regularly certify ship equipment crew issue safety pollution prevention documents organization actually registers ship known registry registries may governmental private agencies reasons choosing open register varied include tax avoidance ability avoid national labor environmental regulations ability hire crews lower-wage countries national closed registries typically require ship owned constructed national interests least partially crewed citizens conversely open registries frequently offer on-line registration questions asked use flags convenience lowers registration maintenance costs turn reduces overall transportation costs accumulated advantages significant example 1999 28 american company sealand fleet 63 ships foreign-flagged saving company us 3.5 million per ship every year environmental disaster caused 1978 sinking flew liberian flag spurred creation new type maritime enforcement resulting strong political public outcry amoco cadiz sinking fourteen european nations signed 1982 paris memorandum understanding port state control paris mou port state control ships international trade became subject inspection states visit addition shipboard living working conditions inspections cover items concerning safety life sea prevention pollution ships cases port state inspection uncovers problems ship port state may take actions including detaining ship 2015 member states paris mou conducted 17,858 inspections deficiencies resulted 595 detained vessels 11 banned member states tokyo memorandum understanding conducted 17,269 ship inspections 2015 recording 83,606 deficiencies resulted 1,153 detentions principle genuine link ship owners flag state dates back 1958 article 5 1 geneva convention high seas also required state must effectively exercise jurisdiction control administrative technical social matters ships flying flag principle repeated article 91 1982 treaty called united nations convention law sea often referred unclos 1986 united nations conference trade development attempted solidify genuine link concept united nations convention conditions registration ships convention registration ships would require flag state linked ships either economic stake ownership ships providing mariners crew ships come force 1986 treaty requires 40 signatories whose combined tonnage exceeds 25 world total 14 countries signed treaty merchant ships used false flags tactic evade enemy warships since antiquity examples found early roman era middle ages following american revolutionary war merchantmen flying flag fledgling united states quickly found offered little protection attack barbary pirates – many responded seeking transfer registry back great britain use false flags frequently used british napoleonic wars united states war 1812 mid-19th century slave ships flew various flags avoid searched british anti-slavery fleets belen quezada august 1919 first foreign ship re-registered panamanian registry employed running illegal alcohol canada united states prohibition modern practice registering ships foreign countries gain economic advantage originated united states era world war though term flag convenience come use 1950s 1915 1922 several laws passed united states strengthen united states merchant marine provide safeguards mariners period u.s.-flagged ships became subject regular inspections undertaken american bureau shipping also time robert lafollette seamen act 1915 described magna carta sailors rights seamen act regulated mariners working hours payment established baseline requirements shipboard food also reduced penalties disobedience abolished practice imprisoning sailors offense desertion another aspect seamen act enforcement safety standards requirements lifeboats number qualified able seamen board officers seamen able speak language laws put u.s.-flagged vessels economic disadvantage countries lacking safeguards ships started re-registered panama open registry 1919 addition sidestepping seamen act panamanian-flagged ships early period paid sailors japanese wage scale much lower western merchant powers early phase world war ii transfer american-owned ships panama registry sanctioned united states government could used deliver materials britain without dragging united states neutral unintentionally war liberian open registry founded 1948 brainchild edward stettinius franklin d. roosevelt secretary state world war ii stettinius created corporate structure included liberia corporation joint-venture government liberia corporation structured one-fourth revenue would go liberian government another 10 went fund social programs liberia remainder returned stettinius corporation liberian registry created time panama registry becoming less attractive several reasons including unpopularity u.s. labor movement european shipping concerns political unrest panama increases fees regulations 11 march 1949 greek shipping magnate stavros niarchos registered first ship liberian flag world peace stettinius died 1949 ownership registry passed international bank washington led general george olmsted within 18 years liberia grew surpass united kingdom world largest register due liberia 1989 1999 civil wars registry eventually fell second panama flag convenience maritime funds continued supply 70 total government revenue civil war 1990 liberia joined republic marshall islands develop new maritime corporate program resulting company international registries formed parent company 1993 bought management taking liberian government americo-liberian warlord charles taylor signed new registry contract liberian international ship corporate registry commonly known liscr liscr one legal sources income taylor regime liberia registry operated virginia united states open registries panama liberia marshall islands accounted almost 40 entire world fleet terms deadweight tonnage year top ten flags convenience registered 55 world deadweight tonnage including 61 bulk carriers 56 oil tankers counteract class hopping 2009 iacs established transfer class agreement toca international transport workers federation itf maintains list registries considers flags convenience foc registries developing list itf considers ability willingness flag state enforce international minimum social standards vessels degree ratification enforcement ilo conventions recommendations safety environmental record list includes 35 countries panama liberia marshall islands world three largest registries terms deadweight tonnage dwt three organizations registered 11,636 ships total 39 world shipborne carrying capacity panama dominates scene 8,065 ships accounting almost 23 world dwt three marshall islands 1,265 registered ships greatest rate dwt increase 2009 increasing tonnage almost 15 bahamian flag ranks sixth worldwide behind hong kong greek registries similar size marshallese flag convenience 200 ships carrying capacity lower malta ninth position worldwide 100 ships bahamas capacity representing 4 world fleet 12 growth year eleventh position cyprus registered 1,016 ships 2009 2.6 world tonnage remaining top 11 flags convenience antigua barbuda 20 bermuda 22 saint vincent grenadines 26 french international ship register fis number 27 bermuda fis fewer 200 ships apiece large average bermudan ship average fis ship way reference average capacity ships u.s. u.k. registers respectively registries antigua barbuda saint vincent grenadines 1,000 ships average capacity respectively remaining flags convenience listed itf account less 1 world dwt half world merchant ships measured tonnage registered flags convenience number common threads found criticisms flag convenience system one flag states insufficient regulations regulations poorly enforced another many cases flag state identify shipowner much less hold owner civilly criminally responsible ship actions result lack flag state control flags convenience criticized grounds enabling tax avoidance providing environment conducting criminal activities supporting terrorism providing poor working conditions seafarers adverse effect environment david cockroft former general secretary itf says panama largest maritime register followed liberia landlocked bolivia also major registry mongolia also registers based countries example panama consulates manage documentation collect registration fees liberia registry managed company virginia bahamas city london ship beneficial owner legally financially responsible ship activities number reasons justifiable suspicious shipowners wish conceal ownership may use number strategies achieve goal jurisidictions permit actual owners may establish shell corporations legal owners ships making difficult impossible track beneficial owner ship 2004 report un secretary general consultative group flag state implementation reported easy comparatively inexpensive establish complex web corporate entities provide effective cover identities beneficial owners want known according 2003 report organisation economic co-operation development oecd report entitled ownership control ships corporate structures often multi-layered spread across numerous jurisdictions make beneficial owner almost impenetrable law enforcement officials taxation report concludes regardless reasons cloak anonymity made available provided also assist may wish remain hidden engage illegal criminal activities including terrorists oecd report concludes use bearer shares perhaps single important perhaps widely used mechanism protect anonymity ship beneficial owner physically possessing bearer share accords ownership corporation requirement reporting transfer bearer shares every jurisdiction requires serial numbers even recorded two similar techniques provide anonymity ship beneficial owner nominee shareholders nominee directors jurisdictions require shareholder identities reported loophole may exist beneficial owner may appoint nominee shareholder nominee legally compelled reveal identity beneficial owner corporations required least one director however many jurisdictions allow nominee director nominee director name would appear corporate paperwork place beneficial owners like nominee shareholders jurisdictions compel nominee director divulge identity beneficial owners hurdle jurisdictions allow corporation named director flag convenience ships long linked crime high seas example 1982 honduras shut open registry operations enabled illegal traffic kinds given honduras bad name ships registered cambodia shipping corporation csc found smuggling drugs cigarettes europe breaking iraq oil embargo engaging human trafficking prostitution europe asia response activities 2000 ahamd yahya cambodian ministry public works transport told industry publication fairplay n't know care owns ships whether 're 'white 'black business ... concern less two years later french forces seized cambodian-flagged greek-owned mv winner cocaine smuggling shortly seizure cambodian prime minister hun sen closed registry foreign ships cambodia canceled contract csc shortly thereafter north korean flag convenience also garnered significant scrutiny 2003 north korean freighter pong su reflagged tuvalu middle voyage shortly seized australian authorities smuggling heroin country year thirteen nations began monitoring vessels north korean flag illicit cargos like drugs missiles nuclear weapon fuel accompanying material ilo maritime labour convention 2006 international labour organization estimated time approximately 1,200,000 working seafarers across world document goes say working aboard ships flagged states exercise effective jurisdiction control ships seafarers often work unacceptable conditions detriment well-being health safety safety ships work international transport workers federation goes stating flags convenience provide means avoiding labor regulation country ownership become vehicle paying low wages forcing long hours work unsafe working conditions since foc ships real nationality beyond reach single national seafarers trade union also say ships low safety standards construction requirements enforce safety standards minimum social standards trade union rights seafarers frequently fail pay crews poor safety records engage practices abandoning crewmen distant ports flag convenience ships involved highest-profile oil spills history maltese-flagged bahamian-flagged marshallese-flagged deepwater horizon liberian-flagged ss torrey canyon common environmental criticism face regards illegal fishing critics flag convenience system argue many foc flag states lack resources properly monitor control vessels environmental justice foundation ejf contends illegal unreported unregulated fishing iuu vessels use flags convenience avoid fisheries regulations controls flags convenience help reduce operating costs associated illegal fishing methods help illegal operators avoid prosecution hide beneficial ownership result flags convenience perpetuate iuu fishing extensive environmental social economic impacts particularly developing countries ejf campaigning end granting flags convenience fishing vessels effective measure combat iuu fishing according franz fischler european union fisheries commissioner international regulations maritime industry promulgated agencies united nations particularly international maritime organization international labour organization flag states adopt regulations ships ratifying individual treaties one common criticism flag convenience countries allow shipowners avoid regulations ratifying important treaties failing enforce international chamber shipping ics issues annual report entitled shipping industry flag state performance table identifying six core conventions representing minimum level maritime regulation viewpoint shipowners solas marpol 66 stcw mlc clc/fund92 35 flag convenience countries listed itf ratified stcw convention concerning standards training certification watchkeeping seafarers 19 ratified six however least fourteen listed countries ratified remaining five conventions put context 60 flag states ratified six conventions including china united states america safety life sea solas load line 66 conventions focus shipboard safety issues originally developed response sinking rms titanic solas sets regulations lifeboats emergency equipment safety procedures including continuous radio watches updated include regulations ship construction fire protection systems life-saving appliances radio communications safety navigation management safe operation ships safety security concerns 66 sets standards minimum buoyancy hull stress ship fittings well establishing navigational zones extra precautions must taken international labour organization maritime labour convention 2006 provides comprehensive rights protection work seafarers including requirements minimum age qualifications hours work rest medical care complaint procedures wage payments onboard living arrangements mlc replaced number earlier ilo conventions including ilo147 marpol clc/fund92 relate pollution international convention prevention pollution ships 1973 marpol modified protocol 1978 including annexes i–vi regulates pollution ships including oil air pollution shipboard sewage garbage civil liability oil pollution damage clc international fund compensation oil pollution damage fund92 together provide mechanisms ensure compensation victims oil spills 1978 number european countries agreed hague audit labour conditions board vessels vis-a-vis rules international labour organization end 1982 paris memorandum understanding port state control paris mou established setting port state control standards twenty-six european countries canada several regional memoranda understanding established based paris model including memorandum understanding port state control asia-pacific region typically referred tokyo mou organizations black sea caribbean indian ocean mediterranean latin america tokyo paris organizations generate based deficiencies detentions black- white- grey-lists flag states us coast guard handles port state control inspections us maintains similar target list underperforming flag states least thirteen thirty-five flags convenience listed itf targeted special enforcement countries paris tokyo mous u.s. coast guard united nations conference trade development 2009 report maritime trade states shipowners often register ships foreign flag order employ seafarers developing countries lower wages philippines china supply large percentage maritime labor general major flags convenience particular 2009 flag-states employing highest number expatriate-filipino seafarers panama bahamas liberia marshall islands year 150,000 filipino sailors employed four flags convenience 2006 study united states maritime administration marad sailors people republic china comprised 40 crews surveyed ships flying panamanian flag around 10 flying liberian flag marad report referred china philippines low cost crewing sources seafaring industry often divided two employment groups licensed mariners including deck officers marine engineers mariners required licenses able seamen cooks required certified latter group collectively known unlicensed mariners ratings differences wages seen groups high cost crewing sources united states low cost sources china philippines however salaries flag convenience ships still far higher median salaries non-seafarers countries addition income tax exemption seamen particularly philippines unlicensed mariners 2009 statistics american bureau labor statistics give median earnings able ordinary seamen us 35,810 varying 21,640 10th percentile 55,360 90th percentile compared 2006 statistics international labour organization giving average yearly earnings filipino chinese able seamen around 2,000 3,000 per year php9,900 per month cny3,071 per year among licensed mariners american chief engineers earned median 63,630 varying 35,030 109,310 filipino counterparts averaged 5,500 per year php21,342 per month 1-hop neighbor's text information: norwegian_ship_registers.norwegian ship registers norwegian ship registers sometimes called nis-nor norwegian government agency responsible operating norwegian international ship register norwegian ship register norwegian shipbuilding register register subordinate norwegian ministry trade industry ministry transport based bergen Target text information: norwegian_ship_register.norwegian ship register norwegian ship register domestic ship register norway managed norwegian maritime authority physically located bergen registry 12,000 ships include commercial non-commercial vessels ships exceeding mobile offshore installations must registered smaller vessels volunteer norwegian shipbuilding register subordinate register ship registration norway became codified 1902 task handed district courts magistrates city clerks first 50 registers reduced 27 1972 responsibility centralized taken norwegian ship registers 1992 merged maritime authority 2012 third norwegian code signed christian v 15 april 1687 dedicated shipping established principals collateral insurance well arrest procedure following accidents however register ships established 1901 process establish public ship register commenced 1881 background bank considered would purpose lend money purchase ships would require legal framework would firmly establish ownership collateral ships sea law commission appointed 1882 consider legal aspects shipping industry soon became clear commission would ship registration main purpose aspects sea law coordinated internationally reached conclusion resulted 1888 proposal parliament based single central register ships parliament decided consider law similar proposals 1892 1893 1894 1897 similarly dismissed break-through ship registration came 1900–01 parliamentary session private alternative proposal launched. latter instead involved establishing series local registers ship registration act approved parliament 4 may 1901 government commission looked detailed aspects registration council state approved 23 july 1902 resulted fifty district courts given task maintaining local ship registers covering jurisdiction known names bergen ship register first significant reform came 1972 number registers reduced 27 norwegian international ship register nis created 1 july 1987 allowed flag convenience registration ships international traffic remaining norwegian flag jurisdiction instead using local registers nis established office bergen ship register part city clerk bergen nis took march 1990 initiative centralize local ship registers jointly locate nis emphasized nis operated around-the-clock duty service joint location registers would allow economies scale cutting costs would also allow time freed magistrate offices district courts another concern recent rationalization program following introduction electronic registers given little savings due decentralized nature operations parliament looked possibility centralizing local ship registers 1990 issue postponed consider merger nis ministry justice established commission look matter concluded july 1991 registers centralized located bergen proposed new register administratively part maritime authority issue concluded march government decided create norwegian ship registers located bergen would organized government agency subordinate ministry foreign affairs city clerk bergen merged magistrate bergen 1 april 1992 nis split merged office 1 may responsibility local registries transferred new norwegian ship registries 1 july time 12,000 ships registered 880 nis staff nis office increased six eight jobs lost magistrate offices district courts able use workforce tasks norwegian ship registries became part ministry trade industry 1996 minister trade industry trond giske took initiative june 2010 investigate merger norwegian ship registers norwegian maritime authority internal ministry committee concluded 1 november merger would favorable cited common organization would uniform user-friendly competitive allowing shipping companies relate single organization handling registers would remain bergen despite maritime authority based haugesund merger took effect 1 january 2012 time eighteen employees agency register required certain types vessels vessels optional register norwegian ship exceeding length well oil platforms mobile installations required registered registered foreign registry volunteer registration available ships certain fishing vessels boats length used commercially mobile cranes hovercrafts docks drags fixed maritime installations used petroleum extraction nor-registered ships must norwegian nationality nationality european economic area ownership need norwegian entity although operations must norwegian owner norwegian representative ships construction norway may registered norwegian shipbuilding register open registration recreational vessels allows owner use boat collateral loan nor-registered boat also registered volunteer boat register recreational boats sometimes sold without proper reregistration times purchasers bought boats without checking see boat collateral tied I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	6,726	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_windows.microsoft windows microsoft windows group several graphical operating system families developed marketed sold microsoft family caters certain sector computing industry active microsoft windows families include windows nt windows iot may encompass subfamilies e.g windows server windows embedded compact windows ce defunct microsoft windows families include windows 9x windows mobile windows phone microsoft introduced operating environment named windows november 20 1985 graphical operating system shell ms-dos response growing interest graphical user interfaces guis microsoft windows came dominate world personal computer pc market 90 market share overtaking mac os introduced 1984 apple came see windows unfair encroachment innovation gui development implemented products lisa macintosh eventually settled court microsoft favor 1993 pcs windows still popular operating system however 2014 microsoft admitted losing majority overall operating system market android massive growth sales android smartphones 2014 number windows devices sold less 25 android devices sold comparison however may fully relevant two operating systems traditionally target different platforms still numbers server use windows comparable competitors show one third market share similar end user use recent version windows pcs tablets smartphones embedded devices windows 10 recent version server computers windows server version 1903 specialized version windows also runs xbox one video game console microsoft developer windows registered several trademarks denote family windows operating systems target specific sector computing industry 2014 following windows families actively developed following windows families longer developed term windows collectively describes several generations microsoft operating system products products generally categorized follows history windows dates back 1981 microsoft started work program called interface manager announced november 1983 apple lisa macintosh name windows windows 1.0 released november 1985 windows 1.0 compete apple operating system achieved little popularity windows 1.0 complete operating system rather extends ms-dos shell windows 1.0 program known ms-dos executive components included calculator calendar cardfile clipboard viewer clock control panel notepad paint reversi terminal write windows 1.0 allow overlapping windows instead windows tiled modal dialog boxes may appear windows microsoft sold included windows development libraries c development environment included numerous windows samples windows 2.0 released december 1987 popular predecessor features several improvements user interface memory management windows 2.03 changed os tiled windows overlapping windows result change led apple computer filing suit microsoft alleging infringement apple copyrights windows 2.0 also introduced sophisticated keyboard shortcuts could make use expanded memory windows 2.1 released two different versions windows/286 windows/386 windows/386 uses virtual 8086 mode intel 80386 multitask several dos programs paged memory model emulate expanded memory using available extended memory windows/286 spite name runs intel 8086 intel 80286 processors runs real mode make use high memory area addition full windows-packages runtime-only versions shipped early windows software third parties made possible run windows software ms-dos without full windows feature set early versions windows often thought graphical shells mostly ran top ms-dos use file system services however even earliest windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions notably executable file format providing device drivers timer graphics printer mouse keyboard sound unlike ms-dos windows allowed users execute multiple graphical applications time cooperative multitasking windows implemented elaborate segment-based software virtual memory scheme allows run applications larger available memory code segments resources swapped thrown away memory became scarce data segments moved memory given application relinquished processor control windows 3.0 released 1990 improved design mostly virtual memory loadable virtual device drivers vxds allow windows share arbitrary devices multi-tasked dos applications windows 3.0 applications run protected mode gives access several megabytes memory without obligation participate software virtual memory scheme run inside address space segmented memory provides degree protection windows 3.0 also featured improvements user interface microsoft rewrote critical operations c assembly windows 3.0 first microsoft windows version achieve broad commercial success selling 2 million copies first six months windows 3.1 made generally available march 1 1992 featured facelift august 1993 windows workgroups special version integrated peer-to-peer networking features version number 3.11 released sold along windows 3.1 support windows 3.1 ended december 31 2001 windows 3.2 released 1994 updated version chinese version windows 3.1 update limited language version fixed issues related complex writing system chinese language windows 3.2 generally sold computer manufacturers ten-disk version ms-dos also simplified chinese characters basic output translated utilities next major consumer-oriented release windows windows 95 released august 24 1995 still remaining ms-dos-based windows 95 introduced support native 32-bit applications plug play hardware preemptive multitasking long file names 255 characters provided increased stability predecessors windows 95 also introduced redesigned object oriented user interface replacing previous program manager start menu taskbar windows explorer shell windows 95 major commercial success microsoft ina fried cnet remarked time windows 95 finally ushered market 2001 become fixture computer desktops around world microsoft published four oem service releases osr windows 95 roughly equivalent service pack first osr windows 95 also first version windows bundled microsoft web browser internet explorer mainstream support windows 95 ended december 31 2000 extended support windows 95 ended december 31 2001 windows 95 followed release windows 98 june 25 1998 introduced windows driver model support usb composite devices support acpi hibernation support multi-monitor configurations windows 98 also included integration internet explorer 4 active desktop aspects windows desktop update series enhancements explorer shell also made available windows 95 may 1999 microsoft released windows 98 second edition updated version windows 98 windows 98 se added internet explorer 5.0 windows media player 6.2 amongst upgrades mainstream support windows 98 ended june 30 2002 extended support windows 98 ended july 11 2006 september 14 2000 microsoft released windows millennium edition last dos-based version windows windows incorporated visual interface enhancements windows nt-based counterpart windows 2000 faster boot times previous versions however required removal ability access real mode dos environment removing compatibility older programs expanded multimedia functionality including windows media player 7 windows movie maker windows image acquisition framework retrieving images scanners digital cameras additional system utilities system file protection system restore updated home networking tools however windows faced criticism speed instability along hardware compatibility issues removal real mode dos support pc world considered windows one worst operating systems microsoft ever released 4th worst tech product time november 1988 new development team within microsoft included former digital equipment corporation developers dave cutler mark lucovsky began work revamped version ibm microsoft os/2 operating system known nt os/2 nt os/2 intended secure multi-user operating system posix compatibility modular portable kernel preemptive multitasking support multiple processor architectures however following successful release windows 3.0 nt development team decided rework project use extended 32-bit port windows api known win32 instead os/2 win32 maintained similar structure windows apis allowing existing windows applications easily ported platform also supported capabilities existing nt kernel following approval microsoft staff development continued windows nt first 32-bit version windows however ibm objected changes ultimately continued os/2 development first release resulting operating system windows nt 3.1 named associate windows 3.1 released july 1993 versions desktop workstations servers windows nt 3.5 released september 1994 focusing performance improvements support novell netware followed windows nt 3.51 may 1995 included additional improvements support powerpc architecture windows nt 4.0 released june 1996 introducing redesigned interface windows 95 nt series february 17 2000 microsoft released windows 2000 successor nt 4.0 windows nt name dropped point order put greater focus windows brand next major version windows nt windows xp released october 25 2001 introduction windows xp aimed unify consumer-oriented windows 9x series architecture introduced windows nt change microsoft promised would provide better performance dos-based predecessors windows xp would also introduce redesigned user interface including updated start menu task-oriented windows explorer streamlined multimedia networking features internet explorer 6 integration microsoft .net passport services modes help provide compatibility software designed previous versions windows remote assistance functionality retail windows xp marketed two main editions home edition targeted towards consumers professional edition targeted towards business environments power users included additional security networking features home professional later accompanied media center edition designed home theater pcs emphasis support dvd playback tv tuner cards dvr functionality remote controls tablet pc edition designed mobile devices meeting specifications tablet computer support stylus pen input additional pen-enabled applications mainstream support windows xp ended april 14 2009 extended support ended april 8 2014 windows 2000 microsoft also changed release schedules server operating systems server counterpart windows xp windows server 2003 released april 2003 followed december 2005 windows server 2003 r2 lengthy development process windows vista released november 30 2006 volume licensing january 30 2007 consumers contained number new features redesigned shell user interface significant technical changes particular focus security features available number different editions subject criticism drop performance longer boot time criticism new uac stricter license agreement vista server counterpart windows server 2008 released early 2008 july 22 2009 windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 released rtm release manufacturing former released public 3 months later october 22 2009 unlike predecessor windows vista introduced large number new features windows 7 intended focused incremental upgrade windows line goal compatible applications hardware windows vista already compatible windows 7 multi-touch support redesigned windows shell updated taskbar home networking system called homegroup performance improvements windows 8 successor windows 7 released generally october 26 2012 number significant changes made windows 8 including introduction user interface based around microsoft metro design language optimizations touch-based devices tablets all-in-one pcs changes include start screen uses large tiles convenient touch interactions allow display continually updated information new class apps designed primarily use touch-based devices changes include increased integration cloud services online platforms social networks microsoft onedrive formerly skydrive xbox live services windows store service software distribution new variant known windows rt use devices utilize arm architecture update windows 8 called windows 8.1 released october 17 2013 includes features new live tile sizes deeper onedrive integration many revisions windows 8 windows 8.1 subject criticism removal start menu september 30 2014 microsoft announced windows 10 successor windows 8.1 released july 29 2015 addresses shortcomings user interface first introduced windows 8 changes pc include return start menu virtual desktop system ability run windows store apps within windows desktop rather full-screen mode windows 10 said available update qualified windows 7 sp1 windows 8.1 windows phone 8.1 devices get windows 10 application windows 7 windows 8.1 windows update windows 7 february 2017 microsoft announced migration windows source code repository perforce git migration involved 3.5 million separate files 300 gigabyte repository may 2017 90 percent engineering team uses git 8500 commits 1760 windows builds per day multilingual support built windows since windows 3 language keyboard interface changed region language control panel components supported input languages input method editors automatically installed windows installation windows xp earlier files east asian languages chinese right-to-left scripts arabic may need installed separately also said control panel third-party imes may also installed user feels provided one insufficient needs interface languages operating system free download languages limited certain editions windows language interface packs lips redistributable may downloaded microsoft download center installed edition windows xp later translate windows interface require certain base language language windows originally shipped used languages emerging markets full language packs translates complete operating system available specific editions windows ultimate enterprise editions windows vista 7 editions windows 8 8.1 rt except single language require specific base language commonly used popular languages french chinese languages downloaded download center available optional updates windows update service except windows 8 interface language installed applications affected changes windows interface language availability languages depends application developers windows 8 windows server 2012 introduces new language control panel interface input languages simultaneously changed language packs regardless type downloaded central location pc settings app windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 also includes counterpart settings page changing interface language also changes language preinstalled windows store apps mail maps news certain microsoft-developed apps remote desktop limitations language packs however still effect except full language packs installed edition except single language caters emerging markets windows nt included support several different platforms x86-based personal computer became dominant professional world windows nt 4.0 predecessors supported powerpc dec alpha mips r4000 although platforms implement 64-bit computing operating system treated 32-bit however windows 2000 successor windows nt 4.0 dropped support platforms except third generation x86 known ia-32 newer 32-bit mode client line windows nt family still runs ia-32 although windows server line ceased supporting platform release windows server 2008 r2 introduction intel itanium architecture ia-64 microsoft released new versions windows support itanium versions windows xp windows server 2003 released time mainstream x86 counterparts windows xp 64-bit edition released 2005 last windows client operating systems support itanium windows server line continues support platform windows server 2012 windows server 2008 r2 last windows operating system support itanium architecture april 25 2005 microsoft released windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 editions support x86-64 simply x64 eighth generation x86 architecture windows vista first client version windows nt released simultaneously ia-32 x64 editions x64 still supported edition windows 8 known windows rt specifically created computers arm architecture arm still used windows smartphones windows 10 tablets windows rt updated starting windows 10 fall creators update later includes support pcs arm architecture windows ce officially known windows embedded compact edition windows runs minimalistic computers like satellite navigation systems mobile phones windows embedded compact based dedicated kernel dubbed windows ce kernel microsoft licenses windows ce oems device makers oems device makers modify create user interfaces experiences windows ce provides technical foundation windows ce used dreamcast along sega proprietary os console windows ce core windows mobile derived successor windows phone 7 based components windows ce 6.0 r3 windows ce 7.0 windows phone 8 however based nt-kernel windows 8 windows embedded compact confused windows xp embedded windows nt 4.0 embedded modular editions windows based windows nt kernel xbox os unofficial name given version windows runs xbox one specific implementation emphasis virtualization using hyper-v three operating systems running consisting core operating system second implemented games windows-like environment applications microsoft updates xbox one os every month updates downloaded xbox live service xbox subsequently installed using offline recovery images downloaded via pc windows 10-based core replaced windows 8-based one update new system sometimes referred windows 10 xbox one onecore xbox one system also allows backward compatibility xbox 360 xbox 360 system backwards compatible original xbox 2017 microsoft announced would start using git open source version control system created linus torvalds microsoft previously used proprietary version control system called source depot microsoft began integrate git team foundation server 2013 windows continued rely source depot however decision came complexity windows codebase especially well suited decentralized nature linux development git originally created manage git repository contains complete history files proved unworkable windows developers cloning repository takes several hours microsoft working new project called virtual file system git vfsforgit address challenges according net applications tracks use operating systems devices active web windows used operating-system family personal computers july 2017 close 90 usage share including personal computers kinds e.g. desktops laptops mobile devices windows oses accounted 35.24 usage share july 2017 compared android highest 41.24 ios 13.22 macos 4.64 according statcounter tracks use operating systems use devices active web windows used less half market developing countries also developed ones—such united states use windows desktops plurality operating system fallen 46.18 united kingdom ireland numbers easiest monthly numbers find track real use may mirror installed base sales numbers recent years devices consistent server numbers next section terms number devices shipped operating system installed smartphones windows phone third-most-shipped os 2.6 android 82.8 ios 13.9 second quarter 2015 according idc across pcs mobile devices 2014 windows oses second-most-shipped 333 million devices 14 android 1.2 billion 49 ahead ios macos combined 263 million 11 use latest version windows 10 exceeded windows 7 globally since early 2018 developed countries japan australia us windows 10 already popular version since early 2017 usage share windows serversthose running web servers also kinds servers 33.6 consumer versions windows originally designed ease-of-use single-user pc without network connection security features built outset however windows nt successors designed security including network multi-user pcs initially designed internet security mind much since first developed early 1990s internet use less prevalent design issues combined programming errors e.g buffer overflows popularity windows means frequent target computer worm virus writers june 2005 bruce schneier counterpane internet security reported seen 1,000 new viruses worms previous six months 2005 kaspersky lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses trojans back-doors exploits written windows microsoft releases security patches windows update service approximately month usually second tuesday month although critical updates made available shorter intervals necessary versions windows including windows 2000 sp3 windows xp updates automatically downloaded installed user selects result service pack 2 windows xp well service pack 1 windows server 2003 installed users quickly otherwise might windows 9x series offered option profiles multiple users concept access privileges allow concurrent access true multi-user operating systems addition implemented partial memory protection accordingly widely criticised lack security windows nt series operating systems contrast true multi-user implement absolute memory protection however lot advantages true multi-user operating system nullified fact prior windows vista first user account created setup process administrator account also default new accounts though windows xp limited accounts majority home users change account type fewer rights – partially due number programs unnecessarily required administrator rights – home users ran administrator time windows vista changes introducing privilege elevation system called user account control logging standard user logon session created token containing basic privileges assigned way new logon session incapable making changes would affect entire system logging user administrators group two separate tokens assigned first token contains privileges typically awarded administrator second restricted token similar standard user would receive user applications including windows shell started restricted token resulting reduced privilege environment even administrator account application requests higher privileges run administrator clicked uac prompt confirmation consent given including administrator credentials account requesting elevation member administrators group start process using unrestricted token leaked documents published wikileaks codenamed vault 7 dated 2013–2016 detail capabilities cia perform electronic surveillance cyber warfare ability compromise operating systems microsoft windows august 2019 computer experts reported bluekeep security vulnerability potentially affects older unpatched microsoft windows versions via program remote desktop protocol allowing possibility remote code execution may include related flaws collectively named dejablue affecting newer windows versions i.e. windows 7 recent versions well addition experts reported microsoft security vulnerability based legacy code involving microsoft ctf ctfmon ctfmon.exe affects windows versions older windows xp version recent windows 10 versions patch correct flaw currently available windows versions windows nt 3 based file system permission system referred agdlp accounts global local permissions file permissions applied file/folder form 'local group 'global groups members global groups hold groups users depending different windows versions used system varies vendor products linux netware due 'static allocation permission applied directory file folder however using process aglp/agdlp/agudlp allows small number static permissions applied allows easy changes account groups without reapplying file permissions files folders january 6 2005 microsoft released beta version microsoft antispyware based upon previously released giant antispyware february 14 2006 microsoft antispyware became windows defender release beta 2 windows defender freeware program designed protect spyware unwanted software windows xp windows server 2003 users genuine copies microsoft windows freely download program microsoft web site windows defender ships part windows vista 7 windows 8 windows defender microsoft security essentials combined single program named windows defender based microsoft security essentials borrowing features user interface although enabled default turned use another anti-virus solution windows malicious software removal tool optional microsoft safety scanner two free security products offered microsoft windows 10 anniversary update microsoft introduced limited periodic scanning feature allows windows defender scan detect remove threats third-party anti-virus software missed advanced threat protection service introduced enterprise users new service uses cloud service detect take actions advanced network attacks article based report symantec internetnews.com described microsoft windows fewest number patches shortest average patch development time five operating systems monitored last six months 2006 study conducted kevin mitnick marketing communications firm avantgarde 2004 found unprotected unpatched windows xp system service pack 1 lasted four minutes internet compromised unprotected also unpatched windows server 2003 system compromised connected internet 8 hours computer running windows xp service pack 2 compromised aol national cyber security alliance online safety study october 2004 determined 80 windows users infected least one spyware/adware product much documentation available describing increase security microsoft windows products typical suggestions include deploying microsoft windows behind hardware software firewall running anti-virus anti-spyware software installing patches become available windows update owing operating system popularity number applications released aim provide compatibility windows applications either compatibility layer another operating system standalone system run software written windows box include 1-hop neighbor's text information: james_a._kahle.james a. kahle jim kahle ibm fellow chief architect many ibm power microprocessors mr. kahle born venezuela father worked oil business received b.s degree rice university 1983 working ibm since early 1980s risc-based microprocessors work started physical design tools currently concentrated risc architecture 20 years experience chip design 160 patents key defining power architecture superscalar microprocessor designs ibm forefront developing multicore designs asymmetric multiprocessors smt microarchitectures key designer rios processor launched rs/6000 family workstations servers one founders somerset design center birthplace powerpc architecture project manager powerpc 603 subsequent designs like powerpc 750 also chief architect power4 core later director technology sti design center cell technology austin texas 1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies Target text information: spursengine.spursengine spursengine microprocessor toshiba built media oriented coprocessor designed 3d- video processing consumer electronics set-top boxes computers spursengine processor also known quad core hd processor announced 20 september 2007 spursengine stream processor powered four synergistic processing elements spe also used cell processor featured sony playstation 3 processing elements fed chip h.264 mpeg-2 codecs controlled die host cpu connected chip pcie controller contrast cell processor chip cpu ppe similar work enable smoother interaction host spursengine toshiba also integrated simple proprietary 32-bit control core spursengine employs dedicated xdr dram working memory spursengine designed work much lower frequencies cell toshiba also optimized circuit layout spes reduce size 30 resulting chip consumes 10-20 w power spursengine accessible developer device driver developed windows linux systems software supporting spursengine limited primarily realm video editing encoding first generation spursengine processors specified follows april 2008 toshiba shipped samples spursengine se1000 device pcie-based reference board toshiba included spursengine processors qosmio laptops models f50 g50 g55 third quarter 2008 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	6,004	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: bittorrent_tracker.bittorrent tracker bittorrent tracker special type server assists communication peers using bittorrent protocol peer-to-peer file sharing software client end-user pc requests file portions requested file residing peer machines sent client reassembled full copy requested file tracker server keeps track file copies reside peer machines ones available time client request helps coordinate efficient transmission reassembly copied file clients already begun downloading file communicate tracker periodically negotiate faster file transfer new peers provide network performance statistics however initial peer-to-peer file download started peer-to-peer communication continue without connection tracker since creation distributed hash table dht method trackerless torrents bittorrent trackers largely become redundant however still often included torrents improve speed peer discovery public open trackers used anyone adding tracker address existing torrent used newly created torrent like openbittorrent pirate bay operated one popular public trackers disabling 2009 amid legal trouble thereafter offered magnet links private tracker bittorrent tracker restricts use requiring users register site method controlling registration used among many private trackers invitation system active contributing members given ability grant new user permission register site new user goes interview process several circumstances legal distribute copyrighted material parts thereof also experiments legally selling content distributed bittorrent using secure tracker system trackers primary reason damaged bittorrent swarm reasons mostly related damaged hacked clients uploading corrupt data reliability trackers improved two main innovations bittorrent protocol multi-tracker torrents contain multiple trackers single torrent file provides redundancy case one tracker fails trackers continue maintain swarm torrent one disadvantage becomes possible multiple unconnected swarms single torrent users connect one specific tracker unable connect another create disjoint set impede efficiency torrent transfer files describes additional extensions peer exchange dht mitigate effect rapidly merging otherwise disjoint graphs peers vuze formerly azureus first bittorrent client implement system distributed hash table dht method alternative incompatible dht system known mainline dht developed simultaneously later adopted bittorrent mainline µtorrent transmission rtorrent ktorrent bitcomet deluge clients current versions official bittorrent client µtorrent bitcomet transmission bitspirit share compatibility mainline dht dht implementations based kademlia version 3.0.5.0 vuze also supports mainline dht addition distributed database use optional application plugin mainlinedht plugin potentially allows vuze client reach bigger swarm bittorrent clients also use peer exchange pex gather peers addition trackers dht peer exchange checks known peers see know peers 3.0.5.0 release vuze major bittorrent clients compatible peer exchange one options http based tracker protocol compact flag flag defined bep 23 specifies tracker compact response encoding ipv4 addresses set 4 bytes 32 bits ipv6 though 128 bits long compact would break ipv6 support handle situation clients trackers must either avoid using compact announces ipv6 implement bep 07 opentracker dirk engling powered one biggest bittorrent trackers pirate bay tracker atrack high performance open source tracker designed run google app engine bitstorm small tracker written php require database server runs php compatible web server bitstorm 2 uses mysql database instead flat file improve scalability bittorious open source commercially supported tracker integrated web-based management portal hefur standalone bittorrent tracker written c++ mit license ocelot bittorrent tracker written c++ gazelle project 1-hop neighbor's text information: peer-to-peer.peer-to-peer peer-to-peer p2p computing networking distributed application architecture partitions tasks workloads peers peers equally privileged equipotent participants application said form peer-to-peer network nodes peers make portion resources processing power disk storage network bandwidth directly available network participants without need central coordination servers stable hosts peers suppliers consumers resources contrast traditional client-server model consumption supply resources divided emerging collaborative p2p systems going beyond era peers similar things sharing resources looking diverse peers bring unique resources capabilities virtual community thereby empowering engage greater tasks beyond accomplished individual peers yet beneficial peers p2p systems previously used many application domains architecture popularized file sharing system napster originally released 1999 concept inspired new structures philosophies many areas human interaction social contexts peer-to-peer meme refers egalitarian social networking emerged throughout society enabled internet technologies general p2p systems previously used many application domains concept popularized file sharing systems music-sharing application napster originally released 1999 peer-to-peer movement allowed millions internet users connect directly forming groups collaborating become user-created search engines virtual supercomputers filesystems basic concept peer-to-peer computing envisioned earlier software systems networking discussions reaching back principles stated first request comments rfc 1 tim berners-lee vision world wide web close p2p network assumed user web would active editor contributor creating linking content form interlinked web links early internet open present day two machines connected internet could send packets without firewalls security measures contrasts broadcasting-like structure web developed years precursor internet arpanet successful client-server network every participating node could request serve content however arpanet self-organized lacked ability provide means context content-based routing beyond 'simple address-based routing therefore usenet distributed messaging system often described early peer-to-peer architecture established developed 1979 system enforces decentralized model control basic model client-server model user client perspective offers self-organizing approach newsgroup servers however news servers communicate one another peers propagate usenet news articles entire group network servers consideration applies smtp email sense core email-relaying network mail transfer agents peer-to-peer character periphery e-mail clients direct connections strictly client-server relationship may 1999 millions people internet shawn fanning introduced music file-sharing application called napster napster beginning peer-to-peer networks know today participating users establish virtual network entirely independent physical network without obey administrative authorities restrictions peer-to-peer network designed around notion equal peer nodes simultaneously functioning clients servers nodes network model network arrangement differs client–server model communication usually central server typical example file transfer uses client-server model file transfer protocol ftp service client server programs distinct clients initiate transfer servers satisfy requests peer-to-peer networks generally implement form virtual overlay network top physical network topology nodes overlay form subset nodes physical network data still exchanged directly underlying tcp/ip network application layer peers able communicate directly via logical overlay links corresponds path underlying physical network overlays used indexing peer discovery make p2p system independent physical network topology based nodes linked within overlay network resources indexed located classify networks unstructured structured hybrid two unstructured peer-to-peer networks impose particular structure overlay network design rather formed nodes randomly form connections gnutella gossip kazaa examples unstructured p2p protocols structure globally imposed upon unstructured networks easy build allow localized optimizations different regions overlay also role peers network unstructured networks highly robust face high rates churn —that large numbers peers frequently joining leaving network however primary limitations unstructured networks also arise lack structure particular peer wants find desired piece data network search query must flooded network find many peers possible share data flooding causes high amount signaling traffic network uses cpu/memory requiring every peer process search queries ensure search queries always resolved furthermore since correlation peer content managed guarantee flooding find peer desired data popular content likely available several peers peer searching likely find thing peer looking rare data shared peers highly unlikely search successful structured peer-to-peer networks overlay organized specific topology protocol ensures node efficiently search network file/resource even resource extremely rare common type structured p2p networks implement distributed hash table dht variant consistent hashing used assign ownership file particular peer enables peers search resources network using hash table key value pairs stored dht participating node efficiently retrieve value associated given key however order route traffic efficiently network nodes structured overlay must maintain lists neighbors satisfy specific criteria makes less robust networks high rate churn i.e large numbers nodes frequently joining leaving network recent evaluation p2p resource discovery solutions real workloads pointed several issues dht-based solutions high cost advertising/discovering resources static dynamic load imbalance notable distributed networks use dhts include tixati alternative bittorrent distributed tracker kad network storm botnet yacy coral content distribution network prominent research projects include chord project kademlia past storage utility p-grid self-organized emerging overlay network coopnet content distribution system dht-based networks also widely utilized accomplishing efficient resource discovery grid computing systems aids resource management scheduling applications hybrid models combination peer-to-peer client-server models common hybrid model central server helps peers find spotify example hybrid model 2014 variety hybrid models make trade-offs centralized functionality provided structured server/client network node equality afforded pure peer-to-peer unstructured networks currently hybrid models better performance either pure unstructured networks pure structured networks certain functions searching require centralized functionality benefit decentralized aggregation nodes provided unstructured networks coopnet cooperative networking proposed system off-loading serving peers recently downloaded content proposed computer scientists venkata n. padmanabhan kunwadee sripanidkulchai working microsoft research carnegie mellon university basically server experiences increase load redirects incoming peers peers agreed mirror content thus off-loading balance server information retained server system makes use fact bottle-neck likely outgoing bandwidth cpu hence server-centric design assigns peers peers 'close ip neighbors prefix range attempt use locality multiple peers found file designates node choose fastest neighbors streaming media transmitted clients cache previous stream transmit piece-wise new nodes peer-to-peer systems pose unique challenges computer security perspective like form software p2p applications contain vulnerabilities makes particularly dangerous p2p software however peer-to-peer applications act servers well clients meaning vulnerable remote exploits also since node plays role routing traffic network malicious users perform variety routing attacks denial service attacks examples common routing attacks include incorrect lookup routing whereby malicious nodes deliberately forward requests incorrectly return false results incorrect routing updates malicious nodes corrupt routing tables neighboring nodes sending false information incorrect routing network partition new nodes joining bootstrap via malicious node places new node partition network populated malicious nodes prevalence malware varies different peer-to-peer protocols studies analyzing spread malware p2p networks found example 63 answered download requests gnutella network contained form malware whereas 3 content openft contained malware cases top three common types malware accounted large majority cases 99 gnutella 65 openft another study analyzing traffic kazaa network found 15 500,000 file sample taken infected one 365 different computer viruses tested corrupted data also distributed p2p networks modifying files already shared network example fasttrack network riaa managed introduce faked chunks downloads downloaded files mostly mp3 files files infected riaa virus unusable afterwards contained malicious code riaa also known uploaded fake music movies p2p networks order deter illegal file sharing consequently p2p networks today seen enormous increase security file verification mechanisms modern hashing chunk verification different encryption methods made networks resistant almost type attack even major parts respective network replaced faked nonfunctional hosts decentralized nature p2p networks increases robustness removes single point failure inherent client-server based system nodes arrive demand system increases total capacity system also increases likelihood failure decreases one peer network fails function properly whole network compromised damaged contrast typical client–server architecture clients share demands system resources case clients join system fewer resources available serve client central server fails entire network taken advantages disadvantages p2p networks related topic data backup recovery availability centralized network system administrators forces controlling availability files shared administrators decide longer distribute file simply remove servers longer available users along leaving users powerless deciding distributed throughout community makes entire system vulnerable threats requests government large forces example youtube pressured riaa mpaa entertainment industry filter copyrighted content although server-client networks able monitor manage content availability stability availability content choose host client trouble accessing obscure content shared stable centralized network p2p networks however unreliable sharing unpopular files sharing files p2p network requires least one node network requested data node must able connect node requesting data requirement occasionally hard meet users may delete stop sharing data point sense community users p2p network completely responsible deciding content available unpopular files eventually disappear become unavailable people stop sharing popular files however highly easily distributed popular files p2p network actually stability availability files central networks centralized network simple loss connection server clients enough cause failure p2p networks connections every node must lost order cause data sharing failure centralized system administrators responsible data recovery backups p2p systems node requires backup system lack central authority p2p networks forces recording industry riaa mpaa government unable delete stop sharing content p2p systems p2p networks clients provide use resources means unlike client-server systems content-serving capacity peer-to-peer networks actually increase users begin access content especially protocols bittorrent require users share refer performance measurement study property one major advantages using p2p networks makes setup running costs small original content distributor many file peer-to-peer file sharing networks gnutella g2 edonkey network popularized peer-to-peer technologies peer-to-peer networking involves data transfer one user another without using intermediate server companies developing p2p applications involved numerous legal cases primarily united states conflicts copyright law two major cases grokster vs riaa mgm studios inc. v. grokster ltd. last case court unanimously held defendant peer-to-peer file sharing companies grokster streamcast could sued inducing copyright infringement companies power ledger bovlabs employ peer-to-peer energy trading platforms cooperation among community participants key continued success p2p systems aimed casual human users reach full potential large numbers nodes contribute resources current practice p2p networks often contain large numbers users utilize resources shared nodes share anything often referred freeloader problem freeloading profound impact network cases cause community collapse types networks users natural disincentives cooperate cooperation consumes resources may degrade performance studying social attributes p2p networks challenging due large populations turnover asymmetry interest zero-cost identity variety incentive mechanisms implemented encourage even force nodes contribute resources researchers explored benefits enabling virtual communities self-organize introduce incentives resource sharing cooperation arguing social aspect missing today p2p systems seen goal means self-organized virtual communities built fostered ongoing research efforts designing effective incentive mechanisms p2p systems based principles game theory beginning take psychological information-processing direction peer-to-peer networks e.g freenet place heavy emphasis privacy anonymity—that ensuring contents communications hidden eavesdroppers identities/locations participants concealed public key cryptography used provide encryption data validation authorization authentication data/messages onion routing mix network protocols e.g tarzan used provide anonymity although peer-to-peer networks used legitimate purposes rights holders targeted peer-to-peer involvement sharing copyrighted material peer-to-peer networking involves data transfer one user another without using intermediate server companies developing p2p applications involved numerous legal cases primarily united states primarily issues surrounding copyright law two major cases grokster vs riaa mgm studios inc. v. grokster ltd. cases file sharing technology ruled legal long developers ability prevent sharing copyrighted material establish criminal liability copyright infringement peer-to-peer systems government must prove defendant infringed copyright willingly purpose personal financial gain commercial advantage fair use exceptions allow limited use copyrighted material downloaded without acquiring permission rights holders documents usually news reporting lines research scholarly work controversies developed concern illegitimate use peer-to-peer networks regarding public safety national security file downloaded peer-to-peer network impossible know created file users connected network given time trustworthiness sources potential security threat seen peer-to-peer systems study ordered european union found illegal downloading may lead increase overall video game sales newer games charge extra features levels paper concluded piracy negative financial impact movies music literature study relied self-reported data game purchases use illegal download sites pains taken remove effects false misremembered responses peer-to-peer applications present one core issues network neutrality controversy internet service providers isps known throttle p2p file-sharing traffic due high-bandwidth usage compared web browsing e-mail many uses internet data transferred short intervals relative small quantities p2p file-sharing often consists relatively heavy bandwidth usage due ongoing file transfers swarm/network coordination packets october 2007 comcast one largest broadband internet providers united states started blocking p2p applications bittorrent rationale p2p mostly used share illegal content infrastructure designed continuous high-bandwidth traffic critics point p2p networking legitimate legal uses another way large providers trying control use content internet direct people towards client-server-based application architecture client-server model provides financial barriers-to-entry small publishers individuals less efficient sharing large files reaction bandwidth throttling several p2p applications started implementing protocol obfuscation bittorrent protocol encryption techniques achieving protocol obfuscation involves removing otherwise easily identifiable properties protocols deterministic byte sequences packet sizes making data look random isp solution high bandwidth p2p caching isp stores part files accessed p2p clients order save access internet researchers used computer simulations aid understanding evaluating complex behaviors individuals within network networking research often relies simulation order test evaluate new ideas important requirement process results must reproducible researchers replicate validate extend existing work research reproduced opportunity research hindered even though new simulators continue released research community tends towards handful open-source simulators demand features simulators shown criteria survey high therefore community work together get features open-source software would reduce need custom simulators hence increase repeatability reputability experiments besides stated facts work done ns-2 open source network simulator one research issue related free rider detection punishment explored using ns-2 simulator 1-hop neighbor's text information: khtml.khtml khtml browser engine developed kde project engine used konqueror web browser although seen significant development since 2016 still actively maintained engines descended khtml used world widely used browsers among google chrome safari opera vivaldi microsoft edge switch chromium distributed terms gnu lesser general public license khtml free software built kparts framework written c++ khtml relatively good support web standards render many pages possible extra abilities quirks internet explorer also supported even though non-standard khtml preceded earlier engine called khtmlw kde html widget developed torben weis martin jones implemented support html 3.2 http 1.0 html frames w3c dom css scripting khtml came existence november 4 1998 copy khtmlw library slight refactoring addition unicode support changes support move qt 2 waldo bastian among work creating early version khtml real work khtml actually started may october 1999 realization choice facing project either significant effort move khtml forward use mozilla adding support scripting highest priority may 1999 lars knoll began research eye toward implementing w3c dom specification finally announcing august 16 1999 checked amounted complete rewrite khtml library — changing khtml use standard w3c dom internal document representation turn allowed beginnings javascript support added october 1999 integration harri porten kjs following shortly afterwards closing months 1999 first months 2000 knoll work antti koivisto dirk mueller add css support refine stabilize khtml architecture work completed march 2000 among things changes enabled khtml become second browser internet explorer correctly support hebrew arabic languages written right-to-left — mozilla support kde 2.0 first kde release october 23 2000 include khtml rendering engine new konqueror file web browser replaced monolithic kde file manager ksvg first developed 2001 nikolas zimmermann rob buis however 2003 decided fork then-current ksvg implementation two new projects kdom/ksvg2 improve state dom rendering khtml underneath formidable svg 1.0 render state kcanvas abstract rendering done within khtml/ksvg2 single shared library multiple backends e.g. cairo/qt etc. ksvg2 also part webkit following standards supported khtml engine khtml kjs adopted apple 2002 use safari web browser apple publishes source code fork khtml engine called webkit 2013 google began development fork webkit called blink Target text information: kmldonkey.kmldonkey kmldonkey graphical frontend mldonkey powerful p2p file sharing tool designed kde desktop key features kmldonkey 2.0.7 released together kde software compilation 4 within extragear-tarball I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	6,991	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies 1-hop neighbor's text information: kernel-based_virtual_machine.kernel-based virtual machine kernel-based virtual machine kvm virtualization module linux kernel allows kernel function hypervisor merged linux kernel mainline kernel version 2.6.20 released february 5 2007 kvm requires processor hardware virtualization extensions intel vt amd-v. kvm also ported operating systems freebsd illumos form loadable kernel modules kvm originally designed x86 processors since ported s/390 powerpc ia-64 arm kvm provides hardware-assisted virtualization wide variety guest operating systems including linux bsd solaris windows haiku reactos plan 9 aros research operating system macos addition android 2.2 gnu/hurd debian k16 minix 3.1.2a solaris 10 u3 darwin 8.0.1 together operating systems newer versions listed known work certain limitations additionally kvm provides paravirtualization support linux openbsd freebsd netbsd plan 9 windows guests using virtio api includes paravirtual ethernet card disk i/o controller balloon device vga graphics interface using spice vmware drivers avi kivity began development kvm qumranet technology startup company acquired red hat 2008 kvm surfaced october 2006 merged linux kernel mainline kernel version 2.6.20 released 5 february 2007 kvm maintained paolo bonzini kvm perform emulation instead exposes /dev/kvm interface userspace host use linux qemu versions 0.10.1 later one userspace host qemu uses kvm available virtualize guests near-native speeds otherwise falls back software-only emulation internally kvm uses seabios open source implementation 16-bit x86 bios kvm support hot plug vcpus dynamic memory management live migration since february 2007 among features kvm parts licensed various gnu licenses 1-hop neighbor's text information: uptime.uptime uptime measure system reliability expressed percentage time machine typically computer working available uptime opposite downtime often used measure computer operating system reliability stability time represents time computer left unattended without crashing needing rebooted administrative maintenance purposes conversely long uptime may indicate negligence critical updates require reboots platforms 2005 novell reported server 6-year uptime although might sound unusual actually common servers maintained industrial context host critical applications banking systems netcraft maintains uptime records many thousands web hosting computers server running novell netware reported shut 16 years uptime due failing hard disk versions microsoft windows include uptime field windows task manager performance tab format hh mm ss days hours minutes seconds output codice_1 command includes system time system boot time field exact text format dependent language locale time given codice_1 reliable take account time spent sleep hibernation thus boot time drifts forward every time computer sleeps hibernates codice_3 command codice_4 sub-command provides date time computer started codice_5 codice_6 variants command codice_7 shorthand codice_6 exact text date format dependent configured language locale uptime determined via windows management instrumentation wmi querying codice_9 property codice_10 class command prompt done using codice_11 command timestamp uses format codice_12 example computer last booted 8 may 2011 16:17:51.822 text lastbootuptime timestamp format vary language locale wmi also queried using variety application programming interfaces including vbscript powershell microsoft formerly provided downloadable utility called codice_13 reports elapsed time days hours minutes seconds time given codice_13 reliable take account time spent sleep hibernation thus boot time drifts forward every time computer sleeps hibernates codice_15 command also available freedos version developed m. aitchison users linux systems use bsd uptime utility also displays system load averages past 1 5 15 minute intervals shows long system since last restarted first number total number seconds system second number much time machine spent idle seconds multi core systems linux versions second number sum idle time accumulated cpu bsd-based operating systems freebsd mac os x sysvr4 uptime command see also method using sysctl call system last boot time openvms systems codice_16 command used dcl command prompt obtain system uptime first line resulting display includes system uptime displayed days followed hours minutes seconds following example command qualifier codice_17 suppresses display per-process detail lines information Target text information: nokia_dx_200.nokia dx 200 dx 200 digital switching platform currently developed nokia networks dx 200 versatile fault-tolerant modular highly scalable telephone exchange general purpose server platform designed high performance high availability applications hardware built loosely coupled redundant computer units backed distributed software architecture architecture dx 200 allows live migration well software update live operation unlike many switching platforms dx 200 performs live software update without code patching therefore running code polluted unnecessary jump instructions furthermore opposed integration guessing various software patches dx 200 architecture makes proper integration testing software components possible live software update requires two computer units one executing old code working new software loaded otherwise idle spare process called warming memory areas e.g dynamically allocated memory exception stack procedures moved old new computer unit implies handling data structures must compatible old new software versions copying data require programming effort long allocation data done using tnsdl language developing software dx 200 platform rather straightforward well educated software developer tnsdl language plays vital role producing asynchronously communicating fault-tolerant software modules easy learn software architecture dx 200 fine combination highly efficient traditional solutions well modern actor model based highly concurrent design dx 200 products famous availability exceeding 99.999 five nines well unrivaled performance dx 200 generic architecture suitable versatile computing applications applications include traditional mobile switching centers msc lte mobile packet switching gateways well voip application servers generic operating system ported dx 200 relatively easily linux chorusos dmx frequent operating systems used dx 200 dmx 'native os dx 200 dmx microkernel architecture advanced functions like tcp/ip stack live migration components implemented separate libraries dx 200 several hardware flavors nokia networks shifted focus hardware products software services highly valuable business logic kept products used running dx 200 hardware variants available cloud solutions working generic multi-purpose hardware various vendors development system started televa finnish state owned telecom equipment producer early 1970s leadership keijo olkkola first order received 1973 100 subscriber local exchange small remote island community houtskär delivered 1979 first installation 1982 dx 200 captured 50 share finnish fixed line exchange market exchange modular design development microprocessors technology enabled gradual increase system capacity 1987 installation base grown 400,000 subscriber lines early export markets included china nepal united arab emirates sri lanka sweden turkey soviet union 1984 development version exchange nordic mobile telephone network started 1991 world first gsm call made using nokia devices core network components based dx 200 platform 2005 dx 200 based voip server provided finnish operator saunalahti providing state art fixed-mobile convergence solution prime example well dx 200 suitable internet server development overall flexibility whole dx 200 platform 2009 world ’ first voice calls lte networks using commercial 3gpp-standardized user network equipment 2013 nsn showed truly operational telco cloud solution actually marks end traditional dx200 hardware product line I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	11,423	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: linker_(computing).linker computing computing linker link editor computer utility program takes one object files generated compiler assembler combines single executable file library file another 'object file simpler version writes output directly memory called loader though loading typically considered separate process computer programs typically composed several parts modules parts/modules need contained within single object file cases refer means symbols addresses modules mapped memory addresses linked execution typically object file contain three kinds symbols compilers object file result compiling one input source code file program comprises multiple object files linker combines files unified executable program resolving symbols goes along linkers take objects collection called library runtime library linkers include whole library output include files referenced object files libraries library linking may thus iterative process modules included requiring additional modules linked libraries exist diverse purposes one system libraries usually linked default linker also takes care arranging objects program address space may involve relocating code assumes specific base address another base since compiler seldom knows object reside often assumes fixed base location example zero relocating machine code may involve re-targeting absolute jumps loads stores executable output linker may need another relocation pass finally loaded memory execution pass usually omitted hardware offering virtual memory every program put address space conflict even programs load base address pass may also omitted executable position independent executable unix variants sintran iii process performed linker assembling object files program called loading loading executable code onto file additionally operating systems program handles jobs linking loading program dynamic linking many operating system environments allow dynamic linking deferring resolution undefined symbols program run means executable code still contains undefined symbols plus list objects libraries provide definitions loading program load objects/libraries well perform final linking approach offers two advantages also disadvantages static linking result linker copying library routines used program executable image may require disk space memory dynamic linking portable since require presence library system runs static linking also prevents dll hell since program includes exactly versions library routines requires conflict programs program using routines library require entire library installed compiler information layout objects final output take advantage shorter efficient instructions place requirement address another object example jump instruction reference absolute address offset current location offset could expressed different lengths depending distance target generating conservative instruction usually largest relative absolute variant depending platform adding relaxation hints possible substitute shorter efficient instructions final link step performed input objects read assigned temporary addresses linker relaxation pass subsequently reassigns addresses may turn allow relaxations occur general substituted sequences shorter allows process always converge best solution given fixed order objects case relaxations conflict linker needs weigh advantages either option instruction relaxation typically occurs link-time inner-module relaxation already take place part optimising process compile-time cases relaxation also occur load-time part relocation process combined dynamic dead-code elimination techniques ibm system/360 mainframe environments os/360 including z/os z/architecture mainframes type program known linkage editor name implies linkage editor additional capability allowing addition replacement and/or deletion individual program sections operating systems os/360 format executable load-modules containing supplementary data component sections program individual program section replaced parts program updated relocatable addresses references corrected linkage editor part process one advantage allows program maintained without keep intermediate object files without re-compile program sections n't changed also permits program updates distributed form small files originally card decks containing object module replaced systems object code form format 80-byte punched-card images updates introduced system using medium later releases os/360 subsequent systems load-modules contain additional data versions components modules create traceable record updates term linkage editor construed implying program operates user-interactive mode like text editor intended batch-mode execution editing commands supplied user sequentially organized files punched cards dasd magnetic tape tapes often used initial installation os 1-hop neighbor's text information: valgrind.valgrind valgrind programming tool memory debugging memory leak detection profiling valgrind originally designed free memory debugging tool linux x86 since evolved become generic framework creating dynamic analysis tools checkers profilers name valgrind reference main entrance valhalla norse mythology development release project named heimdall however name would conflicted security package valgrind essence virtual machine using just-in-time jit compilation techniques including dynamic recompilation nothing original program ever gets run directly host processor instead valgrind first translates program temporary simpler form called intermediate representation ir processor-neutral ssa-based form conversion tool see free whatever transformations would like ir valgrind translates ir back machine code lets host processor run valgrind recompiles binary code run host target simulated cpus architecture also includes gdb stub allow debugging target program runs valgrind monitor commands allow query valgrind tool various sorts information considerable amount performance lost transformations usually code tool inserts usually code run valgrind none tool nothing ir runs 1/4 1/5 speed normal program multiple tools included valgrind several external ones default used tool memcheck memcheck inserts extra instrumentation code around almost instructions keeps track validity unallocated memory starts invalid undefined initialized deterministic state possibly memory addressability whether memory address question points allocated non-freed memory block stored so-called v bits bits respectively data moved around manipulated instrumentation code keeps track v bits always correct single-bit level addition memcheck replaces standard c memory allocator implementation also includes memory guards around allocated blocks bits set invalid feature enables memcheck detect off-by-one errors program reads writes outside allocated block small amount problems memcheck detect warn include following price lost performance programs running memcheck usually run 20–30 times slower running outside valgrind use memory memory penalty per allocation thus developers run code memcheck valgrind tool time commonly use tools either trace specific bug verify latent bugs kind memcheck detect code addition memcheck valgrind several tools also several externally developed tools available one tool threadsanitizer another detector race conditions version 3.4.0 valgrind supports linux x86 x86-64 powerpc support added version 3.5.0 support linux armv7 used example certain smartphones added version 3.6.0 support solaris added version 3.11.0 unofficial ports unix-like platforms like freebsd openbsd netbsd version 3.7.0 arm/android platform support added since version 3.9.0 support linux mips64 little big endian mips dsp ase mips32 s390x decimal floating point instructions power8 power isa 2.07 instructions intel avx2 instructions intel transactional synchronization extensions rtm hle initial support hardware transactional memory power named main entrance valhalla norse mythology original author valgrind julian seward 2006 google-o'reilly open source award work valgrind several others also made significant contributions including cerion armour-brown jeremy fitzhardinge tom hughes nicholas nethercote paul mackerras dirk mueller bart van assche josef weidendorfer robert walsh used number linux-based projects addition performance penalty important limitation memcheck inability detect cases bounds errors use static stack-allocated data following code pass memcheck tool valgrind without incident despite containing errors described comments experimental valgrind tool exp-sgcheck written address limitation memcheck detect array overrun errors provided first access array within array bounds note exp-sgcheck detect array overrun code since first access array bounds detect array overrun error following code inability detect errors involving access stack allocated data especially noteworthy since certain types stack errors make software vulnerable classic stack smashing exploit 1-hop neighbor's text information: compiler.compiler compiler computer program translates computer code written one programming language source language another programming language target language name compiler primarily used programs translate source code high-level programming language lower level language e.g. assembly language object code machine code create executable program however many different types compilers compiled program run computer whose cpu operating system different one compiler runs compiler cross-compiler bootstrap compiler written language intends compile program translates low-level language higher level one decompiler program translates high-level languages usually called source-to-source compiler transpiler language rewriter usually program translates form expressions without change language term compiler-compiler refers tools used create parsers perform syntax analysis compiler likely perform many following operations preprocessing lexical analysis parsing semantic analysis syntax-directed translation conversion input programs intermediate representation code optimization code generation compilers implement operations phases promote efficient design correct transformations source input target output program faults caused incorrect compiler behavior difficult track work around therefore compiler implementers invest significant effort ensure compiler correctness compilers language processor used transform source programs interpreter computer software transforms executes indicated operations translation process influences design computer languages leads preference compilation interpretation practice interpreter implemented compiled languages compilers implemented interpreted languages theoretical computing concepts developed scientists mathematicians engineers formed basis digital modern computing development world war ii primitive binary languages evolved digital devices understand ones zeros circuit patterns underlying machine architecture late 1940s assembly languages created offer workable abstraction computer architectures limited memory capacity early computers led substantial technical challenges first compilers designed therefore compilation process needed divided several small programs front end programs produce analysis products used back end programs generate target code computer technology provided resources compiler designs could align better compilation process usually productive programmer use high-level language development high-level languages followed naturally capabilities offered digital computers high-level languages formal languages strictly defined syntax semantics form high-level language architecture elements formal languages include sentences language may defined set rules called grammar backus–naur form bnf describes syntax sentences language used syntax algol 60 john backus ideas derive context-free grammar concepts noam chomsky linguist bnf extensions become standard tools describing syntax programming notations many cases parts compilers generated automatically bnf description 1940s konrad zuse designed algorithmic programming language called plankalkül plan calculus actual implementation occurred 1970s presented concepts later seen apl designed ken iverson late 1950s apl language mathematical computations high-level language design formative years digital computing provided useful programming tools variety applications compiler technology evolved need strictly defined transformation high-level source program low-level target program digital computer compiler could viewed front end deal analysis source code back end synthesize analysis target code optimization front end back end could produce efficient target code early milestones development compiler technology early operating systems software written assembly language 60s early 70s use high-level languages system programming still controversial due resource limitations however several research industry efforts began shift toward high-level systems programming languages example bcpl bliss b c. bcpl basic combined programming language designed 1966 martin richards university cambridge originally developed compiler writing tool several compilers implemented richards book provides insights language compiler bcpl influential systems programming language still used research also provided basis design b c languages bliss basic language implementation system software developed digital equipment corporation dec pdp-10 computer w.a wulf carnegie mellon university cmu research team cmu team went develop bliss-11 compiler one year later 1970 multics multiplexed information computing service time-sharing operating system project involved mit bell labs general electric later honeywell led fernando corbató mit multics written pl/i language developed ibm ibm user group ibm goal satisfy business scientific systems programming requirements languages could considered pl/i offered complete solution even though implemented first years mulitics project subset language could compiled assembly language early pl/i epl compiler doug mcilory bob morris bell labs epl supported project boot-strapping compiler full pl/i could developed bell labs left multics project 1969 time hope replaced frustration group effort initially failed produce economically useful system continued participation would drive project support costs researchers turned development efforts system programming language b based bcpl concepts written dennis ritchie ken thompson ritchie created boot-strapping compiler b wrote unics uniplexed information computing service operating system pdp-7 b. unics eventually became spelled unix bell labs started development expansion c based b bcpl bcpl compiler transported multics bell labs bcpl preferred language bell labs initially front-end program bell labs b compiler used c compiler developed 1971 new pdp-11 provided resource define extensions b rewrite compiler 1973 design c language essentially complete unix kernel pdp-11 rewritten c. steve johnson started development portable c compiler pcc support retargeting c compilers new machines object-oriented programming oop offered interesting possibilities application development maintenance oop concepts go back part lisp simula language science bell labs development c++ became interested oop c++ first used 1980 systems programming initial design leveraged c language systems programming capabilities simula concepts object-oriented facilities added 1983 cfront program implemented c++ front-end c84 language compiler subsequent years several c++ compilers developed c++ popularity grew many application domains idea using higher-level language quickly caught expanding functionality supported newer programming languages increasing complexity computer architectures compilers became complex darpa defense advanced research projects agency sponsored compiler project wulf cmu research team 1970 production quality compiler-compiler pqcc design would produce production quality compiler pqc formal definitions source language target pqcc tried extend term compiler-compiler beyond traditional meaning parser generator e.g. yacc without much success pqcc might properly referred compiler generator pqcc research code generation process sought build truly automatic compiler-writing system effort discovered designed phase structure pqc bliss-11 compiler provided initial structure phases included analyses front end intermediate translation virtual machine middle end translation target back end tcol developed pqcc research handle language specific constructs intermediate representation variations tcol supported various languages pqcc project investigated techniques automated compiler construction design concepts proved useful optimizing compilers compilers object-oriented programming language ada ada stoneman document formalized program support environment apse along kernel kapse minimal mapse ada interpreter nyu/ed supported development standardization efforts american national standards institute ansi international standards organization iso initial ada compiler development u.s. military services included compilers complete integrated design environment along lines stoneman document army navy worked ada language system als project targeted dec/vax architecture air force started ada integrated environment aie targeted ibm 370 series projects provide desired results contribute overal effort ada development ada compiler efforts got underway britain university york germany university karlsruhe u. s. verdix later acquired rational delivered verdix ada development system vads army vads provided set development tools including compiler unix/vads could hosted variety unix platforms dec ultrix sun 3/60 solaris targeted motorola 68020 army cecom evaluation soon many ada compilers available passed ada validation tests free software foundation gnu project developed gnu compiler collection gcc provides core capability support multiple languages targets ada version gnat one widely used ada compilers gnat free also commercial support example adacore founded 1994 provide commercial software solutions ada gnat pro includes gnu gcc based gnat tool suite provide integrated development environment high-level languages continued drive compiler research development focus areas included optimization automatic code generation trends programming languages development environments influenced compiler technology compilers became included language distributions perl java development kit component ide vads eclipse ada pro interrelationship interdependence technologies grew advent web services promoted growth web languages scripting languages scripts trace back early days command line interfaces cli user could enter commands executed system user shell concepts developed languages write shell programs early windows designs offered simple batch programming capability conventional transformation language used interpreter widely used bash batch compilers written recently sophisticated interpreted languages became part developers tool kit modern scripting languages include php python ruby lua lua widely used game development interpreter compiler support field compiling began late 50s focus limited translation high-level language programs machine code ... compiler field increasingly intertwined disciplines including computer architecture programming languages formal methods software engineering computer security compiler research next 50 years article noted importance object-oriented languages java security parallel computing cited among future research targets compiler implements formal transformation high-level source program low-level target program compiler design define end end solution tackle defined subset interfaces compilation tools e.g preprocessors assemblers linkers design requirements include rigorously defined interfaces internally compiler components externally supporting toolsets early days approach taken compiler design directly affected complexity computer language processed experience person designing resources available resource limitations led need pass source code compiler relatively simple language written one person might single monolithic piece software however source language grows complexity design may split number interdependent phases separate phases provide design improvements focus development functions compilation process classifying compilers number passes background hardware resource limitations computers compiling involves performing lots work early computers enough memory contain one program work compilers split smaller programs made pass source representation performing required analysis translations ability compile single pass classically seen benefit simplifies job writing compiler one-pass compilers generally perform compilations faster multi-pass compilers thus partly driven resource limitations early systems many early languages specifically designed could compiled single pass e.g. pascal cases design language feature may require compiler perform one pass source instance consider declaration appearing line 20 source affects translation statement appearing line 10 case first pass needs gather information declarations appearing statements affect actual translation happening subsequent pass disadvantage compiling single pass possible perform many sophisticated optimizations needed generate high quality code difficult count exactly many passes optimizing compiler makes instance different phases optimization may analyse one expression many times analyse another expression splitting compiler small programs technique used researchers interested producing provably correct compilers proving correctness set small programs often requires less effort proving correctness larger single equivalent program regardless exact number phases compiler design phases assigned one three stages stages include front end middle end back end front/middle/back-end approach makes possible combine front ends different languages back ends different cpus sharing optimizations middle end practical examples approach gnu compiler collection llvm amsterdam compiler kit multiple front-ends shared optimizations multiple back-ends front end analyzes source code build internal representation program called intermediate representation ir also manages symbol table data structure mapping symbol source code associated information location type scope frontend single monolithic function program scannerless parser commonly implemented analyzed several phases may execute sequentially concurrently method favored due modularity separation concerns commonly today frontend broken three phases lexical analysis also known lexing syntax analysis also known scanning parsing semantic analysis lexing parsing comprise syntactic analysis word syntax phrase syntax respectively simple cases modules lexer parser automatically generated grammar language though complex cases require manual modification lexical grammar phrase grammar usually context-free grammars simplifies analysis significantly context-sensitivity handled semantic analysis phase semantic analysis phase generally complex written hand partially fully automated using attribute grammars phases broken lexing scanning evaluating parsing building concrete syntax tree cst parse tree transforming abstract syntax tree ast syntax tree cases additional phases used notably line reconstruction preprocessing rare main phases front end include following middle end also known optimizer performs optimizations intermediate representation order improve performance quality produced machine code middle end contains optimizations independent cpu architecture targeted main phases middle end include following compiler analysis prerequisite compiler optimization tightly work together example dependence analysis crucial loop transformation scope compiler analysis optimizations vary greatly scope may range operating within basic block whole procedures even whole program trade-off granularity optimizations cost compilation example peephole optimizations fast perform compilation affect small local fragment code performed independently context code fragment appears contrast interprocedural optimization requires compilation time memory space enable optimizations possible considering behavior multiple functions simultaneously interprocedural analysis optimizations common modern commercial compilers hp ibm sgi intel microsoft sun microsystems free software gcc criticized long time lacking powerful interprocedural optimizations changing respect another open source compiler full analysis optimization infrastructure open64 used many organizations research commercial purposes due extra time space needed compiler analysis optimizations compilers skip default users use compilation options explicitly tell compiler optimizations enabled back end responsible cpu architecture specific optimizations code generation main phases back end include following compiler correctness branch software engineering deals trying show compiler behaves according language specification techniques include developing compiler using formal methods using rigorous testing often called compiler validation existing compiler higher-level programming languages usually appear type translation mind either designed compiled language interpreted language however practice rarely anything language requires exclusively compiled exclusively interpreted although possible design languages rely re-interpretation run time categorization usually reflects popular widespread implementations language — instance basic sometimes called interpreted language c compiled one despite existence basic compilers c interpreters interpretation replace compilation completely hides user makes gradual even though interpreter interpreted directly executed program needed somewhere bottom stack see machine language compilers contain interpreters optimization reasons example expression executed compilation results inserted output program prevents recalculated time program runs greatly speed final program modern trends toward just-in-time compilation bytecode interpretation times blur traditional categorizations compilers interpreters even language specifications spell implementations must include compilation facility example common lisp however nothing inherent definition common lisp stops interpreted languages features easy implement interpreter make writing compiler much harder example apl snobol4 many scripting languages allow programs construct arbitrary source code runtime regular string operations execute code passing special evaluation function implement features compiled language programs must usually shipped runtime library includes version compiler one classification compilers platform generated code executes known target platform native hosted compiler one whose output intended directly run type computer operating system compiler runs output cross compiler designed run different platform cross compilers often used developing software embedded systems intended support software development environment output compiler produces code virtual machine vm may may executed platform compiler produced reason compilers usually classified native cross compilers lower level language target compiler may high-level programming language c viewed sort portable assembly language frequently target language compilers example cfront original compiler c++ used c target language c code generated compiler usually intended readable maintained humans indent style creating pretty c intermediate code ignored features c make good target language include codice_1 directive generated compiler support debugging original source wide platform support available c compilers common compiler type outputs machine code many types Target text information: purifyplus.purifyplus purifyplus memory debugger program used software developers detect memory access errors programs especially written c c++ originally written reed hastings pure software pure software later merged atria software form pure atria software turn later acquired rational software turn acquired ibm divested unicom systems inc. dec 31 2014 functionally similar memory debuggers insure++ valgrind boundschecker purifyplus allows dynamic verification process program discovers errors occur program runs much like debugger static verification static code analysis contrast involves detecting errors source code without ever compiling running discovering logical inconsistencies type checking c compiler example static verification program linked purifyplus corrected verification code automatically inserted executable parsing adding object code including libraries way memory error occurs program print exact location error memory address involved relevant information purifyplus also detects memory leaks default leak report generated program exit also generated calling purifyplus leak-detection api within instrumented application errors purifyplus discovers include array bounds reads writes trying access unallocated memory freeing unallocated memory usually due freeing memory second time well memory leaks allocated memory pointer reference errors fatal least site error often running program way detect except observing something wrong due incorrect program behavior hence purifyplus helps detecting errors telling programmer exactly occur purifyplus works instrumenting object code detects errors occur inside third-party operating system libraries errors often caused programmer passing incorrect arguments library calls misunderstandings protocols freeing data structures used libraries often difficult errors find fix ability detect non-fatal errors major distinction purifyplus similar programs usual debuggers contrast debuggers generally allow programmer quickly find sources fatal errors program crash due dereferencing null pointer help detect non-fatal memory errors debuggers useful things purifyplus intended stepping code line line examining program memory hand particular moment execution words tools complement skilled developer purifyplus also includes functionality high-performance watchpoints general use using debugger one code worth noting using purifyplus makes sense programming languages leave memory management programmer hence java lisp visual basic example automatic memory management reduces occurrence memory leaks languages however still leaks unnecessary references objects prevent memory re-allocated ibm product called rational application developer uncover sorts errors I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	1,730	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: relevance_language.relevance language relevance language patented language created bigfix inc. later acquired ibm use bigfix product bigfix software used monitor computers within enterprise take necessary actions bring computer compliance defined policies prominent use determine particular computer whether desktop laptop running windows mac linux mobile device running ios android needs update patch deliver fixlet bigfix term set instructions get update install device bandwidth efficient manner design software company looking language could directly retrieve properties computer cpu disk space etc unable find one appropriate task developed language meet need currently bigfix software uses language 1-hop neighbor's text information: ibm.ibm international business machines corporation ibm american multinational information technology company headquartered armonk new york operations 170 countries company began 1911 founded endicott new york computing-tabulating-recording company ctr renamed international business machines 1924 ibm produces sells computer hardware middleware software provides hosting consulting services areas ranging mainframe computers nanotechnology ibm also major research organization holding record u.s. patents generated business 26 consecutive years inventions ibm include automated teller machine atm floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database sql programming language upc barcode dynamic random-access memory dram ibm mainframe exemplified system/360 dominant computing platform 1960s 1970s ibm continually shifted business operations focusing higher-value profitable markets includes spinning printer manufacturer lexmark 1991 sale personal computer thinkpad/thinkcentre x86-based server businesses lenovo 2005 2014 respectively acquiring companies pwc consulting 2002 spss 2009 weather company 2016 red hat 2019 also 2015 ibm announced would go fabless continuing design semiconductors offloading manufacturing globalfoundries nicknamed big blue ibm one 30 companies included dow jones industrial average one world largest employers 380,000 employees known ibmers least 70 ibmers based outside united states country largest number ibmers india ibm employees awarded five nobel prizes six turing awards ten national medals technology usa five national medals science usa 1880s technologies emerged would ultimately form core international business machines ibm julius e. pitrap patented computing scale 1885 alexander dey invented dial recorder 1888 herman hollerith 1860–1929 patented electric tabulating machine willard bundy invented time clock record worker arrival departure time paper tape 1889 june 16 1911 four companies amalgamated new york state charles ranlett flint forming fifth company computing-tabulating-recording company ctr based endicott new york five companies 1,300 employees offices plants endicott binghamton new york dayton ohio detroit michigan washington d.c. toronto manufactured machinery sale lease ranging commercial scales industrial time recorders meat cheese slicers tabulators punched cards thomas j. watson sr. fired national cash register company john henry patterson called flint 1914 offered position ctr watson joined ctr general manager 11 months later made president court cases relating time ncr resolved learned patterson pioneering business practices watson proceeded put stamp ncr onto ctr companies implemented sales conventions generous sales incentives focus customer service insistence well-groomed dark-suited salesmen evangelical fervor instilling company pride loyalty every worker favorite slogan think became mantra company employees watson first four years revenues reached 9 million company operations expanded europe south america asia australia watson never liked clumsy hyphenated name computing-tabulating-recording company february 14 1924 chose replace expansive title international business machines 1933 subsidiaries merged one company ibm 1937 ibm tabulating equipment enabled organizations process unprecedented amounts data clients including u.s. government first effort maintain employment records 26 million people pursuant social security act tracking persecuted groups hitler third reich largely german subsidiary dehomag 1949 thomas watson sr. created ibm world trade corporation subsidiary ibm focused foreign operations 1952 stepped almost 40 years company helm son thomas watson jr. named president 1956 company demonstrated first practical example artificial intelligence arthur l. samuel ibm poughkeepsie new york laboratory programmed ibm 704 merely play checkers learn experience 1957 fortran scientific programming language developed 1961 ibm developed sabre reservation system american airlines introduced highly successful selectric typewriter 1963 ibm employees computers helped nasa track orbital flights mercury astronauts year later moved corporate headquarters new york city armonk new york latter half 1960s saw ibm continue support space exploration participating 1965 gemini flights 1966 saturn flights 1969 lunar mission april 7 1964 ibm announced first computer system family ibm system/360 spanned complete range commercial scientific applications large small allowing companies first time upgrade models greater computing capability without rewrite applications followed ibm system/370 1970 together 360 370 made ibm mainframe dominant mainframe computer dominant computing platform industry throughout period early 1980s operating systems ran os/vs1 mvs middleware built top cics transaction processing monitor near-monopoly-level hold computer industry became almost synonymous ibm products due marketshare 1974 ibm engineer george j. laurer developed universal product code ibm world bank first introduced financial swaps public 1981 entered swap agreement ibm pc originally designated ibm 5150 introduced 1981 soon became industry standard 1991 ibm spun printer manufacturing new business called lexmark 1993 ibm posted us 8 billion loss – time biggest american corporate history lou gerstner hired ceo rjr nabisco turn company around 2002 ibm acquired pwc consulting 2003 initiated project redefine company values hosting three-day online discussion key business issues 50,000 employees result three values dedication every client success innovation matters—for company world trust personal responsibility relationships 2005 company sold personal computer business chinese technology company lenovo 2009 acquired software company spss inc. later 2009 ibm blue gene supercomputing program awarded national medal technology innovation u.s. president barack obama 2011 ibm gained worldwide attention artificial intelligence program watson exhibited jeopardy game-show champions ken jennings brad rutter company also celebrated 100th anniversary year june 16 2012 ibm announced agreed buy kenexa year later also acquired softlayer technologies web hosting service deal worth around 2 billion 2014 ibm announced would sell x86 server division lenovo 2.1 billion also year ibm began announcing several major partnerships companies including apple inc. twitter facebook tencent cisco underarmour box microsoft vmware csc macy sesame workshop parent company sesame street salesforce.com 2015 ibm announced three major acquisitions merge healthcare 1 billion data storage vendor cleversafe digital assets weather company including weather.com weather channel mobile app also year ibmers created film boy atom first molecule movie tell story 2016 ibm acquired video conferencing service ustream formed new cloud video unit april 2016 posted 14-year low quarterly sales following month groupon sued ibm accusing patent infringement two months ibm accused groupon patent infringement separate lawsuit 2015 ibm bought digital part weather company october 2018 ibm announced intention acquire red hat 34 billion acquisition completed july 9 2019 june 2019 ibm cut 2,000 jobs ibm headquartered armonk new york community north midtown manhattan principal building referred chq glass stone edifice parcel amid 432-acre former apple orchard company purchased mid-1950s two ibm buildings within walking distance chq north castle office previously served ibm headquarters louis v. gerstner jr. center learning formerly known ibm learning center ilc resort hotel training center 182 guest rooms 31 meeting rooms various amenities ibm operates 174 countries mobility centers smaller markets areas major campuses larger ones new york city ibm several offices besides chq including ibm watson headquarters astor place manhattan outside new york major campuses united states include austin texas research triangle park raleigh-durham north carolina rochester minnesota silicon valley california ibm real estate holdings varied globally diverse towers occupied ibm include 1250 rené-lévesque montreal canada tour descartes paris france one atlantic center atlanta georgia usa beijing china ibm occupies pangu plaza city seventh tallest building overlooking beijing national stadium bird nest home 2008 summer olympics ibm india private limited indian subsidiary ibm headquartered bengaluru karnataka facilities bengaluru ahmedabad delhi kolkata mumbai chennai pune gurugram noida bhubaneshwar coimbatore visakhapatnam hyderabad notable buildings include ibm rome software lab rome italy hursley house winchester uk 330 north wabash chicago illinois united states cambridge scientific center cambridge massachusetts united states ibm toronto software lab toronto canada ibm building johannesburg johannesburg south africa ibm building seattle seattle washington united states ibm hakozaki facility tokyo japan ibm yamato facility yamato japan ibm canada head office building ontario canada watson iot headquarters munich germany defunct ibm campuses include ibm somers office complex somers new york company contributions industrial architecture design include works eero saarinen ludwig mies van der rohe i.m pei van der rohe building chicago recognized 1990 honor award national building museum ibm recognized one top 20 best workplaces commuters united states environmental protection agency epa 2005 recognized fortune 500 companies provided employees excellent commuter benefits help reduce traffic air pollution 2004 concerns raised related ibm contribution early days pollution original location endicott new york fiscal year 2017 ibm reported earnings us 5.7 billion annual revenue us 79.1 billion decline 1.0 previous fiscal cycle ibm shares traded 125 per share market capitalization valued us 113.9 billion september 2018 ibm ranked 34 2018 fortune 500 rankings largest united states corporations total revenue ibm large diverse portfolio products services offerings fall categories cloud computing artificial intelligence commerce data analytics internet things iot infrastructure mobile security ibm cloud includes infrastructure service iaas software service saas platform service paas offered public private hybrid cloud delivery models instance ibm bluemix paas enables developers quickly create complex websites pay-as-you-go model ibm softlayer dedicated server managed hosting cloud computing provider 2011 reported hosting 81,000 servers 26,000 customers ibm also provides cloud data encryption services icdes using cryptographic splitting secure customer data ibm also hosts industry-wide cloud computing mobile technologies conference interconnect year hardware designed ibm categories include ibm power microprocessors employed inside many console gaming systems including xbox 360 playstation 3 nintendo wii u. ibm secure blue encryption hardware built microprocessors 2014 company revealed truenorth neuromorphic cmos integrated circuit announced 3 billion investment following five years design neural chip mimics human brain 10 billion neurons 100 trillion synapses uses 1 kilowatt power 2016 company launched all-flash arrays designed small midsized companies includes software data compression provisioning snapshots across various systems outsourcing also represents major service provided ibm 40 data centers worldwide alphaworks ibm source emerging software technologies spss software package used statistical analysis ibm kenexa suite provides employment retention solutions includes brassring applicant tracking system used thousands companies recruiting ibm also owns weather company provides weather forecasting includes weather.com weather underground smarter planet initiative seeks achieve economic growth near-term efficiency sustainable development societal progress targeting opportunities smart grids water management systems solutions traffic congestion greener buildings services provisions include redbooks publicly available online books best practices ibm products developerworks website software developers professionals how-to articles tutorials well software downloads code samples discussion forums podcasts blogs wikis resources developers technical professionals ibm watson technology platform uses natural language processing machine learning reveal insights large amounts unstructured data watson debuted 2011 american game-show jeopardy competed champions ken jennings brad rutter three-game tournament watson since applied business healthcare developers universities example ibm partnered memorial sloan kettering cancer center assist considering treatment options oncology patients melanoma screenings also several companies begun using watson call centers either replacing assisting customer service agents january 2019 ibm introduced first commercial quantum computer ibm q system one ibm also provides infrastructure new york city police department ibm cognos analytics perform data visualizations compstat crime data research part ibm since founding organized efforts trace roots back 1945 watson scientific computing laboratory founded columbia university new york city converting renovated fraternity house manhattan west side ibm first laboratory ibm research constitutes largest industrial research organization world 12 labs 6 continents ibm research headquartered thomas j. watson research center new york facilities include almaden lab california austin lab texas australia lab melbourne brazil lab são paulo rio de janeiro china lab beijing shanghai ireland lab dublin haifa lab israel india lab delhi bangalore tokyo lab zurich lab africa lab nairobi terms investment ibm r expenditure totals several billion dollars year 2012 expenditure approximately us 6.9 billion recent allocations included 1 billion create business unit watson 2014 3 billion create next-gen semiconductor along 4 billion towards growing company strategic imperatives cloud analytics mobile security social 2015 ibm leading proponent open source initiative began supporting linux 1998 company invests billions dollars services software based linux ibm linux technology center includes 300 linux kernel developers ibm also released code different open source licenses platform-independent software framework eclipse worth approximately us 40 million time donation three-sentence international components unicode icu license java-based relational database management system rdbms apache derby ibm open source involvement trouble-free however see sco v. ibm famous inventions developments ibm include automated teller machine atm dynamic random access memory dram electronic keypunch financial swap floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database risc sabre airline reservation system sql universal product code upc bar code virtual machine additionally 1990 company scientists used scanning tunneling microscope arrange 35 individual xenon atoms spell company acronym marking first structure assembled one atom time major part ibm research generation patents since first patent traffic signaling device ibm one world prolific patent sources 2018 company holds record patents generated business marking 25 consecutive years achievement five ibmers received nobel prize leo esaki thomas j. watson research center yorktown heights n.y. 1973 work semiconductors gerd binnig heinrich rohrer zurich research center 1986 scanning tunneling microscope georg bednorz alex müller also zurich 1987 research superconductivity several ibmers also turing award including first female recipient frances e. allen current research includes collaboration university michigan see computers act academic advisor undergraduate computer science engineering students university partnership combining cloud internet things iot platforms make interoperable provide developers easier tools company also involved research advanced algorithms machine learning decision-making processes end company recently released analysis tool algorithms make decisions scanning biases automated decision-making ibm nicknamed big blue part due blue logo color scheme also partially since ibm de facto dress code white shirts blue suits company logo undergone several changes years current 8-bar logo designed 1972 graphic designer paul rand general replacement 13-bar logo since period photocopiers render large areas well aside logo ibm used helvetica corporate typeface 50 years replaced 2017 custom-designed ibm plex ibm valuable brand result 100 years operations marketing campaigns since 1996 ibm exclusive technology partner masters tournament one four major championships professional golf ibm creating first masters.org 1996 first course cam 1998 first iphone app live streaming 2009 first-ever live 4k ultra high definition feed united states major sporting event 2016 result ibm ceo ginni rometty became third female member master governing body augusta national golf club ibm also major sponsor professional tennis engagements u.s. open wimbledon australian open french open company also sponsored olympic games 1960–2000 national football league 2003–2012 2012 ibm brand valued 75.5 billion ranked interbrand second-best brand worldwide year also ranked top company leaders fortune number two green company u.s. newsweek second-most respected company barron fifth-most admired company fortune 18th-most innovative company fast company number one technology consulting number two outsourcing vault 2015 forbes ranked ibm fifth-most valuable brand january 1969 last day johnson administration united states department justice antitrust division filed suit ibm alleging company engaged monopolistic business practices talks ibm would agree settlement consent decree two sides unable come terms case went trial 1975 legal matter justice department estimated would take 60 days three years millions pages evidence justice department decided drop suit new york times article states ibm never publicly disclosed much spent defending suit estimated tens millions dollars ibm one largest workforces world employees big blue referred ibmers company among first corporations provide group life insurance 1934 survivor benefits 1935 training women 1935 paid vacations 1937 training disabled people 1942 ibm hired first black salesperson 1946 1952 ceo thomas j. watson jr. published company first written equal opportunity policy letter one year u.s. supreme court decision brown vs. board education 11 years civil rights act 1964 human rights campaign rated ibm 100 index gay-friendliness every year since 2003 ibm providing same-sex partners employees health benefits anti-discrimination clause additionally 2005 ibm became first major company world commit formally use genetic information employment decisions 2017 ibm named working mother 100 best companies list 32nd consecutive year ibm several leadership development recognition programs recognize employee potential achievements early-career high potential employees ibm sponsors leadership development programs discipline e.g. general management gmldp human resources hrldp finance fldp year company also selects 500 ibmers ibm corporate service corps csc described corporate equivalent peace corps gives top employees month humanitarian work abroad certain interns ibm also program called extreme blue partners top business technical students develop high-value technology compete present business case company ceo internship end company also various designations exceptional individual contributors senior technical staff member stsm research staff member rsm distinguished engineer de distinguished designer dd prolific inventors also achieve patent plateaus earn designation master inventor company prestigious designation ibm fellow since 1963 company names handful fellows year based technical achievement programs recognize years service quarter century club established 1924 sellers eligible join hundred percent club composed ibm salesmen meet quotas convened atlantic city new jersey year company also selects 1,000 ibmers annually award best ibm award includes all-expenses paid trip awards ceremony exotic location ibm culture evolved significantly century operations early days dark gray suit white shirt sincere tie constituted public uniform ibm employees ibm management transformation 1990s ceo louis v. gerstner jr. relaxed codes normalizing dress behavior ibm employees company culture also given different plays company acronym ibm saying stands 've moved due relocations layoffs others saying stands 'm pursuant prevalent work-from-anywhere norm others saying stands 'm mentored due company open door policy encouragement mentoring levels terms labor relations company traditionally resisted labor union organizing although unions represent ibm workers outside united states japan ibm employees also american football team complete pro stadium cheerleaders televised games competing japanese x-league big blue 2015 ibm started giving employees option choosing either pc mac primary work device resulting ibm becoming world largest mac shop 2016 ibm eliminated forced rankings changed annual performance review system focus frequent feedback coaching skills development many ibmers also achieved notability outside work leaving ibm business former ibm employees include apple inc. ceo tim cook former eds ceo politician ross perot microsoft chairman john w. thompson sap co-founder hasso plattner gartner founder gideon gartner advanced micro devices amd ceo lisa su former citizens financial group ceo ellen alemany former yahoo chairman alfred amoroso former ceo c. michael armstrong former xerox corporation ceos david t. kearns g. richard thoman former fair isaac corporation ceo mark n. greene citrix systems co-founder ed iacobucci asos.com chairman brian mcbride former lenovo ceo steve ward former teradata ceo kenneth simonds government alumna patricia roberts harris served united states secretary housing urban development first african american woman serve united states cabinet samuel k. skinner served u.s. secretary transportation white house chief staff alumni also include u.s senators mack mattingly thom tillis wisconsin governor scott walker former u.s ambassadors vincent obsitnik slovakia arthur k. watson france thomas watson jr. soviet union former u.s representatives todd akin glenn andrews robert garcia katherine harris amo houghton jim ross lightfoot thomas j. manton donald w. riegle jr. ed zschau others nasa astronaut michael j. massimino canadian astronaut governor-general julie payette harvey mudd college president maria klawe western governors university president emeritus robert mendenhall former university kentucky president lee t. todd jr. nfl referee bill carollo former rangers f.c chairman john mcclelland recipient nobel prize literature j. m. coetzee thomas watson jr. also served 11th national president boy scouts america company 14 member board directors responsible overall corporate management includes ceos american express ford motor company boeing dow chemical johnson johnson cemex well president rensselaer polytechnic institute 2011 ibm became first technology company warren buffett holding company berkshire hathaway invested initially bought 64 million shares costing 10.5 billion dollars years increased ibm holdings however reduced 94.5 2.05 million shares end 2017 may 2018 completely ibm 1-hop neighbor's text information: tanium.tanium tanium privately held endpoint security systems management company based emeryville california founded 2007 father son david hindawi orion hindawi co-founders management company bigfix orion named ceo february 2016 david serves executive chairman Target text information: bigfix_inc.bigfix inc bigfix inc. american company focusing managing networked desktop mobile server computers origins personal computer self-help application company ’ products expanded on-demand endpoint management services include asset inventory/discovery security vulnerability detection remediation software distribution information technology compliance reporting patch management software license management security policy enforcement endpoint device power consumption management founded 1997 bigfix inc. headquartered emeryville california july 1 2019 hcl technologies completed acquisition bigfix ibm previously acquired bigfix undisclosed amount ibm changed name bigfix product ibm tivoli endpoint manager tem shortened name ibm endpoint manager iem 2013 ibm changed name back ibm bigfix july 7 2015 bigfix inc. founded david hindawi david donoho april 1997 emeryville california company ’ initial product user self-service system management application marketed oem pc manufacturers 2002 company developed bigfix software company-wide networked desktop mobile server computer management shifted focus company consumer enterprise markets initial uses centered security patch management identified significant pain point time enterprise departments 2007 bigfix expanded specific management areas security threat suppression bigfix endpoint protection enterprise security configuration management bigfix security configuration vulnerability management enterprise systems management bigfix systems lifecycle management 2009 bigfix entered exclusive partnership trend micro markets included banking financial services manufacturing government education healthcare customers included pitney bowes stanford university suntrust bank miami-dade county public schools us department energy july 20 2010 ibm acquired bigfix inc. approximately 400 million integrated bigfix product tivoli software portfolio new name ibm tivoli endpoint manager tem march 5 2013 ibm tivoli endpoint manager renamed ibm became ibm endpoint manager iem july 7 2015 ibm changed name ibm endpoint manager back ibm bigfix december 7 2018 hcl technologies announced acquisition ibm bigfix acquisition closed july 1 2019 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	7,306	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: compiler.compiler compiler computer program translates computer code written one programming language source language another programming language target language name compiler primarily used programs translate source code high-level programming language lower level language e.g. assembly language object code machine code create executable program however many different types compilers compiled program run computer whose cpu operating system different one compiler runs compiler cross-compiler bootstrap compiler written language intends compile program translates low-level language higher level one decompiler program translates high-level languages usually called source-to-source compiler transpiler language rewriter usually program translates form expressions without change language term compiler-compiler refers tools used create parsers perform syntax analysis compiler likely perform many following operations preprocessing lexical analysis parsing semantic analysis syntax-directed translation conversion input programs intermediate representation code optimization code generation compilers implement operations phases promote efficient design correct transformations source input target output program faults caused incorrect compiler behavior difficult track work around therefore compiler implementers invest significant effort ensure compiler correctness compilers language processor used transform source programs interpreter computer software transforms executes indicated operations translation process influences design computer languages leads preference compilation interpretation practice interpreter implemented compiled languages compilers implemented interpreted languages theoretical computing concepts developed scientists mathematicians engineers formed basis digital modern computing development world war ii primitive binary languages evolved digital devices understand ones zeros circuit patterns underlying machine architecture late 1940s assembly languages created offer workable abstraction computer architectures limited memory capacity early computers led substantial technical challenges first compilers designed therefore compilation process needed divided several small programs front end programs produce analysis products used back end programs generate target code computer technology provided resources compiler designs could align better compilation process usually productive programmer use high-level language development high-level languages followed naturally capabilities offered digital computers high-level languages formal languages strictly defined syntax semantics form high-level language architecture elements formal languages include sentences language may defined set rules called grammar backus–naur form bnf describes syntax sentences language used syntax algol 60 john backus ideas derive context-free grammar concepts noam chomsky linguist bnf extensions become standard tools describing syntax programming notations many cases parts compilers generated automatically bnf description 1940s konrad zuse designed algorithmic programming language called plankalkül plan calculus actual implementation occurred 1970s presented concepts later seen apl designed ken iverson late 1950s apl language mathematical computations high-level language design formative years digital computing provided useful programming tools variety applications compiler technology evolved need strictly defined transformation high-level source program low-level target program digital computer compiler could viewed front end deal analysis source code back end synthesize analysis target code optimization front end back end could produce efficient target code early milestones development compiler technology early operating systems software written assembly language 60s early 70s use high-level languages system programming still controversial due resource limitations however several research industry efforts began shift toward high-level systems programming languages example bcpl bliss b c. bcpl basic combined programming language designed 1966 martin richards university cambridge originally developed compiler writing tool several compilers implemented richards book provides insights language compiler bcpl influential systems programming language still used research also provided basis design b c languages bliss basic language implementation system software developed digital equipment corporation dec pdp-10 computer w.a wulf carnegie mellon university cmu research team cmu team went develop bliss-11 compiler one year later 1970 multics multiplexed information computing service time-sharing operating system project involved mit bell labs general electric later honeywell led fernando corbató mit multics written pl/i language developed ibm ibm user group ibm goal satisfy business scientific systems programming requirements languages could considered pl/i offered complete solution even though implemented first years mulitics project subset language could compiled assembly language early pl/i epl compiler doug mcilory bob morris bell labs epl supported project boot-strapping compiler full pl/i could developed bell labs left multics project 1969 time hope replaced frustration group effort initially failed produce economically useful system continued participation would drive project support costs researchers turned development efforts system programming language b based bcpl concepts written dennis ritchie ken thompson ritchie created boot-strapping compiler b wrote unics uniplexed information computing service operating system pdp-7 b. unics eventually became spelled unix bell labs started development expansion c based b bcpl bcpl compiler transported multics bell labs bcpl preferred language bell labs initially front-end program bell labs b compiler used c compiler developed 1971 new pdp-11 provided resource define extensions b rewrite compiler 1973 design c language essentially complete unix kernel pdp-11 rewritten c. steve johnson started development portable c compiler pcc support retargeting c compilers new machines object-oriented programming oop offered interesting possibilities application development maintenance oop concepts go back part lisp simula language science bell labs development c++ became interested oop c++ first used 1980 systems programming initial design leveraged c language systems programming capabilities simula concepts object-oriented facilities added 1983 cfront program implemented c++ front-end c84 language compiler subsequent years several c++ compilers developed c++ popularity grew many application domains idea using higher-level language quickly caught expanding functionality supported newer programming languages increasing complexity computer architectures compilers became complex darpa defense advanced research projects agency sponsored compiler project wulf cmu research team 1970 production quality compiler-compiler pqcc design would produce production quality compiler pqc formal definitions source language target pqcc tried extend term compiler-compiler beyond traditional meaning parser generator e.g. yacc without much success pqcc might properly referred compiler generator pqcc research code generation process sought build truly automatic compiler-writing system effort discovered designed phase structure pqc bliss-11 compiler provided initial structure phases included analyses front end intermediate translation virtual machine middle end translation target back end tcol developed pqcc research handle language specific constructs intermediate representation variations tcol supported various languages pqcc project investigated techniques automated compiler construction design concepts proved useful optimizing compilers compilers object-oriented programming language ada ada stoneman document formalized program support environment apse along kernel kapse minimal mapse ada interpreter nyu/ed supported development standardization efforts american national standards institute ansi international standards organization iso initial ada compiler development u.s. military services included compilers complete integrated design environment along lines stoneman document army navy worked ada language system als project targeted dec/vax architecture air force started ada integrated environment aie targeted ibm 370 series projects provide desired results contribute overal effort ada development ada compiler efforts got underway britain university york germany university karlsruhe u. s. verdix later acquired rational delivered verdix ada development system vads army vads provided set development tools including compiler unix/vads could hosted variety unix platforms dec ultrix sun 3/60 solaris targeted motorola 68020 army cecom evaluation soon many ada compilers available passed ada validation tests free software foundation gnu project developed gnu compiler collection gcc provides core capability support multiple languages targets ada version gnat one widely used ada compilers gnat free also commercial support example adacore founded 1994 provide commercial software solutions ada gnat pro includes gnu gcc based gnat tool suite provide integrated development environment high-level languages continued drive compiler research development focus areas included optimization automatic code generation trends programming languages development environments influenced compiler technology compilers became included language distributions perl java development kit component ide vads eclipse ada pro interrelationship interdependence technologies grew advent web services promoted growth web languages scripting languages scripts trace back early days command line interfaces cli user could enter commands executed system user shell concepts developed languages write shell programs early windows designs offered simple batch programming capability conventional transformation language used interpreter widely used bash batch compilers written recently sophisticated interpreted languages became part developers tool kit modern scripting languages include php python ruby lua lua widely used game development interpreter compiler support field compiling began late 50s focus limited translation high-level language programs machine code ... compiler field increasingly intertwined disciplines including computer architecture programming languages formal methods software engineering computer security compiler research next 50 years article noted importance object-oriented languages java security parallel computing cited among future research targets compiler implements formal transformation high-level source program low-level target program compiler design define end end solution tackle defined subset interfaces compilation tools e.g preprocessors assemblers linkers design requirements include rigorously defined interfaces internally compiler components externally supporting toolsets early days approach taken compiler design directly affected complexity computer language processed experience person designing resources available resource limitations led need pass source code compiler relatively simple language written one person might single monolithic piece software however source language grows complexity design may split number interdependent phases separate phases provide design improvements focus development functions compilation process classifying compilers number passes background hardware resource limitations computers compiling involves performing lots work early computers enough memory contain one program work compilers split smaller programs made pass source representation performing required analysis translations ability compile single pass classically seen benefit simplifies job writing compiler one-pass compilers generally perform compilations faster multi-pass compilers thus partly driven resource limitations early systems many early languages specifically designed could compiled single pass e.g. pascal cases design language feature may require compiler perform one pass source instance consider declaration appearing line 20 source affects translation statement appearing line 10 case first pass needs gather information declarations appearing statements affect actual translation happening subsequent pass disadvantage compiling single pass possible perform many sophisticated optimizations needed generate high quality code difficult count exactly many passes optimizing compiler makes instance different phases optimization may analyse one expression many times analyse another expression splitting compiler small programs technique used researchers interested producing provably correct compilers proving correctness set small programs often requires less effort proving correctness larger single equivalent program regardless exact number phases compiler design phases assigned one three stages stages include front end middle end back end front/middle/back-end approach makes possible combine front ends different languages back ends different cpus sharing optimizations middle end practical examples approach gnu compiler collection llvm amsterdam compiler kit multiple front-ends shared optimizations multiple back-ends front end analyzes source code build internal representation program called intermediate representation ir also manages symbol table data structure mapping symbol source code associated information location type scope frontend single monolithic function program scannerless parser commonly implemented analyzed several phases may execute sequentially concurrently method favored due modularity separation concerns commonly today frontend broken three phases lexical analysis also known lexing syntax analysis also known scanning parsing semantic analysis lexing parsing comprise syntactic analysis word syntax phrase syntax respectively simple cases modules lexer parser automatically generated grammar language though complex cases require manual modification lexical grammar phrase grammar usually context-free grammars simplifies analysis significantly context-sensitivity handled semantic analysis phase semantic analysis phase generally complex written hand partially fully automated using attribute grammars phases broken lexing scanning evaluating parsing building concrete syntax tree cst parse tree transforming abstract syntax tree ast syntax tree cases additional phases used notably line reconstruction preprocessing rare main phases front end include following middle end also known optimizer performs optimizations intermediate representation order improve performance quality produced machine code middle end contains optimizations independent cpu architecture targeted main phases middle end include following compiler analysis prerequisite compiler optimization tightly work together example dependence analysis crucial loop transformation scope compiler analysis optimizations vary greatly scope may range operating within basic block whole procedures even whole program trade-off granularity optimizations cost compilation example peephole optimizations fast perform compilation affect small local fragment code performed independently context code fragment appears contrast interprocedural optimization requires compilation time memory space enable optimizations possible considering behavior multiple functions simultaneously interprocedural analysis optimizations common modern commercial compilers hp ibm sgi intel microsoft sun microsystems free software gcc criticized long time lacking powerful interprocedural optimizations changing respect another open source compiler full analysis optimization infrastructure open64 used many organizations research commercial purposes due extra time space needed compiler analysis optimizations compilers skip default users use compilation options explicitly tell compiler optimizations enabled back end responsible cpu architecture specific optimizations code generation main phases back end include following compiler correctness branch software engineering deals trying show compiler behaves according language specification techniques include developing compiler using formal methods using rigorous testing often called compiler validation existing compiler higher-level programming languages usually appear type translation mind either designed compiled language interpreted language however practice rarely anything language requires exclusively compiled exclusively interpreted although possible design languages rely re-interpretation run time categorization usually reflects popular widespread implementations language — instance basic sometimes called interpreted language c compiled one despite existence basic compilers c interpreters interpretation replace compilation completely hides user makes gradual even though interpreter interpreted directly executed program needed somewhere bottom stack see machine language compilers contain interpreters optimization reasons example expression executed compilation results inserted output program prevents recalculated time program runs greatly speed final program modern trends toward just-in-time compilation bytecode interpretation times blur traditional categorizations compilers interpreters even language specifications spell implementations must include compilation facility example common lisp however nothing inherent definition common lisp stops interpreted languages features easy implement interpreter make writing compiler much harder example apl snobol4 many scripting languages allow programs construct arbitrary source code runtime regular string operations execute code passing special evaluation function implement features compiled language programs must usually shipped runtime library includes version compiler one classification compilers platform generated code executes known target platform native hosted compiler one whose output intended directly run type computer operating system compiler runs output cross compiler designed run different platform cross compilers often used developing software embedded systems intended support software development environment output compiler produces code virtual machine vm may may executed platform compiler produced reason compilers usually classified native cross compilers lower level language target compiler may high-level programming language c viewed sort portable assembly language frequently target language compilers example cfront original compiler c++ used c target language c code generated compiler usually intended readable maintained humans indent style creating pretty c intermediate code ignored features c make good target language include codice_1 directive generated compiler support debugging original source wide platform support available c compilers common compiler type outputs machine code many types 1-hop neighbor's text information: portage_(software).portage software portage package management system originally created used gentoo linux also chrome os sabayon funtoo linux among others portage based concept ports collections gentoo sometimes referred meta-distribution due extreme flexibility portage makes operating-system-independent gentoo/alt project concerned using portage manage operating systems bsds macos solaris notable implementations gentoo/freebsd project ongoing effort called package manager specification project pms standardise document behaviour portage allowing ebuild tree gentoo system packages used alternative package managers paludis pkgcore goal specify exact set features behaviour package managers ebuilds serving authoritative reference portage portage similar bsd-style package management known ports originally designed freebsd ports mind portage written python programming language main utility defines gentoo although system known portage consists two main parts ebuild system emerge ebuild system takes care actual work building installing packages emerge provides interface ebuild managing ebuild repository resolving dependencies similar issues two therefore roughly relation rpm yum dpkg apt gtk+-based gui porthole available working portage also himerge gui stands haskell interface emerge portage characterized main function compiling source code packages user wishes install allows customization compiler target-application options fit system specifications user wishes functionalities related system management include allowing parallel package-version installation tracking cross-package dependencies managing database installed packages providing local ebuild repository synchronizing local portage tree remote repositories functionalities related individual package installation include specifying compilation settings target machine choosing package components portage distinguishes three levels stability ebuilds stable e.g. software works intended known security issues time release keyword masked mainly packages sufficiently tested target system architecture considered stable hard masked broken insecure packages emerge command-line tool heart portage command customizable many options modifiers emerge tool important utility accessing features portage command line program calculates manages dependencies executes ebuilds maintains local portage tree database installed packages compilation settings used ebuilds changed cflags environment variable based specifications individual computer user desire optimization emerge utility executes ebuilds sandbox environment way system protected software executed ebuild resulting binaries merged successful build sandboxed install emerge installs dependencies affected use flag-settings decide optional features included installing upgrading application emerge command also used download install precompiled binary files portage system offers use use flags allows users indicate software features would like include exclude building packages example use flag include dvd support available packages compiled flag enabled use flags affect dependencies required generally affecting optional features built given program compiled example packages use configure script use flag codice_1 would translate codice_2 specification use flags usual way configure programs gentoo use flags may set manually via user-friendly tools 'ufed use flag editor lists flags along description list available use flags available gentoo website use flag index gentoo default use binary packages package management systems like pacman employing instead format known ebuild whereas rpm binaries precompiled binaries ebuilds shell scripts variables functions contain description software instructions obtain configure compile install closely akin powerful .spec files distributed srpms 19,000 ebuilds available majority distributed gentoo mirrors new updated ebuilds obtained synchronizing local ebuild repository mirrors done executing command codice_3 historically gentoo provided pre-compiled binary packages many common programs especially lengthy compile mozilla firefox openoffice.org still installed emerge appending -bin package name instead install binary version gentoo binary packaging format .tbz2 file tar bzip2 compression additional metadata feature enables building binary packages one system using portage codice_4 codice_5 followed quick installation identical systems portage codice_6 codice_7 see portage features gentoo linux handbook information masking gentoo determines packages suitable system ebuilds designed different architectures experimental software usually masked manner prevents stable system installing without user intervention packages generally require testing often work fine said keyword masked i.e available systems accept_keywords make.conf entry starting character codice_8 codice_9 codice_10 codice_11 standard way unmask individual keyword masked package adding file full package name keyword codice_12 users make subdirectories well allowing custom organization example masked package multiple masked dependencies user could make directory name original masked package put mask files package dependencies directory scheme replaces older scheme codice_13 text file list packages known problems considered mature enough candidates stable hard masked one various package.mask files /usr/portage/profiles entries generally accompanied comment developers explaining reason mask 1-hop neighbor's text information: package_format.package format package format type archive containing computer programs additional metadata needed package managers archive file format may unchanged package formats bear additional metadata manifest file certain directory layouts packages may contain either source code executable files packages may converted one type another software alien arch linux pacman slackware use tar archives generic naming specific internal structures Target text information: ebuild.ebuild ebuild specialized bash script automates compilation installation procedures software packages format created gentoo linux project use portage software management system version application package portage repository specific ebuild script written script used emerge tool also created gentoo linux project calculate dependencies desired software installation download required files patch necessary configure package based use flag settings compile perform sandboxed installation /var/tmp/portage/ ebuild name /image/ default upon successful completion steps installed files merged live system outside sandbox although ebuilds found gentoo portage repository used compile programs source code also ebuilds install binary packages ebuilds install documentation data fonts basic ebuilds called metabuilds whose sole purpose trigger installation ebuilds gnome kde metabuilds I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	304	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: sawzall_(programming_language).sawzall programming language sawzall procedural domain-specific programming language used google process large numbers individual log records sawzall first described 2003 szl runtime open-sourced august 2010 however since mapreduce table aggregators released open-sourced runtime useful large-scale data analysis multiple log files shelf sawzall replaced lingo logs go purposes within google google server logs stored large collections records protocol buffers partitioned many disks within gfs order perform calculations involving logs engineers write mapreduce programs c++ java mapreduce programs need compiled may verbose necessary writing program analyze logs time-consuming make easier write quick scripts rob pike et al developed sawzall language sawzall script runs within map phase mapreduce emits values tables reduce phase script writer concerned aggregates tables multiple runs single set tables currently language runtime runs sawzall script single input open-sourced supporting program built mapreduce released interesting features include sawzall design favors efficiency engine simplicity power complete sawzall program read input produce three results number records sum values sum squares values 1-hop neighbor's text information: googlebot.googlebot googlebot web crawler software used google collects documents web build searchable index google search engine name actually used refer two different types web crawlers desktop crawler simulate desktop users mobile crawler simulate mobile user website probably crawled googlebot desktop googlebot mobile subtype googlebot identified looking user agent string request however crawler types obey product token useent token robots.txt developer selectively target either googlebot mobile googlebot desktop using robots.txt webmaster wishes restrict information site available googlebot another well-behaved spider appropriate directives robots.txt file adding meta tag codice_1 web page googlebot requests web servers identifiable user-agent string containing googlebot host address containing googlebot.com currently googlebot follows href links src links increasing evidence googlebot execute javascript parse content generated ajax calls well many theories regarding advanced googlebot ability process javascript opinions ranging minimal ability derived custom interpreters currently googlebot uses web rendering service wrs based chromium rendering engine version 74 7th may 2019 googlebot discovers pages harvesting links every page finds follows links web pages new web pages must linked known pages web order crawled indexed manually submitted webmaster problem webmasters low-bandwidth web hosting plans often noted googlebot takes enormous amount bandwidth cause websites exceed bandwidth limit taken temporarily especially troublesome mirror sites host many gigabytes data google provides search console allow website owners throttle crawl rate often googlebot crawl site depends crawl budget crawl budget estimation often website updated site crawl budget determined many incoming links frequently site updated technically googlebot development team crawling indexing team uses several defined terms internally takes crawl budget stands announced may 2019 googlebot runs latest chromium rendering engine googlebot regularly update rendering engine stay date new version googlebot supports 1000+ features compared previous version important cited official google documentation 1-hop neighbor's text information: roboto.roboto roboto neo-grotesque sans-serif typeface family developed google system font mobile operating system android released 2011 android 4.0 ice cream sandwich google developed font modern yet approachable emotional entire font family licensed apache license 2014 roboto redesigned android 5.0 lollipop roboto default font android since 2013 google services google+ google play youtube google maps mobile google search 2017 roboto used lcd countdown clocks new york city subway b division lines roboto bold default font unreal engine 4 kodi roboto condensed used display information european versions nintendo switch packaging including physical releases games font designed entirely in-house christian robertson previously released expanded ubuntu-title font personal type foundry betatype font officially made available free download january 12 2012 newly launched android design website compared android previous system font humanist sans-serif droid roboto belongs neo-grotesque genre sans-serif typefaces includes thin light regular medium bold black weights matching oblique styles rather true italics also includes condensed styles light regular bold also matching oblique designs 2014 matias duarte announced google i/o roboto significantly redesigned android 5.0 lollipop punctuation marks tittles lowercase j changed square rounded roboto received variable reviews release joshua topolsky editor-in-chief technology news media network verge describes font clean modern overly futuristic – science fiction font however typography commentator stephen coles typographica.org called initial release roboto “ four-headed frankenfont ” describing “ hodgepodge ” different typographic styles work well together type design professionals called obvious errors accented glyphs john gruber called font helvetica ripoff roboto supports latin greek partial cyrillic scripts android noto font used languages supported roboto including chinese simplified traditional japanese korean thai hindi roboto slab slab serif font based roboto introduced march 2013 default font google note-taking service google keep font changed sans-serif roboto 2018 available four weights thin light regular bold however oblique versions released roboto mono monospace font based roboto available five weights thin light regular medium bold oblique stylings weight heebo extension roboto includes hebrew characters Target text information: google_desktop.google desktop google desktop computer program desktop search capabilities created google linux apple mac os x microsoft windows systems allowed text searches user email messages computer files music photos chats web pages viewed ability display google gadgets user desktop sidebar september 2011 google announced would discontinue number products including google desktop reason given last years ’ huge shift local cloud-based storage computing well integration search gadget functionality modern operating systems people instant access data whether online offline goal google desktop product discontinued january 2008 google desktop featured following functionality prominent feature google desktop sidebar holds several common gadgets resides one side desktop sidebar available windows linux versions google desktop sidebar comes pre-installed following gadgets like windows taskbar google desktop sidebar set auto-hide mode appear user moves mouse cursor towards side resides auto-hide default sidebar always take 1/6 – 1/9 screen depending screen resolution windows forced resize however sidebar resized take less space users disable always top feature options auto-hide feature sidebar temporarily overlaps maximized windows another feature comes sidebar alerts sidebar minimized new email news displayed pop-up window windows taskbar searching sidebar deskbar floating deskbar google desktop displays quick find window window filled six default relevant results user computer results update user types allows use without open another browser window deskbars boxes enable searching directly desktop web results open browser window selected computer results displayed quick find box see deskbar either fixed deskbar sits windows taskbar floating deskbar may positioned anywhere desktop google desktop includes plugins allow indexing searching contents local microsoft outlook ibm lotus notes mozilla thunderbird email databases outside client applications built-in search functions lotus notes local databases indexed searching google desktop email indexing feature also integrated google web-based email service gmail index search email messages gmail accounts desktop gadgets interactive mini-applications placed anywhere user desktop – docked sidebar – show new email weather photos personalized news google offers gallery pre-built gadgets download official website developers google offers sdk official blog anyone wants write gadgets plug-ins google desktop automated system creates developer hierarchy called google desktop hall fame programmers advance based gadgets number popularity sdk also allows third-party applications make use search facilities provided google desktop search example file manager directory opus offers integrated google desktop search support even though desktop search programs search files meta data google desktop windows one uses title tag results lists files linux shows meta-data html files pdf files programs use file names results lists use title tag gives significantly better user experience since metadata titles present written ordinary language file names less communicative title meta data missing file google desktop reverts use filename google desktop originally developed bring google search technology desktop google desktop received much attention may allow reverse engineering google proprietary search algorithm centrally administered version integrates user experience vendor appliance exists well google desktop officially discontinued september 14 2011 february 2007 yair amit watchfire found series vulnerabilities google desktop could allow malicious individual achieve remote persistent access sensitive data cases full system control well significant impact ease exploitation forced google change google desktop logic google desktop version 5 many privacy civil liberties groups electronic frontier foundation eff concerns personal information people computers could readily copied users hard drives google desktop version 3 contains certain features raise serious security privacy concerns specifically share across computers feature introduces ability search content desktop desktop greatly increases risk users privacy google desktop v.3 set allow search across computers files indexed computer copied google servers potential information stored computers accessed others enable feature google desktop v. 3 computers seriously considered eff advises using feature also confidential data work home computers enable feature privacy laws company policies could violated installation feature specifically sb 1386 hipaa ferpa glba sarbanes-oxley far reaching concerns arise around packaging end user license agreement – specifically level intrusion local machine disclaimers users implicitly agree future changes license agreement without actually able see immediately issues microsoft outlook indexing deleted email listings removed required re-installing google desktop new archived mail listed several versions released patch outlook indexing first half 2009 large number google desktop users reported product stopped indexing suddenly index file reached approximately 4gb size full uninstall including manually deleting indexes reinstall would fix problem temporarily problem would recur index file reached 4gb problem resolved google desktop search version 5.9 currently google desktop index email contacts outlook 2010 default google desktop index email thunderbird 3 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	8,455	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: ada_(programming_language).ada programming language ada structured statically typed imperative object-oriented high-level computer programming language extended pascal languages built-in language support design-by-contract extremely strong typing explicit concurrency tasks synchronous message passing protected objects non-determinism ada improves code safety maintainability using compiler find errors favor runtime errors ada international standard current version known ada 2012 defined iso/iec 8652:2012 ada originally designed team led french computer scientist jean ichbiah cii honeywell bull contract united states department defense dod 1977 1983 supersede 450 programming languages used dod time ada named ada lovelace 1815–1852 credited first computer programmer ada originally targeted embedded real-time systems ada 95 revision designed s. tucker taft intermetrics 1992 1995 improved support systems numerical financial object-oriented programming oop features ada include strong typing modularity mechanisms packages run-time checking parallel processing tasks synchronous message passing protected objects nondeterministic select statements exception handling generics ada 95 added support object-oriented programming including dynamic dispatch syntax ada minimizes choices ways perform basic operations prefers english keywords else symbols \|\| ada uses basic arithmetical operators avoids using symbols code blocks delimited words declare begin end end cases followed identifier block closes e.g. ... end loop ... end loop case conditional blocks avoids dangling else could pair wrong nested if-expression languages like c java ada designed development large software systems ada packages compiled separately ada package specifications package interface also compiled separately without implementation check consistency makes possible detect problems early design phase implementation starts large number compile-time checks supported help avoid bugs would detectable run-time languages would require explicit checks added source code example syntax requires explicitly named closing blocks prevent errors due mismatched end tokens adherence strong typing allows detection many common software errors wrong parameters range violations invalid references mismatched types etc either compile-time otherwise run-time concurrency part language specification compiler cases detect potential deadlocks compilers also commonly check misspelled identifiers visibility packages redundant declarations etc provide warnings useful suggestions fix error ada also supports run-time checks protect access unallocated memory buffer overflow errors range violations off-by-one errors array access errors detectable bugs checks disabled interest runtime efficiency often compiled efficiently also includes facilities help program verification reasons ada widely used critical systems anomaly might lead serious consequences e.g. accidental death injury severe financial loss examples systems ada used include avionics air traffic control railways banking military space technology ada dynamic memory management high-level type-safe ada generic untyped pointers implicitly declare pointer type instead dynamic memory allocation deallocation must take place explicitly declared access types access type associated storage pool handles low-level details memory management programmer either use default storage pool define new ones particularly relevant non-uniform memory access even possible declare several different access types designate type use different storage pools also language provides accessibility checks compile time run time ensures access value outlive type object points though semantics language allow automatic garbage collection inaccessible objects implementations support default would cause unpredictable behaviour real-time systems ada support limited form region-based memory management also creative use storage pools provide limited form automatic garbage collection since destroying storage pool also destroys objects pool double-dash -- resembling em dash denotes comment text comments stop end line prevent unclosed comments accidentally voiding whole sections source code disabling whole block code requires prefixing line column individually -- clearly denoting disabled code column repeated -- page renders experimental dis/re-enablement large blocks drawn process semicolon statement terminator null no-operation statement codice_1 single codice_2 without statement terminate allowed unlike iso standards ada language definition known ada reference manual arm sometimes language reference manual lrm free content thus common reference ada programmers programmers implementing ada compilers apart reference manual also extensive rationale document explains language design use various language constructs document also widely used programmers language revised new rationale document written one notable free software tool used many ada programmers aid writing ada source code gnat programming studio 1970s us department defense dod concerned number different programming languages used embedded computer system projects many obsolete hardware-dependent none supported safe modular programming 1975 working group high order language working group holwg formed intent reduce number finding creating programming language generally suitable department uk ministry defence requirements many iterations beginning original straw man proposal eventual programming language named ada total number high-level programming languages use projects fell 450 1983 37 1996 holwg working group crafted steelman language requirements series documents stating requirements felt programming language satisfy many existing languages formally reviewed team concluded 1977 existing language met specifications requests proposals new programming language issued four contractors hired develop proposals names red intermetrics led benjamin brosgol green cii honeywell bull led jean ichbiah blue softech led john goodenough yellow sri international led jay spitzen april 1978 public scrutiny red green proposals passed next phase may 1979 green proposal designed jean ichbiah cii honeywell bull chosen given name ada—after augusta ada countess lovelace proposal influenced programming language lis ichbiah group developed 1970s preliminary ada reference manual published acm sigplan notices june 1979 military standard reference manual approved december 10 1980 ada lovelace birthday given number mil-std-1815 honor ada lovelace birth year 1981 c. a. r. hoare took advantage turing award speech criticize ada overly complex hence unreliable subsequently seemed recant foreword wrote ada textbook ada attracted much attention programming community whole early days backers others predicted might become dominant language general purpose programming defense-related work ichbiah publicly stated within ten years two programming languages would remain ada lisp early ada compilers struggled implement large complex language compile-time run-time performance tended slow tools primitive compiler vendors expended efforts passing massive language-conformance-testing government-required acvc validation suite required another novel feature ada language effort jargon file dictionary computer hacker slang originating 1975-1983 notes entry ada precisely one might expect given kind endorsement fiat designed committee ... difficult use overall disastrous multi-billion-dollar boondoggle ... ada lovelace ... would almost certainly blanch use name latterly put kindest thing said probably good small language screaming get inside vast elephantine bulk first validated ada implementation nyu ada/ed translator certified april 11 1983 nyu ada/ed implemented high-level set language setl number commercial companies began offering ada compilers associated development tools including alsys telesoft ddc-i advanced computer techniques tartan laboratories tld systems verdix others 1991 us department defense began require use ada ada mandate software though exceptions rule often granted department defense ada mandate effectively removed 1997 dod began embrace cots technology similar requirements existed nato countries ada required nato systems involving command control functions ada mandated preferred language defense-related applications countries sweden germany canada late 1980s early 1990s ada compilers improved performance still barriers full exploitation ada abilities including tasking model different real-time programmers used ada safety-critical support features used military applications also commercial projects software bug severe consequences e.g. avionics air traffic control commercial rockets ariane 4 5 satellites space systems railway transport banking example airplane information management system fly-by-wire system software boeing 777 written ada developed honeywell air transport systems collaboration consultants ddc-i became arguably best-known ada project civilian military canadian automated air traffic system written 1 million lines ada sloc count featured advanced distributed processing distributed ada database object-oriented design ada also used air traffic systems e.g. uk next-generation interim future area control tools support ifacts air traffic control system designed implemented using spark ada also used french tvm in-cab signalling system tgv high-speed rail system metro suburban trains paris london hong kong new york city language became ansi standard 1983 ansi/mil-std 1815a translation french without changes english became iso standard 1987 iso-8652:1987 version language commonly known ada 83 date adoption ansi sometimes referred also ada 87 date adoption iso ada 95 joint iso/ansi standard iso-8652:1995 published february 1995 making ada 95 first iso standard object-oriented programming language help standard revision future acceptance us air force funded development gnat compiler presently gnat compiler part gnu compiler collection work continued improving updating technical content ada programming language technical corrigendum ada 95 published october 2001 major amendment iso/iec 8652:1995/amd 1:2007 published march 9 2007 ada-europe 2012 conference stockholm ada resource association ara ada-europe announced completion design latest version ada programming language submission reference manual international organization standardization iso approval iso/iec 8652:2012 published december 2012 related standards include iso 8651-3:1988 information processing systems—computer graphics—graphical kernel system gks language bindings—part 3 ada ada algol-like programming language featuring control structures reserved words else however ada also many data structuring facilities abstractions included original algol 60 type definitions records pointers enumerations constructs part inherited inspired pascal common example language syntax hello world program ada.text_io use ada.text_io procedure hello begin end hello program compiled using freely available open source compiler gnat executing gnatmake hello.adb ada type system based set predefined primitive types allows users declare types declaration turn based internal representation type describing goal achieved allows compiler determine suitable memory size type check violations type definition compile time run time i.e. range violations buffer overruns type consistency etc. ada supports numerical types defined range modulo types aggregate types records arrays enumeration types access types define reference instance specified type untyped pointers permitted special types provided language task types protected types example date might represented type day_type range 1 .. 31 type month_type range 1 .. 12 type year_type range 1800 .. 2100 type hours mod 24 type weekday monday tuesday wednesday thursday friday saturday sunday type date types refined declaring subtypes subtype working_hours hours range 0 .. 12 -- 12 hours work day subtype working_day weekday range monday .. friday -- days work work_load constant array working_day working_hours -- implicit type declaration types modifiers limited abstract private etc private types accessed limited types modified copied within scope package defines ada 95 adds additional features object-oriented extension types ada structured programming language meaning flow control structured standard statements standard constructs deep-level early exit supported use also supported go commands seldom needed -- equal b loop /= b loop end loop b else end 1 .. 10 loop end loop loop end loop case end case aweekday weekday'range loop -- loop enumeration end loop among parts ada program packages procedures functions example package specification example.ads package example end example package body example.adb ada.text_io package body example -- package initialization executed package elaborated begin end example program compiled e.g. using freely available open-source compiler gnat executing gnatmake -z example.adb packages procedures functions nest depth also logical outermost block package procedure function declarations constants types variables procedures functions packages declared order ada language support task-based concurrency fundamental concurrent unit ada task built-in limited type tasks specified two parts – task declaration defines task interface similar type declaration task body specifies implementation task depending implementation ada tasks either mapped operating system threads processes scheduled internally ada runtime tasks entries synchronisation form synchronous message passing task entries declared task specification task entry one accept statements within task body control flow task reaches accept statement task blocked corresponding entry called another task similarly calling task blocked called task reaches corresponding accept statement task entries parameters similar procedures allowing tasks synchronously exchange data conjunction select statements possible define guards accept statements similar dijkstra guarded commands ada also offers protected objects mutual exclusion protected objects monitor-like construct use guards instead conditional variables signaling similar conditional critical regions protected objects combine data encapsulation safe mutual exclusion monitors entry guards conditional critical regions main advantage classical monitors conditional variables required signaling avoiding potential deadlocks due incorrect locking semantics like tasks protected object built-in limited type also declaration part body protected object consists encapsulated private data accessed within protected object procedures functions entries guaranteed mutually exclusive exception functions required side effect free therefore run concurrently functions task calling protected object blocked another task currently executing inside protected object released task leaves protected object blocked tasks queued protected object ordered time arrival protected object entries similar procedures additionally guards guard evaluates false calling task blocked added queue entry another task admitted protected object task currently executing inside protected object guards re-evaluated whenever task leaves protected object time evaluation guards changed calls entries requeued entries signature task requeued blocked added queue target entry means protected object released allows admission another task select statement ada used implement non-blocking entry calls accepts non-deterministic selection entries also guards time-outs aborts following example illustrates concepts concurrent programming ada ada.text_io use ada.text_io procedure traffic begin end traffic pragma compiler directive conveys information compiler allow specific manipulation compiled output certain pragmas built language others implementation-specific examples common usage compiler pragmas would disable certain features run-time type checking array subscript boundary checking instruct compiler insert object code instead function call c/c++ inline functions 1-hop neighbor's text information: jovial.jovial jovial high-level computer programming language similar algol specialized development embedded systems specialized computer systems designed perform one dedicated functions usually embedded part complete device including mechanical parts jovial developed new high-order programming language beginning 1959 team system development corporation sdc headed jules schwartz compose software electronics military aircraft name jovial acronym jules version international algorithmic language international algorithmic language ial name originally proposed algol 58 according schwartz language originally called ovial met opposition various reasons jovial suggested meaning attached j somewhat jokingly suggested language named schwartz since chairing meeting unofficial name stuck 1960s jovial part us military l-project series particular 465l saccs project due lack real-time processing languages available 95 percent saccs project managed itt software primarily written sdc written jovial software project took two years fewer 1400 programmer years less half equivalent time sage l-project late 1970s early 1980s u.s. air force adopted standardized cpu mil-std-1750a subsequent jovial programs built processor several commercial vendors provided compilers related tools build jovial processors mil-std-1750a including advanced computer techniques act tld systems proprietary software systems pss others jovial standardized 1973 mil-std-1589 revised 1984 mil-std-1589c still much used update maintain software older military vehicles aircraft three dialects common use j3 j3b-2 j73 jovial longer maintained distributed usaf jovial program office jpo software previously distributed jpo still available commercial resources software engineering associates inc. sea combinations host/target processors including microsoft windows linux mac os x powerpc sparc vax 1750a powerpc ti-9989 zilog z800x motorola 680x0 ibm system 360/system 370/system z addition ddc-i acquired parts advanced computer techniques also still lists jovial compilers related tools software implemented jovial mission critical maintenance getting difficult december 2014 reported software derived jovial code produced 1960s involved major failure united kingdom air traffic control infrastructure agency uses train staff jovial could maintain software scheduled replacement 2016 conversion jovial code new platforms therefore becoming common jovial rehosting retargeting currently done software engineering associates conversions jovial languages currently done semantic designs whose dms software reengineering toolkit used convert jovial mission software b-2 bomber c. languages influenced jovial include coral sympl space programming language spl extent cms-2 interactive subset jovial called tint similar joss developed 1960s jovial includes features found standard algol records arrays records inline assembly language notable systems using jovial include airborne radar systems embedded jovial software include apg-70 apg-71 apg-73 following example taken computer programming manual jovial j73 language proc retrieve code value example defines procedure named codice_1 takes unsigned integer input argument codice_2 floating-point output argument codice_3 searches 1000-element array codice_4 entry matches codice_2 sets floating-point variable codice_3 element array codice_7 matching array index matching element found codice_3 set codice_9 1-hop neighbor's text information: pascal_(programming_language).pascal programming language pascal imperative procedural programming language designed niklaus wirth small efficient language intended encourage good programming practices using structured programming data structuring named honor french mathematician philosopher physicist blaise pascal pascal developed pattern algol 60 language wirth involved process improve language part algol x efforts proposed version known algol w. accepted algol x process bogged 1968 wirth decided abandon algol x process improve algol w releasing pascal 1970 pascal became successful 1970s notably burgeoning minicomputer market compilers also available many microcomputers field emerged late 1970s widely used teaching language university-level programming courses 1980s also used production settings writing commercial software period displaced c programming language late 1980s early 1990s unix-based systems became popular especially release c++ derivative known object pascal designed object-oriented programming developed 1985 used apple computer borland late 1980s later developed delphi microsoft windows platform extensions pascal concepts led languages modula-2 oberon much history computer language design 1960s traced algol 60 language algol developed 1950s explicit goal able clearly describe algorithms included number features structured programming remain common languages day shortly introduction 1962 wirth began working dissertation helmut weber euler programming language euler based algol syntax many concepts derivative primary goal add dynamic lists types allowing used roles similar lisp language published 1965 time number problems algol identified notably lack standardized string system group tasked maintaining language begun algol x process identify improvements calling submissions wirth tony hoare submitted conservative set modifications add strings clean syntax considered minor worth using new standard algol wirth wrote compiler language became known algol w. algol x efforts would go choose dramatically complex language algol 68 complexity language led considerable difficulty producing high-performance compilers widely used industry left opening newer languages pascal influenced algol w efforts explicit goals producing language would efficient compiler run-time allow development well-structured programs useful teaching students structured programming generation students used pascal introductory language undergraduate courses one early successes language introduction ucsd pascal version ran custom operating system could ported different platforms key platform apple ii saw widespread use led use pascal becoming primary high-level language used development apple lisa later macintosh parts original macintosh operating system hand-translated motorola 68000 assembly language pascal sources typesetting system tex donald e. knuth written web original literate programming system based dec pdp-10 pascal successful commercial applications like adobe photoshop written macintosh programmer workshop pascal applications like total commander skype macromedia captivate written delphi object pascal apollo computer used pascal systems programming language operating systems beginning 1980 variants pascal also used everything research projects pc games embedded systems newer pascal compilers exist widely used work lisa larry tesler began corresponding wirth idea adding object oriented extensions language led initially clascal introduced 1983 lisa program faded replaced mac version known object pascal created introduced macintosh 1985 part macapp application framework became apple primary development language early 1990s object pascal extensions added turbo pascal release version 5.5 1989 years object pascal became basis delphi system microsoft windows still used developing windows applications cross-compile code systems free pascal open source cross-platform alternative wirth intention create efficient language regarding compilation speed generated code based structured programming recently popularized concept promoted book algorithms data structures programs pascal roots algol 60 language also introduced concepts mechanisms top algol scalars arrays enabled programmers define complex structured datatypes also made easier build dynamic recursive data structures lists trees graphs important features included records enumerations subranges dynamically allocated variables associated pointers sets make possible meaningful pascal strong typing objects means one type data converted interpreted another without explicit conversions similar mechanisms standard many programming languages today languages influenced pascal development simula 67 wirth algol w. pascal like many programming languages today unlike languages c family allows nested procedure definitions level depth also allows kinds definitions declarations inside subroutines procedures functions enables simple coherent syntax complete program syntactically nearly identical single procedure function except heading one three keywords first pascal compiler designed zürich cdc 6000 series mainframe computer family niklaus wirth reports first attempt implement fortran 1969 unsuccessful due fortran inadequacy express complex data structures second attempt implemented c-like language scallop max engeli translated hand r. schild pascal boot-strapping operational mid-1970 many pascal compilers since similarly self-hosting compiler written pascal compiler usually capable recompiling new features added language compiler ported new environment gnu pascal compiler one notable exception written c. first successful port cdc pascal compiler another mainframe completed welsh quinn queen university belfast qub 1972 target icl 1900 series compiler turn parent pascal compiler information computer systems ics multum minicomputer multum port developed – view using pascal systems programming language – findlay cupples cavouras davis working department computing science glasgow university thought multum pascal completed summer 1973 may first 16-bit implementation completely new compiler completed welsh et al qub 1977 offered source-language diagnostic feature incorporating profiling tracing type-aware formatted postmortem dumps implemented findlay watt glasgow university implementation ported 1980 icl 2900 series team based southampton university glasgow university standard pascal model implementation also based compiler adapted welsh hay manchester university 1984 check rigorously conformity bsi 6192/iso 7185 standard generate code portable abstract machine first pascal compiler written north america constructed university illinois donald b. gillies pdp-11 generated native machine code propagate language rapidly compiler porting kit created zurich included compiler generated code virtual stack machine i.e code lends reasonably efficient interpretation along interpreter code – pascal-p system p-system compilers termed pascal-p1 pascal-p2 pascal-p3 pascal-p4 pascal-p1 first version pascal-p4 last come zurich version termed pascal-p1 coined fact many different sources pascal-p existed compiler redesigned enhance portability issued pascal-p2 code later enhanced become pascal-p3 intermediate code backward compatible pascal-p2 pascal-p4 backward compatible pascal-p4 compiler/interpreter still run compiled systems compatible original pascal however accepts subset pascal language pascal-p5 created outside zurich group accepts full pascal language includes iso 7185 compatibility ucsd pascal branched pascal-p2 kenneth bowles utilized create interpretive ucsd p-system ucsd p-system one three operating systems available launch original ibm personal computer ucsd pascal used intermediate code based byte values thus one earliest byte code compilers pascal-p1 pascal-p4 rather based cdc 6600 60 bit word length compiler based pascal-p4 compiler created native binaries released ibm system/370 mainframe computer australian atomic energy commission called aaec pascal compiler abbreviation name commission apple computer created lisa pascal lisa workshop 1982 ported compiler apple macintosh mpw 1985 1985 larry tesler consultation niklaus wirth defined object pascal extensions incorporated lisa pascal mac pascal compilers 1980s anders hejlsberg wrote blue label pascal compiler nascom-2 reimplementation compiler ibm pc marketed names compas pascal polypascal acquired borland renamed turbo pascal turbo pascal became hugely popular thanks aggressive pricing strategy one first full-screen ides fast turnaround time seconds compile link run written highly optimized entirely assembly language making smaller faster much competition 1986 anders ported turbo pascal macintosh incorporated apple object pascal extensions turbo pascal extensions added back pc version turbo pascal version 5.5 time microsoft also implemented object pascal compiler turbo pascal 5.5 large influence pascal community began concentrating mainly ibm pc late 1980s many pc hobbyists search structured replacement basic used product also began adopted professional developers around time number concepts imported c let pascal programmers use c-based api microsoft windows directly extensions included null-terminated strings pointer arithmetic function pointers address-of operator unsafe typecasts turbo pascal derivatives units module concepts modular languages however provide nested module concept qualified import export specific symbols super pascal variant added non-numeric labels return statement expressions names types tmt pascal first borland-compatible compiler 32-bit dos protected mode os/2 win32 operating systems tmt pascal language first one allow function operator overloading universities wisconsin-madison zürich karlsruhe wuppertal developed pascal-sc pascal-xsc extensions scientific computation compilers aimed programming numerical computations development pascal-sc started 1978 supporting iso 7185 pascal level 0 level 2 support added later stage pascal-sc originally targeted z80 processor later rewritten dos x86 68000 pascal-xsc various times ported unix linux sunos hp-ux aix microsoft/ibm dos emx os/2 windows operating systems operates generating intermediate c source code compiled native executable pascal-sc language extensions adopted gnu pascal pascal sol designed around 1983 french team implement unix-like systems named sol standard pascal level-1 parametrized array bounds definition allowed alternative keywords predefined identifiers french language included extensions ease system programming e.g equivalent lseek sol team later moved chorusos project design distributed operating system ip pascal implementation pascal programming language using micropolis dos moved rapidly cp/m-80 running z80 moved 80386 machine types 1994 exists today windows/xp linux implementations 2008 system brought new level resulting language termed pascaline pascal calculator includes objects namespace controls dynamic arrays along many extensions generally features functionality type protection c implementation also compatible original pascal implementation standardized iso 7185 pascal original form purely procedural language includes traditional array algol-like control structures reserved words else case ranging single statement begin-end statements block pascal also data structuring constructs included original algol 60 types like records variants pointers enumerations sets procedure/pointers constructs part inherited inspired simula 67 algol 68 niklaus wirth algol w suggestions c. a. r. hoare pascal programs start program keyword list external file descriptors parameters ref name= iso/iec 7185:1990 6.10 pascal iso 7185:1990 6.10 /ref required turbo pascal etc follows main block bracketed begin end keywords semicolons separate statements full stop i.e. period ends whole program unit letter case ignored pascal source example source code use simple hello world program type pascal several popular programming languages defines variable way defines range values variable capable storing also defines set operations permissible performed variables type predefined types range values allowed except boolean implementation defined functions provided data conversions conversion codice_1 codice_2 following functions available codice_3 rounds integer using banker rounding codice_4 rounds towards zero programmer freedom define commonly used data types e.g byte string etc terms predefined types using pascal type declaration facility example subranges ordinal data type simple type except real also made contrast programming languages time pascal supports set type set fundamental concept modern mathematics may used many algorithms feature useful may faster equivalent construct language support sets example many pascal compilers executes faster sets non-contiguous values particularly useful terms performance readability examples involve sets small domains improved performance usually achieved compiler representing set variables bit vectors set operators implemented efficiently bitwise machine code operations types defined types using type declarations complex types constructed simple types shown example pascal files sequences components every file buffer variable denoted f^ procedures get reading put writing move buffer variable next element read introduced read f x x f^ get f write introduced write f x f^ x put f type text predefined file char buffer variable could used inspecting next character used check digit reading integer leads serious problems interactive programs early implementations solved later lazy i/o concept jensen wirth pascal strings represented packed arrays chars therefore fixed length usually space-padded pascal supports use pointers variable nodeptr pointer data type node record pointers used declared forward declaration exception rule things must declared used create new record assign value 10 character fields b record initialise pointer c null pointer nil pascal statements would could also done using statement follows inside scope statement b refer subfields record pointer nodeptr record node pointer type pnode linked lists stacks queues created including pointer type field c record unlike many languages feature pointers pascal allows pointers reference dynamically created variables anonymous allow reference standard static local variables pointers also must associated type pointer one type compatible pointer another type e.g pointer char compatible pointer integer helps eliminate type security issues inherent pointer implementations particularly used pl/i c. also removes risks caused dangling pointers ability dynamically deallocate referenced space using dispose function effect free library function found c means risk dangling pointers entirely eliminated languages java c provide automatic garbage collection entirely eliminate related problem memory leaks restrictions lifted newer dialects pascal structured programming language meaning flow control structured standard statements usually without 'goto commands pascal structures programs procedures functions procedures functions nested depth 'program construct logical outermost block default parameters passed value 'var precedes parameter name passed reference procedure function declarations goto labels constants types variables procedures functions must order ordering requirement originally intended allow efficient single-pass compilation however dialects embarcadero delphi strict ordering requirement declaration sections relaxed pascal adopted many language syntax features algol language including use semicolon statement separator contrast languages pl/i c etc use semicolon statement terminator semicolon needed end keyword record type declaration block case statement keyword repeat statement else keyword statement presence extra semicolon permitted early versions pascal however addition algol-like empty statements 1973 revised report later changes language iso 7185:1983 allow optional semicolons cases semicolon still permitted immediately else keyword statement else follows single statement statement sequence case nested ifs semicolon used avoid dangling else problem inner else outer putatively terminating nested semicolon – instead terminates clauses instead explicit codice_5 block must used several pascal compilers interpreters available general use 1983 language standardized international standard iec/iso 7185 several local country specific standards including american ansi/ieee770x3.97-1983 iso 7185:1983 two standards differed iso standard included level 1 extension conformant arrays array boundaries array known run time ansi allow extension original wirth version language 1989 iso 7185 revised iso 7185:1990 correct various errors ambiguities found original document iso 7185 stated clarification wirth 1974 language detailed user manual report jensen wirth also notable adding conformant array parameters level 1 standard level 0 pascal without conformant arrays addition made request c. a. r. hoare approval niklaus wirth precipitating cause hoare wanted create pascal version nag numerical algorithms library originally written fortran found possible without extension would allow array parameters varying size similar considerations motivated inclusion iso 7185 facility specify parameter types procedural functional parameters niklaus wirth referred 1974 language standard example differentiate machine specific features cdc 6000 compiler language documented pascal report second part pascal users manual report large machines mainframes minicomputers pascal originated standards generally followed ibm pc ibm pcs borland standards turbo pascal delphi greatest number users thus typically important understand whether particular implementation corresponds original pascal language borland dialect ibm pc versions language began differ advent ucsd pascal interpreted implementation featured several extensions language along several omissions changes many ucsd language features survive today including borland dialect 1990 extended pascal standard created iso/iec 10206 identical technical content ref name= iso/ansi identical /ref ieee/ansi 770x3.160-1989 2019 support extended pascal freepascal compiler planned niklaus wirth zurich version pascal issued outside eth two basic forms cdc 6000 compiler source porting kit called pascal-p system pascal-p compiler left several features full language required bootstrap compiler example procedures functions used parameters undiscriminated variant records packing dispose interprocedural gotos features full compiler omitted ucsd pascal professor kenneth bowles based pascal-p2 kit consequently shared several pascal-p language restrictions ucsd pascal later adopted apple pascal continued several versions although ucsd pascal actually expanded subset pascal pascal-p kit adding back standard pascal constructs still complete standard installation pascal early 1990s alan burns geoff davies developed pascal-fc extension pl/0 niklaus book 'algorithms+data structures=programs several constructs added use pascal-fc teaching tool concurrent programming semaphores monitors channels remote-invocation resources able demonstrate concurrency compiler output kind p-code could executed virtual machine virtual machine simulated normal – fair – environment could also simulate extreme conditions unfair mode borland turbo pascal written anders hejlsberg written assembly language independent ucsd zurich compilers however adopted much subset extensions ucsd compiler probably ucsd system common pascal system suitable developing applications resource-limited microprocessor systems available time shrink-wrapped turbo pascal version 3 later incarnations including borland object pascal delphi non-borland near-compatibles became popular programmers including shareware authors swag library pascal code features large amount code written versions delphi mind software products compilers ide/rapid application development rad category pascal generated wide variety responses computing community critical complimentary popular 1980s early 1990s implementations pascal closely followed wirth initial definition language widely criticized unsuitable use outside teaching brian kernighan popularized c language outlined notable criticisms pascal early 1981 article pascal favorite programming language serious problem described array sizes string lengths part type possible write function would accept variable-length arrays even strings parameters made unfeasible write example sorting library kernighan also criticized unpredictable order evaluation boolean expressions poor library support lack static variables raised number smaller issues also stated language provide simple constructs escape knowingly forcibly ignore restrictions limitations general complaints sources noted scope declarations clearly defined original language definition sometimes serious consequences using forward declarations define pointer types record declarations led mutual recursion identifier may may used enumeration list another difficulty like algol 60 language allow procedures functions passed parameters predefine expected type parameters kernighan criticisms directly addressed article pascal programming language bill catambay specifically myth 6 pascal serious programmers despite initial criticisms pascal continued evolve kernighan points apply versions language enhanced suitable commercial product development borland turbo pascal kernighan predicted article extensions fix issues incompatible compiler compiler since early 1990s however varieties seem condensed two categories iso borland-like extended pascal addresses many early criticisms supports variable-length strings variable initialization separate compilation short-circuit boolean operators default codice_6 clauses case statements Target text information: steelman_language_requirements.steelman language requirements steelman language requirements set requirements high-level general-purpose programming language meet created united states department defense department defense common high order language program 1978 predecessors document called order strawman woodenman tinman ironman requirements focused needs embedded computer applications emphasised reliability maintainability efficiency notably included exception handling facilities run-time checking parallel computing concluded existing language met criteria sufficient extent contest called create language would closer fulfilling design contest became ada programming language resulting language followed steelman requirements closely though exactly ada 95 revision language went beyond steelman requirements targeting general-purpose systems addition embedded ones adding features supporting object-oriented programming I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	10,430	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: hp-ux.hp-ux hp-ux hewlett packard unix hewlett packard enterprise proprietary implementation unix operating system based unix system v initially system iii first released 1984 recent versions support hp 9000 series computer systems based pa-risc instruction set architecture hp integrity systems based intel itanium architecture earlier versions hp-ux supported hp integral pc hp 9000 series 200 300 400 computer systems based motorola 68000 series processors well hp 9000 series 500 computers based hp proprietary focus architecture hp-ux first unix offer access control lists file access permissions alternative standard unix permissions system hp-ux also among first unix systems include built-in logical volume manager hp long partnership veritas software uses vxfs primary file system one six commercial operating systems versions certified open group unix 03 standard others macos solaris inspur k-ux huawei euleros aix hp-ux 11i offers common shared disks clustered file system hp serviceguard cluster solution hp-ux hp global workload management adjusts workloads optimize performance integrates instant capacity demand installed resources paid 30-minute increments needed peak workload demands hp-ux offers operating system-level virtualization features hardware partitions isolated os virtual partitions cell-based servers hp integrity virtual machines hpvm integrity servers hpvm supports guests running hp-ux 11i v3 hosts – guests run linux windows openvms 8.4 hp-ux hp supports online vm guest migration encryption secure guest contents migration hp-ux 11i v3 scales follows superdome 2 32 intel itanium 9560 processors 11i v2 release introduced kernel-based intrusion detection strong random number generation stack buffer overflow protection security partitioning role-based access management various open-source security tools hp classifies operating system security features three categories data system identity release 6.x together 3.x introduced context dependent files cdf feature method allowing fileserver serve different configurations binaries even architectures different client machines heterogeneous environment directory containing files suid bit set made hidden ordinary root processes normal use scheme sometimes exploited intruders hide malicious programs data cdfs cdf filesystem dropped release 10.0 hp-ux operating systems supports variety pa-risc systems 11.0 added support integrity-based servers transition pa-risc itanium hp-ux 11i v1.5 first version supported itanium introduction hp-ux 11i v2 operating system supported architectures hp-ux 11i supports hp integrity servers hp bl server blade family servers use intel itanium architecture hp-ux 11i v2 11i v3 support hp cx series servers cx stands carrier grade used mainly telco industry -48v dc support nebs certified systems contain itanium mad6m processors discontinued hp-ux supports hp rx series servers prior release hp-ux version 11.11 hp used decimal version numbering scheme first number giving major release number following decimal showing minor release 11.11 hp made marketing decision name releases 11 followed v decimal-number version intended indicate os internet-enabled effective result dual version-numbering scheme hp bundles hp-ux 11i programs packages call operating environments oes following lists currently available hp-ux 11i v3 oes 1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_windows.microsoft windows microsoft windows group several graphical operating system families developed marketed sold microsoft family caters certain sector computing industry active microsoft windows families include windows nt windows iot may encompass subfamilies e.g windows server windows embedded compact windows ce defunct microsoft windows families include windows 9x windows mobile windows phone microsoft introduced operating environment named windows november 20 1985 graphical operating system shell ms-dos response growing interest graphical user interfaces guis microsoft windows came dominate world personal computer pc market 90 market share overtaking mac os introduced 1984 apple came see windows unfair encroachment innovation gui development implemented products lisa macintosh eventually settled court microsoft favor 1993 pcs windows still popular operating system however 2014 microsoft admitted losing majority overall operating system market android massive growth sales android smartphones 2014 number windows devices sold less 25 android devices sold comparison however may fully relevant two operating systems traditionally target different platforms still numbers server use windows comparable competitors show one third market share similar end user use recent version windows pcs tablets smartphones embedded devices windows 10 recent version server computers windows server version 1903 specialized version windows also runs xbox one video game console microsoft developer windows registered several trademarks denote family windows operating systems target specific sector computing industry 2014 following windows families actively developed following windows families longer developed term windows collectively describes several generations microsoft operating system products products generally categorized follows history windows dates back 1981 microsoft started work program called interface manager announced november 1983 apple lisa macintosh name windows windows 1.0 released november 1985 windows 1.0 compete apple operating system achieved little popularity windows 1.0 complete operating system rather extends ms-dos shell windows 1.0 program known ms-dos executive components included calculator calendar cardfile clipboard viewer clock control panel notepad paint reversi terminal write windows 1.0 allow overlapping windows instead windows tiled modal dialog boxes may appear windows microsoft sold included windows development libraries c development environment included numerous windows samples windows 2.0 released december 1987 popular predecessor features several improvements user interface memory management windows 2.03 changed os tiled windows overlapping windows result change led apple computer filing suit microsoft alleging infringement apple copyrights windows 2.0 also introduced sophisticated keyboard shortcuts could make use expanded memory windows 2.1 released two different versions windows/286 windows/386 windows/386 uses virtual 8086 mode intel 80386 multitask several dos programs paged memory model emulate expanded memory using available extended memory windows/286 spite name runs intel 8086 intel 80286 processors runs real mode make use high memory area addition full windows-packages runtime-only versions shipped early windows software third parties made possible run windows software ms-dos without full windows feature set early versions windows often thought graphical shells mostly ran top ms-dos use file system services however even earliest windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions notably executable file format providing device drivers timer graphics printer mouse keyboard sound unlike ms-dos windows allowed users execute multiple graphical applications time cooperative multitasking windows implemented elaborate segment-based software virtual memory scheme allows run applications larger available memory code segments resources swapped thrown away memory became scarce data segments moved memory given application relinquished processor control windows 3.0 released 1990 improved design mostly virtual memory loadable virtual device drivers vxds allow windows share arbitrary devices multi-tasked dos applications windows 3.0 applications run protected mode gives access several megabytes memory without obligation participate software virtual memory scheme run inside address space segmented memory provides degree protection windows 3.0 also featured improvements user interface microsoft rewrote critical operations c assembly windows 3.0 first microsoft windows version achieve broad commercial success selling 2 million copies first six months windows 3.1 made generally available march 1 1992 featured facelift august 1993 windows workgroups special version integrated peer-to-peer networking features version number 3.11 released sold along windows 3.1 support windows 3.1 ended december 31 2001 windows 3.2 released 1994 updated version chinese version windows 3.1 update limited language version fixed issues related complex writing system chinese language windows 3.2 generally sold computer manufacturers ten-disk version ms-dos also simplified chinese characters basic output translated utilities next major consumer-oriented release windows windows 95 released august 24 1995 still remaining ms-dos-based windows 95 introduced support native 32-bit applications plug play hardware preemptive multitasking long file names 255 characters provided increased stability predecessors windows 95 also introduced redesigned object oriented user interface replacing previous program manager start menu taskbar windows explorer shell windows 95 major commercial success microsoft ina fried cnet remarked time windows 95 finally ushered market 2001 become fixture computer desktops around world microsoft published four oem service releases osr windows 95 roughly equivalent service pack first osr windows 95 also first version windows bundled microsoft web browser internet explorer mainstream support windows 95 ended december 31 2000 extended support windows 95 ended december 31 2001 windows 95 followed release windows 98 june 25 1998 introduced windows driver model support usb composite devices support acpi hibernation support multi-monitor configurations windows 98 also included integration internet explorer 4 active desktop aspects windows desktop update series enhancements explorer shell also made available windows 95 may 1999 microsoft released windows 98 second edition updated version windows 98 windows 98 se added internet explorer 5.0 windows media player 6.2 amongst upgrades mainstream support windows 98 ended june 30 2002 extended support windows 98 ended july 11 2006 september 14 2000 microsoft released windows millennium edition last dos-based version windows windows incorporated visual interface enhancements windows nt-based counterpart windows 2000 faster boot times previous versions however required removal ability access real mode dos environment removing compatibility older programs expanded multimedia functionality including windows media player 7 windows movie maker windows image acquisition framework retrieving images scanners digital cameras additional system utilities system file protection system restore updated home networking tools however windows faced criticism speed instability along hardware compatibility issues removal real mode dos support pc world considered windows one worst operating systems microsoft ever released 4th worst tech product time november 1988 new development team within microsoft included former digital equipment corporation developers dave cutler mark lucovsky began work revamped version ibm microsoft os/2 operating system known nt os/2 nt os/2 intended secure multi-user operating system posix compatibility modular portable kernel preemptive multitasking support multiple processor architectures however following successful release windows 3.0 nt development team decided rework project use extended 32-bit port windows api known win32 instead os/2 win32 maintained similar structure windows apis allowing existing windows applications easily ported platform also supported capabilities existing nt kernel following approval microsoft staff development continued windows nt first 32-bit version windows however ibm objected changes ultimately continued os/2 development first release resulting operating system windows nt 3.1 named associate windows 3.1 released july 1993 versions desktop workstations servers windows nt 3.5 released september 1994 focusing performance improvements support novell netware followed windows nt 3.51 may 1995 included additional improvements support powerpc architecture windows nt 4.0 released june 1996 introducing redesigned interface windows 95 nt series february 17 2000 microsoft released windows 2000 successor nt 4.0 windows nt name dropped point order put greater focus windows brand next major version windows nt windows xp released october 25 2001 introduction windows xp aimed unify consumer-oriented windows 9x series architecture introduced windows nt change microsoft promised would provide better performance dos-based predecessors windows xp would also introduce redesigned user interface including updated start menu task-oriented windows explorer streamlined multimedia networking features internet explorer 6 integration microsoft .net passport services modes help provide compatibility software designed previous versions windows remote assistance functionality retail windows xp marketed two main editions home edition targeted towards consumers professional edition targeted towards business environments power users included additional security networking features home professional later accompanied media center edition designed home theater pcs emphasis support dvd playback tv tuner cards dvr functionality remote controls tablet pc edition designed mobile devices meeting specifications tablet computer support stylus pen input additional pen-enabled applications mainstream support windows xp ended april 14 2009 extended support ended april 8 2014 windows 2000 microsoft also changed release schedules server operating systems server counterpart windows xp windows server 2003 released april 2003 followed december 2005 windows server 2003 r2 lengthy development process windows vista released november 30 2006 volume licensing january 30 2007 consumers contained number new features redesigned shell user interface significant technical changes particular focus security features available number different editions subject criticism drop performance longer boot time criticism new uac stricter license agreement vista server counterpart windows server 2008 released early 2008 july 22 2009 windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 released rtm release manufacturing former released public 3 months later october 22 2009 unlike predecessor windows vista introduced large number new features windows 7 intended focused incremental upgrade windows line goal compatible applications hardware windows vista already compatible windows 7 multi-touch support redesigned windows shell updated taskbar home networking system called homegroup performance improvements windows 8 successor windows 7 released generally october 26 2012 number significant changes made windows 8 including introduction user interface based around microsoft metro design language optimizations touch-based devices tablets all-in-one pcs changes include start screen uses large tiles convenient touch interactions allow display continually updated information new class apps designed primarily use touch-based devices changes include increased integration cloud services online platforms social networks microsoft onedrive formerly skydrive xbox live services windows store service software distribution new variant known windows rt use devices utilize arm architecture update windows 8 called windows 8.1 released october 17 2013 includes features new live tile sizes deeper onedrive integration many revisions windows 8 windows 8.1 subject criticism removal start menu september 30 2014 microsoft announced windows 10 successor windows 8.1 released july 29 2015 addresses shortcomings user interface first introduced windows 8 changes pc include return start menu virtual desktop system ability run windows store apps within windows desktop rather full-screen mode windows 10 said available update qualified windows 7 sp1 windows 8.1 windows phone 8.1 devices get windows 10 application windows 7 windows 8.1 windows update windows 7 february 2017 microsoft announced migration windows source code repository perforce git migration involved 3.5 million separate files 300 gigabyte repository may 2017 90 percent engineering team uses git 8500 commits 1760 windows builds per day multilingual support built windows since windows 3 language keyboard interface changed region language control panel components supported input languages input method editors automatically installed windows installation windows xp earlier files east asian languages chinese right-to-left scripts arabic may need installed separately also said control panel third-party imes may also installed user feels provided one insufficient needs interface languages operating system free download languages limited certain editions windows language interface packs lips redistributable may downloaded microsoft download center installed edition windows xp later translate windows interface require certain base language language windows originally shipped used languages emerging markets full language packs translates complete operating system available specific editions windows ultimate enterprise editions windows vista 7 editions windows 8 8.1 rt except single language require specific base language commonly used popular languages french chinese languages downloaded download center available optional updates windows update service except windows 8 interface language installed applications affected changes windows interface language availability languages depends application developers windows 8 windows server 2012 introduces new language control panel interface input languages simultaneously changed language packs regardless type downloaded central location pc settings app windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 also includes counterpart settings page changing interface language also changes language preinstalled windows store apps mail maps news certain microsoft-developed apps remote desktop limitations language packs however still effect except full language packs installed edition except single language caters emerging markets windows nt included support several different platforms x86-based personal computer became dominant professional world windows nt 4.0 predecessors supported powerpc dec alpha mips r4000 although platforms implement 64-bit computing operating system treated 32-bit however windows 2000 successor windows nt 4.0 dropped support platforms except third generation x86 known ia-32 newer 32-bit mode client line windows nt family still runs ia-32 although windows server line ceased supporting platform release windows server 2008 r2 introduction intel itanium architecture ia-64 microsoft released new versions windows support itanium versions windows xp windows server 2003 released time mainstream x86 counterparts windows xp 64-bit edition released 2005 last windows client operating systems support itanium windows server line continues support platform windows server 2012 windows server 2008 r2 last windows operating system support itanium architecture april 25 2005 microsoft released windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 editions support x86-64 simply x64 eighth generation x86 architecture windows vista first client version windows nt released simultaneously ia-32 x64 editions x64 still supported edition windows 8 known windows rt specifically created computers arm architecture arm still used windows smartphones windows 10 tablets windows rt updated starting windows 10 fall creators update later includes support pcs arm architecture windows ce officially known windows embedded compact edition windows runs minimalistic computers like satellite navigation systems mobile phones windows embedded compact based dedicated kernel dubbed windows ce kernel microsoft licenses windows ce oems device makers oems device makers modify create user interfaces experiences windows ce provides technical foundation windows ce used dreamcast along sega proprietary os console windows ce core windows mobile derived successor windows phone 7 based components windows ce 6.0 r3 windows ce 7.0 windows phone 8 however based nt-kernel windows 8 windows embedded compact confused windows xp embedded windows nt 4.0 embedded modular editions windows based windows nt kernel xbox os unofficial name given version windows runs xbox one specific implementation emphasis virtualization using hyper-v three operating systems running consisting core operating system second implemented games windows-like environment applications microsoft updates xbox one os every month updates downloaded xbox live service xbox subsequently installed using offline recovery images downloaded via pc windows 10-based core replaced windows 8-based one update new system sometimes referred windows 10 xbox one onecore xbox one system also allows backward compatibility xbox 360 xbox 360 system backwards compatible original xbox 2017 microsoft announced would start using git open source version control system created linus torvalds microsoft previously used proprietary version control system called source depot microsoft began integrate git team foundation server 2013 windows continued rely source depot however decision came complexity windows codebase especially well suited decentralized nature linux development git originally created manage git repository contains complete history files proved unworkable windows developers cloning repository takes several hours microsoft working new project called virtual file system git vfsforgit address challenges according net applications tracks use operating systems devices active web windows used operating-system family personal computers july 2017 close 90 usage share including personal computers kinds e.g. desktops laptops mobile devices windows oses accounted 35.24 usage share july 2017 compared android highest 41.24 ios 13.22 macos 4.64 according statcounter tracks use operating systems use devices active web windows used less half market developing countries also developed ones—such united states use windows desktops plurality operating system fallen 46.18 united kingdom ireland numbers easiest monthly numbers find track real use may mirror installed base sales numbers recent years devices consistent server numbers next section terms number devices shipped operating system installed smartphones windows phone third-most-shipped os 2.6 android 82.8 ios 13.9 second quarter 2015 according idc across pcs mobile devices 2014 windows oses second-most-shipped 333 million devices 14 android 1.2 billion 49 ahead ios macos combined 263 million 11 use latest version windows 10 exceeded windows 7 globally since early 2018 developed countries japan australia us windows 10 already popular version since early 2017 usage share windows serversthose running web servers also kinds servers 33.6 consumer versions windows originally designed ease-of-use single-user pc without network connection security features built outset however windows nt successors designed security including network multi-user pcs initially designed internet security mind much since first developed early 1990s internet use less prevalent design issues combined programming errors e.g buffer overflows popularity windows means frequent target computer worm virus writers june 2005 bruce schneier counterpane internet security reported seen 1,000 new viruses worms previous six months 2005 kaspersky lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses trojans back-doors exploits written windows microsoft releases security patches windows update service approximately month usually second tuesday month although critical updates made available shorter intervals necessary versions windows including windows 2000 sp3 windows xp updates automatically downloaded installed user selects result service pack 2 windows xp well service pack 1 windows server 2003 installed users quickly otherwise might windows 9x series offered option profiles multiple users concept access privileges allow concurrent access true multi-user operating systems addition implemented partial memory protection accordingly widely criticised lack security windows nt series operating systems contrast true multi-user implement absolute memory protection however lot advantages true multi-user operating system nullified fact prior windows vista first user account created setup process administrator account also default new accounts though windows xp limited accounts majority home users change account type fewer rights – partially due number programs unnecessarily required administrator rights – home users ran administrator time windows vista changes introducing privilege elevation system called user account control logging standard user logon session created token containing basic privileges assigned way new logon session incapable making changes would affect entire system logging user administrators group two separate tokens assigned first token contains privileges typically awarded administrator second restricted token similar standard user would receive user applications including windows shell started restricted token resulting reduced privilege environment even administrator account application requests higher privileges run administrator clicked uac prompt confirmation consent given including administrator credentials account requesting elevation member administrators group start process using unrestricted token leaked documents published wikileaks codenamed vault 7 dated 2013–2016 detail capabilities cia perform electronic surveillance cyber warfare ability compromise operating systems microsoft windows august 2019 computer experts reported bluekeep security vulnerability potentially affects older unpatched microsoft windows versions via program remote desktop protocol allowing possibility remote code execution may include related flaws collectively named dejablue affecting newer windows versions i.e. windows 7 recent versions well addition experts reported microsoft security vulnerability based legacy code involving microsoft ctf ctfmon ctfmon.exe affects windows versions older windows xp version recent windows 10 versions patch correct flaw currently available windows versions windows nt 3 based file system permission system referred agdlp accounts global local permissions file permissions applied file/folder form 'local group 'global groups members global groups hold groups users depending different windows versions used system varies vendor products linux netware due 'static allocation permission applied directory file folder however using process aglp/agdlp/agudlp allows small number static permissions applied allows easy changes account groups without reapplying file permissions files folders january 6 2005 microsoft released beta version microsoft antispyware based upon previously released giant antispyware february 14 2006 microsoft antispyware became windows defender release beta 2 windows defender freeware program designed protect spyware unwanted software windows xp windows server 2003 users genuine copies microsoft windows freely download program microsoft web site windows defender ships part windows vista 7 windows 8 windows defender microsoft security essentials combined single program named windows defender based microsoft security essentials borrowing features user interface although enabled default turned use another anti-virus solution windows malicious software removal tool optional microsoft safety scanner two free security products offered microsoft windows 10 anniversary update microsoft introduced limited periodic scanning feature allows windows defender scan detect remove threats third-party anti-virus software missed advanced threat protection service introduced enterprise users new service uses cloud service detect take actions advanced network attacks article based report symantec internetnews.com described microsoft windows fewest number patches shortest average patch development time five operating systems monitored last six months 2006 study conducted kevin mitnick marketing communications firm avantgarde 2004 found unprotected unpatched windows xp system service pack 1 lasted four minutes internet compromised unprotected also unpatched windows server 2003 system compromised connected internet 8 hours computer running windows xp service pack 2 compromised aol national cyber security alliance online safety study october 2004 determined 80 windows users infected least one spyware/adware product much documentation available describing increase security microsoft windows products typical suggestions include deploying microsoft windows behind hardware software firewall running anti-virus anti-spyware software installing patches become available windows update owing operating system popularity number applications released aim provide compatibility windows applications either compatibility layer another operating system standalone system run software written windows box include 1-hop neighbor's text information: sunos.sunos sunos unix-branded operating system developed sun microsystems workstation server computer systems sunos name usually used refer versions 1.0 4.1.4 based bsd versions 5.0 later based unix system v release 4 marketed brand name solaris sunos 1 supported sun-2 series systems including sun-1 systems upgraded sun-2 68010 cpu boards sunos 2 supported sun-2 sun-3 68020 series systems sunos 4 supported sun-2 release 4.0.3 sun-3 4.1.1 sun386i 4.0 4.0.1 4.0.2 sun-4 sparc architectures although sunos 4 intended first release fully support sun new sparc processor also sunos 3.2 release preliminary support sun-4 systems sunos 4.1.2 introduced support sun first sun4m-architecture multiprocessor machines sparcserver 600mp series since single lock kernel one cpu time could execute kernel last release sunos 4 4.1.4 solaris 1.1.2 1994 sun4 sun4c sun4m architectures supported 4.1.4 sun4d supported sun continued ship sunos 4.1.3 4.1.4 december 27 1998 supported september 30 2003 1987 corporation sun announced collaborating project merge popular unix flavors market time bsd including many features unique sunos system v xenix would become system v release 4 svr4 september 4 1991 sun announced next major os release would switch bsd-derived source base one based svr4 although internal designation release would sunos 5 point sun began using marketing name solaris justification new overbrand encompassed sunos also openwindows desktop environment open network computing onc functionality even though new svr4-based os expected ship volume following year sun immediately began using new solaris name refer currently shipping sunos 4 release also including openwindows thus sunos 4.1.1 rebranded solaris 1.0 sunos 5.0 would considered part solaris 2.0 sunos 4.1 x micro versions continued released 1994 also given solaris 1 x equivalent name practice often still referred customers even sun personnel sunos release names matching version numbers straightforward today sunos 5 universally known solaris although sunos name still visible within os startup banner output uname command man page footers among places matching sunos 5.x release corresponding solaris marketing name simple solaris release name includes corresponding sunos 5 minor version number example solaris 2.4 incorporated sunos 5.4 one small twist solaris 2.6 2 dropped solaris name sunos minor number appears latest solaris release named solaris 11 incorporates sunos 5.11 gui environments bundled earlier versions sunos included suntools later sunview news 1989 sun released openwindows open look-compliant x11-based environment also supported sunview news applications became default sunos gui sunos 4.1.1 Target text information: armulator.armulator arm instruction set simulator armulator one software development tools provided development systems business unit arm limited users arm-based chips owes heritage early development instruction set sophie wilson part heritage still visible provision tube bbc micro model armulator armulator written c provides instruction set simulator provides virtual platform system emulation comes ready emulate arm processor certain arm coprocessors processor part embedded system licensees may extend armulator add implementations additional hardware armulator model armulator provides number services help time-based behaviour event scheduling ships examples memory mapped co-processor expansions way use armulator emulate entire embedded system key limitation armulator simulate single arm cpu one time although almost arm cores arm11 available performance armulator good technology employed 1000 host pc instructions per arm instruction means emulated speeds 1 mhz normal pcs mid late 90s accuracy good although classed cycle count accurate rather cycle accurate arm pipeline n't fully modeled although register interlocks resolution instruction consequence single stepping register interlocks ignored different cycle counts returned program simply run unavoidable testing armulator always time consuming challenge full arm architecture validation suites employed 1 million lines c code fairly hefty product armulator allows runtime debugging using either armsd arm symbolic debugger either graphical debuggers shipped sdt later ads products armulator suffered invisible tool text file configuration armul.conf many found complex configure armulator ii formed basis high accuracy cycle callable co-verification models arm processors covs models see cycle accurate simulator basis many coverification systems arm processors armulator available broad range platforms life including mac risc os platforms dec alpha hp-ux solaris sunos windows linux mid-90s reluctance support windows platforms pre-windows 95 relatively challenging platform late 90 early 00 support removed solaris windows linux although undoubtedly code base remains littered pragmas ifdef riscos armulator ii shipped early arm toolkits well later sdt 2.5 sdt 2.5.1 ads 1.0 ads 1.1 ads 1.2 rcvt 1.0 also separately rviss special models produced development cpus notably arm9e arm10 arm11 models helped architectural decisions thumb-2 trustzone armulator gradually phased replaced just-in-time compilation-based high performance cpu system models see fastsim link armulator made open source basis gnu version armulator key differences memory interface services also instruction decode done differently gnu armulator available part gdb debugger arm gnu tools armulator ii formed basis high accuracy cycle callable co-verification models arm processors covs models see cycle accurate simulator basis many coverification systems arm processors mentor graphic seamless market leading covs system supports many arm cores many cpus armulator ii shipped early arm toolkits well later sdt 2.5 sdt 2.5.1 ads 1.0 ads 1.1 ads 1.2 rvct 1.0 also separately rviss key contributors armulator ii mike williams louise jameson charles lavender donald sinclair chris lamb rebecca bryan worked armulator engineer later product manager significant input also made allan skillman working arm coverification models time key contributor armulator dave jaggar special models produced development cpus notably arm9e arm10 arm11 models helped architectural decisions thumb-2 trustzone I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	5,381	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_operating_systems.list operating systems list operating systems computer operating systems categorized technology ownership licensing working state usage many characteristics practice many groupings may overlap criteria inclusion notability shown either existing wikipedia article citation reliable source non-unix operating systems still confirmed see also mobile operating systems 1-hop neighbor's text information: c_(programming_language).c programming language c letter c general-purpose procedural computer programming language supporting structured programming lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations design c provides constructs map efficiently typical machine instructions found lasting use applications previously coded assembly language applications include operating systems well various application software computers ranging supercomputers embedded systems c originally developed bell labs dennis ritchie 1972 1973 make utilities running unix later applied re-implementing kernel unix operating system 1980s c gradually gained popularity nowadays one widely used programming languages c compilers various vendors available majority existing computer architectures operating systems c standardized ansi since 1989 see ansi c subsequently international organization standardization c imperative procedural language designed compiled using relatively straightforward compiler provide low-level access memory provide language constructs map efficiently machine instructions require minimal runtime support despite low-level capabilities language designed encourage cross-platform programming standards-compliant c program written portability mind compiled wide variety computer platforms operating systems changes source code language become available various platforms embedded microcontrollers supercomputers like procedural languages algol tradition c facilities structured programming allows lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations c executable code contained within subroutines also called functions though strictly sense functional programming function parameters always passed value pass-by-reference simulated c explicitly passing pointer values c program source text free-format using semicolon statement terminator curly braces grouping blocks statements c language also exhibits following characteristics c include certain features found languages object orientation garbage collection implemented emulated often use external libraries e.g. glib object system boehm garbage collector many later languages borrowed directly indirectly c including c++ c unix c shell go java javascript limbo lpc objective-c perl php python rust swift verilog systemverilog hardware description languages languages drawn many control structures basic features c. python dramatic exception also express highly similar syntax c tend combine recognizable expression statement syntax c underlying type systems data models semantics radically different origin c closely tied development unix operating system originally implemented assembly language pdp-7 dennis ritchie ken thompson incorporating several ideas colleagues eventually decided port operating system pdp-11 original pdp-11 version unix developed assembly language thompson needed programming language make utilities first tried make fortran compiler soon gave idea made new language b thompson simplified version bcpl however utilities written b b slow b could take advantage pdp-11 features byte addressability 1972 ritchie started improve b resulted creating new language c. c compiler utilities made included version 2 unix version 4 unix released nov. 1973 unix kernel extensively re-implemented c. time c language acquired powerful features codice_12 types unix one first operating system kernels implemented language assembly earlier instances include multics system written pl/i master control program mcp burroughs b5000 written algol 1961 around 1977 ritchie stephen c. johnson made changes language facilitate portability unix operating system johnson portable c compiler served basis several implementations c new platforms 1978 brian kernighan dennis ritchie published first edition c programming language book known c programmers k r served many years informal specification language version c describes commonly referred k r c second edition book covers later ansi c standard described k r introduced several language features even publication 1989 ansi standard many years k r c still considered lowest common denominator c programmers restricted maximum portability desired since many older compilers still use carefully written k r c code legal standard c well early versions c functions return types codice_30 must declared used function definition functions used without prior declaration presumed return type codice_30 example codice_30 type specifiers commented could omitted k r c required later standards since k r function declarations include information function arguments function parameter type checks performed although compilers would issue warning message local function called wrong number arguments multiple calls external function used different numbers types arguments separate tools unix lint utility developed among things could check consistency function use across multiple source files years following publication k r c several features added language supported compilers particular pcc vendors included large number extensions lack agreement standard library together language popularity fact even unix compilers precisely implemented k r specification led necessity standardization late 1970s 1980s versions c implemented wide variety mainframe computers minicomputers microcomputers including ibm pc popularity began increase significantly 1983 american national standards institute ansi formed committee x3j11 establish standard specification c. x3j11 based c standard unix implementation however non-portable portion unix c library handed ieee working group 1003 become basis 1988 posix standard 1989 c standard ratified ansi x3.159-1989 programming language c version language often referred ansi c standard c sometimes c89 1990 ansi c standard formatting changes adopted international organization standardization iso iso/iec 9899:1990 sometimes called c90 therefore terms c89 c90 refer programming language ansi like national standards bodies longer develops c standard independently defers international c standard maintained working group iso/iec jtc1/sc22/wg14 national adoption update international standard typically occurs within year iso publication one aims c standardization process produce superset k r c incorporating many subsequently introduced unofficial features standards committee also included several additional features function prototypes borrowed c++ codice_15 pointers support international character sets locales preprocessor enhancements although syntax parameter declarations augmented include style used c++ k r interface continued permitted compatibility existing source code c89 supported current c compilers c code written today based program written standard c without hardware-dependent assumptions run correctly platform conforming c implementation within resource limits without precautions programs may compile certain platform particular compiler due example use non-standard libraries gui libraries reliance compiler- platform-specific attributes exact size data types byte endianness cases code must compilable either standard-conforming k r c-based compilers codice_38 macro used split code standard k r sections prevent use k r c-based compiler features available standard c. ansi/iso standardization process c language specification remained relatively static several years 1995 normative amendment 1 1990 c standard iso/iec 9899/amd1:1995 known informally c95 published correct details add extensive support international character sets c standard revised late 1990s leading publication iso/iec 9899:1999 1999 commonly referred c99 since amended three times technical corrigenda c99 introduced several new features including inline functions several new data types including codice_39 codice_40 type represent complex numbers variable-length arrays flexible array members improved support ieee 754 floating point support variadic macros macros variable arity support one-line comments beginning codice_41 bcpl c++ many already implemented extensions several c compilers c99 part backward compatible c90 stricter ways particular declaration lacks type specifier longer codice_30 implicitly assumed standard macro codice_43 defined value codice_44 indicate c99 support available gcc solaris studio c compilers support many new features c99 c compiler microsoft visual c++ however implements c89 standard parts c99 required compatibility c++11 2007 work began another revision c standard informally called c1x official publication 2011-12-08 c standards committee adopted guidelines limit adoption new features tested existing implementations c11 standard adds numerous new features c library including type generic macros anonymous structures improved unicode support atomic operations multi-threading bounds-checked functions also makes portions existing c99 library optional improves compatibility c++ standard macro codice_43 defined codice_46 indicate c11 support available published june 2018 c18 current standard c programming language introduces new language features technical corrections clarifications defects c11 standard macro codice_43 defined codice_48 historically embedded c programming requires nonstandard extensions c language order support exotic features fixed-point arithmetic multiple distinct memory banks basic i/o operations 2008 c standards committee published technical report extending c language address issues providing common standard implementations adhere includes number features available normal c fixed-point arithmetic named address spaces basic i/o hardware addressing c formal grammar specified c standard line endings generally significant c however line boundaries significance preprocessing phase comments may appear either delimiters codice_49 codice_50 since c99 following codice_41 end line comments delimited codice_49 codice_50 nest sequences characters interpreted comment delimiters appear inside string character literals c source files contain declarations function definitions function definitions turn contain declarations statements declarations either define new types using keywords codice_12 codice_35 codice_14 assign types perhaps reserve storage new variables usually writing type followed variable name keywords codice_57 codice_30 specify built-in types sections code enclosed braces codice_59 codice_60 sometimes called curly brackets limit scope declarations act single statement control structures imperative language c uses statements specify actions common statement expression statement consisting expression evaluated followed semicolon side effect evaluation functions may called variables may assigned new values modify normal sequential execution statements c provides several control-flow statements identified reserved keywords structured programming supported codice_61 -codice_62 conditional execution codice_63-codice_4 codice_4 codice_2 iterative execution looping codice_2 statement separate initialization testing reinitialization expressions omitted codice_68 codice_69 used leave innermost enclosing loop statement skip reinitialization also non-structured codice_70 statement branches directly designated label within function codice_5 selects codice_72 executed based value integer expression expressions use variety built-in operators may contain function calls order arguments functions operands operators evaluated unspecified evaluations may even interleaved however side effects including storage variables occur next sequence point sequence points include end expression statement entry return function call sequence points also occur evaluation expressions containing certain operators codice_73 codice_10 codice_75 comma operator permits high degree object code optimization compiler requires c programmers take care obtain reliable results needed programming languages kernighan ritchie say introduction c programming language c like language blemishes operators wrong precedence parts syntax could better c standard attempt correct many blemishes impact changes already existing software basic c source character set includes following characters newline indicates end text line need correspond actual single character although convenience c treats one additional multi-byte encoded characters may used string literals entirely portable latest c standard c11 allows multi-national unicode characters embedded portably within c source text using codice_83 codice_84 encoding codice_85 denotes hexadecimal character although feature yet widely implemented basic c execution character set contains characters along representations alert backspace carriage return run-time support extended character sets increased revision c standard c89 32 reserved words also known keywords words used purposes predefined c99 reserved five words c11 reserved seven words recently reserved words begin underscore followed capital letter identifiers form previously reserved c standard use implementations since existing program source code using identifiers would affected c implementations started supporting extensions programming language standard headers define convenient synonyms underscored identifiers language previously included reserved word called codice_130 seldom implemented removed reserved word c supports rich set operators symbols used within expression specify manipulations performed evaluating expression c operators c uses operator codice_136 used mathematics express equality indicate assignment following precedent fortran pl/i unlike algol derivatives c uses operator codice_156 test equality similarity two operators assignment equality may result accidental use one place many cases mistake produce error message although compilers produce warnings example conditional expression codice_176 might mistakenly written codice_177 evaluated true codice_76 zero assignment c operator precedence always intuitive example operator codice_156 binds tightly executed prior operators codice_9 bitwise codice_149 bitwise expressions codice_182 must written codice_183 coder intent hello world example appeared first edition k r become model introductory program programming textbooks regardless programming language program prints hello world standard output usually terminal screen display original version main standard-conforming hello world program int main void first line program contains preprocessing directive indicated codice_184 causes compiler replace line entire text codice_185 standard header contains declarations standard input output functions codice_186 codice_187 angle brackets surrounding codice_185 indicate codice_185 located using search strategy prefers headers provided compiler headers name opposed double quotes typically include local project-specific header files next line indicates function named codice_190 defined codice_190 function serves special purpose c programs run-time environment calls codice_190 function begin program execution type specifier codice_30 indicates value returned invoker case run-time environment result evaluating codice_190 function integer keyword codice_15 parameter list indicates function takes arguments opening curly brace indicates beginning definition codice_190 function next line calls diverts execution function named codice_186 case supplied system library call codice_186 function passed provided single argument address first character string literal codice_199 string literal unnamed array elements type codice_57 set automatically compiler final 0-valued character mark end array codice_186 needs know codice_202 escape sequence c translates newline character output signifies end current line return value codice_186 function type codice_30 silently discarded since used careful program might test return value determine whether codice_186 function succeeded semicolon codice_206 terminates statement closing curly brace indicates end code codice_190 function according c99 specification newer codice_190 function unlike function implicitly return value codice_80 upon reaching codice_60 terminates function formerly explicit codice_211 statement required interpreted run-time system exit code indicating successful execution type system c static weakly typed makes similar type system algol descendants pascal built-in types integers various sizes signed unsigned floating-point numbers enumerated types codice_14 integer type codice_57 often used single-byte characters c99 added boolean datatype also derived types including arrays pointers records codice_12 unions codice_35 c often used low-level systems programming escapes type system may necessary compiler attempts ensure type correctness expressions programmer override checks various ways either using type cast explicitly convert value one type another using pointers unions reinterpret underlying bits data object way find c declaration syntax unintuitive particularly function pointers ritchie idea declare identifiers contexts resembling use declaration reflects use c usual arithmetic conversions allow efficient code generated sometimes produce unexpected results example comparison signed unsigned integers equal width requires conversion signed value unsigned generate unexpected results signed value negative c supports use pointers type reference records address location object function memory pointers dereferenced access data stored address pointed invoke pointed-to function pointers manipulated using assignment pointer arithmetic run-time representation pointer value typically raw memory address perhaps augmented offset-within-word field since pointer type includes type thing pointed expressions including pointers type-checked compile time pointer arithmetic automatically scaled size pointed-to data type pointers used many purposes c. text strings commonly manipulated using pointers arrays characters dynamic memory allocation performed using pointers many data types trees commonly implemented dynamically allocated codice_12 objects linked together using pointers pointers functions useful passing functions arguments higher-order functions qsort bsearch callbacks invoked event handlers null pointer value explicitly points valid location dereferencing null pointer value undefined often resulting segmentation fault null pointer values useful indicating special cases next pointer final node linked list error indication functions returning pointers appropriate contexts source code assigning pointer variable null pointer constant written codice_80 without explicit casting pointer type codice_218 macro defined several standard headers conditional contexts null pointer values evaluate false pointer values evaluate true void pointers codice_219 point objects unspecified type therefore used generic data pointers since size type pointed-to object known void pointers dereferenced pointer arithmetic allowed although easily many contexts implicitly converted object pointer type careless use pointers potentially dangerous typically unchecked pointer variable made point arbitrary location cause undesirable effects although properly used pointers point safe places made point unsafe places using invalid pointer arithmetic objects point may continue used deallocation dangling pointers may used without initialized wild pointers may directly assigned unsafe value using cast union another corrupt pointer general c permissive allowing manipulation conversion pointer types although compilers typically provide options various levels checking programming languages address problems using restrictive reference types array types c traditionally fixed static size specified compile time recent c99 standard also allows form variable-length arrays however also possible allocate block memory arbitrary size run-time using standard library codice_220 function treat array c unification arrays pointers means declared arrays dynamically allocated simulated arrays virtually interchangeable since arrays always accessed effect via pointers array accesses typically checked underlying array size although compilers may provide bounds checking option array bounds violations therefore possible rather common carelessly written code lead various repercussions including illegal memory accesses corruption data buffer overruns run-time exceptions bounds checking desired must done manually c special provision declaring multi-dimensional arrays rather relies recursion within type system declare arrays arrays effectively accomplishes thing index values resulting multi-dimensional array thought increasing row-major order multi-dimensional arrays commonly used numerical algorithms mainly applied linear algebra store matrices structure c array well suited particular task however since arrays passed merely pointers bounds array must known fixed values else explicitly passed subroutine requires dynamically sized arrays arrays accessed using double indexing workaround allocate array additional row vector pointers columns c99 introduced variable-length arrays address issues ordinary c arrays subscript notation codice_221 codice_222 designates pointer syntactic sugar codice_223 taking advantage compiler knowledge pointer type address codice_224 points base address pointed codice_222 incremented codice_27 bytes rather defined base address incremented codice_27 multiplied size element codice_222 points thus codice_221 designates codice_230th element array furthermore expression contexts notable exception operand codice_108 name array automatically converted pointer array first element implies array never copied whole named argument function rather address first element passed therefore although function calls c use pass-by-value semantics arrays effect passed reference size element determined applying operator codice_108 dereferenced element codice_222 codice_234 codice_235 number elements declared array codice_78 determined codice_237 latter applies array names variables declared subscripts codice_238 due semantics c possible determine entire size arrays pointers arrays created dynamic allocation codice_220 code codice_240 codice_241 designates pointer work since compiler assumes size pointer requested since array name arguments codice_108 converted pointers exhibit ambiguity however arrays created dynamic allocation accessed pointers rather true array variables suffer codice_108 issues array pointers thus despite apparent equivalence array pointer variables still distinction made even though name array expression contexts converted pointer first element pointer occupy storage array name l-value address constant unlike pointer variable consequently array points changed impossible assign new address array name array contents may copied however using codice_244 function accessing individual elements one important functions programming language provide facilities managing memory objects stored memory c provides three distinct ways allocate memory objects three approaches appropriate different situations various trade-offs example static memory allocation little allocation overhead automatic allocation may involve slightly overhead dynamic memory allocation potentially great deal overhead allocation deallocation persistent nature static objects useful maintaining state information across function calls automatic allocation easy use stack space typically much limited transient either static memory heap space dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation objects whose size known run-time c programs make extensive use three possible automatic static allocation usually simplest storage managed compiler freeing programmer potentially error-prone chore manually allocating releasing storage however many data structures change size runtime since static allocations automatic allocations c99 must fixed size compile-time many situations dynamic allocation necessary prior c99 standard variable-sized arrays common example see article codice_220 example dynamically allocated arrays unlike automatic allocation fail run time uncontrolled consequences dynamic allocation functions return indication form null pointer value required storage allocated static allocation large usually detected linker loader program even begin execution unless otherwise specified static objects contain zero null pointer values upon program startup automatically dynamically allocated objects initialized initial value explicitly specified otherwise initially indeterminate values typically whatever bit pattern happens present storage might even represent valid value type program attempts access uninitialized value results undefined many modern compilers try detect warn problem false positives false negatives occur another issue heap memory allocation synchronized actual usage program order reused much possible example pointer heap memory allocation goes scope value overwritten codice_249 called memory recovered later reuse essentially lost program phenomenon known memory leak conversely possible memory freed continue referenced leading unpredictable results typically symptoms appear portion program far removed actual error making difficult track problem issues ameliorated languages automatic garbage collection c programming language uses libraries primary method extension c library set functions contained within single archive file library typically header file contains prototypes functions contained within library may used program declarations special data types macro symbols used functions order program use library must include library header file library must linked program many cases requires compiler flags e.g. codice_250 shorthand link math library common c library c standard library specified iso ansi c standards comes every c implementation implementations target limited environments embedded systems may provide subset standard library library supports stream input output memory allocation mathematics character strings time values several separate standard headers example codice_185 specify interfaces standard library facilities another common set c library functions used applications specifically targeted unix unix-like systems especially functions provide interface kernel functions detailed various standards posix single unix specification since many programs written c wide variety libraries available libraries often written c c compilers generate efficient object code programmers create interfaces library routines used higher-level languages like java perl python file input output i/o part c language instead handled libraries c standard library associated header files e.g codice_185 file handling generally implemented high-level i/o works streams stream perspective data flow independent devices file concrete device high level i/o done association stream file c standard library buffer memory area queue temporarily used store data sent final destination reduces time spent waiting slower devices example hard drive solid state drive low-level i/o functions part standard c library generally part bare metal programming programming independent operating system embedded programming exceptions implementations include low-level i/o number tools developed help c programmers find fix statements undefined behavior possibly erroneous expressions greater rigor provided compiler tool lint first leading many others automated source code checking auditing beneficial language c many tools exist lint common practice use lint detect questionable code program first written program passes lint compiled using c compiler also many compilers optionally warn syntactically valid constructs likely actually errors misra c proprietary set guidelines avoid questionable code developed embedded systems also compilers libraries operating system level mechanisms performing actions standard part c bounds checking arrays detection buffer overflow serialization dynamic memory tracking automatic garbage collection tools purify valgrind linking libraries containing special versions memory allocation functions help uncover runtime errors memory usage c widely used systems programming implementing operating systems embedded system applications c code written portability used purposes yet needed system-specific code used access specific hardware addresses perform type punning match externally imposed interface requirements low run-time demand system resources c also used website programming using cgi gateway information web application server browser c often chosen interpreted languages speed stability near-universal availability one consequence c wide availability efficiency compilers libraries interpreters programming languages often implemented c. reference implementations python perl php example written c. layer abstraction thin overhead low c enables programmers create efficient implementations algorithms data structures useful computationally intense programs example gnu multiple precision arithmetic library gnu scientific library mathematica matlab completely partially written c. c sometimes used intermediate language implementations languages approach may used portability convenience using c intermediate language additional machine-specific code generators necessary c features line-number preprocessor directives optional superfluous commas end initializer lists support compilation generated code however c shortcomings prompted development c-based languages specifically designed use intermediate languages c -- c also widely used implement end-user applications however applications also written newer higher-level languages c directly indirectly influenced many later languages c go java javascript limbo lpc perl php python unix c shell pervasive influence syntactical languages mentioned combine statement less recognizably expression syntax c type systems data models and/or large-scale program structures differ c sometimes radically several c near-c interpreters exist including ch cint also used scripting object-oriented languages became popular c++ objective-c two different extensions c provided object-oriented capabilities languages originally implemented source-to-source compilers source code translated c compiled c compiler c++ programming language devised bjarne stroustrup approach providing object-oriented functionality c-like syntax c++ adds greater typing strength scoping tools useful object-oriented programming permits generic programming via templates nearly superset c c++ supports c exceptions objective-c originally thin layer top c remains strict superset c permits object-oriented programming using hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm objective-c derives syntax c smalltalk syntax involves preprocessing expressions function declarations function calls inherited c syntax object-oriented features originally taken smalltalk addition c++ objective-c ch cilk unified parallel c nearly supersets c Target text information: brickos.brickos brickos previously legos developed markus noga alternative operating system lego mindstorms rcx controller also provides c/c++ development environment rcx programs using gcc g++ gnu c c++ cross compilation tool chain necessary tools download programs rcx I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	4,949	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: process_management_(computing).process management computing process management integral part modern-day operating system os os must allocate resources processes enable processes share exchange information protect resources process processes enable synchronization among processes meet requirements os must maintain data structure process describes state resource ownership process enables os exert control process modern operating system one instance program loaded memory time example one user could executing program user separate copies program loaded memory programs possible one copy loaded memory several users shared access execute program-code program said re-entrant processor instant executing one instruction one program several processes sustained period time assigning process processor intervals remainder become temporarily inactive number processes executed period time instead time called concurrent execution multiprogramming multitasking os system executing many processes concurrently multiprogramming requires processor allocated process period time de-allocated appropriate moment processor de-allocated execution process must done way restarted later easily possible two possible ways os regain control processor program ’ execution order os perform de-allocation allocation stopping one process starting restarting another process called context switch context change many modern operating systems processes consist many sub-processes introduces concept thread thread may viewed sub-process separate independent sequence execution within code one process threads becoming increasingly important design distributed client–server systems software run multi-processor systems common trait observed among processes associated computer programs alternate cpu cycles i/o cycles portion time required cpu cycles process executed i.e occupying cpu time required i/o cycles process using processor instead either waiting perform input/output actually performing input/output example reading writing file disk prior advent multiprogramming computers operated single-user systems users systems quickly became aware much time computer allocated single user processor idle user entering information debugging programs example computer scientists observed overall performance machine could improved letting different process use processor whenever one process waiting input/output uni-programming system n users execute programs individual execution times ... total time service n processes consecutively n users would however process consumes cpu cycles i/o cycles time process actually uses cpu small fraction total execution time process process time process spends using cpu br total execution time process i.e time cpu cycles plus i/o cycles carried executed completion process fact usually sum processor time used n processes rarely exceeds small fraction time execute one processes therefore uni-programming systems processor lay idle considerable proportion time overcome inefficiency multiprogramming implemented modern operating systems linux unix microsoft windows enables processor switch one process x another whenever x involved i/o phase execution since processing time much less single job runtime total time service n users multiprogramming system reduced approximately operating systems need ways create processes simple system designed running single application e.g. controller microwave oven may possible processes ever needed present system comes general-purpose systems however way needed create terminate processes needed operation four principal events cause process created operating system booted typically several processes created foreground processes interacts human user perform work background processes associated particular users instead specific function example one background process may designed accept incoming e-mails sleeping day suddenly springing life incoming e-mail arrives another background process may designed accept incoming request web pages hosted machine waking request arrives service request process creation unix linux done fork clone system calls several steps involved process creation first step validation whether parent process sufficient authorization create process upon successful validation parent process copied almost entirely changes unique process id parent process user-space new process gets user space many reasons process termination operating system ’ principal responsibility controlling execution processes includes determining interleaving pattern execution allocation resources processes one part designing os describe behaviour would like process exhibit simplest model based fact process either executed processor thus process may considered one two states running running operating system creates new process process initially labeled running placed queue system running state process portion exists main memory waits queue opportunity executed period time currently running process interrupted moved running state running state making processor available different process dispatch portion os select queue running processes one waiting processes transfer processor chosen process relabeled running state running state execution either begun new process resumed process interrupted earlier time model identify design elements os although two-state process management model perfectly valid design operating system absence blocked state means processor lies idle active process changes cpu cycles i/o cycles design make efficient use processor three-state process management model designed overcome problem introducing new state called blocked state state describes process waiting i/o event take place case i/o event mean use device signal another process three states model instant process one one three states single processor computer one process running state one instant many processes ready blocked states states associated queue processes processes entering system must go initially ready state processes enter running state via ready state processes normally leave system running state three states process occupies space main memory reason transitions one state another might obvious may clear three state model sufficient describe behavior processes given events extend model allow possible events sophisticated design particular use portion hard disk emulate main memory called virtual memory requires additional states describe state processes suspended main memory placed virtual memory disk course processes future time resumed transferred back main memory medium level scheduler controls events process suspended running ready blocked state giving rise two states namely ready suspend blocked suspend running process suspended becomes ready suspend blocked process suspended becomes blocked suspend process suspended number reasons significant arises process swapped memory memory management system order free memory processes common reasons process suspended one suspends execution debugging program system monitoring processes five-state process management model consider following transitions described next sections process system represented data structure called process control block pcb process descriptor linux performs function traveller passport pcb contains basic information job including process identification process uniquely identified user ’ identification pointer connecting descriptor process status indicates current status process ready running blocked ready suspend blocked suspend process state contains information needed indicate current state job accounting contains information used mainly billing purposes performance measurement indicates kind resources process used long contemporary processors incorporate mode bit define execution capability program processor bit set kernel mode user mode kernel mode also commonly referred supervisor mode monitor mode ring 0 kernel mode processor execute every instruction hardware repertoire whereas user mode execute subset instructions instructions executed kernel mode called kernel privileged protected instructions distinguish user mode instructions example i/o instructions privileged application program executes user mode perform i/o instead must request os perform i/o behalf system may logically extend mode bit define areas memory used processor kernel mode versus user mode mode bit set kernel mode process executing processor access either kernel user partition memory however user mode set process reference user memory space frequently refer two classes memory user space system space kernel supervisor protected space general mode bit extends operating system protection rights mode bit set user mode trap instruction also called supervisor call instruction instruction sets mode bit branches fixed location system space since system code loaded system space system code invoked via trap os completed supervisor call resets mode bit user mode prior return parts os critical correct operation execute kernel mode software generic system software application programs execute user mode fundamental distinction usually irrefutable distinction operating system system software part system executing kernel supervisor state called kernel nucleus operating system kernel operates trusted software meaning designed implemented intended implement protection mechanisms could covertly changed actions untrusted software executing user space extensions os execute user mode os rely correctness parts system software correct operation os hence fundamental design decision function incorporated os whether needs implemented kernel implemented kernel execute kernel supervisor space access parts kernel also trusted software parts kernel function implemented execute user mode access kernel data structures however advantage normally require limited effort invoke function kernel-implemented functions may easy implement trap mechanism authentication time call usually relatively expensive kernel code runs fast large performance overhead actual call subtle important point two techniques program executing user mode request kernel services operating systems designed one two facilities first assume user process wishes invoke particular target system function system call approach user process uses trap instruction idea system call appear ordinary procedure call application program os provides library user functions names corresponding actual system call stub functions contains trap os function application program calls stub executes trap instruction switches cpu kernel mode branches indirectly os table entry point function invoked function completes switches processor user mode returns control user process thus simulating normal procedure return message passing approach user process constructs message describes desired service uses trusted send function pass message trusted os process send function serves purpose trap carefully checks message switches processor kernel mode delivers message process implements target functions meanwhile user process waits result service request message receive operation os process completes operation sends message back user process distinction two approaches important consequences regarding relative independence os behavior application process behavior resulting performance rule thumb operating system based system call interface made efficient requiring messages exchanged distinct processes case even though system call must implemented trap instruction even though trap relatively expensive perform efficient message passing approach generally higher costs associated process multiplexing message formation message copying system call approach interesting property necessarily os process instead process executing user mode changes kernel mode executing kernel code switches back user mode returns os call hand os designed set separate processes usually easier design gets control machine special situations kernel simply collection functions executed users processes kernel mode even procedure-based operating system usually find necessary include least system processes called daemons unix handle situation whereby machine otherwise idle scheduling handling network 1-hop neighbor's text information: live_cd.live cd live cd also live dvd live disc live operating system complete bootable computer installation including operating system runs directly cd-rom similar storage device computer memory rather loading hard disk drive live cd allows users run operating system purpose without installing making changes computer configuration live cds run computer without secondary storage hard disk drive corrupted hard disk drive file system allowing data recovery cd dvd drives steadily phased-out live cds become less popular replaced live usbs equivalent systems written onto usb flash drives added benefit write-able storage functionality live cd also available bootable live usb flash drive external hard disk drive connected usb many live cds offer option persistence writing files hard drive usb flash drive many linux distributions make iso images available burning cd dvd open source operating systems used free commercial software windows go requires license use many live cds used data recovery computer forensics disk imaging system recovery malware removal tails operating system aimed preserving privacy anonymity users allowing work sensitive documents without leaving record computer hard drive computers except earliest digital computers built form minimal built-in loader loads program succession programs storage medium operate computer initially read-only medium punched tape punched cards used initial program load introduction inexpensive read-write storage read-write floppy disks hard disks used boot media introduction audio compact disc adapted use medium storing distributing large amounts computer data data may also include application operating-system software sometimes packaged archived compressed formats later seen convenient useful boot computer directly compact disc often minimal working system install full system onto hard drive read-write optical discs either mass-produced read-only discs write-once discs used purpose first compact disc drives personal computers generally much slow run complex operating systems computers designed boot optical disc operating systems came distributed compact discs either boot floppy cd would boot specifically install onto hard drive world first oldest non-linux live cd fm towns os first released 1989 release macintosh system 7 1991 yggdrasil linux 1992 although early developers users distributions built top linux kernel could take advantage cheap optical disks rapidly declining prices cd drives personal computers linux distribution cds distros generally treated collection installation packages must first permanently installed hard disks target machine however case distributions built top linux kernel free operating system meeting resistance consumer market perceived difficulty effort risk involved installing additional partition hard disk parallel existing operating system installation term live cd coined typical pc ram large enough 52x speed cd drives cd burners widespread among pc owners finally became convenient practical boot kernel run x11 window manager gui applications directly cd without disturbing os hard disk new different situation linux operating systems updates/upgrades released quickly different distributions versions offered online especially users burning cds first linux-based 'live cd yggdrasil linux first released beta form 1992~1993 ceased production 1995 though practice functionality hampered due low throughput contemporary cd-rom drives demolinux released 1998 first linux distribution specially designed live cd linuxcare bootable business card first released 1999 first live cd focus system administration first distributed bootable business card form factor finnix first released 2000 oldest live cd still production knoppix debian-derived linux distribution released 2003 found popularity rescue disk system primary distribution right since 2003 popularity live cds increased substantially partly due linux live scripts remastersys made easy build customized live systems popular linux distributions include live cd variant cases also preferred installation medium live cds made many different uses designed demonstrate test drive particular operating system usually linux another free open source operating system software tested run particular single use without interfering system setup data system functioning normally due operating system software issues made available example data recovered machine active virus infection without virus process active causing damage virus removed defences removal bypassed although live cds load memory free optical drive uses loading data cd-rom still slower typical hard drive boot rarely default large live cd images smaller live cd images loading filesystem directly ram provide significant performance boost ram much faster hard drive uses less power experienced users operating system may also use live cd determine whether extent particular operating system version compatible particular hardware configuration certain peripherals way know beforehand computer peripheral work buying live cd used troubleshoot hardware especially hard drive fails generally recovery disc case problems live cds save user-created files windows partition usb drive network drive accessible media live backup cds create image drives back files without problems due open files inconsistent sets additional uses include several live cds dedicated specific type applications according requirements thematic user communities cds tailored needs applications subject including general knowledge tutorial specifications trial data topics covers sub topics e.g administration breaks firewall rescue security etc type live cds cases particular live dvd covers one topic packaging software appliance installable live cd live iso often beneficial single image run real hardware types virtual machines allows developers avoid complexities involved supporting multiple incompatible virtual machine images formats focus lowest common denominator instead typically booting machine live cd appliance either runs non-persistent demo mode installs user request available storage device files live cd iso image accessed microsoft windows disk image emulator daemon tools unix variants mounting loop device later versions windows i.e windows 8 later software available earlier versions allow iso mounted volume mounting live cd filesystem software live cd run directly without booting chrooting mounted filesystem live cd iso image also mounted virtual machine software virtualbox vmware workstation converted live usb using syslinux special tools automate process live cd initialization user typically may resort using one boot codes change booting behavior vary distribution distribution often accessed upon first boot screen one function keys live cds come installation utility launchable desktop icon optionally install system hard drive usb flash drive live cds access information internal and/or external hard drives diskettes usb flash drives live cds usually distributed read-only media requiring either copying rewriteable media i.e hard drive cd writer complete remastering install additional software however exceptions puppy linux recorded open multisession medium changes made use files created programs installed preferences customised written new session boot medium persisting subsequent boots term live cd came used cd containing operating system software could run without installation host computer operating systems used live include amigaos 4 amithlon aros freebsd freedos classic mac os macos microsoft windows installation repair discs os/2 reactos netbsd openbsd minix 3 plan 9 bell labs morphos opensolaris belenix others based solaris maintenance versions microsoft windows bootable cd bartpe windows pe microsoft diagnostics recovery toolset dart previously known emergency repair disk commander erd commander first personal computer operating system cd support live operations might amigaos could booted cd amiga cdtv 1990.. earlier examples live os course operating systems used floppy widely spread dos unlike previous operating systems optical media though linux os/2 live cds specifically designed run without installation onto media like hard disk drive live cd concept meant promote linux showcase abilities free open source operating system conventional personal computers microsoft windows already installed pc bootable compact disc generally conforms el torito specification introduced 1994 many linux based live cds use compressed filesystem image often cloop compressed loopback driver squashfs compressed filesystem generally doubling effective storage capacity although slowing application start resulting environment quite rich typical knoppix systems include around 1,200 separate software packages live cds reputation supporting advanced auto-configuration plug-and-play functionality came necessity avoid requiring user configure system time boots make easily usable new operating system read-only file system cd-rom drawback unable save current working data reason read-only file system often merged temporary writable file system form ram disk often default linux directories codice_1 containing users personal files configuration files codice_2 containing variable data kept ramdisk system updates frequently puppy linux live cds allow configuration added files written used later sessions modern live cds read-only file system merged ram drive using transparent techniques unionfs aufs ewf boot loaders like syslinux boot iso files usb memory devices live cds able detect use wide variety hardware including network cards graphic cards etc realtime often using facilities udev hotplug hal udisk etc.. common part distributions based linux kernel 2.6 1-hop neighbor's text information: virtual_file_system.virtual file system virtual file system vfs virtual filesystem switch abstract layer top concrete file system purpose vfs allow client applications access different types concrete file systems uniform way vfs example used access local network storage devices transparently without client application noticing difference used bridge differences windows classic mac os/macos unix filesystems applications access files local file systems types without know type file system accessing vfs specifies interface contract kernel concrete file system therefore easy add support new file system types kernel simply fulfilling contract terms contract might change incompatibly release release would require concrete file system support recompiled possibly modified recompilation allow work new release operating system supplier operating system might make backward-compatible changes contract concrete file system support built given release operating system would work future versions operating system one first virtual file system mechanisms unix-like systems introduced sun microsystems sunos 2.0 1985 allowed unix system calls access local ufs file systems remote nfs file systems transparently reason unix vendors licensed nfs code sun often copied design sun vfs file systems could plugged also implementation ms-dos fat file system developed sun plugged sunos vfs although n't shipped product sunos 4.1 sunos implementation basis vfs mechanism system v release 4 john heidemann developed stacking vfs sunos 4.0 experimental ficus file system design provided code reuse among file system types differing similar semantics e.g encrypting file system could reuse naming storage-management code non-encrypting file system heidemann adapted work use 4.4bsd part thesis research descendants code underpin file system implementations modern bsd derivatives including macos unix virtual file systems include file system switch system v release 3 generic file system ultrix vfs linux os/2 microsoft windows virtual file system mechanism called installable file system filesystem userspace fuse mechanism allows userland code plug virtual file system mechanism linux netbsd freebsd opensolaris macos microsoft windows virtual filesystems also implemented userland shell namespace extensions however support lowest-level file system access application programming interfaces windows applications able access file systems implemented namespace extensions kio gvfs/gio provide similar mechanisms kde gnome desktop environments respectively similar limitations although made use fuse techniques therefore integrate smoothly system sometimes virtual file system refers file group files necessarily inside concrete file system acts manageable container provide functionality concrete file system usage software examples containers cbfs storage single-file virtual file system emulator like pctask so-called winuae oracle virtualbox microsoft virtual pc vmware primary benefit type file system centralized easy remove single-file virtual file system may include basic features expected file system virtual otherwise access internal structure file systems often limited programs specifically written make use single-file virtual file system instead implementation driver allowing universal access another major drawback performance relatively low compared virtual file systems low performance mostly due cost shuffling virtual files data written deleted virtual file system direct examples single-file virtual file systems include emulators pctask winuae encapsulate filesystem data also emulated disk layout makes easy treat os installation like piece software—transferring removable media network amiga emulator pctask emulated intel pc 8088 based machine clocked 4.77mhz later 80486sx clocked 25 mhz users pctask could create file large size amiga filesystem file would virtually accessed emulator real pc hard disk file could formatted fat16 filesystem store normal ms-dos windows files uae windows winuae allows large single files windows treated amiga file systems winuae file called hardfile uae could also treat directory host filesystem windows linux macos amigaos amiga filesystem Target text information: virtual_memory_compression.virtual memory compression virtual memory compression also referred ram compression memory compression memory management technique utilizes data compression reduce size number paging requests auxiliary storage virtual memory compression system paging requests compressed stored physical memory usually random-access memory ram sent compressed auxiliary storage hard disk drive hdd solid-state drive ssd cases virtual memory range whose contents compressed paging request marked inaccessible attempts access compressed pages trigger page faults reversal process retrieval auxiliary storage decompression footprint data paged reduced compression process first instance freed ram returned available physical memory pool compressed portion kept ram second instance compressed data sent auxiliary storage resulting i/o operation smaller therefore takes less time implementations including zswap zram helix software company ’ hurricane entire process implemented software systems ibm mxt compression process occurs dedicated processor handles transfers local cache ram virtual memory compression distinct garbage collection gc systems remove unused memory blocks cases consolidate used memory regions reducing fragmentation improving efficiency virtual memory compression also distinct context switching systems connectix ram doubler though also online compression apple os 7.1 inactive processes suspended compressed whole reducing i/o activity caused paging requests virtual memory compression produce overall performance improvements degree performance improvement depends variety factors including availability compression co-processors spare bandwidth cpu speed i/o channel speed physical memory compressibility physical memory contents multi-core multithreaded cpus benchmarks show performance improvements 50 situations embedded devices auxiliary storage limited non-existent cases virtual memory compression allow virtual memory system operate otherwise virtual memory would disabled allows system run certain software would otherwise unable operate environment virtual memory flash memory certain endurance limitations maximum number erase cycles undergo low 100 erase cycles systems flash memory used auxiliary storage system implementing virtual memory compression reduce total quantity data written auxiliary storage improving system reliability one primary issues degree contents physical memory compressed real-world loads program code much data held physical memory often highly compressible since efficient programming techniques data architectures designed automatically eliminate redundancy data sets various studies show typical data compression ratios ranging 2:1 2.5:1 program data similar typically achieval compression ratios disk compression order virtual memory compression provide measurable performance improvements throughput virtual memory system must improved compared uncompressed equivalent thus additional amount processing introduced compression must increase overall latency however i/o-bound systems applications highly compressible data sets gains substantial physical memory used compression system reduces amount physical memory available processes system runs may result increased paging activity reduced overall effectiveness virtual memory compression relationship paging activity available physical memory roughly exponential meaning reducing amount physical memory available system processes results exponential increase paging activity circumstances amount free physical memory low paging fairly prevalent performance gains provided compression system compared paging directly auxiliary storage may offset increased page fault rate leads thrashing degraded system performance opposite state enough physical memory available paging activity low compression may impact performance enough noticeable middle ground two circumstanceslow ram high paging activity plenty ram low paging activityis virtual memory compression may useful however compressible program data pronounced performance improvements less physical memory needed hold compressed data example order maximize use compressed pages cache helix software company hurricane 2.0 provides user-configurable compression rejection threshold compressing first 256 512 bytes 4 kib page virtual memory compression system determines whether configured compression level threshold achieved particular page achievable rest page would compressed retained compressed cache otherwise page would sent auxiliary storage normal paging system default setting threshold 8:1 compression ratio hardware implementations technology also relies price differentials various components system example difference cost ram cost processor dedicated compression relative price/performance differences various components tend vary time example addition compression co-processor may minimal impact cost cpu typical virtual memory implementation paging happens least recently used basis potentially causing compression algorithm use cpu cycles dealing lowest priority data furthermore program code usually read-only therefore never paged-out instead code simply discarded re-loaded program ’ auxiliary storage file needed case bar compression higher since i/o cycle attempting eliminate much shorter particularly flash memory devices virtual memory compression gone favor technology price speed ram external storage plummeted due moore law improved ram interfaces ddr3 thus reducing need virtual memory compression multi-core processors server farms mobile technology together advent flash based systems make virtual memory compression attractive paul r. wilson proposed compressed caching virtual memory pages 1990 paper circulated acm oopsla/ecoop '90 workshop garbage collection issues strategies heap management memory hierarchies appearing acm sigplan notices january 1991 helix software company pioneered virtual memory compression 1992 filing patent application process october year 1994 1995 helix refined process using test-compression secondary memory caches video cards devices however helix release product incorporating virtual memory compression july 1996 release hurricane 2.0 used stac electronics lempel–ziv–stac compression algorithm also used off-screen video ram compression buffer gain performance benefits 1995 ram cost nearly 50 per megabyte microsoft windows 95 listed minimum requirement 4 mb ram due high ram requirement several programs released claimed use compression technology gain “ memory ” notorious softram program syncronys softcorp softram revealed “ placebo software ” include compression technology products including hurricane magnaram included virtual memory compression implemented run-length encoding poor results giving technology negative reputation 8 april 1997 issue pc magazine published comprehensive test performance enhancement claims several software virtual memory compression tools testing pc magazine found minimal 5 overall performance improvement use hurricane none packages however tests run intel pentium systems single core single threaded thus compression directly impacted system activity 1996 ibm began experimenting compression 2000 ibm announced memory expansion technology mxt mxt stand-alone chip acted cpu cache cpu memory controller mxt integrated compression engine compressed data heading to/from physical memory subsequent testing technology intel showed 5–20 overall system performance improvement similar results obtained pc magazine hurricane I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	6,221	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: elcomsoft.elcomsoft elcomsoft co.ltd privately owned software company headquartered moscow russia since establishment 1990 company working computer security programs main focus password system recovery software july 16 2001 dmitry sklyarov russian citizen employed elcomsoft time visiting united states def con arrested jailed allegedly violating united states dmca law writing elcomsoft advanced ebook processor software landmark court case ensued setting precedents attracting much public attention protest december 17 2002 elcomsoft found guilty four charges dmca bruce chizen ceo adobe systems say cnet looking back 20/20 wish could better communication elcomsoft dmitry sklyarov eff electronic frontier foundation whole thing went public 'm sorry n't able think could resolved lot issues thunder tables® company technology developed ensure guaranteed recovery microsoft word microsoft excel documents protected 40-bit encryption technology first appeared 2007 employs time–memory tradeoff method build pre-computed hash tables open corresponding files matter seconds instead days tables take around 4gb far technology used two password recovery programs advanced office password breaker advanced pdf password recovery 7,599,492 fast cryptographic key recovery system method 7,783,046 probabilistic cryptographic key identification deterministic result 7,787,629 use graphics processors parallel math co-processors password recovery 7,809,130 password recovery system method 7,929,707 use graphics processors parallel math co-processors password recovery 2009 elcomsoft released tool takes wpa/wpa2 hash codes uses brute-force methods guess password associated wireless network brute force attack carried testing passwords known ssid network wpa/wpa2 hash code captured passwords tested generated dictionary using various mutation genetic algorithm methods including case mutation password password password etc year mutation password password1992 password67 etc many mutations try guess correct password advantages using methods traditional ones rainbow tables numerous rainbow tables large size amount ssid/password combinations saved take long time traverse large numbers passwords per ssid reliant ssid common one rainbow table already listed hash codes common ones include linksys belkin54g etc. ewsa however uses relatively small dictionary file megabytes versus dozens gigabytes common rainbow tables creates passwords fly needed rainbow tables tested captured wpa/wpa2 hash code via computer processor relatively low numbers simultaneous processes possible ewsa however use computer processor 32 logical cores 8 gpus many cuda cores nvidia stream processors ati november 30 2010 elcomsoft announced encryption system used canon cameras ensure pictures exif metadata altered flawed fixed day dmitry sklyarov gave presentation confidence 2.0 conference prague demonstrating flaws among others showed image astronaut planting flag soviet union moon images pass canon authenticity verification 1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_windows.microsoft windows microsoft windows group several graphical operating system families developed marketed sold microsoft family caters certain sector computing industry active microsoft windows families include windows nt windows iot may encompass subfamilies e.g windows server windows embedded compact windows ce defunct microsoft windows families include windows 9x windows mobile windows phone microsoft introduced operating environment named windows november 20 1985 graphical operating system shell ms-dos response growing interest graphical user interfaces guis microsoft windows came dominate world personal computer pc market 90 market share overtaking mac os introduced 1984 apple came see windows unfair encroachment innovation gui development implemented products lisa macintosh eventually settled court microsoft favor 1993 pcs windows still popular operating system however 2014 microsoft admitted losing majority overall operating system market android massive growth sales android smartphones 2014 number windows devices sold less 25 android devices sold comparison however may fully relevant two operating systems traditionally target different platforms still numbers server use windows comparable competitors show one third market share similar end user use recent version windows pcs tablets smartphones embedded devices windows 10 recent version server computers windows server version 1903 specialized version windows also runs xbox one video game console microsoft developer windows registered several trademarks denote family windows operating systems target specific sector computing industry 2014 following windows families actively developed following windows families longer developed term windows collectively describes several generations microsoft operating system products products generally categorized follows history windows dates back 1981 microsoft started work program called interface manager announced november 1983 apple lisa macintosh name windows windows 1.0 released november 1985 windows 1.0 compete apple operating system achieved little popularity windows 1.0 complete operating system rather extends ms-dos shell windows 1.0 program known ms-dos executive components included calculator calendar cardfile clipboard viewer clock control panel notepad paint reversi terminal write windows 1.0 allow overlapping windows instead windows tiled modal dialog boxes may appear windows microsoft sold included windows development libraries c development environment included numerous windows samples windows 2.0 released december 1987 popular predecessor features several improvements user interface memory management windows 2.03 changed os tiled windows overlapping windows result change led apple computer filing suit microsoft alleging infringement apple copyrights windows 2.0 also introduced sophisticated keyboard shortcuts could make use expanded memory windows 2.1 released two different versions windows/286 windows/386 windows/386 uses virtual 8086 mode intel 80386 multitask several dos programs paged memory model emulate expanded memory using available extended memory windows/286 spite name runs intel 8086 intel 80286 processors runs real mode make use high memory area addition full windows-packages runtime-only versions shipped early windows software third parties made possible run windows software ms-dos without full windows feature set early versions windows often thought graphical shells mostly ran top ms-dos use file system services however even earliest windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions notably executable file format providing device drivers timer graphics printer mouse keyboard sound unlike ms-dos windows allowed users execute multiple graphical applications time cooperative multitasking windows implemented elaborate segment-based software virtual memory scheme allows run applications larger available memory code segments resources swapped thrown away memory became scarce data segments moved memory given application relinquished processor control windows 3.0 released 1990 improved design mostly virtual memory loadable virtual device drivers vxds allow windows share arbitrary devices multi-tasked dos applications windows 3.0 applications run protected mode gives access several megabytes memory without obligation participate software virtual memory scheme run inside address space segmented memory provides degree protection windows 3.0 also featured improvements user interface microsoft rewrote critical operations c assembly windows 3.0 first microsoft windows version achieve broad commercial success selling 2 million copies first six months windows 3.1 made generally available march 1 1992 featured facelift august 1993 windows workgroups special version integrated peer-to-peer networking features version number 3.11 released sold along windows 3.1 support windows 3.1 ended december 31 2001 windows 3.2 released 1994 updated version chinese version windows 3.1 update limited language version fixed issues related complex writing system chinese language windows 3.2 generally sold computer manufacturers ten-disk version ms-dos also simplified chinese characters basic output translated utilities next major consumer-oriented release windows windows 95 released august 24 1995 still remaining ms-dos-based windows 95 introduced support native 32-bit applications plug play hardware preemptive multitasking long file names 255 characters provided increased stability predecessors windows 95 also introduced redesigned object oriented user interface replacing previous program manager start menu taskbar windows explorer shell windows 95 major commercial success microsoft ina fried cnet remarked time windows 95 finally ushered market 2001 become fixture computer desktops around world microsoft published four oem service releases osr windows 95 roughly equivalent service pack first osr windows 95 also first version windows bundled microsoft web browser internet explorer mainstream support windows 95 ended december 31 2000 extended support windows 95 ended december 31 2001 windows 95 followed release windows 98 june 25 1998 introduced windows driver model support usb composite devices support acpi hibernation support multi-monitor configurations windows 98 also included integration internet explorer 4 active desktop aspects windows desktop update series enhancements explorer shell also made available windows 95 may 1999 microsoft released windows 98 second edition updated version windows 98 windows 98 se added internet explorer 5.0 windows media player 6.2 amongst upgrades mainstream support windows 98 ended june 30 2002 extended support windows 98 ended july 11 2006 september 14 2000 microsoft released windows millennium edition last dos-based version windows windows incorporated visual interface enhancements windows nt-based counterpart windows 2000 faster boot times previous versions however required removal ability access real mode dos environment removing compatibility older programs expanded multimedia functionality including windows media player 7 windows movie maker windows image acquisition framework retrieving images scanners digital cameras additional system utilities system file protection system restore updated home networking tools however windows faced criticism speed instability along hardware compatibility issues removal real mode dos support pc world considered windows one worst operating systems microsoft ever released 4th worst tech product time november 1988 new development team within microsoft included former digital equipment corporation developers dave cutler mark lucovsky began work revamped version ibm microsoft os/2 operating system known nt os/2 nt os/2 intended secure multi-user operating system posix compatibility modular portable kernel preemptive multitasking support multiple processor architectures however following successful release windows 3.0 nt development team decided rework project use extended 32-bit port windows api known win32 instead os/2 win32 maintained similar structure windows apis allowing existing windows applications easily ported platform also supported capabilities existing nt kernel following approval microsoft staff development continued windows nt first 32-bit version windows however ibm objected changes ultimately continued os/2 development first release resulting operating system windows nt 3.1 named associate windows 3.1 released july 1993 versions desktop workstations servers windows nt 3.5 released september 1994 focusing performance improvements support novell netware followed windows nt 3.51 may 1995 included additional improvements support powerpc architecture windows nt 4.0 released june 1996 introducing redesigned interface windows 95 nt series february 17 2000 microsoft released windows 2000 successor nt 4.0 windows nt name dropped point order put greater focus windows brand next major version windows nt windows xp released october 25 2001 introduction windows xp aimed unify consumer-oriented windows 9x series architecture introduced windows nt change microsoft promised would provide better performance dos-based predecessors windows xp would also introduce redesigned user interface including updated start menu task-oriented windows explorer streamlined multimedia networking features internet explorer 6 integration microsoft .net passport services modes help provide compatibility software designed previous versions windows remote assistance functionality retail windows xp marketed two main editions home edition targeted towards consumers professional edition targeted towards business environments power users included additional security networking features home professional later accompanied media center edition designed home theater pcs emphasis support dvd playback tv tuner cards dvr functionality remote controls tablet pc edition designed mobile devices meeting specifications tablet computer support stylus pen input additional pen-enabled applications mainstream support windows xp ended april 14 2009 extended support ended april 8 2014 windows 2000 microsoft also changed release schedules server operating systems server counterpart windows xp windows server 2003 released april 2003 followed december 2005 windows server 2003 r2 lengthy development process windows vista released november 30 2006 volume licensing january 30 2007 consumers contained number new features redesigned shell user interface significant technical changes particular focus security features available number different editions subject criticism drop performance longer boot time criticism new uac stricter license agreement vista server counterpart windows server 2008 released early 2008 july 22 2009 windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 released rtm release manufacturing former released public 3 months later october 22 2009 unlike predecessor windows vista introduced large number new features windows 7 intended focused incremental upgrade windows line goal compatible applications hardware windows vista already compatible windows 7 multi-touch support redesigned windows shell updated taskbar home networking system called homegroup performance improvements windows 8 successor windows 7 released generally october 26 2012 number significant changes made windows 8 including introduction user interface based around microsoft metro design language optimizations touch-based devices tablets all-in-one pcs changes include start screen uses large tiles convenient touch interactions allow display continually updated information new class apps designed primarily use touch-based devices changes include increased integration cloud services online platforms social networks microsoft onedrive formerly skydrive xbox live services windows store service software distribution new variant known windows rt use devices utilize arm architecture update windows 8 called windows 8.1 released october 17 2013 includes features new live tile sizes deeper onedrive integration many revisions windows 8 windows 8.1 subject criticism removal start menu september 30 2014 microsoft announced windows 10 successor windows 8.1 released july 29 2015 addresses shortcomings user interface first introduced windows 8 changes pc include return start menu virtual desktop system ability run windows store apps within windows desktop rather full-screen mode windows 10 said available update qualified windows 7 sp1 windows 8.1 windows phone 8.1 devices get windows 10 application windows 7 windows 8.1 windows update windows 7 february 2017 microsoft announced migration windows source code repository perforce git migration involved 3.5 million separate files 300 gigabyte repository may 2017 90 percent engineering team uses git 8500 commits 1760 windows builds per day multilingual support built windows since windows 3 language keyboard interface changed region language control panel components supported input languages input method editors automatically installed windows installation windows xp earlier files east asian languages chinese right-to-left scripts arabic may need installed separately also said control panel third-party imes may also installed user feels provided one insufficient needs interface languages operating system free download languages limited certain editions windows language interface packs lips redistributable may downloaded microsoft download center installed edition windows xp later translate windows interface require certain base language language windows originally shipped used languages emerging markets full language packs translates complete operating system available specific editions windows ultimate enterprise editions windows vista 7 editions windows 8 8.1 rt except single language require specific base language commonly used popular languages french chinese languages downloaded download center available optional updates windows update service except windows 8 interface language installed applications affected changes windows interface language availability languages depends application developers windows 8 windows server 2012 introduces new language control panel interface input languages simultaneously changed language packs regardless type downloaded central location pc settings app windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 also includes counterpart settings page changing interface language also changes language preinstalled windows store apps mail maps news certain microsoft-developed apps remote desktop limitations language packs however still effect except full language packs installed edition except single language caters emerging markets windows nt included support several different platforms x86-based personal computer became dominant professional world windows nt 4.0 predecessors supported powerpc dec alpha mips r4000 although platforms implement 64-bit computing operating system treated 32-bit however windows 2000 successor windows nt 4.0 dropped support platforms except third generation x86 known ia-32 newer 32-bit mode client line windows nt family still runs ia-32 although windows server line ceased supporting platform release windows server 2008 r2 introduction intel itanium architecture ia-64 microsoft released new versions windows support itanium versions windows xp windows server 2003 released time mainstream x86 counterparts windows xp 64-bit edition released 2005 last windows client operating systems support itanium windows server line continues support platform windows server 2012 windows server 2008 r2 last windows operating system support itanium architecture april 25 2005 microsoft released windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 editions support x86-64 simply x64 eighth generation x86 architecture windows vista first client version windows nt released simultaneously ia-32 x64 editions x64 still supported edition windows 8 known windows rt specifically created computers arm architecture arm still used windows smartphones windows 10 tablets windows rt updated starting windows 10 fall creators update later includes support pcs arm architecture windows ce officially known windows embedded compact edition windows runs minimalistic computers like satellite navigation systems mobile phones windows embedded compact based dedicated kernel dubbed windows ce kernel microsoft licenses windows ce oems device makers oems device makers modify create user interfaces experiences windows ce provides technical foundation windows ce used dreamcast along sega proprietary os console windows ce core windows mobile derived successor windows phone 7 based components windows ce 6.0 r3 windows ce 7.0 windows phone 8 however based nt-kernel windows 8 windows embedded compact confused windows xp embedded windows nt 4.0 embedded modular editions windows based windows nt kernel xbox os unofficial name given version windows runs xbox one specific implementation emphasis virtualization using hyper-v three operating systems running consisting core operating system second implemented games windows-like environment applications microsoft updates xbox one os every month updates downloaded xbox live service xbox subsequently installed using offline recovery images downloaded via pc windows 10-based core replaced windows 8-based one update new system sometimes referred windows 10 xbox one onecore xbox one system also allows backward compatibility xbox 360 xbox 360 system backwards compatible original xbox 2017 microsoft announced would start using git open source version control system created linus torvalds microsoft previously used proprietary version control system called source depot microsoft began integrate git team foundation server 2013 windows continued rely source depot however decision came complexity windows codebase especially well suited decentralized nature linux development git originally created manage git repository contains complete history files proved unworkable windows developers cloning repository takes several hours microsoft working new project called virtual file system git vfsforgit address challenges according net applications tracks use operating systems devices active web windows used operating-system family personal computers july 2017 close 90 usage share including personal computers kinds e.g. desktops laptops mobile devices windows oses accounted 35.24 usage share july 2017 compared android highest 41.24 ios 13.22 macos 4.64 according statcounter tracks use operating systems use devices active web windows used less half market developing countries also developed ones—such united states use windows desktops plurality operating system fallen 46.18 united kingdom ireland numbers easiest monthly numbers find track real use may mirror installed base sales numbers recent years devices consistent server numbers next section terms number devices shipped operating system installed smartphones windows phone third-most-shipped os 2.6 android 82.8 ios 13.9 second quarter 2015 according idc across pcs mobile devices 2014 windows oses second-most-shipped 333 million devices 14 android 1.2 billion 49 ahead ios macos combined 263 million 11 use latest version windows 10 exceeded windows 7 globally since early 2018 developed countries japan australia us windows 10 already popular version since early 2017 usage share windows serversthose running web servers also kinds servers 33.6 consumer versions windows originally designed ease-of-use single-user pc without network connection security features built outset however windows nt successors designed security including network multi-user pcs initially designed internet security mind much since first developed early 1990s internet use less prevalent design issues combined programming errors e.g buffer overflows popularity windows means frequent target computer worm virus writers june 2005 bruce schneier counterpane internet security reported seen 1,000 new viruses worms previous six months 2005 kaspersky lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses trojans back-doors exploits written windows microsoft releases security patches windows update service approximately month usually second tuesday month although critical updates made available shorter intervals necessary versions windows including windows 2000 sp3 windows xp updates automatically downloaded installed user selects result service pack 2 windows xp well service pack 1 windows server 2003 installed users quickly otherwise might windows 9x series offered option profiles multiple users concept access privileges allow concurrent access true multi-user operating systems addition implemented partial memory protection accordingly widely criticised lack security windows nt series operating systems contrast true multi-user implement absolute memory protection however lot advantages true multi-user operating system nullified fact prior windows vista first user account created setup process administrator account also default new accounts though windows xp limited accounts majority home users change account type fewer rights – partially due number programs unnecessarily required administrator rights – home users ran administrator time windows vista changes introducing privilege elevation system called user account control logging standard user logon session created token containing basic privileges assigned way new logon session incapable making changes would affect entire system logging user administrators group two separate tokens assigned first token contains privileges typically awarded administrator second restricted token similar standard user would receive user applications including windows shell started restricted token resulting reduced privilege environment even administrator account application requests higher privileges run administrator clicked uac prompt confirmation consent given including administrator credentials account requesting elevation member administrators group start process using unrestricted token leaked documents published wikileaks codenamed vault 7 dated 2013–2016 detail capabilities cia perform electronic surveillance cyber warfare ability compromise operating systems microsoft windows august 2019 computer experts reported bluekeep security vulnerability potentially affects older unpatched microsoft windows versions via program remote desktop protocol allowing possibility remote code execution may include related flaws collectively named dejablue affecting newer windows versions i.e. windows 7 recent versions well addition experts reported microsoft security vulnerability based legacy code involving microsoft ctf ctfmon ctfmon.exe affects windows versions older windows xp version recent windows 10 versions patch correct flaw currently available windows versions windows nt 3 based file system permission system referred agdlp accounts global local permissions file permissions applied file/folder form 'local group 'global groups members global groups hold groups users depending different windows versions used system varies vendor products linux netware due 'static allocation permission applied directory file folder however using process aglp/agdlp/agudlp allows small number static permissions applied allows easy changes account groups without reapplying file permissions files folders january 6 2005 microsoft released beta version microsoft antispyware based upon previously released giant antispyware february 14 2006 microsoft antispyware became windows defender release beta 2 windows defender freeware program designed protect spyware unwanted software windows xp windows server 2003 users genuine copies microsoft windows freely download program microsoft web site windows defender ships part windows vista 7 windows 8 windows defender microsoft security essentials combined single program named windows defender based microsoft security essentials borrowing features user interface although enabled default turned use another anti-virus solution windows malicious software removal tool optional microsoft safety scanner two free security products offered microsoft windows 10 anniversary update microsoft introduced limited periodic scanning feature allows windows defender scan detect remove threats third-party anti-virus software missed advanced threat protection service introduced enterprise users new service uses cloud service detect take actions advanced network attacks article based report symantec internetnews.com described microsoft windows fewest number patches shortest average patch development time five operating systems monitored last six months 2006 study conducted kevin mitnick marketing communications firm avantgarde 2004 found unprotected unpatched windows xp system service pack 1 lasted four minutes internet compromised unprotected also unpatched windows server 2003 system compromised connected internet 8 hours computer running windows xp service pack 2 compromised aol national cyber security alliance online safety study october 2004 determined 80 windows users infected least one spyware/adware product much documentation available describing increase security microsoft windows products typical suggestions include deploying microsoft windows behind hardware software firewall running anti-virus anti-spyware software installing patches become available windows update owing operating system popularity number applications released aim provide compatibility windows applications either compatibility layer another operating system standalone system run software written windows box include 1-hop neighbor's text information: wi-fi_protected_access.wi-fi protected access wi-fi protected access wpa wi-fi protected access ii wpa2 wi-fi protected access 3 wpa3 three security protocols security certification programs developed wi-fi alliance secure wireless computer networks alliance defined response serious weaknesses researchers found previous system wired equivalent privacy wep wpa sometimes referred draft ieee 802.11i standard became available 2003 wi-fi alliance intended intermediate measure anticipation availability secure complex wpa2 became available 2004 common shorthand full ieee 802.11i ieee 802.11i-2004 standard january 2018 wi-fi alliance announced release wpa3 several security improvements wpa2 wi-fi alliance intended wpa intermediate measure take place wep pending availability full ieee 802.11i standard wpa could implemented firmware upgrades wireless network interface cards designed wep began shipping far back 1999 however since changes required wireless access points aps extensive needed network cards pre-2003 aps could upgraded support wpa wpa protocol implements much ieee 802.11i standard specifically temporal key integrity protocol tkip adopted wpa wep used 64-bit 128-bit encryption key must manually entered wireless access points devices change tkip employs per-packet key meaning dynamically generates new 128-bit key packet thus prevents types attacks compromised wep wpa also includes message integrity check designed prevent attacker altering resending data packets replaces cyclic redundancy check crc used wep standard crc main flaw provide sufficiently strong data integrity guarantee packets handled well tested message authentication codes existed solve problems required much computation used old network cards wpa uses message integrity check algorithm called tkip verify integrity packets tkip much stronger crc strong algorithm used wpa2 researchers since discovered flaw wpa relied older weaknesses wep limitations message integrity code hash function named michael retrieve keystream short packets use re-injection spoofing wpa2 replaced wpa wpa2 requires testing certification wi-fi alliance implements mandatory elements ieee 802.11i particular includes mandatory support ccmp aes-based encryption mode certification began september 2004 march 13 2006 wpa2 certification mandatory new devices bear wi-fi trademark january 2018 wi-fi alliance announced wpa3 replacement wpa2 new standard uses 128-bit encryption wpa3-personal mode 192-bit wpa3-enterprise forward secrecy wpa3 standard also replaces pre-shared key exchange simultaneous authentication equals defined ieee 802.11-2016 resulting secure initial key exchange personal mode wi-fi alliance also claims wpa3 mitigate security issues posed weak passwords simplify process setting devices display interface wpa designed specifically work wireless hardware produced prior introduction wpa protocol provides inadequate security wep devices support wpa applying firmware upgrades available legacy devices wi-fi devices certified since 2006 support wpa wpa2 security protocols wpa2 may work older network cards different wpa versions protection mechanisms distinguished based target end-user according method authentication key distribution encryption protocol used originally eap-tls extensible authentication protocol transport layer security certified wi-fi alliance april 2010 wi-fi alliance announced inclusion additional eap types wpa- wpa2- enterprise certification programs ensure wpa-enterprise certified products interoperate one another 802.1x clients servers developed specific firms may support eap types certification attempt popular eap types interoperate failure one major issues preventing rollout 802.1x heterogeneous networks commercial 802.1x servers include microsoft internet authentication service juniper networks steelbelted radius well aradial radius server freeradius open source 802.1x server pre-shared key wpa wpa2 remain vulnerable password cracking attacks users rely weak password passphrase wpa passphrase hashes seeded ssid name length rainbow tables exist top 1,000 network ssids multitude common passwords requiring quick lookup speed cracking wpa-psk brute forcing simple passwords attempted using aircrack suite starting four-way authentication handshake exchanged association periodic re-authentication wpa3 replaces cryptographic protocols susceptible off-line analysis protocols require interaction infrastructure guessed password supposedly placing temporal limits number guesses however design flaws wpa3 enables attackers plausibly launch brute-force attacks see dragonblood attack wpa wpa2 n't provide forward secrecy meaning adverse person discovers pre-shared key potentially decrypt packets encrypted using psk transmitted future even past could passively silently collected attacker also means attacker silently capture decrypt others packets wpa-protected access point provided free charge public place password usually shared anyone place words wpa protects attackers n't access password safer use transport layer security tls similar top transfer sensitive data however starting wpa3 issue addressed mathy vanhoef frank piessens significantly improved upon wpa-tkip attacks erik tews martin beck demonstrated inject arbitrary amount packets packet containing 112 bytes payload demonstrated implementing port scanner executed client using wpa-tkip additionally showed decrypt arbitrary packets sent client mentioned used hijack tcp connection allowing attacker inject malicious javascript victim visits website contrast beck-tews attack could decrypt short packets mostly known content arp messages allowed injection 3 7 packets 28 bytes beck-tews attack also requires quality service defined 802.11e enabled vanhoef-piessens attack neither attack leads recovery shared session key client access point authors say using short rekeying interval prevent attacks strongly recommend switching tkip aes-based ccmp halvorsen others show modify beck-tews attack allow injection 3 7 packets size 596 bytes downside attack requires substantially time execute approximately 18 minutes 25 seconds work vanhoef piessens showed wpa used encrypt broadcast packets original attack also executed important extension substantially networks use wpa protect broadcast packets protect unicast packets execution time attack average around 7 minutes compared 14 minutes original vanhoef-piessens beck-tews attack vulnerabilities tkip significant wpa-tkip held extremely safe combination indeed wpa-tkip still configuration option upon wide variety wireless routing devices provided many hardware vendors survey 2013 showed 71 still allow usage tkip 19 exclusively support tkip serious security flaw revealed december 2011 stefan viehböck affects wireless routers wi-fi protected setup wps feature regardless encryption method use recent models feature enable default many consumer wi-fi device manufacturers taken steps eliminate potential weak passphrase choices promoting alternative methods automatically generating distributing strong keys users add new wireless adapter appliance network methods include pushing buttons devices entering 8-digit pin wi-fi alliance standardized methods wi-fi protected setup however pin feature widely implemented introduced major new security flaw flaw allows remote attacker recover wps pin router wpa/wpa2 password hours users urged turn wps feature although may possible router models also pin written label wi-fi routers wps changed compromised wpa3 introduces new alternative configuration devices lack sufficient user interface capabilities allowing nearby devices serve adequate ui network provisioning purposes thus mitigating need wps several weaknesses found ms-chapv2 severely reduce complexity brute-force attacks making feasible modern hardware 2012 complexity breaking ms-chapv2 reduced breaking single des key work moxie marlinspike marsh ray moxie advised enterprises depending mutual authentication properties ms-chapv2 connection wpa2 radius servers immediately start migrating something else tunneled eap methods using ttls peap encrypt mschapv2 exchange widely deployed protect exploitation vulnerability however prevalent wpa2 client implementations early 2000s prone misconfiguration end users cases e.g android lacked user-accessible way properly configure validation aaa server certificate cns extended relevance original weakness mschapv2 within mitm attack scenarios stricter wpa2 compliance tests announce alongside wpa3 certified client software required conform certain behaviors surrounding aaa certificate validation hole196 vulnerability wpa2 protocol abuses shared group temporal key gtk used conduct man-in-the-middle denial-of-service attacks however assumes attacker already authenticated access point thus possession gtk 2016 shown wpa wpa2 standards contain insecure expository random number generator rng researchers showed vendors implement proposed rng attacker able predict group key gtk supposed randomly generated access point ap additionally showed possession gtk enables attacker inject traffic network allowed attacker decrypt internet traffic transmitted wireless network demonstrated attack asus rt-ac51u router uses mediatek out-of-tree drivers generate gtk showed gtk recovered within two minutes less similarly demonstrated keys generated broadcom access daemons running vxworks 5 later recovered four minutes less affects example certain versions linksys wrt54g certain apple airport extreme models vendors defend attack using secure rng hostapd running linux kernels vulnerable attack thus routers running typical openwrt lede installations exhibit issue october 2017 details krack key reinstallation attack attack wpa2 published krack attack believed affect variants wpa wpa2 however security implications vary implementations depending upon individual developers interpreted poorly specified part standard software patches resolve vulnerability available devices april 2019 serious design flaws wpa3 found allow attackers perform downgrade attacks side-channel attacks enabling brute-forcing passphrase well launching denial-of-service attacks wi-fi base stations Target text information: rainbow_table.rainbow table rainbow table precomputed table reversing cryptographic hash functions usually cracking password hashes tables usually used recovering password credit card numbers etc certain length consisting limited set characters practical example space–time tradeoff using less computer processing time storage brute-force attack calculates hash every attempt processing time less storage simple lookup table one entry per hash use key derivation function employs salt makes attack infeasible rainbow tables invented philippe oechslin application earlier simpler algorithm martin hellman computer system requires password authentication must contain database passwords either hashed plaintext various methods password storage exist tables vulnerable theft storing plaintext password dangerous databases therefore store cryptographic hash user password database system one – including authentication system – determine user password merely looking value stored database instead user enters password authentication system computes hash value provided password hash value compared stored hash user authentication successful two hashes match gathering password hash using said hash password would fail since authentication system would hash second time learn user password password produces hashed value must found usually brute-force dictionary attack rainbow tables one type tool developed derive password looking hashed value rainbow tables always needed straightforward methods hash reversal available brute-force attacks dictionary attacks straightforward methods available however adequate systems use long passwords difficulty storing options available searching extensive database perform reverse lookup hash address issue scale reverse lookup tables generated stored smaller selection hashes reversed could make long chains passwords although reverse lookup hash chained table takes computational time lookup table much smaller hashes longer passwords stored rainbow tables refinement chaining technique provide solution problem called chain collisions source suppose password hash function h finite set passwords p. goal precompute data structure given output h hash function either locate element p p h p h determine p p. simplest way compute h p p p storing table requires θ \|p\| n bits space n size output h prohibitive large \|p\| hash chains technique decreasing space requirement idea define reduction function r maps hash values back values p. note however reduction function actually inverse hash function rather different function swapped domain codomain hash function alternating hash function reduction function chains alternating passwords hash values formed example p set lowercase alphabetic 6-character passwords hash values 32 bits long chain might look like requirement reduction function able return plain text value specific size generate table choose random set initial passwords p compute chains fixed length k one store first last password chain first password called starting point last one called endpoint example chain aaaaaa would starting point kiebgt would endpoint none passwords hash values would stored given hash value h want invert find corresponding password compute chain starting h applying r h r point observe value matching one endpoints table get corresponding starting point use recreate chain good chance chain contain value h immediately preceding value chain password p seek example 're given hash would compute chain first applying r since one endpoints table take corresponding starting password follow chain 920ecf10 reached thus password different password hash value note however chain always contain hash value h may happen chain starting h merges chain different starting point example may given hash value fb107e70 follow chain get kiebgt chain starting aaaaaa called false alarm case ignore match continue extend chain h looking another match chain h gets extended length k good matches password never produced chains table content depend hash value inverted created repeatedly used lookups unmodified increasing length chain decreases size table also increases time required perform lookups time-memory trade-off rainbow table simple case one-item chains lookup fast table big chains get longer lookup slows table size goes simple hash chains several flaws serious point two chains collide produce value merge consequently table cover many passwords despite paid computational cost generate previous chains stored entirety impossible detect efficiently example third value chain 3 matches second value chain 7 two chains cover almost sequence values final values hash function h unlikely produce collisions usually considered important security feature reduction function r need correctly cover likely plaintexts collision resistant difficulties result importance choosing correct function r. picking r identity little better brute force approach attacker good idea likely plaintexts choose function r makes sure time space used likely plaintexts entire space possible passwords effect r shepherds results prior hash calculations back likely plaintexts benefit comes drawback r likely wo n't produce every possible plaintext class attacker wishes check denying certainty attacker passwords came chosen class also difficult design function r match expected distribution plaintexts rainbow tables effectively solve problem collisions ordinary hash chains replacing single reduction function r sequence related reduction functions r r. way two chains collide merge must hit value iteration consequently final values chain identical final postprocessing pass sort chains table remove duplicate chains final value chains new chains generated fill table chains collision-free may overlap briefly merge drastically reducing overall number collisions using sequences reduction functions changes lookup done hash value interest may found location chain necessary generate k different chains first chain assumes hash value last hash position applies r next chain assumes hash value second-to-last hash position applies r h r last chain applies reduction functions alternating h. creates new way producing false alarm guess position hash value wrong may needlessly evaluate chain although rainbow tables follow chains make fewer tables simple hash chain tables grow beyond certain size without rapidly becoming inefficient due merging chains deal maintain multiple tables lookup must search table rainbow tables achieve similar performance tables k times larger allowing perform factor k fewer lookups rainbow tables use refined algorithm different reduction function link chain hash collision two chains chains merge long collision n't occur position chain increases probability correct crack given table size cost squaring number steps required per lookup lookup routine also needs iterate index first reduction function used chain rainbow tables specific hash function created e.g. md5 tables crack md5 hashes theory technique invented philippe oechslin fast form time/memory tradeoff implemented windows password cracker ophcrack powerful rainbowcrack program later developed generate use rainbow tables variety character sets hashing algorithms including lm hash md5 sha-1 simple case reduction function hash function collision given complete rainbow table one makes sure find corresponding password given hash size password set p time needed compute table length table l average time needed find password matching given hash directly related thus 8-character lowercase alphanumeric passwords case p ≃ 3×10 would easily tractable personal computer 16-character lowercase alphanumeric passwords case p ≃ 10 would completely intractable rainbow table ineffective one-way hashes include large salts example consider password hash generated using following function \|\| concatenation operator codice_1 codice_2 salt value secret may generated random stored password hash large salt value prevents precomputation attacks including rainbow tables ensuring user password hashed uniquely means two users password different password hashes assuming different salts used order succeed attacker needs precompute tables possible salt value salt must large enough otherwise attacker make table salt value older unix passwords used 12-bit salt would require 4096 tables significant increase cost attacker impractical terabyte hard drives sha2-crypt bcrypt methods—used linux bsd unixes solaris—have salts 128 bits larger salt values make precomputation attacks systems infeasible almost length password even attacker could generate million tables per second would still need billions years generate tables possible salts another technique helps prevent precomputation attacks key stretching stretching used salt password intermediate hash values run underlying hash function multiple times increase computation time required hash password instance md5-crypt uses 1000 iteration loop repeatedly feeds salt password current intermediate hash value back underlying md5 hash function user password hash concatenation salt value secret final hash extra time noticeable users wait fraction second time log hand stretching reduces effectiveness brute-force attacks proportion number iterations reduces number attempts attacker perform given time frame principle applied md5-crypt bcrypt also greatly increases time needed build precomputed table absence salt needs done alternative approach called key strengthening extends key random salt unlike key stretching securely deletes salt forces attacker legitimate users perform brute-force search salt value although paper introduced key stretching referred earlier technique intentionally chose different name term key strengthening often arguably incorrectly used refer key stretching rainbow tables precomputation attacks work passwords contain symbols outside range presupposed longer precomputed attacker however tables generated take account common ways users attempt choose secure passwords adding number special character sizable investment computing processing rainbow tables beyond fourteen places length yet common choosing password longer fourteen characters may force attacker resort brute-force methods specific intensive efforts focused lm hash older hash algorithm used microsoft publicly available lm hash particularly vulnerable passwords longer 7 characters broken two sections hashed separately choosing password fifteen characters longer guarantees lm hash generated nearly distributions variations unix linux bsd use hashes salts though many applications use hash typically md5 salt microsoft windows nt/2000 family uses lan manager nt lan manager hashing method based md4 also unsalted makes one popularly generated tables I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	3,984	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: soap.soap soap abbreviation simple object access protocol messaging protocol specification exchanging structured information implementation web services computer networks purpose provide extensibility neutrality independence uses xml information set message format relies application layer protocols often hypertext transfer protocol http simple mail transfer protocol smtp message negotiation transmission soap allows processes running disparate operating systems windows linux communicate using extensible markup language xml since web protocols like http installed running operating systems soap allows clients invoke web services receive responses independent language platforms soap provides messaging protocol layer web services protocol stack web services xml-based protocol consisting three parts soap three major characteristics example soap procedures application send soap request server web services enabled—such real-estate price database—with parameters search server returns soap response xml-formatted document resulting data e.g. prices location features since generated data comes standardized machine-parsable format requesting application integrate directly soap architecture consists several layers specifications soap evolved successor xml-rpc though borrows transport interaction neutrality web service addressing envelope/header/body elsewhere probably wddx soap designed object-access protocol 1998 dave winer box bob atkinson mohsen al-ghosein microsoft atkinson al-ghosein working specification made available submitted ietf 13 september 1999 according box due politics within microsoft microsoft hesitation dave winer shipped xml-rpc 1998 submitted internet draft reach rfc status therefore considered standard version 1.1 specification published w3c note 8 may 2000 since version 1.1 reach w3c recommendation status considered standard either version 1.2 specification however became w3c recommendation june 24 2003 soap specification maintained xml protocol working group world wide web consortium group closed 10 july 2009 soap originally stood simple object access protocol version 1.2 standard dropped acronym soap first introduced became underlying layer complex set web services based web services description language wsdl xml schema universal description discovery integration uddi different services especially uddi proved far less interest appreciation gives complete understanding expected role soap compared web services actually evolved soap specification broadly defined consisting following 3 conceptual components protocol concepts encapsulation concepts network concepts soap specification defines messaging framework consists soap message ordinary xml document containing following elements smtp http valid application layer protocols used transport soap http gained wider acceptance works well today internet infrastructure specifically http works well network firewalls soap may also used https protocol http application level uses encrypted transport protocol underneath either simple mutual authentication advocated ws-i method provide web service security stated ws-i basic profile 1.1 major advantage distributed protocols like giop/iiop dcom normally filtered firewalls soap amqp yet another possibility implementations support soap also advantage dcom unaffected security rights configured machines require knowledge transmitting receiving nodes lets soap loosely coupled way possible dcom also soap-over-udp oasis standard xml information set chosen standard message format widespread use major corporations open source development efforts typically xml information set serialized xml wide variety freely available tools significantly eases transition soap-based implementation somewhat lengthy syntax xml benefit drawback promotes readability humans facilitates error detection avoids interoperability problems byte-order endianness slow processing speed cumbersome example corba giop ice dcom use much shorter binary message formats hand hardware appliances available accelerate processing xml messages binary xml also explored means streamlining throughput requirements xml xml messages self-documenting nature usually 'overhead headers footers nested tags delimiters actual data contrast earlier protocols overhead usually relatively small percentage overall message financial messaging soap found result 2–4 times larger message previous protocols fix financial information exchange cdr common data representation xml information set serialized xml instance csv json xml-infoset representations exist also need specify generic transformation framework concept soap bindings allows specific bindings specific application drawback senders receivers support newly defined binding post /instock http/1.1 host www.example.org content-type application/soap+xml charset=utf-8 content-length 299 soapaction http //www.w3.org/2003/05/soap-envelope xml version= 1.0 soap envelope xmlns soap= http //www.w3.org/2003/05/soap-envelope xmlns m= http //www.example.org /soap envelope 1-hop neighbor's text information: mobile_application_part.mobile application part mobile application part map ss7 protocol provides application layer various nodes gsm umts mobile core networks gprs core networks communicate order provide services users mobile application part application-layer protocol used access home location register visitor location register mobile switching center equipment identity register authentication centre short message service center serving gprs support node sgsn primary facilities provided map mobile application part specifications originally defined gsm association controlled etsi/3gpp map defined two different standards depending upon mobile network type cellular networks based ansi standards currently cdma2000 past amps is-136 cdmaone plays role map similar protocol usually called is-41 ansi-41 ansi map since 2000 maintained 3gpp2 n.s0005 since 2004 named 3gpp2 x.s0004 map transaction capabilities application part tcap user transported using 'traditional ss7 protocols ip using transport independent signalling connection control part ti-sccp using sigtran yate partial open source implementation map mobile cellular telephony networks like gsm umts ss7 application map used voice connections circuit switched cs data connections packet switched ps applications gsm/umts circuit switched interfaces mobile switching center msc transported ss7 include following also several gsm/umts ps interfaces serving gprs support node sgsn transported ss7 1-hop neighbor's text information: xml.xml extensible markup language xml markup language defines set rules encoding documents format human-readable machine-readable w3c xml 1.0 specification several related specifications—all free open standards—define xml design goals xml emphasize simplicity generality usability across internet textual data format strong support via unicode different human languages although design xml focuses documents language widely used representation arbitrary data structures used web services several schema systems exist aid definition xml-based languages programmers developed many application programming interfaces apis aid processing xml data essence extensible markup languages necessary explained markup language example see markup language § xml standard generalized markup language hundreds document formats using xml syntax developed including rss atom soap svg xhtml xml-based formats become default many office-productivity tools including microsoft office office open xml openoffice.org libreoffice opendocument apple iwork xml also provided base language communication protocols xmpp applications microsoft .net framework use xml files configuration property lists implementation configuration storage built xml many industry data standards e.g hl7 ota fpml mismo niem etc based xml rich features xml schema specification many standards quite complex uncommon specification comprise several thousand pages publishing dita xml industry data standard xml used extensively underpin various publishing formats xml widely used services oriented architecture soa disparate systems communicate exchanging xml messages message exchange format standardised xml schema xsd also referred canonical schema xml come common use interchange data internet ietf superseded gave rules construction internet media types use sending xml also defines media types codice_1 codice_2 say data xml nothing semantics rfc 7303 also recommends xml-based languages given media types ending codice_3 example codice_4 svg guidelines use xml networked context appear rfc 3470 also known ietf bcp 70 document covering many aspects designing deploying xml-based language material section based xml specification exhaustive list constructs appear xml provides introduction key constructs often encountered day-to-day use xml documents consist entirely characters unicode repertoire except small number specifically excluded control characters character defined unicode may appear within content xml document xml includes facilities identifying encoding unicode characters make document expressing characters one reason another used directly unicode code points following ranges valid xml 1.0 documents xml 1.1 extends set allowed characters include plus remaining characters range u+0001–u+001f time however restricts use c0 c1 control characters u+0009 horizontal tab u+000a line feed u+000d carriage return u+0085 next line requiring written escaped form example u+0001 must written codice_22 equivalent case c1 characters restriction backwards incompatibility introduced allow common encoding errors detected code point u+0000 null character permitted xml 1.0 1.1 document unicode character set encoded bytes storage transmission variety different ways called encodings unicode defines encodings cover entire repertoire well-known ones include utf-8 utf-16 many text encodings predate unicode ascii iso/iec 8859 character repertoires almost every case subsets unicode character set xml allows use unicode-defined encodings encodings whose characters also appear unicode xml also provides mechanism whereby xml processor reliably without prior knowledge determine encoding used encodings utf-8 utf-16 necessarily recognized every xml parser xml provides escape facilities including characters problematic include directly example five predefined entities permitted unicode characters may represented numeric character reference consider chinese character 中 whose numeric code unicode hexadecimal 4e2d decimal 20,013 user whose keyboard offers method entering character could still insert xml document encoded either codice_32 codice_33 similarly string 3 jörg could encoded inclusion xml document codice_34 codice_35 permitted however null character one control characters excluded xml even using numeric character reference alternative encoding mechanism base64 needed represent characters comments may appear anywhere document outside markup comments appear xml declaration comments begin codice_36 end codice_37 compatibility sgml string -- double-hyphen allowed inside comments means comments nested ampersand special significance within comments entity character references recognized way represent characters outside character set document encoding example valid comment codice_38 xml 1.0 fifth edition xml 1.1 support direct use almost unicode character element names attributes comments character data processing instructions ones special symbolic meaning xml less-than sign following well-formed xml document including chinese armenian cyrillic characters xml specification defines xml document well-formed text meaning satisfies list syntax rules provided specification key points fairly lengthy list include definition xml document excludes texts contain violations well-formedness rules simply xml xml processor encounters violation required report errors cease normal processing policy occasionally referred draconian error handling stands notable contrast behavior programs process html designed produce reasonable result even presence severe markup errors xml policy area criticized violation postel law conservative send liberal accept xml specification defines valid xml document well-formed xml document also conforms rules document type definition dtd addition well-formed xml document may valid means contains reference document type definition dtd elements attributes declared dtd follow grammatical rules dtd specifies xml processors classified validating non-validating depending whether check xml documents validity processor discovers validity error must able report may continue normal processing dtd example schema grammar since initial publication xml 1.0 substantial work area schema languages xml schema languages typically constrain set elements may used document attributes may applied order may appear allowable parent/child relationships oldest schema language xml document type definition dtd inherited sgml dtds following benefits dtds following limitations two peculiar features distinguish dtds schema types syntactic support embedding dtd within xml documents defining entities arbitrary fragments text and/or markup xml processor inserts dtd xml document wherever referenced like character escapes dtd technology still used many applications ubiquity newer schema language described w3c successor dtds xml schema often referred initialism xml schema instances xsd xml schema definition xsds far powerful dtds describing xml languages use rich datatyping system allow detailed constraints xml document logical structure xsds also use xml-based format makes possible use ordinary xml tools help process xs schema element defines schema relax ng regular language xml next generation initially specified oasis standard part 2 regular-grammar-based validation iso/iec 19757 dsdl relax ng schemas may written either xml based syntax compact non-xml syntax two syntaxes isomorphic james clark conversion tool—trang—can convert without loss information relax ng simpler definition validation framework xml schema making easier use implement also ability use datatype framework plug-ins relax ng schema author example require values xml document conform definitions xml schema datatypes schematron language making assertions presence absence patterns xml document typically uses xpath expressions schematron standard part 3 rule-based validation iso/iec 19757 dsdl dsdl document schema definition languages multi-part iso/iec standard iso/iec 19757 brings together comprehensive set small schema languages targeted specific problems dsdl includes relax ng full compact syntax schematron assertion language languages defining datatypes character repertoire constraints renaming entity expansion namespace-based routing document fragments different validators dsdl schema languages vendor support xml schemas yet extent grassroots reaction industrial publishers lack utility xml schemas publishing schema languages describe structure particular xml format also offer limited facilities influence processing individual xml files conform format dtds xsds ability instance provide infoset augmentation facility attribute defaults relax ng schematron intentionally provide cluster specifications closely related xml developed starting soon initial publication xml 1.0 frequently case term xml used refer xml together one technologies come seen part xml core specifications conceived part xml core failed find wide adoption including xinclude xlink xpointer design goals xml include shall easy write programs process xml documents despite xml specification contains almost information programmers might go processing xml infoset specification provides vocabulary refer constructs within xml document provide guidance access information variety apis accessing xml developed used standardized existing apis xml processing tend fall categories stream-oriented facilities require less memory certain tasks based linear traversal xml document faster simpler alternatives tree-traversal data-binding apis typically require use much memory often found convenient use programmers include declarative retrieval document components via use xpath expressions xslt designed declarative description xml document transformations widely implemented server-side packages web browsers xquery overlaps xslt functionality designed searching large xml databases simple api xml sax lexical event-driven api document read serially contents reported callbacks various methods handler object user design sax fast efficient implement difficult use extracting information random xml since tends burden application author keeping track part document processed better suited situations certain types information always handled way matter occur document pull parsing treats document series items read sequence using iterator design pattern allows writing recursive descent parsers structure code performing parsing mirrors structure xml parsed intermediate parsed results used accessed local variables within functions performing parsing passed function parameters lower-level functions returned function return values higher-level functions examples pull parsers include data :edit :xml perl stax java programming language xmlpullparser smalltalk xmlreader php elementtree.iterparse python system.xml.xmlreader .net framework dom traversal api nodeiterator treewalker pull parser creates iterator sequentially visits various elements attributes data xml document code uses iterator test current item tell example whether start-tag end-tag text inspect attributes local name namespace values xml attributes value text etc also move iterator next item code thus extract information document traverses recursive-descent approach tends lend keeping data typed local variables code parsing sax instance typically requires parser manually maintain intermediate data within stack elements parent elements element parsed pull-parsing code straightforward understand maintain sax parsing code document object model dom api allows navigation entire document tree node objects representing document contents dom document created parser generated manually users limitations data types dom nodes abstract implementations provide programming language-specific bindings dom implementations tend memory intensive generally require entire document loaded memory constructed tree objects access allowed xml data binding binding xml documents hierarchy custom strongly typed objects contrast generic objects created dom parser approach simplifies code development many cases allows problems identified compile time rather run-time suitable applications document structure known fixed time application written example data binding systems include java architecture xml binding jaxb xml serialization .net framework xml serialization gsoap xml appeared first-class data type languages ecmascript xml e4x extension ecmascript/javascript language explicitly defines two specific objects xml xmllist javascript support xml document nodes xml node lists distinct objects use dot-notation specifying parent-child relationships e4x supported mozilla 2.5+ browsers though deprecated adobe actionscript adopted universally similar notations used microsoft linq implementation microsoft .net 3.5 scala uses java vm open-source xmlsh application provides linux-like shell special features xml manipulation similarly treats xml data type using notation resource description framework defines data type codice_42 hold wrapped canonical xml facebook produced extensions php javascript languages add xml core syntax similar fashion e4x namely xhp jsx respectively xml application profile sgml iso 8879 versatility sgml dynamic information display understood early digital media publishers late 1980s prior rise internet mid-1990s practitioners sgml gained experience then-new world wide web believed sgml offered solutions problems web likely face grew dan connolly added sgml list w3c activities joined staff 1995 work began mid-1996 sun microsystems engineer jon bosak developed charter recruited collaborators bosak well connected small community people experience sgml web xml compiled working group eleven members supported roughly 150-member interest group technical debate took place interest group mailing list issues resolved consensus failed majority vote working group record design decisions rationales compiled michael sperberg-mcqueen december 4 1997 james clark served technical lead working group notably contributing empty-element codice_43 syntax name xml names put forward consideration included magma minimal architecture generalized markup applications slim structured language internet markup mgml minimal generalized markup language co-editors specification originally tim bray michael sperberg-mcqueen halfway project bray accepted consulting engagement netscape provoking vociferous protests microsoft bray temporarily asked resign editorship led intense dispute working group eventually solved appointment microsoft jean paoli third co-editor xml working group never met face-to-face design accomplished using combination email weekly teleconferences major design decisions reached short burst intense work august november 1996 first working draft xml specification published design work continued 1997 xml 1.0 became w3c recommendation february 10 1998 xml profile iso standard sgml xml comes sgml unchanged sgml comes separation logical physical structures elements entities availability grammar-based validation dtds separation data metadata elements attributes mixed content separation processing representation processing instructions default angle-bracket syntax removed sgml declaration xml fixed delimiter set adopts unicode document character set sources technology xml tei text encoding initiative defined profile sgml use transfer syntax html elements synchronous resource document character sets separate resource encoding codice_44 attribute invented like http metadata accompanied resource rather needed declaration link ercs extended reference concrete syntax project spread standardization project regarding east asian documents project iso-related china/japan/korea document processing expert group basis xml 1.0 naming rules spread also introduced hexadecimal numeric character references concept references make available unicode characters support ercs xml html better sgml standard 8879 revised 1996 1998 websgml adaptations xml header followed iso hytime ideas developed discussion novel xml included algorithm encoding detection encoding header processing instruction target xml space attribute new close delimiter empty-element tags notion well-formedness opposed validity enables parsing without schema first formalized xml although implemented successfully electronic book technology dynatext software software university waterloo new oxford english dictionary project risp lisp sgml text processor uniscope tokyo us army missile command iads hypertext system mentor graphics context interleaf xerox publishing system two current versions xml first xml 1.0 initially defined 1998 undergone minor revisions since without given new version number currently fifth edition published november 26 2008 widely implemented still recommended general use second xml 1.1 initially published february 4 2004 day xml 1.0 third edition currently second edition published august 16 2006 contains features contentious intended make xml easier use certain cases main changes enable use line-ending characters used ebcdic platforms use scripts characters absent unicode 3.2 xml 1.1 widely implemented recommended use need particular features prior fifth edition release xml 1.0 differed xml 1.1 stricter requirements characters available use element attribute names unique identifiers first four editions xml 1.0 characters exclusively enumerated using specific version unicode standard unicode 2.0 unicode 3.2 fifth edition substitutes mechanism xml 1.1 future-proof reduces redundancy approach taken fifth edition xml 1.0 editions xml 1.1 certain characters forbidden names everything else allowed accommodate suitable name characters future unicode versions fifth edition xml names may contain characters balinese cham phoenician scripts among many others added unicode since unicode 3.2 almost unicode code point used character data attribute values xml 1.0 1.1 document even character corresponding code point defined current version unicode character data attribute values xml 1.1 allows use control characters xml 1.0 robustness control characters introduced xml 1.1 must expressed numeric character references x7f x9f allowed xml 1.0 xml 1.1 even required expressed numeric character references among supported control characters xml 1.1 two line break codes must treated whitespace whitespace characters control codes written directly discussion xml 2.0 although organization announced plans work project xml-sw sw skunkworks written one original developers xml contains proposals xml 2.0 might look like elimination dtds syntax integration namespaces xml base xml information set base standard world wide web consortium also xml binary characterization working group preliminary research use cases properties binary encoding xml information set working group chartered produce official standards since xml definition text-based itu-t iso using name fast infoset binary infoset avoid confusion see itu-t rec x.891 iso/iec 24824-1 xml extensions regularly criticized verbosity complexity redundancy mapping basic tree model xml type systems programming languages databases difficult especially xml used exchanging highly structured data applications primary design goal however xml data binding systems allow applications access xml data directly objects representing data structure data programming language used ensures type safety rather using dom sax retrieve data direct representation xml accomplished automatically creating mapping elements xml schema xsd document members class represented memory criticisms attempt refute claim xml self-describing language though xml specification makes claim json yaml s-expressions frequently proposed simpler alternatives see comparison data serialization formats focus representing highly structured data rather documents may contain highly structured relatively unstructured content however w3c standardized xml schema specifications offer broader range structured xsd data types compared simpler serialization formats offer modularity reuse xml namespace Target text information: mms_architecture.mms architecture mms architecture set standards used multimedia messaging service mobile networks standards prepared 3gpp standard consists number interfaces components found mobile network mm1 interface mobile station ms mmsc mm1 used following actions mm1 interface based wap protocol includes pap notifications transformed sms wap gateway notifications mm2 interface mms relay mms-r mms storage database two components mmsc platform mm3 interface mmsc external servers email server sms centers smsc interface typically uses tcp/ip based protocols e.g simple mail transfer protocol smtp generally responsibility mmsc transformation mms multi-part binary data mime format email direction mm3 used following actions mm4 interface used exchange messages two different mmscs mmscs generally located two distinct mobile networks interface also known mms interface wireless application protocol wap open mobile alliance oma standards mm5 interface mmsc network elements like hlr domain name server communication mm5 interface generally fetch routing information mm5 defined 3gpp ts 23.140 simple reference mobile application part mm7 interface mmsc value-added service provider vasp mm7 interface used send mms 3rd party providers e.g. bank sending statement advertiser sending publicity based soap attachments using http transport protocol http request shall post message mime encapsulates soap envelope encoded attachments soap envelope xml tags mm7 protocol data mm11 specified oma sti standard transcoding interface 1.0 mm11 designed ensure compatibility transcoders mmscs integration transcoder without using mm11 possible implementing transcoder proxy server placing transcoder mm1 interface user equipment mmsc messages transparently transcoded possible disadvantage implementation transcoders typically licensed transactions per second transactions sent transcoder rather marked allow adaptations I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	7,765	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: epoc_(operating_system).epoc operating system epoc mobile operating system developed psion british company founded 1980 began 16-bit operating system psion x86-compatible devices later replaced 32-bit system x86 arm psion licensed 32-bit system hardware manufacturers ericsson distinguish 16-bit system 32-bit operating system sometimes epoc32 technologically major departure 16-bit incarnation came called epoc16 sibo 1998 32-bit version renamed symbian os nokia acquired rights symbian 2010 published symbian source code eclipse public license 2011 nokia rescinded open-source license subsequent releases software name epoc comes word epoch beginning era name shortened four letters accord names software innovations unix mach initially operating system capitalised epoc rather 'epoc since acronym change capital letters made recommendation psion marketing department thereafter rumour circulated technical press epoc acronym electronic piece cheese psion started developing 32-bit operating system 1994 kept epoc brand avoid confusion within company started calling old system epoc16 new one epoc32 became conventional within company refer epoc16 sibo codename psion 16-bit mobile computing initiative change freed use name epoc epoc32 june 1998 psion formed limited company telecommunications corporations nokia ericsson motorola buying symbian ltd.—as new company called—the telecommunications corporations acquired stake psion epoc operating system intellectual property symbian ltd. changed name epoc/epoc32 symbian os debuted november 2000 nokia 9210 communicator smartphone epoc developed psion software mobile-device company founded london 1980 company released first pocket computer 1984 8-bit device called psion organiser 1986 released series improved models organiser ii brand 8-bit era ending psion saw need develop 16-bit operating system drive next generation devices first however needed engineer 16-bit single-board computer—something extremely difficult time codenamed project sibo single-board organiser sixteen-bit organiser develop sibo hardware software needed samples 16-bit microprocessors would programming took year secure chips caused significant delay 1987 development epoc underway single-user preemptive multitasking operating system designed run read-only memory rom operating system programmes written intel 8086 assembly language c. operating system started opened pre-installed programmes advance system could switch quickly enable users write run programmes epoc featured updated version organiser programming language opl first published psion organiser opl simple interpreted language unlike basic 1989 psion released first 16-bit computers equipped new operating system mc200 mc400 mc600 notebooks intel 80c86 processor differed specifications memory capacity among later sibo devices psion 3 1991 3a 1993 3c 1996 workabout series well siena 512k model 1996 final epoc device psion series 3mx 1998 user interface differed device notebook computers wimp interface handheld computers smaller screens pointing device accept input keyboard stylus on-screen programmes represented icons smaller devices user could also access via specialised buttons parallel production 16-bit devices psion developing 32-bit version epoc since late 1994 move 32 bits necessary remain competitive psion wanted mobile operating system could license companies meant system would need portable previous efforts 32-bit operating system engineers wrote new object-oriented codebase c++ transition period old system came called epoc16 new one epoc32 epoc16 designed specifically intel 80186 platform epoc32 built arm computing platform reduced instruction set architecture like epoc16 epoc32 single-user pre-emptive multitasking operating system also featured memory protection essential feature modern operating systems psion licensed epoc32 device manufacturers made possible manufacturers change replace system graphical interface licensing arrangement psion considered spinning-off software division psion software psion pdas graphical user interface called eikon visually eikon refinement design choices psion 8- 16-bit devices early iterations epoc32 codenamed protea first published version called release 1 appeared psion series 5 rom v1.0 june 1997 release 2 never published updated rom version 1.1 series 5 featured release 3 series 5 used psion new user interface eikon one first epoc licensees short-lived company called geofox halted production selling fewer 1,000 units another licensee oregon scientific released budget device called osaris epoc device ship release 4 epoc release 5 premiered march 1999 ran armv4 processors strongarm series addition email messaging data synchronisation features introduced support java development kit made capable running wider variety programmes 2000 epoc gui variations replaced three reference interfaces crystal devices small keyboard quartz communicator devices telecommunication features tended equipped thumb keyboard pearl mobile phones classification supported vga graphics psion deployed release 5 5mx series 1999 revo 1999 netbook 1999 series 7 1999 revo plus 2000 netpad 2001 devices ericsson rebranded psion series 5mx mc218 sonicblue rebranded revo diamond mako like original devices rebranded versions released 1999 ericsson r380 smartphone released november 2000 first device distributed epoc release 5.1 release also known er5u u indicated system supported unicode system text encoding important feature representation diverse languages psion developed er5u-enabled device codenamed conan advance beyond prototype stage device intended bluetooth-enabled successor revo june 1998 psion software became symbian ltd. major joint venture psion phone manufacturers ericsson motorola nokia next release epoc32 release 6 rebranded symbian os decoupled user interface underlying operating system afforded device manufacturers ability burden implementing graphical interface devices final version symbian os released v10.1 final update published 2012 1-hop neighbor's text information: openmoko_linux.openmoko linux openmoko linux operating system smartphones developed openmoko project based ångström distribution comprising various pieces free software main targets openmoko linux openmoko neo 1973 neo freerunner furthermore efforts port system mobile phones openmoko linux developed 2007 2009 openmoko inc development discontinued financial problems afterwards development software openmoko phones taken community continued various projects including shr qtmoko hackable1 openmoko linux uses linux kernel gnu libc x.org server plus graphical user environment built using efl toolkit gtk+ toolkit qt toolkit illume window manager previously matchbox window manager openembedded build framework opkg package management system used create maintain software packages different approach android everything except linux webkit java language inside android seems non-standard applications targeted android must substantially rewritten largely portable many existing gnu/linux desktop apps easily ported openmoko however limited computational power screen resolution require substantial reworking existing applications order render usable finger-oriented small-screen environment 1-hop neighbor's text information: magic_cap.magic cap magic cap short magic communicating applications platform discontinued object-oriented operating system pdas developed general magic tony fadell contributor platform darin adler architect magic cap incorporates room metaphor user navigates room room perform various tasks going home office perform word processing file room clean system files automation based mobile agents office assistant several electronic companies came market magic cap devices notable sony magic link motorola envoy released 1994 none devices commercial successes magic cap operating system includes new mobile agent technology named telescript conceptually agents would carry work orders travel place outside handheld device complete work return device results magic cap devices delivered place agents travel personalink service provided agents little access functionality since agent strictly authorized scope inquiry limited software modules installed personalink servers payload carried agents also hampered slow baud rate modems devices 2400 bit/s authentication/authorization system mobile agents telescript created high coupling device target place result deployment agent-based technology incredibly difficult never reached fruition personalink service shut Target text information: b2g_os.b2g os b2g os community-developed successor firefox os developed mozilla foundation follows firefox os vision providing complete community-based alternative operating system runs software web applications software 'applications therefore use open web standards programming languages javascript html5 robust privilege model open web apis communicate directly device hardware basis kaios jan 2019 17 percent indian mobile phone market third popular phone os kaios closed-source b2g os forked firefox os following mozilla decision discontinue support mobile operating system decision made according ari jaaksi david bryant order evolve quickly enable substantial new architectural changes gecko mozilla ’ platform engineering organization needs remove b2g-related code mozilla-central 2017 b2g os longer maintained I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	3,542	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: variant_object.variant object variant objects context http objects served origin content server type transmitted data variation i.e uncompressed compressed different languages etc. http/1.1 1997–1999 introduces content/accept headers used http requests responses state variant data presented client server 1-hop neighbor's text information: firefox_3.5.firefox 3.5 mozilla firefox 3.5 version firefox web browser released june 2009 adding variety new features firefox version 3.5 touted twice fast 3.0 due tracemonkey javascript engine rendering improvements includes private browsing tear-off tabs uses gecko 1.9.1 engine codenamed shiretoko development initially numbered firefox 3.1 mozilla developers decided change version 3.5 reflect inclusion significantly greater scope changes originally planned last major version support x bitmap images estimates firefox 3.5 global market share february 2010 around 15–20 rose rapidly july 2009 users migrated firefox 3.0 january 2010 began decline users migrated firefox 3.6 mid-december 2009 february 2010 firefox 3.5 popular browser counting individual browser versions according statcounter one top 3 browser versions according net applications milestones involved passing internet explorer 7 previously held 1 3 spots popularity according statcounter net applications respectively due january 2010 well-publicized vulnerability microsoft internet explorer browser german french australian governments publicly issued warnings internet explorer users use alternative browsers least fix security hole made first browser recommended mozilla firefox followed google chrome even release firefox 3.0 june 17 2008 firefox 3.1 development codename shiretoko planned include new interface features tab previews tag auto-completion html 5 video tag support css text shadows first alpha released july 28 2008 new tab switching behavior implemented switches recently used tab instead adjacent one switching thumbnails displayed user preview tabs switching awesome bar also improved filtering bookmarks history gecko engine updated include css3 features includes html canvas text api alpha release showed 18 improvement acid3 test firefox 3.0 scoring 84/100 version 3.1 alpha 2 launched september 5 2008 implementing html 5 video element support preliminary support web worker thread enhancing speed javascript computations october 14 2008 first beta firefox 3.1 released included new tracemonkey javascript engine enabled default implementation w3c geolocation api beta 2 released december 8 2008 included new private browsing feature new tab switching behavior interface dropped beta since developer found needed work firefox 3.1 beta 3 released march 12 2009 followed beta 4 first labeled version 3.5 april 27 2009 june 8 2009 mozilla released firefox 3.5 preview labeled 3.5b99 order receive additional testing became release candidate release candidate 1 released update firefox 3.5 preview users june 17 2009 released candidate 2 made widely available june 19 2009 followed third rc june 24 2009 firefox 3.5 officially released june 30 2009 firefox 3.5 uses gecko 1.9.1 engine adds features included 3.0 release include support codice_1 codice_2 elements defined html 5 draft specification including native support ogg theora encoded video vorbis encoded audio goal offer video audio playback without encumbered patent issues associated plugin codec technologies features new firefox 3.5 include private browsing mode native support json web worker threads many new web technologies multi-touch support also added release including gesture support like pinching zooming swiping back forward firefox 3.5 also features updated logo previous releases minor change version 3.5 default search engine russian language builds uses search engine yandex rather google survey russian firefox users indicated preferred yandex first update 3.5.1 released july 16 2009 solved vulnerabilities detected final release another update 3.5.2 released august 3 2009 followed version 3.5.3 september 9 2009 version 3.5.4 october 27 2009 version 3.5.5 november 5 2009 version 3.5.6 december 15 2009 version 3.5.7 january 5 2010 starting july 14 2009 upgrade 3.5 offered users firefox 3.0 automatic internal push update mechanism security stability updates firefox 3.5.x scheduled end august 2010 however firefox 3.5.12 released september 7 2010 mozilla continued shipping incremental stability security fixes build 3.5.19 released april 28 2011 release firefox 3.6.18 mozilla issued update move remaining firefox 3.5 users new browser finally ending support 3.5 1-hop neighbor's text information: requirements_modeling_framework.requirements modeling framework requirements modeling framework rmf open-source software framework working requirements based reqif standard rmf consists core allowing reading writing manipulating reqif data user interface allowing inspect edit request data rmf first currently open-source reference implementation reqif standards noteworthy fact rmf already deployed prostep reqif implementor forum order ensure interoperability commercial implementation since 2011 reports german international press rmf rmf development name pror since 2009 scope deploy research project collaborative efforts quickly developed research project verde resulting significant acceleration development point data model based rif predecessor reqif june 2011 proposal created transform code eclipse foundation project proposal adopted november 2011 part migration eclipse foundation conversion rif current version reqif 1.0.1 spring 2012 deploy verde opted research projects nevertheless rmf keeps evolving within framework research project advance formal mind free extensions pror name pror essentials developed currently neither version 0.14 0.13 integrated latest version eclipse neither pror rmf version 0.10.0 remains reasons unknown version 0.13 release folder version 0.14 latest folder integrated eclipse version mars.2 release 4.5.2 rmf core allows storing writing validating manipulating reqif files manipulation data implemented programmatically using emf pror additionally enables interactive creation inspecting editing reqif models requirements presented configurable tables links requirements created via drag drop context menus pror designed integration eclipse-based tools extension point available makes possible integrate available renderers editors react drag drop events outside part deploy advance integration event-b models developed topcased -project suggested integrated rmf integrations proposed implemented prototype Target text information: world_wide_web.world wide web world wide web www commonly known web information system documents web resources identified uniform resource locators urls nowiki https //www.example.com/ /nowiki may interlinked hypertext accessible internet resources www may accessed users software application called web browser english scientist tim berners-lee invented world wide web 1989 wrote first web browser 1990 employed cern near geneva switzerland browser released outside cern 1991 first research institutions starting january 1991 general public august 1991 world wide web central development information age primary tool billions people use interact internet web resources may type downloaded media web pages hypertext media formatted hypertext markup language html formatting allows embedded hyperlinks contain urls permit users navigate web resources addition text web pages may contain images video audio software components rendered user web browser coherent pages multimedia content multiple web resources common theme common domain name make website websites stored computers running program called web server responds requests made internet web browsers running user computer website content largely provided publisher interactively users contribute content content depends upon users actions websites may provided myriad informative entertainment commercial governmental non-governmental reasons tim berners-lee vision global hyperlinked information system became possibility second half 1980s 1985 global internet began proliferate europe domain name system upon uniform resource locator built came 1988 first direct ip connection europe north america made berners-lee began openly discuss possibility web-like system cern working cern berners-lee became frustrated inefficiencies difficulties posed finding information stored different computers march 12 1989 submitted memorandum titled information management proposal management cern system called mesh referenced enquire database software project built 1980 used term web described elaborate information management system based links embedded text imagine references document associated network address thing referred reading document could skip click mouse system explained could referred using one existing meanings word hypertext term says coined 1950s reason proposal continues hypertext links could encompass multimedia documents including graphics speech video berners-lee goes use term hypermedia help colleague fellow hypertext enthusiast robert cailliau published formal proposal 12 november 1990 build hypertext project called worldwideweb one word web hypertext documents viewed browsers using client–server architecture point html http already development two months first web server month completing first successful test proposal estimated read-only web would developed within three months would take six months achieve creation new links new material readers authorship becomes universal well automatic notification reader new material interest him/her become available read-only goal met accessible authorship web content took longer mature wiki concept webdav blogs web 2.0 rss/atom proposal modelled sgml reader dynatext electronic book technology spin-off institute research information scholarship brown university dynatext system licensed cern key player extension sgml iso 8879:1986 hypermedia within hytime considered expensive inappropriate licensing policy use general high energy physics community namely fee document document alteration next computer used berners-lee world first web server also write first web browser worldwideweb 1990 christmas 1990 berners-lee built tools necessary working web first web browser web editor well first web server first web site described project published 20 december 1990 first web page may lost paul jones unc-chapel hill north carolina announced may 2013 berners-lee gave says oldest known web page 1991 visit unc jones stored magneto-optical drive next computer 6 august 1991 berners-lee published short summary world wide web project newsgroup alt.hypertext date sometimes confused public availability first web servers occurred months earlier another example confusion several news media reported first photo web published berners-lee 1992 image cern house band les horribles cernettes taken silvano de gennaro gennaro disclaimed story writing media totally distorting words sake cheap sensationalism first server outside europe installed stanford linear accelerator center slac palo alto california host spires-hep database accounts differ substantially date event world wide web consortium timeline says december 1992 whereas slac claims december 1991 w3c document titled little history world wide web underlying concept hypertext originated previous projects 1960s hypertext editing system hes brown university ted nelson project xanadu douglas engelbart on-line system nls nelson engelbart turn inspired vannevar bush microfilm-based memex described 1945 essay may think berners-lee breakthrough marry hypertext internet book explains repeatedly suggested marriage two technologies possible members technical communities one took invitation finally assumed project process developed three essential technologies world wide web several differences hypertext systems available time web required unidirectional links rather bidirectional ones making possible someone link another resource without action owner resource also significantly reduced difficulty implementing web servers browsers comparison earlier systems turn presented chronic problem link rot unlike predecessors hypercard world wide web non-proprietary making possible develop servers clients independently add extensions without licensing restrictions 30 april 1993 cern announced world wide web would free anyone fees due coming two months announcement server implementation gopher protocol longer free use produced rapid shift away gopher towards web early popular web browser violawww unix x window system scholars generally agree turning point world wide web began introduction mosaic web browser 1993 graphical browser developed team national center supercomputing applications university illinois urbana–champaign ncsa-uiuc led marc andreessen funding mosaic came us high-performance computing communications initiative high performance computing act 1991 one several computing developments initiated us senator al gore prior release mosaic graphics commonly mixed text web pages web popularity less older protocols use internet gopher wide area information servers wais mosaic graphical user interface allowed web become far popular internet protocol world wide web consortium w3c founded tim berners-lee left european organization nuclear research cern october 1994 founded massachusetts institute technology laboratory computer science mit/lcs support defense advanced research projects agency darpa pioneered internet year later second site founded inria french national computer research lab support european commission dg infso 1996 third continental site created japan keio university end 1994 total number websites still relatively small many notable websites already active foreshadowed inspired today popular services connected internet websites created around world motivated international standards development protocols formatting berners-lee continued stay involved guiding development web standards markup languages compose web pages advocated vision semantic web world wide web enabled spread information internet easy-to-use flexible format thus played important role popularising use internet although two terms sometimes conflated popular use world wide web synonymous internet web information space containing hyperlinked documents resources identified uris implemented client server software using internet protocols tcp/ip http berners-lee knighted 2004 queen elizabeth ii services global development internet never patented invention terms internet world wide web often used without much distinction however two terms mean thing internet global system interconnected computer networks contrast world wide web global collection documents resources linked hyperlinks uris web resources accessed using http https application-level internet protocols use internet transport protocols viewing web page world wide web normally begins either typing url page web browser following hyperlink page resource web browser initiates series background communication messages fetch display requested page 1990s using browser view web pages—and move one web page another hyperlinks—came known 'browsing 'web surfing channel surfing 'navigating web early studies new behaviour investigated user patterns using web browsers one study example found five user patterns exploratory surfing window surfing evolved surfing bounded navigation targeted navigation following example demonstrates functioning web browser accessing page url codice_1 browser resolves server name url codice_2 internet protocol address using globally distributed domain name system dns lookup returns ip address 203.0.113.4 2001 db8:2e :7334 browser requests resource sending http request across internet computer address requests service specific tcp port number well known http service receiving host distinguish http request network protocols may servicing http protocol normally uses port number 80 https protocol normally port number 443 content http request simple two lines text computer receiving http request delivers web server software listening requests port 80 web server fulfil request sends http response back browser indicating success followed content requested page hypertext markup language html basic web page might look like web browser parses html interprets markup paragraph surrounds words format text screen many web pages use html reference urls resources images embedded media scripts affect page behaviour cascading style sheets affect page layout browser makes additional http requests web server internet media types receives content web server browser progressively renders page onto screen specified html additional resources hypertext markup language html standard markup language creating web pages web applications cascading style sheets css javascript forms triad cornerstone technologies world wide web web browsers receive html documents web server local storage render documents multimedia web pages html describes structure web page semantically originally included cues appearance document html elements building blocks html pages html constructs images objects interactive forms may embedded rendered page html provides means create structured documents denoting structural semantics text headings paragraphs lists links quotes items html elements delineated tags written using angle brackets tags directly introduce content page tags surround provide information document text may include tags sub-elements browsers display html tags use interpret content page html embed programs written scripting language javascript affects behavior content web pages inclusion css defines look layout content world wide web consortium w3c maintainer html css standards encouraged use css explicit presentational html web pages contain hyperlinks related pages perhaps downloadable files source documents definitions web resources underlying html hyperlink looks like collection useful related resources interconnected via hypertext links dubbed web information publication internet created tim berners-lee first called worldwideweb original camelcase subsequently discarded november 1990 hyperlink structure www described webgraph nodes web graph correspond web pages urls directed edges hyperlinks time many web resources pointed hyperlinks disappear relocate replaced different content makes hyperlinks obsolete phenomenon referred circles link rot hyperlinks affected often called dead links ephemeral nature web prompted many efforts archive web sites internet archive active since 1996 best known efforts many hostnames used world wide web begin www long-standing practice naming internet hosts according services provide hostname web server often www way may ftp ftp server news nntp usenet news server host names appear domain name system dns subdomain names www.example.com use www required technical policy standard many web sites use first web server nxoc01.cern.ch according paolo palazzi worked cern along tim berners-lee popular use www subdomain accidental world wide web project page intended published www.cern.ch info.cern.ch intended cern home page however dns records never switched practice prepending www institution website domain name subsequently copied many established websites still use prefix employ subdomain names www2 secure en special purposes many web servers set main domain name e.g. example.com www subdomain e.g. www.example.com refer site others require one form may map different web sites use subdomain name useful load balancing incoming web traffic creating cname record points cluster web servers since currently subdomain used cname result achieved using bare domain root user submits incomplete domain name web browser address bar input field web browsers automatically try adding prefix www beginning possibly .com .org .net end depending might missing example entering may transformed nowiki http //www.microsoft.com/ /nowiki 'openoffice nowiki http //www.openoffice.org /nowiki feature started appearing early versions firefox still working title 'firebird early 2003 earlier practice browsers lynx reported microsoft granted us patent idea 2008 mobile devices english www usually read double-u double-u double-u users pronounce dub-dub-dub particularly new zealand stephen fry podgrams series podcasts pronounces wuh wuh wuh english writer douglas adams quipped independent sunday 1999 world wide web thing know whose shortened form takes three times longer say short mandarin chinese world wide web commonly translated via phono-semantic matching wàn wéi wǎng satisfies www literally means myriad dimensional net translation reflects design concept proliferation world wide web tim berners-lee web-space states world wide web officially spelled three separate words capitalised intervening hyphens use www prefix declining especially web 2.0 web applications sought brand domain names make easily pronounceable mobile web grew popularity services like gmail.com outlook.com myspace.com facebook.com twitter.com often mentioned without adding www indeed .com domain scheme specifiers codice_3 codice_4 start web uri refer hypertext transfer protocol http secure respectively specify communication protocol use request response http protocol fundamental operation world wide web added encryption layer https essential browsers send retrieve confidential data passwords banking information web browsers usually automatically prepend nowiki http // /nowiki user-entered uris omitted web page also written webpage document suitable world wide web web browsers web browser displays web page monitor mobile device term web page usually refers visible may also refer contents computer file usually text file containing hypertext written html comparable markup language typical web pages provide hypertext browsing web pages via hyperlinks often referred links web browsers frequently access multiple web resource elements reading style sheets scripts images presenting web page network web browser retrieve web page remote web server web server may restrict access private network corporate intranet web browser uses hypertext transfer protocol http make requests web server static web page delivered exactly stored web content web server file system contrast dynamic web page generated web application usually driven server-side software dynamic web pages help browser client enhance web page user input server static web page sometimes called flat page/stationary page web page delivered user exactly stored contrast dynamic web pages generated web application consequently static web page displays information users contexts subject modern capabilities web server negotiate content-type language document versions available server configured server-side dynamic web page web page whose construction controlled application server processing server-side scripts server-side scripting parameters determine assembly every new web page proceeds including setting client-side processing client-side dynamic web page processes web page using html scripting running browser loads javascript scripting languages determine way html received page parsed document object model dom represents loaded web page client-side techniques dynamically update change dom way dynamic web page reloaded user computer program change variable content updating information could come server changes made page dom may may truncate browsing history create saved version go back dynamic web page update using ajax technologies neither create page go back truncate web browsing history forward displayed page using ajax technologies end user gets one dynamic page managed single page web browser actual web content rendered page vary ajax engine sits browser requesting parts dom dom client application server dhtml umbrella term technologies methods used create web pages static web pages though fallen common use since popularization ajax term rarely used client-side-scripting server-side scripting combination make dynamic web experience browser javascript scripting language initially developed 1995 brendan eich netscape use within web pages standardised version ecmascript make web pages interactive web applications also use javascript techniques ajax asynchronous javascript xml client-side script delivered page make additional http requests server either response user actions mouse movements clicks based elapsed time server responses used modify current page rather creating new page response server needs provide limited incremental information multiple ajax requests handled time users interact page data retrieved web pages may also regularly poll server check whether new information available website collection related web resources including web pages multimedia content typically identified common domain name published least one web server notable examples wikipedia.org google.com amazon.com website may accessible via public internet protocol ip network internet private local area network lan referencing uniform resource locator url identifies site websites many functions used various fashions website personal website corporate website company government website organization website etc websites typically dedicated particular topic purpose ranging entertainment social networking providing news education publicly accessible websites collectively constitute world wide web private websites company website employees typically part intranet web pages building blocks websites documents typically composed plain text interspersed formatting instructions hypertext markup language html xhtml may incorporate elements websites suitable markup anchors web pages accessed transported hypertext transfer protocol http may optionally employ encryption http secure https provide security privacy user user application often web browser renders page content according html markup instructions onto display terminal hyperlinking web pages conveys reader site structure guides navigation site often starts home page containing directory site web content websites require user registration subscription access content examples subscription websites include many business sites news websites academic journal websites gaming websites file-sharing websites message boards web-based email social networking websites websites providing real-time stock market data well sites providing various services end users access websites range devices including desktop laptop computers tablet computers smartphones smart tvs web browser commonly referred browser software user agent accessing information world wide web connect website server display pages user needs web browser program program user runs download format display web page user computer addition allowing users find displaying moving web pages web browser usually features like keeping bookmarks recording history managing cookies see home pages may facilities recording passwords logging web sites popular browsers chrome firefox safari internet explorer edge web server server software hardware dedicated running said software satisfy world wide web client requests web server general contain one websites web server processes incoming network requests http several related protocols primary function web server store process deliver web pages clients communication client server takes place using hypertext transfer protocol http pages delivered frequently html documents may include images style sheets scripts addition text content user agent commonly web browser web crawler initiates communication making request specific resource using http server responds content resource error message unable resource typically real file server secondary storage necessarily case depends web server implemented primary function serve content full implementation http also includes ways receiving content clients feature used submitting web forms including uploading files many generic web servers also support server-side scripting using active server pages asp php hypertext preprocessor scripting languages means behaviour web server scripted separate files actual server software remains unchanged usually function used generate html documents dynamically on-the-fly opposed returning static documents former primarily used retrieving modifying information databases latter typically much faster easily cached deliver dynamic content web servers also frequently found embedded devices printers routers webcams serving local network web server may used part system monitoring administering device question usually means additional software installed client computer since web browser required included operating systems http cookie also called web cookie internet cookie browser cookie simply cookie small piece data sent website stored user computer user web browser user browsing cookies designed reliable mechanism websites remember stateful information items added shopping cart online store record user browsing activity including clicking particular buttons logging recording pages visited past also used remember arbitrary pieces information user previously entered form fields names addresses passwords credit card numbers cookies perform essential functions modern web perhaps importantly authentication cookies common method used web servers know whether user logged account logged without mechanism site would know whether send page containing sensitive information require user authenticate logging security authentication cookie generally depends security issuing website user web browser whether cookie data encrypted security vulnerabilities may allow cookie data read hacker used gain access user data used gain access user credentials website cookie belongs see cross-site scripting cross-site request forgery examples tracking cookies especially third-party tracking cookies commonly used ways compile long-term records individuals browsing histories potential privacy concern prompted european u.s. lawmakers take action 2011 european law requires websites targeting european union member states gain informed consent users storing non-essential cookies device google project zero researcher jann horn describes ways cookies read intermediaries like wi-fi hotspot providers recommends use browser incognito mode circumstances web search engine internet search engine software system designed carry web search internet search means search world wide web systematic way particular information specified web search query search results generally presented line results often referred search engine results pages serps information may mix web pages images videos infographics articles research papers types files search engines also mine data available databases open directories unlike web directories maintained human editors search engines also maintain real-time information running algorithm web crawler internet content capable searched web search engine generally described deep web deep web invisible web hidden web parts world wide web whose contents indexed standard web search engines opposite term deep web surface web accessible anyone using internet computer scientist michael k. bergman credited coining term deep web 2001 search indexing term content deep web hidden behind http forms includes many common uses web mail online banking services users must pay protected paywall video demand online magazines newspapers among others content deep web located accessed direct url ip address may require password security access past public website page web cache server computer located either public internet within enterprise stores recently accessed web pages improve response time users content requested within certain time original request web browsers also implement browser cache writing recently obtained data local data storage device http requests browser may ask data changed since last access web pages resources may contain expiration information control caching secure sensitive data online banking facilitate frequently updated sites news media even sites highly dynamic content may permit basic resources refreshed occasionally web site designers find worthwhile collate resources css data javascript site-wide files cached efficiently enterprise firewalls often cache web resources requested one user benefit many users search engines store cached content frequently accessed websites criminals web become venue spread malware engage range cybercrimes including identity theft fraud espionage intelligence gathering web-based vulnerabilities outnumber traditional computer security concerns measured google one ten web pages may contain malicious code web-based attacks take place legitimate websites measured sophos hosted united states china russia common malware threats sql injection attacks websites html uris web vulnerable attacks like cross-site scripting xss came introduction javascript exacerbated degree web 2.0 ajax web design favours use scripts today one estimate 70 websites open xss attacks users phishing another common threat web february 2013 rsa security division emc estimated global losses phishing 1.5 billion 2012 two well-known phishing methods covert redirect open redirect proposed solutions vary large security companies like mcafee already design governance compliance suites meet post-9/11 regulations like finjan recommended active real-time inspection programming code content regardless source argued enterprises see web security business opportunity rather cost centre others call ubiquitous always-on digital rights management enforced infrastructure replace hundreds companies secure data networks jonathan zittrain said users sharing responsibility computing safety far preferable locking internet every time client requests web page server identify request ip address usually logs also unless set web browsers record requested web pages viewable history feature usually cache much content locally unless server-browser communication uses https encryption web requests responses travel plain text across internet viewed recorded cached intermediate systems another way hide personally identifiable information using vpn vpn encrypts online traffic masks original ip address lowering chance user identification web page asks user supplies personally identifiable information—such real name address e-mail address etc.—web-based entities associate current web traffic individual website uses http cookies username password authentication tracking techniques relate web visits identifiable information provided way possible web-based organisation develop build profile individual people use site sites may able build record individual includes information leisure activities shopping interests profession aspects demographic profile profiles obviously potential interest marketeers advertisers others depending website terms conditions local laws apply information profiles may sold shared passed organisations without user informed many ordinary people means little unexpected e-mails in-box uncannily relevant advertising future web page others mean time spent indulging unusual interest result deluge targeted marketing may unwelcome law enforcement counter terrorism espionage agencies also identify target track individuals based interests proclivities web social networking sites try get users use real names interests locations rather pseudonyms executives believe makes social networking experience engaging users hand uploaded photographs unguarded statements identified individual may regret exposure employers schools parents relatives may influenced aspects social networking profiles text posts digital photos posting individual intend audiences on-line bullies may make use personal information harass stalk users modern social networking websites allow fine grained control privacy settings individual posting complex easy find use especially beginners photographs videos posted onto websites caused particular problems add person face on-line profile modern potential facial recognition technology may possible relate face previously anonymous images events scenarios imaged elsewhere due image caching mirroring copying difficult remove image world wide web web standards include many interdependent standards specifications govern aspects internet world wide web even web-focused standards directly indirectly affect development administration web sites web services considerations include interoperability accessibility usability web pages web sites web standards broader sense consist following web standards fixed sets rules constantly evolving set finalized technical specifications web technologies web standards developed standards organizations—groups interested often competing parties chartered task standardization—not technologies developed declared standard single individual company crucial distinguish specifications development ones already reached final development status case w3c specifications highest maturity level methods accessing web alternative mediums formats facilitate use individuals disabilities disabilities may visual auditory physical speech-related cognitive neurological combination accessibility features also help people temporary disabilities like broken arm ageing users abilities change web receives information well providing information interacting society world wide web consortium claims essential web accessible provide equal access equal opportunity people disabilities tim berners-lee noted power web universality access everyone regardless disability essential aspect many countries regulate web accessibility requirement websites international co-operation w3c web accessibility initiative led simple guidelines web content authors well software developers use make web accessible persons may may using assistive technology w3c internationalisation activity assures web technology works languages scripts cultures beginning 2004 2005 unicode gained ground eventually december 2007 surpassed ascii western european web frequently used character encoding originally allowed resources identified uri subset us-ascii allows characters—any character universal character set—and resource identified iri language I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	119	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: zswap.zswap zswap linux kernel feature provides compressed write-back cache swapped pages form virtual memory compression instead moving memory pages swap device swapped zswap performs compression stores memory pool dynamically allocated system ram later writeback actual swap device deferred even completely avoided resulting significantly reduced i/o linux systems require swapping tradeoff need additional cpu cycles perform compression result reduced i/o zswap offers advantages various devices use flash-based storage including embedded devices netbooks similar low-end hardware devices well devices use solid-state drives ssds storage flash memory limited lifespan due nature avoiding used providing swap space prevents wearing quickly zswap integrated rest linux kernel virtual memory subsystem using api provided frontswap mechanism linux kernel abstracts various types storage used swap space result zswap operates backend driver frontswap providing internally visible pseudo-ram device words frontswap api makes zswap capable intercepting memory pages swapped capable intercepting page faults already swapped pages access two paths allows zswap act compressed write-back cache swapped pages internally zswap uses compression modules provided linux kernel crypto api makes possible example offload compression tasks main cpu using hardware compression accelerators supported linux kernel selection desired compression module performed dynamically boot time value kernel boot parameter specified defaults selects lempel–ziv–oberhumer lzo compression version 3.13 linux kernel zswap also needs explicitly enabled specifying value kernel boot parameter maximum size memory pool used zswap configurable parameter specifies maximum percentage total system ram occupied pool memory pool preallocated configured maximum size instead grows shrinks required configured maximum pool size reached result performed swapping growing pool impossible due out-of-memory condition swapped pages evicted memory pool swap device least recently used lru basis approach makes zswap true swap cache oldest cached pages evicted swap device cache full making room newer swapped pages compressed cached zbud special-purpose memory allocator used internally zswap storing compressed pages implemented rewrite zbud allocator used oracle zcache another virtual memory compression implementation linux kernel internally zbud works storing two compressed pages buddies hence allocator name per physical memory page brings advantages due easy coalescing reusing freed space disadvantages due possible lower memory utilization however result design zbud allocate memory space would originally occupied uncompressed pages zswap zbud created seth jennings first public announcement december 2012 development continued may 2013 point codebase reached maturity although still status experimental kernel feature zswap together zbud merged linux kernel mainline kernel version 3.11 released september 2 2013 since version 3.15 linux kernel released june 8 2014 zswap properly supports multiple swap devices one alternatives zswap zram provides similar still different swap compressed pages ram mechanism linux kernel main difference zram provides compressed block device using ram storing data acts regular separate swap device comparison zswap acts ram-based cache swap devices provides zswap eviction mechanism less used swapped pages zram lacks though result design least one already existing swap device required zswap used 1-hop neighbor's text information: newdos/80.newdos/80 newdos/80 third-party operating system radio shack trs-80 line microcomputers released 1980 newdos/80 developed apparat inc. denver colorado operating system additional commands features available trsdos native operating system trs-80 computers newdos/80 allowed trs-80 computers take advantage advances floppy disk storage went beyond initial 87.5kb 35-track single-density single-sided format system also corrected issues early versions trsdos arbitrarily losing data due errors communicated contemporary trs-80 disk drives 1771 disk controller newdos/80 many options specifying specific low-level disk configurations settings diskette formats disk drive types track geometry controllers could configured using pdrive command version 2.1 apparat added support hard disk drives via external bus adapter newdos/80 written cliff ive jason matthews ive primary author newdos incarnations matthews wrote patches various applications scripsit visicalc ive later retired matthews went projects software business typical newdos/80 commands criticizing newdos nearly incomprehensible documentation jerry pournelle wrote 1980 much better operating system needlessly complex trsdos stated tandy ought marketing newdos+ 1-hop neighbor's text information: oberon_(operating_system).oberon operating system oberon system modular single-user single-process multitasking operating system written programming language name originally developed late 1980s eth zürich oberon system unconventional visual text user interface instead conventional cli gui tui innovative time influenced design acme text editor plan 9 bell labs operating system oberon system still maintained also subsequently developed multi-process smp-capable bluebottle operating system zooming user interface oberon operating system originally developed part ns32032-based ceres workstation project written almost entirely since 2013 edition described entirely oberon programming language basic system designed implemented niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht design implementation fully documented book project oberon user interface programmers reference found martin reiser book oberon system later extended ported hardware team eth-zürich recognition popular magazines wirth gutknecht although active computer science professors referred 'part-time programmers book 'project oberon late 2013 couple months 80th birthday niklaus wirth published second edition project oberon details implementation oberon system using risc cpu design realized xilinx fpga board presented symposium organized 80th birthday ethz meantime several emulators version implemented according josef templ former member developer group eidgenössische technische hochschule zürich later member institut für systemsoftware johannes kepler university linz one versions v4 maintained genealogy different versions oberon system following oberon text user interface tui differentiated terminal user interface combines point-and-click convenience graphical user interface gui linguistic strength command line interface cli closely tied naming conventions oberon language text appearing almost anywhere screen edited therefore used command input commands activated middle-mouse click text fragment form module.command optionally followed parameters terminated command defined procedure empty argument list parameters command defined executing middle click must explicitly scanned retrieved procedure checks questions asked command execution sometimes called non-modal user interface ui nothing like command prompt required although radically different command line tui efficient powerful steep ascent early learning curve makes little bit difficult beginning questions asked deliberate design decision needs getting used editors ask user closing modified text case oberon system usage tui programming interface fully documented martin reiser book oberon system short introduction user interface found niklaus wirth home page later versions system oberon oberon v4 v4 short sometimes also referred linz-oberon oberon system 3 s3 sometimes also called eth-oberon spirit oberon enhanced basic interface different incompatible implementations buttons drop menus active elements v4 used purpose dedicated control character embedded normal text contrast system 3 extended kernel introducing persistent objects extensions include large set user interface elements mastering oberon user interface purely textual also called gadgets system s3 absolutely non-trivial therefore recommended proceed successful installation oberon system 3 andré fischers oberon system 3 tutorial expanded version tutorial published book print whole book available electronic form single user license every installed version system 3 windows linux native i.e also gadgets toolkit olr information get copy oberon companion may found section oberon wikibook similar user interfaces yet appear commonplace operating systems rob pike acme system plan 9 bell labs strongly inspired oberon tui whether worksheet interface macintosh programmer workshop influenced oberon tui vice versa difficult decide oberon system based wirth previous computer design lilith apple macintosh precursor lisa oberon system ceres precursor lilith roots inspired alto developed xerox parc v1 first usable version time oberon trilogy published major change text model together editor called write yielded v2 foreshadowed table section history major fork beginning 1990s v4 vs. system 3 group around jürg gutknecht introduced persistent objects object-libraries thereby extending kernel group around realized similar features introducing active elements mapped special character thereby extending fonts without changing kernel system 3 sometimes also called spirit oberon later renamed eth oberon whereas v4 sometimes also called linz oberon version oberon system 3 integrated microsoft windows os called plugin oberon version called oberon v4 see also history closer original operating system developed n. wirth j. gutknecht originally developed ethz h.p mössenböck went institut für systemsoftware johannes-kepler university linz jku development v4 moved also therefore v4 sometimes also called linz-oberon contrast eth-oberon recent version v4 extensions available jku oberon v4 appears orphaned almost changes since 2000 another repository v4 claudio nieder oberon v4 also shows difference different v4 implementations since 2013 page moved to/is mirrored sourceforge v4 closer would called integrated development environment operating system many extensions written v4 still available ftp server ssw jku documentation found web-pages information normally included packages given oberon special rich text format computer science department eth zurich recent years begun exploring active objects concurrency operating systems released early version new language active oberon new operating system first called aos — due copyright issues — called a2 and/or bluebottle available eth zurich source via internet native versions a2 i.e running bare hardware currently possible intel ia-32 x86-64 single- multi-processor systems strongarm cpu family versions running top another operating system available windows winaos unix unixaos linux linuxaos os-x darwinaos part industrial research project native systems group eth zurich developed application-specific operating system called stailaos based latest version oberon os targeted towards applications like real-time analytics high performance trading systems main memory based erp etc native oberon stands oberon system running bare hardware pc-native oberon version oberon operating system runs ia-32 x86-32 pc hardware never v4 native oberon every information section implicitly assumes system 3 native oberon minimal hardware requirements 133 mhz pentium 100mb hard disk vesa 2 graphics card resolution least 1024x768 pixel optionally 3com network card basic system runs single hd-floppy additional software installed network full installation includes gadgets gui written completely oberon programming language confusion caused fact exists version called lno acronym linux native oberon uses linux hardware abstraction layer hal goal compatible possible pc-native oberon versions oberon system i.e without native name partially modified interfaces low level modules 2015 peter matthias revitalized lno name olr oberon linux revival multi-platform distribution running seamlessly intel x86 risc-v mips arm runs nicely raspberry pi inexpensive chip computer tweaking adjusting group membership or/and permissions devices runs nicely tiny core linux olr interfaces linux kernel direct system calls olr currently mid 2017 misses network layer 2013 niklaus wirth paul reed completed re-implementation original oberon system digilent xilinx spartan 3 fpga starter board work included revision project oberon identified project oberon new edition 2013 system since ported xilinx spartan 6 fpga development board saanlima electronics 2015 paul reed collaborated victor yurkovsky creation oberonstation xilinx spartan 3-based computer designed specifically run oberon peter de wachter implemented emulator also ported java javascript michael schierl running modern browsers ported free pascal/ultibo markus greim andreas pirklbauer maintains experimental version extensions project oberon 2013 github a2 yet another name active object system 2003. br alo arm linux oberon lno family arm cpu. br aos active object system 2002. br bb blackbox component builder component pascal ide oberon microsystems. br bluebottle os another name active object system 2003. br cp component pascal dialect oberon family similar oberon-2. br etho oberon developed eidgenössische technische hochschule eth zürich. br fox compiler active oberon appearing aos a2 bluebottle br leo linux eth oberon etho 2.4.3 linux x86. br lno linux native oberon. br native oberon oberon running bare hardware rather atop another operating system. br olr oberon linux revival version uses linux hal runs x86 arm mips. br op2 portable oberon-2 compiler op2 developed port oberon onto commercially available platforms. br paco scope parallel compiler appears a2 compiles scope independent thread br risc5 cpu project oberon 2013 based upon wirth risc architecture confused risc-v. br unixaos unix-based aos. br winaos windows-based aos. br Target text information: hardware_abstraction.hardware abstraction hardware abstractions sets routines software emulate platform-specific details giving programs direct access hardware resources often allow programmers write device-independent high performance applications providing standard operating system os calls hardware process abstracting pieces hardware often done perspective cpu type cpu specific instruction set architecture isa isa represents primitive operations machine available use assembly programmers compiler writers one main functions compiler allow programmer write algorithm high-level language without care cpu-specific instructions job compiler generate cpu-specific executable type abstraction made operating systems os apis represent primitive operations machine rather isa allows programmer use os-level operations e.g task creation/deletion programs retaining portability variety different platforms many early computer systems form hardware abstraction meant anyone writing program system would know hardware device communicated rest system significant challenge software developers since know every hardware device system worked ensure software compatibility hardware abstraction rather program communicating directly hardware device communicates operating system device generates hardware-dependent instruction device meant programmers n't need know specific devices worked making programs compatible device example might joystick abstraction joystick device many physical implementations readable/writable api many joystick-like devices might share joystick-devices might report movement directions many joystick-devices might sensitivity-settings configured outside application joystick abstraction hides details e.g. register format i2c address hardware programmer using abstracted api need understand details device physical interface also allows code reuse since code process standardized messages kind implementation supplies joystick abstraction nudge forward potentiometer capacitive touch sensor recognises swipe gestures long provide signal related movement physical limitations e.g resolution sensor temporal update frequency may vary hardware api little hide assuming least common denominator model thus certain deep architectural decisions implementation may become relevant users particular instantiation abstraction good metaphor abstraction transportation bicycling driving car transportation commonalities e.g. must steer physical differences e.g. use feet one always specify abstraction drive let implementor decide whether bicycling driving car best wheeled terrestrial transport function abstracted details drive encapsulated examples abstractions pc include video input printers audio input output block devices e.g hard disk drives usb flash drive etc certain computer science domains operating systems embedded systems abstractions slightly different appearances instance operating systems tend standardized interfaces concept abstraction encapsulation complexity common deep hardware abstraction layer reside application programming interface api software stack whereas application layer often written high level language resides api communicates hardware calling functions api hardware abstraction layer hal abstraction layer implemented software physical hardware computer software runs computer function hide differences hardware operating system kernel kernel-mode code need changed run systems different hardware pc hal basically considered driver motherboard allows instructions higher level computer languages communicate lower level components prevents direct access hardware cp/m cp/m bios dos dos bios solaris linux bsd macos portable operating systems also hal even explicitly designated operating systems linux ability insert one running like adeos netbsd operating system widely known clean hardware abstraction layer allows highly portable part system subsystems popular buses used one architecture also abstracted isa eisa pci pcie etc. allowing drivers also highly portable minimum code modification operating systems defined hal easily portable across different hardware especially important embedded systems run dozens different platforms windows nt kernel hal kernel space hardware executive services contained file ntoskrnl.exe windows \system32\hal.dll allows portability windows nt kernel-mode code variety processors different memory management unit architectures variety systems different i/o bus architectures code runs without change systems compiled instruction set applicable systems example sgi intel x86-based workstations ibm pc compatible workstations due hal windows 2000 able run since windows vista windows server 2008 hal used automatically determined startup extreme example hal found system/38 as/400 architecture compilers systems generate abstract machine code licensed internal code lic translates virtual machine code native code processor running executes resulting native code exceptions compilers generate lic compilers available outside ibm successful application software operating system software lic layer compiled original s/38 run without modification without recompilation latest as/400 systems despite fact underlying hardware changed dramatically least three different types processors use android introduced hal known vendor interface codenamed project treble version 8.0 oreo abstracts low-level code android os framework must made forward compatible support future versions android ease development firmware updates.. android hal existed even I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	6,128	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: context-based_access_control.context-based access control context-based access control cbac feature firewall software intelligently filters tcp udp packets based application layer protocol session information used intranets extranets internets cbac configured permit specified tcp udp traffic firewall connection initiated within network needing protection words cbac inspect traffic sessions originate external network however example discusses inspecting traffic sessions originate external network cbac inspect traffic sessions originate either side firewall basic function stateful inspection firewall without cbac traffic filtering limited access list implementations examine packets network layer transport layer however cbac examines network layer transport layer information also examines application-layer protocol information ftp connection information learn state tcp udp session allows support protocols involve multiple channels created result negotiations ftp control channel multimedia protocols well protocols ftp rpc sql*net involve multiple control channels cbac inspects traffic travels firewall discover manage state information tcp udp sessions state information used create temporary openings firewall access lists allow return traffic additional data connections permissible sessions sessions originated within protected internal network cbac deep packet inspection hence termed ios firewall cbac also provides following benefits 1-hop neighbor's text information: automotive_network_exchange.automotive network exchange anxebusiness corp. anx company owns operates automotive network exchange anx large private extranet connects automotive suppliers automotive manufacturers since 2006 anx expanded areas provides managed security compliance connectivity solutions businesses healthcare retail automotive sectors automotive network exchange private extranet initially set maintained automotive industry action group telcordia general motors ford chrysler built private network auto industry 1995 provide consistent reliable speed guaranteed security data transmissions automakers suppliers anx network allows trading partners collaborate electronically product design development solicit process orders facilitate just-in-time manufacturing post shipping schedules 1999 automotive industry action group sold anx network science applications international corporation saic overseer anx network became anx next six years 4,000 companies joined anx network making one largest extranets world 2006 private equity firm one equity partners acquired anxebusiness saic automotive industry heavily dependent collaboration manufacturers suppliers entities act federated virtual companies critical materials parts components services high velocity supply chains imperative success virtual companies must flexible accommodate needs virtual automotive manufacturer enabling formation “ many-to-many ” relationships trading partners simultaneously subscribe multiple model programs opt situation dictates anx network designed built operated deliver highly secure collaboration strategic business partners anx network secure private network uses standard open internet protocols carries traffic private lines leased various carriers ipsec end-to-end encryption anx network provides secure service customers like typical vpn ’ different typical vpn routers make network check every packet make sure comes ip address private network thus nobody customers get network triple des encryption protects customer ’ data potential malicious behavior another customer 1-hop neighbor's text information: proxy_server.proxy server computer networks proxy server server computer system application acts intermediary requests clients seeking resources servers client connects proxy server requesting service file connection web page resource available different server proxy server evaluates request way simplify control complexity proxies invented add structure encapsulation distributed systems proxy server may reside user local computer point user computer destination servers internet open proxy forwarding proxy server accessible internet user 2008 gordon lyon estimates hundreds thousands open proxies internet anonymous open proxy allows users conceal ip address browsing web using internet services varying degrees anonymity however well number methods 'tricking client revealing regardless proxy used reverse proxy surrogate proxy server appears clients ordinary server reverse proxies forward requests one ordinary servers handle request response proxy server returned came directly original server leaving client knowledge original server reverse proxies installed neighborhood one web servers traffic coming internet destination one neighborhood web servers goes proxy server use reverse originates counterpart forward proxy since reverse proxy sits closer web server serves restricted set websites several reasons installing reverse proxy servers content-filtering web proxy server provides administrative control content may relayed one directions proxy commonly used commercial non-commercial organizations especially schools ensure internet usage conforms acceptable use policy content filtering proxy often support user authentication control web access also usually produces logs either give detailed information urls accessed specific users monitor bandwidth usage statistics may also communicate daemon-based and/or icap-based antivirus software provide security virus malware scanning incoming content real time enters network many workplaces schools colleges restrict web sites online services accessible available buildings governments also censor undesirable content done either specialized proxy called content filter commercial free products available using cache-extension protocol icap allows plug-in extensions open caching architecture websites commonly used students circumvent filters access blocked content often include proxy user access websites filter trying block requests may filtered several methods url dns blacklists blacklist url regex filtering mime filtering content keyword filtering products known employ content analysis techniques look traits commonly used certain types content providers blacklists often provided maintained web-filtering companies often grouped categories pornography gambling shopping social networks etc. assuming requested url acceptable content fetched proxy point dynamic filter may applied return path example jpeg files could blocked based fleshtone matches language filters could dynamically detect unwanted language content rejected http fetch error may returned requester web filtering companies use internet-wide crawling robot assesses likelihood content certain type resultant database corrected manual labor based complaints known flaws content-matching algorithms proxies scan outbound content e.g. data loss prevention scan content malicious software web filtering proxies able peer inside secure sockets http transactions assuming chain-of-trust ssl/tls transport layer security tampered ssl/tls chain-of-trust relies trusted root certificate authorities workplace setting client managed organization trust might granted root certificate whose private key known proxy consequently root certificate generated proxy installed browser ca list staff situations proxy analysis contents ssl/tls transaction becomes possible proxy effectively operating man-in-the-middle attack allowed client trust root certificate proxy owns destination server filters content based origin request use proxy circumvent filter example server using ip-based geolocation restrict service certain country accessed using proxy located country access service web proxies common means bypassing government censorship although 3 internet users use circumvention tools cases users circumvent proxies filter using blacklists using services designed proxy information non-blacklisted location proxies installed order eavesdrop upon data-flow client machines web content sent accessed – including passwords submitted cookies used – captured analyzed proxy operator reason passwords online services webmail banking always exchanged cryptographically secured connection ssl chaining proxies reveal data original requester possible obfuscate activities eyes user destination however traces left intermediate hops could used offered trace user activities policies administrators proxies unknown user may fall victim false sense security details sight mind inconvenience risk proxy users may find blocked certain web sites numerous forums web sites block ip addresses proxies known spammed trolled site proxy bouncing used maintain privacy caching proxy server accelerates service requests retrieving content saved previous request made client even clients caching proxies keep local copies frequently requested resources allowing large organizations significantly reduce upstream bandwidth usage costs significantly increasing performance isps large businesses caching proxy caching proxies first kind proxy server web proxies commonly used cache web pages web server poorly implemented caching proxies cause problems inability use user authentication proxy designed mitigate specific link related issues degradation performance enhancing proxy peps typically used improve tcp performance presence high round-trip times high packet loss wireless mobile phone networks highly asymmetric links featuring different upload download rates peps make efficient use network example merging tcp acks acknowledgements compressing data sent application layer translation proxy proxy server used localize website experience different markets traffic global audience routed translation proxy source website visitors browse proxied site requests go back source site pages rendered original language content response replaced translated content passes back proxy translations used translation proxy either machine translation human translation combination machine human translation different translation proxy implementations different capabilities allow customization source site local audience excluding source content substituting source content original local content proxy used automatically repair errors proxied content instance bikiniproxy system instruments javascript code fly order detect automatically repair errors happening browser.. another kind repair done proxy fix accessibility issues anonymous proxy server sometimes called web proxy generally attempts anonymize web surfing different varieties anonymizers destination server server ultimately satisfies web request receives requests anonymizing proxy server thus receive information end user address requests anonymous anonymizing proxy server however degree trust present proxy server user many proxy servers funded continued advertising link user access control proxy servers implement logon requirement large organizations authorized users must log gain access web organization thereby track usage individuals anonymizing proxy servers may forward data packets header lines http_via http_x_forwarded_for http_forwarded may reveal ip address client anonymizing proxy servers known elite high-anonymity proxies make appear proxy server client website could still suspect proxy used client sends packets include cookie previous visit use high-anonymity proxy server clearing cookies possibly cache would solve problem advertisers use proxy servers validating checking quality assurance geotargeted ads geotargeting ad server checks request source ip address uses geo-ip database determine geographic source requests using proxy server physically located inside specific country city gives advertisers ability test geotargeted ads proxy keep internal network structure company secret using network address translation help security internal network makes requests machines users local network anonymous proxies also combined firewalls incorrectly configured proxy provide access network otherwise isolated internet proxies allow web sites make web requests externally hosted resources e.g images music files etc cross-domain restrictions prohibit web site linking directly outside domains proxies also allow browser make web requests externally hosted content behalf website cross-domain restrictions place protect websites likes data theft prohibit browser directly accessing outside domains secondary market brokers use web proxy servers buy large stocks limited products limited sneakers tickets web proxies forward http requests request client regular http request except full url passed instead path request sent proxy server proxy makes request specified returns response web proxies allow http connect method set forwarding arbitrary data connection common policy forward port 443 allow https traffic examples web proxy servers include apache mod_proxy traffic server haproxy iis configured proxy e.g. application request routing nginx privoxy squid varnish reverse proxy wingate ziproxy tinyproxy rabbit4 polipo clients problem complex multiple proxy-servers solved client-serer proxy auto-config protocol pac file socks also forwards arbitrary data connection phase similar http connect web proxies also known intercepting proxy inline proxy forced proxy transparent proxy intercepts normal communication without requiring special client configuration clients need aware existence proxy transparent proxy normally located client internet proxy performing functions gateway router 'transparent proxy proxy modify request response beyond required proxy authentication identification 'non-transparent proxy proxy modifies request response order provide added service user agent group annotation services media type transformation protocol reduction anonymity filtering tcp intercept traffic filtering security feature protects tcp servers tcp syn flood attacks type denial-of-service attack tcp intercept available ip traffic 2009 security flaw way transparent proxies operate published robert auger computer emergency response team issued advisory listing dozens affected transparent intercepting proxy servers intercepting proxies commonly used businesses enforce acceptable use policy ease administrative overheads since client browser configuration required second reason however mitigated features active directory group policy dhcp automatic proxy detection intercepting proxies also commonly used isps countries save upstream bandwidth improve customer response times caching common countries bandwidth limited e.g island nations must paid diversion interception tcp connection creates several issues firstly original destination ip port must somehow communicated proxy always possible e.g. gateway proxy reside different hosts class cross site attacks depend certain behaviour intercepting proxies check access information original intercepted destination problem may resolved using integrated packet-level application level appliance software able communicate information packet handler proxy intercepting also creates problems http authentication especially connection-oriented authentication ntlm client browser believes talking server rather proxy cause problems intercepting proxy requires authentication user connects site also requires authentication finally intercepting connections cause problems http caches requests responses become uncacheable shared cache integrated firewall proxy servers router/firewall host proxy communicating original destination information done method example microsoft tmg wingate interception also performed using cisco wccp web cache control protocol proprietary protocol resides router configured cache allowing cache determine ports traffic sent via transparent redirection router redirection occur one two ways gre tunneling osi layer 3 mac rewrites osi layer 2 traffic reaches proxy machine interception commonly performed nat network address translation setups invisible client browser leave proxy visible web server devices internet side proxy recent linux bsd releases provide tproxy transparent proxy performs ip-level osi layer 3 transparent interception spoofing outbound traffic hiding proxy ip address network devices several methods often used detect presence intercepting proxy server cgi web proxy accepts target urls using web form user browser window processes request returns results user browser consequently used device network allow true proxy settings changed first recorded cgi proxy named rover time renamed 1998 cgiproxy developed american computer scientist james marshall early 1996 article unix review rich morin majority cgi proxies powered one cgiproxy written perl language glype written php language phproxy written php language april 2016 cgiproxy received 2 million downloads glype received almost million downloads whilst phproxy still receives hundreds downloads per week despite waning popularity due vpns privacy methods still several thousand cgi proxies online cgi proxies set purposes making websites accessible disabled people since shut due excessive traffic usually caused third party advertising service means bypass local filtering since many users n't care collateral damage causing became necessary organizations hide proxies disclosing urls take trouble contact organization demonstrate genuine need suffix proxy allows user access web content appending name proxy server url requested content e.g en.wikipedia.org. suffixproxy.com suffix proxy servers easier use regular proxy servers offer high levels anonymity primary use bypassing web filters however rarely used due advanced web filters tor short onion router system intended enable online anonymity tor client software routes internet traffic worldwide volunteer network servers order conceal user location usage someone conducting network surveillance traffic analysis using tor makes difficult trace internet activity including visits web sites online posts instant messages communication forms back user intended protect users personal freedom privacy ability conduct confidential business keeping internet activities monitored onion routing refers layered nature encryption service original data encrypted re-encrypted multiple times sent successive tor relays one decrypts layer encryption passing data next relay ultimately destination reduces possibility original data unscrambled understood transit tor client free software additional charges use network i2p anonymous network 'i2p proxy network aiming online anonymity implements garlic routing enhancement tor onion routing i2p fully distributed works encrypting communications various layers relaying network routers run volunteers various locations keeping source information hidden i2p offers censorship resistance goals i2p protect users personal freedom privacy ability conduct confidential business user i2p runs i2p router computer node i2p router takes care finding peers building anonymizing tunnels i2p provides proxies protocols http irc socks ... software free open-source network free charge use 'proxy refers layer-7 application osi reference model network address translation nat similar proxy operates layer-3 client configuration layer-3 nat configuring gateway sufficient however client configuration layer-7 proxy destination packets client generates must always proxy server layer-7 proxy server reads packet finds true destination nat operates layer-3 less resource-intensive layer-7 proxy also less flexible compare two technologies might encounter terminology known 'transparent firewall transparent firewall means proxy uses layer-7 proxy advantages without knowledge client client presumes gateway nat layer-3 idea inside packet method layer-3 packets sent layer-7 proxy investigation dns proxy server takes dns queries usually local network forwards internet domain name server may also cache dns records client programs socks-ify allows adaptation networked software connect external networks via certain types proxy servers mostly socks Target text information: extranet.extranet extranet controlled private network allows access partners vendors suppliers authorized set customers – normally subset information accessible organization intranet extranet similar dmz provides access needed services authorized parties without granting access organization entire network historically term occasionally also used sense two organizations sharing internal networks virtual private network vpn late 1990s early 2000s several industries started use term 'extranet describe centralized repositories shared data supporting applications made accessible via web authorized members particular work groups example geographically dispersed multi-company project teams applications offered software service saas basis example construction industry project teams may access project extranet share drawings photographs documents use online applications mark-up make comments manage report project-related communications 2003 united kingdom several leading vendors formed network construction collaboration technology providers ncctp promote technologies establish data exchange standards different data systems type construction-focused technologies also developed united states australia mainland europe I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	245	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: compaq_portable.compaq portable compaq portable early portable computer one first 100 ibm pc compatible systems compaq computer corporation first product followed others compaq portable series later compaq deskpro series compaq portable announced november 1982 first shipped march 1983 priced us 2,995 single half-height 5¼ 360 kb diskette drive 3,590 dual full-height diskette drives compaq portable folded luggable case size portable sewing machine computer early all-in-one becoming available two years cp/m-based osborne 1 kaypro ii year ms-dos-based entirely ibm pc compatible dynalogic hyperion year commodore sx-64 design influenced xerox notetaker prototype computer developed xerox parc 1976 ibm responded compaq portable ibm portable developed sales force needed comparable computer sell compaq compaq sold 53,000 units first year total 111 million revenue american business record second year revenue hit 329 million setting industry record third year revenue 503.9 million another us business record compaq portable basically hardware ibm pc transplanted luggable case specifically designed fit carry-on luggage airplane compaq bios instead ibm portables shipped 128k ram 1-2 double-sided double-density 360 kb disk drives machine uses unique hybrid ibm mda cga supports latter graphics modes contains cards text fonts rom using internal monochrome monitor 9x14 font used 8x8 one external monitor used user switches internal external monitors pressing user use ibm video standards graphics capabilities high-resolution text larger external monitor graphics hardware also used original compaq deskpro desktop computer despite success compaq portable flaws hardware foam pads keyboards used make contact circuit board pressed would eventually disintegrate time due wear normal use natural wear would render keyboard useless would require full replacement foam pad affected crt display also suffered low refresh rate heavy ghosting compaq efforts possible ibm used mostly off-the-shelf parts pc published full technical documentation microsoft kept right license ms-dos computer manufacturers difficulty bios contained ibm copyrighted code compaq solved problem producing clean room workalike performed documented functions ibm pc bios completely written scratch although numerous companies soon also began selling pc compatibles matched compaq remarkable achievement essentially-complete software compatibility ibm pc typically reaching 95 compatibility best phoenix technologies others began selling similarly reverse-engineered bioss open market first portables used compaq dos 1.13 essentially identical pc dos 1.10 except standalone basic require ibm pc rom cassette basic superseded months dos 2.00 added hard disk support advanced features aside using dos 1.x initial portables similar 16k-64k models ibm pc bios limited 544k ram support expansion roms thus making unable use ega/vga cards hard disks similar hardware dos 2.x ibm xt came compaq upgraded bios although portable offered factory hard disk users commonly installed starting 1984 compaq began offering hard disk-equipped version portable plus 1985 compaq introduced portable 286 replaced compact portable ii redesigned case within months byte wrote testing prototype compaq portable looks like sure winner portability cost high degree compatibility ibm pc reviewer tested ibm pc dos cp/m-86 wordstar supercalc several software packages found worked except one game pc magazine also rated compaq portable highly compatibility reporting tested applications ran praised rugged hardware design sharp display concluded certainly worth consideration anyone seeking run ibm pc software without ibm pc machine first series compaq portable machines 1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: compaq_portable_series.compaq portable series compaq first computers portable 'lunchbox 'luggable computers belong compaq portable series computers measured approximately 1×1 foot side approx 2½ ft wide products evolved laptops notebooks created offing new level portability caused market explode portables portable portable ii crt monitors others portable iii portable 386 flat single-color usually amber plasma displays portables came/could come internal hard disk drives .5 shock mount springs diskette drives usually 5 double- quadruple-density drives batteries and/or dual-isa expansion chassis one full-drive-height wide later products included mono color lcd screens battery powered Target text information: compaq_portable_ii.compaq portable ii compaq portable ii third product compaq portable series brought compaq computer corporation released 1986 price us 3499 portable ii much improved upon predecessors included 8 mhz processor lighter smaller compaq portable four models compaq portable ii basic model 1 shipped one 5.25 floppy drive 256kb ram model 2 added second 5.25 floppy drive sold 3599 model 3 shipped 10mb hard disk addition one 5.25 floppy drive 640kb ram 4799 launch model 4 would upgrade model 3 20mb hard drive sold 4999 also may 4.1 mb hard drive included one point compaq portable ii significantly lighter predecessors model 1 weighed 23.6 pounds compared 30.5 pounds compaq portable 286 weighed compaq shipped system small demo disk ms-dos 3.1 purchased separately least two reported cases improperly serviced computers exploding non-rechargeable lithium battery motherboard connected power supply recorded injuries compaq portable ii succeeded compaq portable iii 1987 compaq portable ii room additional market upgrades compaq manufactured four memory expansion boards 512kb 2048kb isa memory cards 512kb 1536kb memory boards attached back motherboard 640kb installed motherboard isa card expansion board computer could upgraded maximum 4.2mb ram motherboard also space optional 80287 math coprocessor two revisions motherboard functionally identical although earlier version larger motherboard four isa slots expansion cards two 8-bit two 16-bit however first 16-bit slot already occupied cga graphics card one 8-bit slots used ata drive controller board leaving two available add cards keyboard hardwired uses standard ps/2 signaling din ps/2 socket retrofitted allow use common ps/2 keyboards usb ones I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	8,786	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: backward_compatibility.backward compatibility backward compatibility property system product technology allows interoperability older legacy system input designed system especially telecommunications computing backward compatibility sometimes also called downward compatibility modifying system way allow backward compatibility sometimes called breaking backward compatibility complementary concept forward compatibility design forward-compatible usually roadmap compatibility future standards products programming jargon concept sometimes referred hysterical reasons homophone historical reasons associated benefits backward compatibility appeal existing user base inexpensive upgrade path well network effect particularly important increases value goods services proportionally size user base one example sony playstation 2 ps2 backward compatible games predecessor playstation ps1 selection ps2 games available launch small sales console nonetheless strong 2000-2001 thanks large library games preceding ps1 bought time ps2 grow large installed base developers release quality ps2 games crucial 2001 holiday season associated costs backward compatibility higher bill materials hardware required support legacy systems increased complexity product may lead longer time market technological hindrances slowing innovation increased expectations users terms compatibility notable example sony playstation 3 first ps3 iteration expensive manufacture part due including emotion engine preceding ps2 order run ps2 games since ps3 architecture completely different ps2 subsequent ps3 hardware revisions eliminated emotion engine saved production costs removing ability run ps2 titles sony found backward compatibility major selling point ps3 contrast ps2 ps3 chief competitor microsoft xbox 360 took different approach backward compatibility using software emulation order run games first xbox rather including legacy hardware original xbox quite different xbox 360 however microsoft stopped releasing emulation profiles 2007 simple example backward forward compatibility introduction fm radio stereo fm radio initially mono one audio channel represented one signal introduction two-channel stereo fm radio large number listeners mono fm receivers forward compatibility mono receivers stereo signals achieved sending sum left right audio channels one signal difference another signal allows mono fm receivers receive decode sum signal ignoring difference signal necessary separating audio channels stereo fm receivers receive mono signal decode without need second signal separate sum signal left right channels sum difference signals received without requirement backward compatibility simpler method could chosen full backward compatibility particularly important computer instruction set architectures one successful x86 family microprocessors full backward compatibility spans back 16-bit intel 8086/8088 processors introduced 1978 8086/8088 turn designed easy machine-translatability programs written predecessor mind although instruction-set compatible 8-bit intel 8080 processor 1974 zilog z80 however fully backwards compatible intel 8080 fully backwards compatible processors process binary executable software instructions predecessors allowing use newer processor without acquire new applications operating systems similarly success wi-fi digital communication standard attributed broad forward backward compatibility became popular standards backward compatible compiler backward compatibility may refer ability compiler newer version language accept programs data worked previous version data format said backward compatible predecessor every message file valid old format still valid retaining meaning new format 1-hop neighbor's text information: lisp_(programming_language).lisp programming language lisp historically lisp family computer programming languages long history distinctive fully parenthesized prefix notation originally specified 1958 lisp second-oldest high-level programming language widespread use today fortran older one year lisp changed since early days many dialects existed history today best-known general-purpose lisp dialects clojure common lisp scheme lisp originally created practical mathematical notation computer programs influenced notation alonzo church lambda calculus quickly became favored programming language artificial intelligence ai research one earliest programming languages lisp pioneered many ideas computer science including tree data structures automatic storage management dynamic typing conditionals higher-order functions recursion self-hosting compiler read–eval–print loop name lisp derives list processor linked lists one lisp major data structures lisp source code made lists thus lisp programs manipulate source code data structure giving rise macro systems allow programmers create new syntax new domain-specific languages embedded lisp interchangeability code data gives lisp instantly recognizable syntax program code written s-expressions parenthesized lists function call syntactic form written list function operator name first arguments following instance function takes three arguments would called john mccarthy developed lisp 1958 massachusetts institute technology mit mccarthy published design paper communications acm 1960 entitled recursive functions symbolic expressions computation machine part showed simple operators notation functions one build turing-complete language algorithms information processing language first ai language 1955 1956 already included many concepts list-processing recursion came used lisp mccarthy original notation used bracketed m-expressions would translated s-expressions example m-expression equivalent s-expression lisp implemented programmers rapidly chose use s-expressions m-expressions abandoned m-expressions surfaced short-lived attempts mlisp horace enea cgol vaughan pratt lisp first implemented steve russell ibm 704 computer russell read mccarthy paper realized mccarthy surprise lisp eval function could implemented machine code result working lisp interpreter could used run lisp programs properly evaluate lisp expressions two assembly language macros ibm 704 became primitive operations decomposing lists contents address part register number contents decrement part register number register used refer registers computer central processing unit cpu lisp dialects still use operations return first item list rest list respectively first complete lisp compiler written lisp implemented 1962 tim hart mike levin mit compiler introduced lisp model incremental compilation compiled interpreted functions intermix freely language used hart levin memo much closer modern lisp style mccarthy earlier code lisp difficult system implement compiler techniques stock hardware 1970s garbage collection routines developed mit graduate student daniel edwards made practical run lisp general-purpose computing systems efficiency still problem led creation lisp machines dedicated hardware running lisp environments programs 1980s 1990s great effort made unify work new lisp dialects mostly successors maclisp zetalisp nil new implementation lisp single language new language common lisp somewhat compatible dialects replaced book common lisp language notes compatibility various constructs 1994 ansi published common lisp standard ansi x3.226-1994 information technology programming language common lisp since inception lisp closely connected artificial intelligence research community especially pdp-10 systems lisp used implementation programming language micro planner used famous ai system shrdlu 1970s ai research spawned commercial offshoots performance existing lisp systems became growing issue sixty-year history lisp spawned many variations core theme s-expression language moreover given dialect may several implementations—for instance dozen implementations common lisp differences dialects may quite visible—for instance common lisp uses keyword codice_1 name function scheme uses codice_2 within dialect standardized however conforming implementations support core language different extensions libraries declined somewhat 1990s lisp experienced resurgence interest 2000 new activity focused around implementations common lisp scheme emacs lisp clojure racket includes development new portable libraries applications many new lisp programmers inspired writers paul graham eric s. raymond pursue language others considered antiquated new lisp programmers often describe language eye-opening experience claim substantially productive languages increase awareness may contrasted ai winter lisp brief gain mid-1990s dan weinreb lists survey common lisp implementations eleven actively maintained common lisp implementations scieneer common lisp new commercial implementation forked cmucl first release 2002 open source community created new supporting infrastructure cliki wiki collects common lisp related information common lisp directory lists resources lisp popular irc channel allows sharing commenting code snippets support lisppaste irc bot written lisp planet lisp collects contents various lisp-related blogs lispforum users discuss lisp topics lispjobs service announcing job offers weekly news service weekly lisp news common-lisp.net hosting site open source common lisp projects quicklisp library manager common lisp fifty years lisp 1958–2008 celebrated lisp50 oopsla regular local user meetings boston vancouver hamburg events include european common lisp meeting european lisp symposium international lisp conference scheme community actively maintains twenty implementations several significant new implementations chicken gambit gauche ikarus larceny ypsilon developed 2000s decade revised report algorithmic language scheme standard scheme widely accepted scheme community scheme requests implementation process created lot quasi standard libraries extensions scheme user communities individual scheme implementations continue grow new language standardization process started 2003 led rrs scheme standard 2007 academic use scheme teaching computer science seems declined somewhat universities longer using scheme computer science introductory courses mit uses python instead scheme undergraduate computer science program mitx massive open online course several new dialects lisp arc hy nu liskell lfe lisp flavored erlang parser julia implemented femtolisp dialect scheme julia inspired scheme often considered lisp common lisp scheme represent two major streams lisp development languages embody significantly different design choices common lisp successor maclisp primary influences lisp machine lisp maclisp nil s-1 lisp spice lisp scheme many features lisp machine lisp large lisp dialect used program lisp machines designed efficiently implementable personal computer workstation common lisp general-purpose programming language thus large language standard including many built-in data types functions macros language elements object system common lisp object system common lisp also borrowed certain features scheme lexical scoping lexical closures common lisp implementations available targeting different platforms llvm java virtual machine x86-64 powerpc alpha arm motorola 68000 mips operating systems windows macos linux solaris freebsd netbsd openbsd dragonfly bsd heroku scheme statically scoped properly tail-recursive dialect lisp programming language invented guy l. steele jr. gerald jay sussman designed exceptionally clear simple semantics different ways form expressions designed decade earlier common lisp scheme minimalist design much smaller set standard features certain implementation features tail-call optimization full continuations specified common lisp wide variety programming paradigms including imperative functional message passing styles find convenient expression scheme scheme continues evolve series standards revised report algorithmic language scheme series scheme requests implementation clojure recent dialect lisp targets mainly java virtual machine common language runtime clr python vm ruby vm yarv compiling javascript designed pragmatic general-purpose language clojure draws considerable influences haskell places strong emphasis immutability clojure provides access java frameworks libraries optional type hints type inference calls java avoid reflection enable fast primitive operations lisp dialects used scripting languages many applications best-known emacs lisp emacs editor autolisp later visual lisp autocad nyquist audacity scheme lilypond potential small size useful scheme interpreter makes particularly popular embedded scripting examples include siod tinyscheme successfully embedded gimp image processor generic name script-fu librep lisp interpreter john harper originally based emacs lisp language embedded sawfish window manager lisp first language structure program code represented faithfully directly standard data structure—a quality much later dubbed homoiconicity thus lisp functions manipulated altered even created within lisp program without lower-level manipulations generally considered one main advantages language regard expressive power makes language suitable syntactic macros metacircular evaluation conditional using if–then–else syntax invented mccarthy fortran context proposed inclusion algol made part algol 58 specification lisp mccarthy used general cond -structure algol 60 took if–then–else popularized lisp deeply influenced alan kay leader research team developed smalltalk xerox parc turn lisp influenced smalltalk later dialects adopting object-oriented programming features inheritance classes encapsulating instances message passing etc 1970s flavors object system introduced concept multiple inheritance mixin common lisp object system provides multiple inheritance multimethods multiple dispatch first-class generic functions yielding flexible powerful form dynamic dispatch served template many subsequent lisp including scheme object systems often implemented via metaobject protocol reflective metacircular design object system defined terms lisp second language smalltalk still one languages possess metaobject system many years later alan kay suggested result confluence features smalltalk lisp could regarded properly conceived object-oriented programming systems lisp introduced concept automatic garbage collection system walks heap looking unused memory progress modern sophisticated garbage collection algorithms generational garbage collection stimulated use lisp edsger w. dijkstra 1972 turing award lecture said largely resource requirements respect early computing hardware including early microprocessors lisp become popular outside ai community fortran algol-descended c language suitability complex dynamic applications lisp enjoying resurgence popular interest 2010s lisp expression oriented language unlike languages distinction made expressions statements code data written expressions expression evaluated produces value common lisp possibly multiple values embedded expressions value data type mccarthy 1958 paper introduced two types syntax symbolic expressions s-expressions sexps mirror internal representation code data meta expressions m-expressions express functions s-expressions m-expressions never found favor almost lisps today use s-expressions manipulate code data use parentheses lisp immediately obvious difference programming language families result students long given lisp nicknames lost stupid parentheses lots irritating superfluous parentheses however s-expression syntax also responsible much lisp power syntax extremely regular facilitates manipulation computer however syntax lisp limited traditional parentheses notation extended include alternative notations example xmlisp common lisp extension employs metaobject protocol integrate s-expressions extensible markup language xml reliance expressions gives language great flexibility lisp functions written lists processed exactly like data allows easy writing programs manipulate programs metaprogramming many lisp dialects exploit feature using macro systems enables extension language almost without limit lisp list written elements separated whitespace surrounded parentheses example list whose elements three atoms values implicitly typed respectively two integers lisp-specific data type called symbol declared empty list also represented special atom entity lisp atom list expressions written lists using prefix notation first element list name function name macro lambda expression name special operator see remainder list arguments example function returns arguments list expression evaluates list quote preceding example special operator returns argument without evaluating unquoted expressions recursively evaluated enclosing expression evaluated example evaluates list note third argument list lists nested arithmetic operators treated similarly expression evaluates 10 equivalent infix notation would lisp notion operators implemented algol-derived languages arithmetic operators lisp variadic functions n-ary able take number arguments c-style '++ increment operator sometimes implemented name incf giving syntax equivalent setq x x 1 returning new value x special operators sometimes called special forms provide lisp control structure example special operator takes three arguments first argument non-nil evaluates second argument otherwise evaluates third argument thus expression evaluates course would useful non-trivial expression substituted place lisp also provides logical operators operators short circuit evaluation return first nil non-nil argument respectively evaluate james another special operator used bind variables values evaluated within expression operator also used create functions arguments list arguments expression expressions function evaluates returned value value last expression evaluated expression evaluates function applied takes one argument binds returns number one greater argument lambda expressions treated differently named functions invoked way therefore expression evaluates 're function application execute anonymous function passing value 5 named functions created storing lambda expression symbol using defun macro original lisp two fundamental data types atoms lists list finite ordered sequence elements element either atom list atom number symbol symbol essentially unique named item written alphanumeric string source code used either variable name data item symbolic processing example list contains three elements symbol list number 2 essential difference atoms lists atoms immutable unique two atoms appeared different places source code written exactly way represented object whereas list separate object could altered independently lists could distinguished lists comparison operators data types introduced later lisp dialects programming styles evolved concept atom lost importance many dialects still retained predicate atom legacy compatibility defining true object cons lisp list implemented singly linked list cell list called cons scheme pair composed two pointers called car cdr respectively equivalent fields discussed article linked list many data structures built cons cells one basic called proper list proper list either special empty list symbol cons points datum may another cons structure list points another proper list given cons taken head linked list car points first element list cdr points rest list reason functions also called referring conses part linked list rather say tree thus lisp list atomic object instance container class c++ java would list nothing aggregate linked conses variable refers given list simply pointer first cons list traversal list done cdring list taking successive cdrs visit cons list using several higher-order functions map function list conses lists universal lisp systems common misconception lisp data structures fact simplistic lisps data structures vectors arrays hash tables structures forth parenthesized s-expressions represent linked list structures several ways represent list s-expression cons written dotted-pair notation car cdr longer proper list might written dotted-pair notation conventionally abbreviated list notation improper list may written combination two – list three conses whose last cdr i.e. list fully specified form lisp provides many built-in procedures accessing controlling lists lists created directly procedure takes number arguments returns list arguments way lists constructed cons pairs procedure used add element front list note procedure asymmetric handles list arguments lists constructed procedure appends two lists one another lisp lists linked lists appending two lists asymptotic time complexity formula_1 lisp lists simple linked lists share structure one another say two lists tail final sequence conses instance execution following common lisp code lists respectively however tail structure lists copy cons cells pointing memory locations lists sharing structure rather copying give dramatic performance improvement however technique interact undesired ways functions alter lists passed arguments altering one list replacing affect changes thereby also changes – possibly unexpected result source bugs functions alter arguments documented destructive reason aficionados functional programming avoid destructive functions scheme dialect favors functional style names destructive functions marked cautionary exclamation point bang —such read set car bang replaces car cons common lisp dialect destructive functions commonplace equivalent named replace car function rarely seen however common lisp includes special facility make easier define use destructive functions frequent style common lisp write code functionally without destructive calls prototyping add destructive calls optimization safe lisp evaluates expressions entered user symbols lists evaluate usually simpler expression – instance symbol evaluates value variable names evaluates however forms evaluate entering lisp returns expression also marked prevent evaluated necessary symbols lists role special operator abbreviation one quotation mark instance usually entering symbol returns value corresponding variable error variable refer literal symbol enter usually common lisp scheme also support backquote operator termed quasiquote scheme entered character grave accent almost plain quote except allows expressions evaluated values interpolated quoted list comma unquote comma-at splice operators variable value evaluates evaluates backquote often used defining macro expansions self-evaluating forms quoted forms lisp equivalent literals may possible modify values mutable literals program code instance function returns quoted form code calls function modifies form may alter behavior function subsequent iterations modifying quoted form like generally considered bad style defined ansi common lisp erroneous resulting undefined behavior compiled files file-compiler coalesce similar constants put write-protected memory etc. lisp formalization quotation noted douglas hofstadter gödel escher bach others example philosophical idea self-reference lisp family splits use dynamic static a.k.a lexical scope clojure common lisp scheme make use static scoping default newlisp picolisp embedded languages emacs autocad use dynamic scoping since version 24.1 emacs uses dynamic lexical scoping fundamental distinction lisp languages lisp textual representation program simply human-readable description internal data structures linked lists symbols number characters etc would used underlying lisp system lisp uses implement powerful macro system like macro languages c macro returns code compiled however unlike c macros macros lisp functions exploit full power lisp lisp code structure lists macros built list-processing functions language short anything lisp data structure lisp macros code contrast languages parser output purely internal language implementation manipulated programmer feature makes easy develop efficient languages within languages example common lisp object system implemented cleanly language extension using macros means application needs different inheritance mechanism use different object system stark contrast languages example java support multiple inheritance reasonable way add simplistic lisp implementations list structure directly interpreted run program function literally piece list structure traversed interpreter executing however substantial lisp systems also include compiler compiler translates list structure machine code bytecode execution code run fast code compiled conventional languages c. macros expand compilation step thus offer interesting options program needs precomputed table macro might create table compile time compiler need output table need call code create table run time lisp implementations even mechanism codice_3 allows code present compile time macro would need present emitted module lisp languages often used interactive command line may combined integrated development environment ide user types expressions command line directs ide transmit lisp system lisp reads entered expressions evaluates prints result reason lisp command line called read–eval–print loop repl basic operation repl follows simplistic description omits many elements real lisp quoting macros function accepts textual s-expressions input parses internal data structure instance type text prompt translates linked list three elements symbol number 1 number 2 happens list also valid piece lisp code evaluated car list names function—the addition operation note read single symbol read number one hundred twenty-three read string 123 function evaluates data returning zero lisp data result evaluation mean interpretation lisp systems compile every expression native machine code simple however describe evaluation interpretation evaluate list whose car names function first evaluates arguments given cdr applies function arguments case function addition applying argument list yields answer result evaluation symbol evaluates value symbol foo data like string 123 evaluates string list evaluates list 1 2 3 job function represent output user simple result trivial expression evaluated piece list structure would require traverse list print s-expression implement lisp repl necessary implement three functions infinite-loop function naturally implementation complex since must also implement special operators like done basic repl one line code lisp repl typically also provides input editing input history error handling interface debugger lisp usually evaluated eagerly common lisp arguments evaluated applicative order 'leftmost innermost scheme order arguments undefined leaving room optimization compiler lisp originally control structures many added language evolution lisp original conditional operator precursor later structures programmers scheme dialect often express loops using tail recursion scheme commonality academic computer science led students believe tail recursion common way write iterations lisp incorrect oft-seen lisp dialects imperative-style iteration constructs scheme loop common lisp complex expressions moreover key issue makes objective rather subjective matter scheme makes specific requirements handling tail calls thus reason use tail recursion generally encouraged scheme practice expressly supported language definition contrast ansi common lisp require optimization commonly termed tail call elimination thus fact tail recursive style casual replacement use traditional iteration constructs discouraged common lisp matter stylistic preference potentially one efficiency since apparent tail call common lisp may compile simple jump program correctness since tail recursion may increase stack use common lisp risking stack overflow lisp control structures special operators equivalent languages syntactic keywords expressions using operators surface appearance function calls differ arguments necessarily evaluated—or case iteration expression may evaluated contrast major programming languages lisp allows implementing control structures using language several control structures implemented lisp macros even macro-expanded programmer wants know work common lisp scheme operators non-local control flow differences operators deepest differences two dialects scheme supports re-entrant continuations using procedure allows program save later restore particular place execution common lisp support re-entrant continuations support several ways handling escape continuations often algorithm expressed lisp either imperative functional style noted scheme tends favor functional style using tail recursion continuations express control flow however imperative style still quite possible style preferred many common lisp programmers may seem familiar programmers used structured languages c preferred schemers closely resembles pure-functional languages haskell lisp early heritage list processing wide array higher-order functions relating iteration sequences many cases explicit loop would needed languages like loop c lisp task accomplished higher-order function true many functional programming languages good example function scheme called common lisp called given function one lists applies function successively lists elements order collecting results new list applies function corresponding pair list elements yielding result examples common lisp code basic hello world program lisp syntax lends naturally recursion mathematical problems enumeration recursively defined sets simple express notation evaluate number factorial alternative implementation takes less stack space previous version underlying lisp system optimizes tail recursion contrast iterative version uses common lisp macro following function reverses list lisp built-in reverse function thing various object systems models built top alongside lisp including 1-hop neighbor's text information: internet_protocol_suite.internet protocol suite internet protocol suite conceptual model set communications protocols used internet similar computer networks commonly known tcp/ip foundational protocols suite transmission control protocol tcp internet protocol ip occasionally known department defense dod model development networking method funded united states department defense darpa internet protocol suite provides end-to-end data communication specifying data packetized addressed transmitted routed received functionality organized four abstraction layers classify related protocols according scope networking involved lowest highest layers link layer containing communication methods data remains within single network segment link internet layer providing internetworking independent networks transport layer handling host-to-host communication application layer providing process-to-process data exchange applications technical standards underlying internet protocol suite constituent protocols maintained internet engineering task force ietf internet protocol suite predates osi model comprehensive reference framework general networking systems internet protocol suite resulted research development conducted defense advanced research projects agency darpa late 1960s initiating pioneering arpanet 1969 darpa started work number data transmission technologies 1972 robert e. kahn joined darpa information processing technology office worked satellite packet networks ground-based radio packet networks recognized value able communicate across spring 1973 vinton cerf helped develop existing arpanet network control program ncp protocol joined kahn work open-architecture interconnection models goal designing next protocol generation arpanet summer 1973 kahn cerf worked fundamental reformulation differences local network protocols hidden using common internetwork protocol instead network responsible reliability arpanet function delegated hosts cerf credits hubert zimmermann louis pouzin designer cyclades network important influences design protocol implemented transmission control program first published 1974 initially tcp managed datagram transmissions routing protocol grew researchers recommended division functionality protocol layers advocates included jonathan postel university southern california information sciences institute edited request comments rfcs technical strategic document series documented catalyzed internet development postel stated screwing design internet protocols violating principle layering encapsulation different mechanisms intended create environment upper layers could access needed lower layers monolithic design would inflexible lead scalability issues transmission control program split two distinct protocols transmission control protocol internet protocol design network included recognition provide functions efficiently transmitting routing traffic end nodes intelligence located edge network end nodes design known end-to-end principle using design became possible connect almost network arpanet irrespective local characteristics thereby solving kahn initial internetworking problem one popular expression tcp/ip eventual product cerf kahn work run two tin cans string years later joke ip avian carriers formal protocol specification created successfully tested computer called router provided interface network forwards network packets back forth originally router called gateway term changed avoid confusion types gateways 1973 1974 cerf networking research group stanford worked details idea resulting first tcp specification significant technical influence early networking work xerox parc produced parc universal packet protocol suite much existed around time darpa contracted bbn technologies stanford university university college london develop operational versions protocol different hardware platforms four versions developed tcp v1 tcp v2 tcp v3 ip v3 tcp/ip v4 last protocol still use today 1975 two-network tcp/ip communications test performed stanford university college london november 1977 three-network tcp/ip test conducted sites us uk norway several tcp/ip prototypes developed multiple research centers 1978 1983 march 1982 us department defense declared tcp/ip standard military computer networking year peter t. kirstein research group university college london adopted protocol migration arpanet tcp/ip officially completed flag day january 1 1983 new protocols permanently activated 1985 internet advisory board later internet architecture board held three-day tcp/ip workshop computer industry attended 250 vendor representatives promoting protocol leading increasing commercial use 1985 first interop conference focused network interoperability broader adoption tcp/ip conference founded dan lynch early internet activist beginning large corporations ibm dec attended meeting ibm dec first major corporations adopt tcp/ip despite competing proprietary protocols ibm 1984 barry appelman group tcp/ip development navigated corporate politics get stream tcp/ip products various ibm systems including mvs vm os/2 time several smaller companies ftp software wollongong group began offering tcp/ip stacks dos microsoft windows first vm/cms tcp/ip stack came university wisconsin early tcp/ip stacks written single-handedly programmers jay elinsky ibm research wrote tcp/ip stacks vm/cms os/2 respectively 1984 donald gillies mit wrote ntcp multi-connection tcp ran atop ip/packetdriver layer maintained john romkey mit 1983-4 romkey leveraged tcp 1986 ftp software founded starting 1985 phil karn created multi-connection tcp application ham radio systems ka9q tcp spread tcp/ip fueled june 1989 university california berkeley agreed place tcp/ip code developed bsd unix public domain various corporate vendors including ibm included code commercial tcp/ip software releases microsoft released native tcp/ip stack windows 95 event helped cement tcp/ip dominance protocols microsoft-based networks included ibm systems network architecture sna platforms digital equipment corporation decnet open systems interconnection osi xerox network systems xns british academic network janet converted tcp/ip 1991 end-to-end principle evolved time original expression put maintenance state overall intelligence edges assumed internet connected edges retained state concentrated speed simplicity real-world needs firewalls network address translators web content caches like forced changes principle robustness principle states general implementation must conservative sending behavior liberal receiving behavior must careful send well-formed datagrams must accept datagram interpret e.g. object technical errors meaning still clear second part principle almost important software hosts may contain deficiencies make unwise exploit legal obscure protocol features encapsulation used provide abstraction protocols services encapsulation usually aligned division protocol suite layers general functionality general application highest level model uses set protocols send data layers data encapsulated level early architectural document emphasizes architectural principles layering rfc 1122 titled host requirements structured paragraphs referring layers document refers many architectural principles emphasize layering loosely defines four-layer model layers names numbers follows link layer networking scope local network connection host attached regime called link tcp/ip literature lowest component layer internet protocols tcp/ip designed hardware independent result tcp/ip may implemented top virtually hardware networking technology link layer used move packets internet layer interfaces two different hosts link processes transmitting receiving packets given link controlled software device driver network card well firmware specialized chipsets perform data link functions adding packet header prepare transmission actually transmit frame physical medium tcp/ip model includes specifications translating network addressing methods used internet protocol link layer addresses media access control mac addresses aspects level however implicitly assumed exist link layer explicitly defined tcp/ip model link layer also layer packets may selected sent virtual private network networking tunnels scenario link layer data may considered application data traverses another instantiation ip stack transmission reception another ip connection connection virtual link may established transport protocol even application scope protocol serves tunnel link layer protocol stack thus tcp/ip model dictate strict hierarchical encapsulation sequence link layer tcp/ip model corresponding functions layer 2 open systems interconnection osi model internet layer responsibility sending packets across potentially multiple networks internetworking requires sending data source network destination network process called routing internet protocol performs two basic functions internet layer agnostic data structures transport layer also distinguish operation various transport layer protocols ip carries data variety different upper layer protocols protocols identified unique protocol number example internet control message protocol icmp internet group management protocol igmp protocols 1 2 respectively protocols carried ip icmp used transmit diagnostic information igmp used manage ip multicast data layered top ip perform internetworking functions illustrates differences architecture tcp/ip stack internet osi model tcp/ip model internet layer corresponds layer three open systems interconnection osi model referred network layer internet layer provides unreliable datagram transmission facility hosts located potentially different ip networks forwarding transport layer datagrams appropriate next-hop router relaying destination functionality internet layer makes possible internetworking interworking different ip networks essentially establishes internet internet protocol principal component internet layer defines two addressing systems identify network hosts computers locate network original address system arpanet successor internet internet protocol version 4 ipv4 uses 32-bit ip address therefore capable identifying approximately four billion hosts limitation eliminated 1998 standardization internet protocol version 6 ipv6 uses 128-bit addresses ipv6 production implementations emerged approximately 2006 transport layer establishes basic data channels applications use task-specific data exchange layer establishes host-to-host connectivity meaning provides end-to-end message transfer services independent structure user data logistics exchanging information particular specific purpose independent underlying network protocols layer may provide error control segmentation flow control congestion control application addressing port numbers end-to-end message transmission connecting applications transport layer categorized either connection-oriented implemented tcp connectionless implemented udp purpose providing process-specific transmission channels applications layer establishes concept network port numbered logical construct allocated specifically communication channels application needs many types services port numbers standardized client computers may address specific services server computer without involvement service announcements directory services ip provides best effort delivery transport layer protocols offer reliability however ip run reliable data link protocol high-level data link control hdlc example tcp connection-oriented protocol addresses numerous reliability issues providing reliable byte stream newer stream control transmission protocol sctp also reliable connection-oriented transport mechanism message-stream-oriented—not byte-stream-oriented like tcp—and provides multiple streams multiplexed single connection also provides multi-homing support connection end represented multiple ip addresses representing multiple physical interfaces one fails connection interrupted developed initially telephony applications transport ss7 ip also used applications user datagram protocol connectionless datagram protocol like ip best effort unreliable protocol reliability addressed error detection using weak checksum algorithm udp typically used applications streaming media audio video voice ip etc on-time arrival important reliability simple query/response applications like dns lookups overhead setting reliable connection disproportionately large real-time transport protocol rtp datagram protocol designed real-time data streaming audio video applications given network address distinguished tcp udp port convention certain well known ports associated specific applications tcp/ip model transport host-to-host layer corresponds roughly fourth layer open systems interconnection osi model also called transport layer application layer includes protocols used applications providing user services exchanging application data network connections established lower level protocols may include basic network support services protocols routing host configuration examples application layer protocols include hypertext transfer protocol http file transfer protocol ftp simple mail transfer protocol smtp dynamic host configuration protocol dhcp data coded according application layer protocols encapsulated transport layer protocol units tcp udp messages turn use lower layer protocols effect actual data transfer tcp/ip model consider specifics formatting presenting data define additional layers application transport layers osi model presentation session layers functions realm libraries application programming interfaces application layer protocols generally treat transport layer lower protocols black boxes provide stable network connection across communicate although applications usually aware key qualities transport layer connection end point ip addresses port numbers application layer protocols often associated particular client-server applications common services well-known port numbers reserved internet assigned numbers authority iana example hypertext transfer protocol uses server port 80 telnet uses server port 23 clients connecting service usually use ephemeral ports i.e. port numbers assigned duration transaction random specific range configured application transport layer lower-level layers unconcerned specifics application layer protocols routers switches typically examine encapsulated traffic rather provide conduit however firewall bandwidth throttling applications must interpret application data example resource reservation protocol rsvp also sometimes necessary network address translator nat traversal consider application payload application layer tcp/ip model often compared equivalent combination fifth session sixth presentation seventh application layers open systems interconnection osi model furthermore tcp/ip model distinguishes user protocols support protocols support protocols provide services system network infrastructure user protocols used actual user applications example ftp user protocol dns support protocol following table shows various networking models number layers varies three seven networking models textbooks secondary sources may conflict intent rfc 1122 ietf primary sources three top layers osi model i.e application layer presentation layer session layer distinguished separately tcp/ip model application layer transport layer pure osi protocol applications x.400 also combined requirement tcp/ip protocol stack must impose monolithic architecture transport layer example nfs application protocol runs external data representation xdr presentation protocol turn runs protocol called remote procedure call rpc rpc provides reliable record transmission safely use best-effort udp transport different authors interpreted tcp/ip model differently disagree whether link layer entire tcp/ip model covers osi layer 1 physical layer issues whether hardware layer assumed link layer several authors attempted incorporate osi model layers 1 2 tcp/ip model since commonly referred modern standards example ieee itu often results model five layers link layer network access layer split osi model layers 1 2 ietf protocol development effort concerned strict layering protocols may fit cleanly osi model although rfcs sometimes refer often use old osi layer numbers ietf repeatedly stated internet protocol architecture development intended osi-compliant rfc 3439 addressing internet architecture contains section entitled layering considered harmful example session presentation layers osi suite considered included application layer tcp/ip suite functionality session layer found protocols like http smtp evident protocols like telnet session initiation protocol sip session layer functionality also realized port numbering tcp udp protocols cover transport layer tcp/ip suite functions presentation layer realized tcp/ip applications mime standard data exchange conflicts apparent also original osi model iso 7498 considering annexes model e.g. iso 7498/4 management framework iso 8648 internal organization network layer ionl ionl management framework documents considered icmp igmp defined layer management protocols network layer like manner ionl provides structure subnetwork dependent convergence facilities arp rarp ietf protocols encapsulated recursively demonstrated tunneling protocols generic routing encapsulation gre gre uses mechanism osi uses tunneling network layer internet protocol suite presume specific hardware software environment requires hardware software layer exists capable sending receiving packets computer network result suite implemented essentially every computing platform minimal implementation tcp/ip includes following internet protocol ip address resolution protocol arp internet control message protocol icmp transmission control protocol tcp user datagram protocol udp internet group management protocol igmp addition ip icmp tcp udp internet protocol version 6 requires neighbor discovery protocol ndp icmpv6 igmpv6 often accompanied integrated ipsec security layer application programmers typically concerned interfaces application layer often also transport layer layers services provided tcp/ip stack operating system ip implementations accessible programmers sockets apis unique implementations include lightweight tcp/ip open source stack designed embedded systems ka9q nos stack associated protocols amateur packet radio systems personal computers connected via serial lines microcontroller firmware network adapter typically handles link issues supported driver software operating system non-programmable analog digital electronics normally charge physical components link layer typically using application-specific integrated circuit asic chipset network interface physical standard high-performance routers large extent based fast non-programmable digital electronics carrying link level switching Target text information: honeywell_cp-6.honeywell cp-6 cp-6 discontinued computer operating system developed honeywell inc. 1976 backward-compatible work-alike xerox cp-v fully rewritten honeywell level/66 hardware cp-6 command line oriented system terminal emulator allowed use pcs cp-6 terminals 1975 xerox decided sell computer business purchased scientific data systems 1969 deal put together harry sweatt honeywell purchased xerox data systems took xerox sales field computer support staff provide field service support existing customer base xerox made available spare equipment supplies warehouses containing revenues shared 60/40 xerox cp-6 general release 60/40 honeywell three years thereafter following revenue went honeywell early 1960s honeywell built sold large number h200 machines together software 1970 bought computer business general electric cp-6 system including operating system program products developed beginning 1976 honeywell attract xerox cp-v users 750 sigma users buy use honeywell equipment honeywell employed initial team 60 programmers xerox cp-v development team added another 30 programmers plus management staff organized hank hoagland shel klee team housed old xerox marketing office 5250 w. century blvd los angeles became known los angeles development center ladc new operating system called cp-6 ladc reported administratively honeywell computer group phoenix facility honeywell acquired general electric first beta site installed carleton university ottawa canada june 1979 three sites installed end 1979 customers worked ladc directly exchange users group throughout specification development period review approve direction development compromises order feature implementation comshare major xerox customer operating system needed capacity service rapidly expanding timesharing business help ladc hardware engineers using xerox specifications honeywell engineers phoenix built 30 sigma 9 computers 24 comshare 6 customers project initiated 1978 machines sold original retail price delivered beginning third quarter 1979 1981 cp-6 modeled xerox cp-v code completely rewritten new high-level language pl-6 designed built expressly purpose rather assembly language cp-v increasing complexities new virtual addressing hardware honeywell ’ l66 dps 8 line rewrite existing weaknesses addressed many new features added like cp-v cp-6 five access modes operated concurrently batch processing remote batch timesharing transaction processing real-time processing included multiprogramming operated multiple cpus also like cp-v design integrated file management system files equally compatibly available programs executing mode files could sorted indexed keyed relative consecutive order new cp-6 use communications terminal interfaces minicomputer honeywell level 6 -based front-end processors connected locally remotely combination cp-6 included integrated software development system supported included set language processors apl basic cobol fortran rpg idp ids/ii sort/merge pl-6 gmap text formatting program text commonly needed software packages pascal snobol lisp spss bmdp imsl spiceii slam developed carleton university operating system supported inter-system communication job submission file transfer cp-6 systems cp-6 cp-v ibm hasp protocol systems system used communications terminal interfaces honeywell level 6 minicomputer-based front-end processor asynchronous bisynchronous tcp/ip communications protocols supported honeywell hardware system cp-6 consisted mainframe host processor l66 dps8 dps8000 dps90 connected disks tapes printers card equipment connected high-speed channel connected host level 6 mini computer provided processing connection terminals communications lines high-speed channel remote computers including ladc customers on-line support new version download problem fix patches terminal emulator allowed use pcs cp-6 terminals product additions mid eighties included adaptation dps8000 bull mainframe computers cp-6 included on-line problem reporting fix system beginning 1976 system named system technical action request star people oversaw star system starlords programmers direct access customers computers could fix problems directly on-line system used honeywell proprietary network I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	8,606	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_product_activation.microsoft product activation microsoft product activation drm technology used microsoft corporation several computer software programs notably windows operating system office productivity suite procedure enforces compliance program end-user license agreement transmitting information product key used install program user computer hardware microsoft inhibiting completely preventing use program validity license confirmed procedure met significant criticism many consumers technical analysts computer experts argue poorly designed highly inconvenient ultimately nothing prevent software piracy process successfully circumvented multiple occasions installing retail copy windows office user asked input unique product key supplied certificate authenticity included program later verified activation immediate activation required following installation program must activated within specific period time order continue function properly throughout grace period user periodically reminded activate program warnings becoming frequent time certain versions windows office available volume license single product key used multiple installations programs purchased license must still activated exception windows xp versions office released prior office 2010 businesses using licensing system option using microsoft activation servers creating managing windows pre-installed computer original equipment manufacturer oem operating system automatically activated without need interaction user case copy windows installed use product key listed certificate authenticity rather master product key issued oems called system locked pre-installation slp key boot windows confirms presence specific information stored bios manufacturer ensuring activation remains valid computer even product key used another machine activation performed within grace period fails illegal invalid product key following restrictions imposed user activation takes place program saves record verification data user computer system booted significant hardware changes application likely require reactivation prevent copy program installed two different systems windows 10 activation process also generate digital entitlement allows operating system hardware license status saved activation servers operating system license automatically restored clean installation without need enter product key activation performed utility supplied windows office called activation wizard performed either internet telephone activating internet activation wizard automatically transmits receives verification data microsoft servers completing process without interaction user activation telephone requires user microsoft agent verbally exchange activation information case installation id generated read agent agent verifies information replies confirmation id typed activation wizard activation wizard generates verification data primarily based information hardware computer windows xp information following eight categories hardware included verification data also based product key entered activation cases product key checked list known illegally distributed keys certain retail copies windows office sold certain countries classified emerging markets geographical activation restrictions allow user activate product within indicated region activation completes successfully user continue use application without issues impediments also key gets blacklisted application continue run normal unless clean install activation performed key blacklisted following tables illustrate usage product activation throughout microsoft software specifying whether programs equipped retail volume licensing activation well geographical activation restrictions microsoft says product activation benefits consumers allowing microsoft produce higher quality software nevertheless received much criticism regarding design implementation effectiveness stopping piracy respect privacy rights instance development windows xp beta testers strongly criticized introduction product activation particularly change computer hardware required re-activation ken fischer ars technica questioned whether activation would ultimately effective stopping piracy stating casual computer users would affected would fool think someone wo n't find way break whole thing dave wilson technology columnist los angeles times describes activation another example rapacious monopolist abusing computer users helpless anything believed system would significant effect professional pirates fred langa informationweek reference transmission hardware information activation stated many users incensed level monitoring intrusion control microsoft finally dr. cyrus peikari seth fogie security consultants considered product activation hostile privacy human dignity others defend microsoft use product activation harrison group market research firm conducted study sponsored microsoft 2011 illustrating computers running activated versions windows software average 50 faster pirated counterparts group concluded stating users genuine microsoft products ultimately receive superior performance counterfeit users susceptible security issues lost productivity fully licensed gmbh developer digital rights management technology criticizing microsoft vague nature information sent given computer activation nevertheless concluded activation particularly intrusive significantly violate privacy microsoft product activation also criticized multiple occasions violating patent law 2006 microsoft required pay 142 million z4 technologies infringing product activation patent 2009 microsoft ordered pay 388 million uniloc patent infringement product activation windows xp office xp windows server 2003 microsoft product activation cracked circumvented numerous occasions since introduced 2001 2001 uk security company called bit arts successfully managed bypass product activation windows xp 2003 volume license keys windows xp leaked public allowing users purchased volume license operating system bypass activation 2009 several security flaws windows 7 used hackers circumvent activation since introduction windows vista attempts circumvention product activation focused using leaked slp product keys bios information used oems preactivate windows 2007 circumvention measure developed windows vista warez-group paradox simulates bios allowing leaked slp information fed operating system bypassing activation 2009 slp product keys certificate information windows 7 leaked public allowing bios reconfigured bypass activation 1-hop neighbor's text information: android_kitkat.android kitkat android kitkat codename android mobile operating system eleventh version android unveiled september 3 2013 kitkat focused primarily optimizing operating system improved performance entry-level devices limited resources statistics issued google indicate 6.9 android devices accessing google play run kitkat android 4.4 kitkat officially announced september 3 2013 release internally codenamed key lime pie john lagerling director android global partnerships team decided drop name arguing people actually know taste key lime pie aiming codename fun unexpected team pursued possibility naming release kitkat instead lagerling phoned representative nestlé owns kit kat brand produces confectionary outside united states produced hershey company license quickly reached preliminary deal promotional collaboration two companies later finalized meeting mobile world congress february 2013 partnership revealed publicly even google employees android developers otherwise continued internally refer os klp official announcement september part promotional efforts kit kat bars shape android robot logo produced hershey ran contest united states prizes nexus 7 tablets google play store credit nexus 5 developed lg electronics unveiled september 30 2013 launch device kitkat october 2017 android 4.4 still supported security patches google source code continuing focus improving visual performance responsiveness android 4.1 jelly bean main objective android 4.4 optimize platform better performance low-end devices without compromising overall capabilities functionality initiative codenamed project svelte android head engineering dave burke joked weight loss plan jelly bean project butter added weight os simulate lower-spec devices android developers used nexus 4 devices underclocked run reduced cpu speed single core active 512 mb memory 960×540 display resolution—specifications meant represent common low-end android device development tool known procstats developed order analyze memory usage apps time especially run background services data used optimize decouple google apps services found inefficient thus helping reduce overall memory usage android additionally 4.4 designed aggressive managing memory helping guard apps wasting much memory overall interface kitkat downplays holo interface appearance introduced 4.0 replacing remaining instances blue accenting greys white status bar icons apps may trigger translucent status navigation bar appearance trigger full screen mode immersive mode hide entirely launcher also received refreshed appearance implementation translucent navigation bars replacement black backdrop application drawer translucent backdrop additionally action overflow menu buttons apps always visible even devices deprecated menu navigation key settings menu users specify default home launcher text messaging app stock devices messaging movie studio apps removed former replaced google hangouts supported sms aosp gallery app also deprecated favor google+ photos new runtime environment known android runtime art intended replace dalvik virtual machine introduced technology preview kitkat art cross-platform runtime supports x86 arm mips architectures 32-bit 64-bit environments unlike dalvik uses just-in-time compilation jit art compiles apps upon installation run exclusively compiled version technique removes processing overhead associated jit process improving system performance devices 512 mb ram less report low ram devices using api apps may detect low ram devices modify functionality accordingly kitkat also supports zram webview components updated utilize version google chrome rendering engine new storage access framework api allows apps retrieve files consistent manner part framework new system file picker branded documents allows users access files various sources including exposed apps online storage services public api introduced developing managing text messaging clients sensor batching step detection counter apis also added kitkat supports host card emulation near-field communications allows apps emulate smart card activities mobile payments 1-hop neighbor's text information: information_bridge_framework.information bridge framework information bridge framework microsoft office programmability framework microsoft targeting microsoft office 2003 later versions used extract data office documents embedding functionality office applications custom applications Target text information: microsoft_bookings.microsoft bookings microsoft bookings scheduling tool part microsoft office family products generally released microsoft march 2017 bookings allows customers small businesses companies book appointments company application available business premium subscribers office 365 july 20 2016 microsoft launched bookings customers u.s. canada office 365 business premium license march 20 2017 microsoft globally released bookings worldwide including launching bookings android ios I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	1,904	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: ms-dos.ms-dos ms-dos acronym microsoft disk operating system operating system x86-based personal computers mostly developed microsoft collectively ms-dos rebranding ibm pc dos operating systems attempting compatible ms-dos sometimes referred dos also generic acronym disk operating system ms-dos main operating system ibm pc compatible personal computers 1980s early 1990s gradually superseded operating systems offering graphical user interface gui various generations graphical microsoft windows operating system ibm licensed re-released august 12 1981 pc dos 1.0 use pcs although ms-dos pc dos initially developed parallel microsoft ibm two products diverged twelve years 1993 recognizable differences compatibility syntax capabilities lifetime several competing products released x86 platform ms-dos went eight versions development ceased 2000 initially ms-dos targeted intel 8086 processors running computer hardware using floppy disks store access operating system application software user data well progressive version releases delivered support mass storage media ever greater sizes formats along added feature support newer processors rapidly evolving computer architectures ultimately key product microsoft growth programming language company diverse software development firm providing company essential revenue marketing resources also underlying basic operating system early versions windows ran gui flexible operating system consumes negligible installation space ms-dos renamed form 86-dos owned seattle computer products written tim paterson development 86-dos took six weeks basically clone digital research cp/m 8080/z80 processors ported run 8086 processors two notable differences compared cp/m improved disk sector buffering logic introduction fat12 instead cp/m filesystem first version shipped august 1980 microsoft needed operating system ibm personal computer hired tim paterson may 1981 bought 86-dos 1.10 75,000 july year microsoft kept version number renamed ms-dos also licensed ms-dos 1.10/1.14 ibm august 1981 offered pc dos 1.0 one three operating systems ibm 5150 ibm pc within year microsoft licensed ms-dos 70 companies designed os could run 8086-family computer computer would distinct hardware version ms-dos similar situation existed cp/m ms-dos emulating solution cp/m adapt different hardware platforms end ms-dos designed modular structure internal device drivers minimally primary disk drives console integrated kernel loaded boot loader installable device drivers devices loaded integrated boot time oem would use development kit provided microsoft build version ms-dos basic i/o drivers standard microsoft kernel would typically supply disk end users along hardware thus many different versions ms-dos different hardware major distinction ibm-compatible isa machine ms-dos compatible machine machines like tandy 2000 ms-dos compatible ibm-compatible could run software written exclusively ms-dos without dependence peripheral hardware ibm pc architecture design would worked well compatibility application programs used ms-dos services perform device i/o indeed design philosophy embodied windows nt see hardware abstraction layer however ms-dos early days greater speed attainable programs direct control hardware particular importance especially games often pushed limits contemporary hardware soon ibm-compatible architecture became goal long 8086-family computers closely emulated ibm hardware single version ms-dos fixed hardware platform needed market version version ms-dos discussed dozens oem versions ms-dos relevant systems designed case similar function capability standard version ibm pc—often same-numbered version always since oems used proprietary version numbering schemes e.g labeling later releases ms-dos 1.x 2.0 vice versa —with notable exceptions microsoft omitted multi-user support ms-dos microsoft unix-based operating system xenix fully multi-user company planned time improve ms-dos would almost indistinguishable single-user xenix xedos would also run motorola 68000 zilog z8000 lsi-11 would upwardly compatible xenix byte 1983 described multi-user ms-dos future microsoft advertised ms-dos xenix together listing shared features single-user os multi-user multi-tasking unix-derived operating system promising easy porting breakup bell system however computer systems started selling unix system v. believing could compete unix market microsoft abandoned xenix 1987 transferred ownership xenix santa cruz operation sco march 25 2014 microsoft made code scp ms-dos 1.25 mixture altos ms-dos 2.11 televideo pc dos 2.11 available public microsoft research license agreement makes code source-available open source defined open source initiative free software foundation standards microsoft would later re-license code mit license september 28 2018 making versions free software april fool day joke 2015 microsoft mobile launched windows phone application called ms-dos mobile presented new mobile operating system worked similar ms-dos microsoft licensed released versions ms-dos different names like lifeboat associates software bus 86 a.k.a sb-dos compaq-dos ncr-dos z-dos eventually enforced ms-dos name versions ibm one originally called ibm personal computer dos later shortened ibm pc dos competitors released compatible dos systems dr dos pts-dos could also run dos applications former eastern bloc ms-dos derivatives named dcp 3.20 3.30 existed late 1980s produced east german electronics manufacturer veb robotron following versions ms-dos released public microsoft dos released oem channel digital research released dr dos 5.0 retail upgrade pc dos 5.00.1 ibm-microsoft agreement started end ibm entered retail dos market ibm dos 5.00.1 5.02 6.00 pc dos 6.1 6.3 7 2000 7.1 localized versions ms-dos existed different markets western issues ms-dos evolved around set tools drivers localized message languages differing sets supported codepages keyboard layouts language versions considerably different western issues adapted run localized pc hardware additional bios services available western pcs support multiple hardware codepages displays printers support dbcs alternative input methods graphics output affected issues include japanese dos/v korean arabic ados 3.3/5.0 hebrew hdos 3.3/5.0 russian rdos 4.01/5.0 well eastern european versions dos microcomputers based intel 8086 8088 processors including ibm pc clones initial competition pc dos/ms-dos line came digital research whose cp/m operating system inspired ms-dos fact remains controversy whether qdos less plagiarised early versions cp/m code digital research released cp/m-86 months ms-dos offered alternative ms-dos microsoft licensing requirements higher price executable programs cp/m-86 ms-dos interchangeable many applications sold ms-dos cp/m-86 versions ms-dos became preponderant later digital research operating systems could run ms-dos cp/m-86 software ms-dos originally supported simple .com modelled similar binary incompatible format known cp/m-80 cp/m-86 instead supported relocatable format using file extension .cmd avoid name conflicts cp/m-80 ms-dos .com files ms-dos version 1.0 added advanced relocatable .exe executable file format machines early days ms-dos differing system architectures certain degree incompatibility subsequently vendor lock-in users began using ms-dos machines compelled continue using version customized hardware face trying get proprietary hardware software work new system business world 808x-based machines ms-dos tied faced competition unix operating system ran many different hardware architectures microsoft sold version unix pc called xenix emerging world home users variety computers based various processors serious competition ibm pc apple ii early apple macintosh commodore 64 others use 808x processor many 808x machines different architectures used custom versions ms-dos first machines competition time ibm pc hardware configuration became dominant 808x market software written communicate directly pc hardware without using standard operating system calls ran much faster true pc-compatibles non-pc-compatible 808x machines small market fast software written alone market remained open ibm pcs machines closely imitated architecture running either single version ms-dos compatible pcs equivalent ibm pc dos clones cost much less ibm-branded machines similar performance became widely used home users ibm pcs large share business computer market microsoft ibm together began intended follow-on ms-dos/pc dos called os/2 os/2 released 1987 microsoft began advertising campaign announcing dos dead stating version 4 last full release os/2 designed efficient multi-tasking standard operating systems since 1963 offered number advanced features designed together similar look feel seen legitimate heir kludgy dos platform ms-dos grown spurts many significant features taken duplicated microsoft products operating systems ms-dos also grew incorporating direct licensing feature duplicating functionality tools utilities developed independent companies norton utilities pc tools microsoft anti-virus qemm expanded memory manager stacker disk compression others period digital research competing operating system market computers like amstrad pc1512 sold floppy disks two operating systems one could used time ms-dos cp/m-86 derivative digital research produced dos plus compatible ms-dos 2.11 supported cp/m-86 programs additional features including multi-tasking could read write disks cp/m ms-dos format os/2 protracted development digital research released ms-dos compatible dr dos 5.0 included features available third-party add-ons ms-dos unwilling lose portion market microsoft responded announcing pending release ms-dos 5.0 may 1990 effectively killed dr dos sales actual release ms-dos 5.0 june 1991 digital research brought dr dos 6.0 sold well pre-announcement ms-dos 6.0 stifled sales dr dos microsoft accused carefully orchestrating leaks future versions ms-dos attempt create industry called fud fear uncertainty doubt regarding dr dos example october 1990 shortly release dr dos 5.0 long eventual june 1991 release ms-dos 5.0 stories feature enhancements ms-dos started appear infoworld pc week brad silverberg vice president systems software microsoft general manager windows ms-dos business unit wrote forceful letter pc week november 5 1990 denying microsoft engaged fud tactics serve customers better decided forthcoming version 5.0 denying microsoft copied features dr dos feature enhancements ms-dos version 5.0 decided development begun long heard dr dos 5.0 similar features 50 million ms-dos users n't surprising dri heard requests customers – schulman et al 1994 pact microsoft ibm promote os/2 began fall apart 1990 windows 3.0 became marketplace success much microsoft contributions os/2 also went creating third gui replacement dos windows nt ibm already developing next version os/2 carried development platform without microsoft sold alternative dos windows response digital research dr dos 6.0 bundled superstor disk compression microsoft opened negotiations stac electronics vendor popular dos disk compression tool stacker due diligence process stac engineers shown microsoft part stacker source code stac unwilling meet microsoft terms licensing stacker withdrew negotiations microsoft chose license vertisoft doubledisk using core doublespace disk compression ms-dos 6.0 6.20 released 1993 including microsoft doublespace disk compression utility program stac successfully sued microsoft patent infringement regarding compression algorithm used doublespace resulted 1994 release ms-dos 6.21 disk compression removed shortly afterwards came version 6.22 new version disk compression system drivespace different compression algorithm avoid infringing code prior 1995 microsoft licensed ms-dos windows computer manufacturers three types agreement per-processor fee system company sold per-system fee system particular model per-copy fee copy ms-dos installed largest manufacturers used per-processor arrangement lowest fee arrangement made expensive large manufacturers migrate operating system dr dos 1991 u.s. government federal trade commission began investigating microsoft licensing procedures resulting 1994 settlement agreement limiting microsoft per-copy licensing digital research gain settlement years later successor interest caldera sued microsoft damages caldera v. microsoft lawsuit believed settlement ran order 150 million revealed november 2009 release settlement agreement 280 million microsoft also used variety tactics ms-dos several applications development tools operating perfectly running genuine ms-dos pc dos would break run another vendor implementation dos notable examples practice included introduction windows 3.0 1990 easy usability graphical user interface severely diminished usage ms-dos based command line release windows 95 continuing windows 9x product line windows integrated version ms-dos used bootstrapping troubleshooting backwards-compatibility old dos software particularly games longer released standalone product windows 95 dos called ms-dos 7 booted separately without windows gui capability retained windows 98 second edition windows removed capability boot underlying ms-dos 8.0 alone hard disk retained ability make dos boot floppy disk called emergency boot disk hacked restore full access underlying dos contrast windows 9x series windows nt-derived 32-bit operating systems developed alongside 9x series windows nt 2000 xp newer contain ms-dos part operating system nt built subsystem running dos entirely different independent operating system provide subset dos emulation run dos applications provide dos-like command prompt windows 64-bit versions windows nt line provide dos emulation run dos applications natively windows xp contains copy windows boot disk stripped bootstrap accessible formatting floppy ms-dos startup disk files like driver cd-rom support deleted windows bootdisk startup files autoexec.bat config.sys longer content modified disk base creating ms-dos image windows xp deleted files recovered undelete tool booting ms-dos startup disk made windows xp format tool version reports windows millenium ms-dos 8.0 used base windows 98 never released stand alone product windows vista files startup disk dated april 18 2005 otherwise unchanged including string ms-dos version 8 copyright 1981–1999 microsoft corp inside codice_1 starting windows 10 ability create dos startup disk removed either virtual machine running ms-dos older version virtual machine dual boot must used format floppy disk image must obtained external source solutions include using dos compatible alternatives freedos even copying required files boot sector ms-dos 6.22 last standalone version produced microsoft intel 8088 intel 8086 intel 80286 processors remain available download via msdn volume license oem license partner websites customers valid login credentials ms-dos still used embedded x86 systems due simple architecture minimal memory processor requirements though current products switched still-maintained open-source alternative freedos 2018 microsoft released source code ms-dos 1.25 2.0 github purpose according microsoft mainly education experimentation historic operating systems new programmers gain understanding low-level software works historic current due historical nature software microsoft accept pull requests code pull requests modified translated documentation accepted users however allowed fully encouraged fork repository containing ms-dos source code make modifications whatever like versions ms-dos obtained operation modification abandonware sites winworldpc versions microsoft windows ms-dos-like command-line interface cli called command prompt could run many dos variously win32 os/2 1.x posix command line utilities command-line session allowing piping commands user interface icon windows 2000 followed native ms-dos interface 16-bit versions windows 3.11 ran graphical user interface gui top ms-dos windows 95 98 98 se ms-dos part superficially integrated treating operating systems complete package though dos component could actually stand alone command line accessed dos command line usually codice_1 windows module winoldap.mod new line windows windows nt boot kernel whose sole purpose load windows one run win32 applications loader system manner os/2 unix consumer windows launch character-mode sessions command session permits running various supported command line utilities win32 ms-dos os/2 1.x posix emulators ms-dos os/2 posix use host window way win16 applications use win32 explorer using host window allows one pipe output emulations ms-dos emulation done ntvdm nt virtual dos machine modified softpc former product similar virtualpc running modified ms-dos 5 ntio.sys ntdos.sys output handled console dlls program prompt codice_3 codice_4 codice_5 see output 64-bit windows either dos emulation dos commands come 32-bit windows dos version returns 5.00 5.50 depending api function used determine utilities ms-dos 5.00 run emulation without modification early beta programs nt show ms-dos 30.00 programs running ms-dos 30.00 would assume os/2 control os/2 emulation handled os2ss.exe os2.exe doscalls.dll os2.exe version os/2 shell cmd.exe passes commands os2ss.exe input-output windows nt shell windows 2000 last version nt support os/2 emulation os/2 1.30 posix emulated posix shell emulated shell commands handled directly cmd.exe command prompt often called ms-dos prompt part official name windows 9x early versions windows nt nt 3.5 earlier part softpc emulation dos redirects output actually codice_1 16-bit commands run ntvdm codice_7 codice_8 initialisation determined codice_9 optionally permitting use win32 console applications internal commands codice_10 directive win32 console applications use codice_3 command prompt shell confusion exist os/2 separate dos os/2 prompts running dos program os/2 launch separate dos window run application versions windows itanium longer sold microsoft x86-64 architectures longer include ntvdm therefore longer natively run ms-dos 16-bit windows applications alternatives form virtual machine emulators microsoft virtual pc well vmware dosbox others 1983 onwards various companies worked graphical user interfaces guis capable running pc hardware however required duplicated effort provide much consistency interface design even products company later 1985 microsoft windows 1.0 released microsoft first attempt providing consistent user interface applications early versions windows ran top ms-dos first windows met little success also true companies efforts well example gem version 3.0 windows gained market acceptance windows 9x used dos boot process launch protected mode basic features related file system long file names available dos running subsystem windows windows nt runs independently dos includes ntvdm component simulating dos environment legacy applications ms-dos compatible systems include microsoft manufactured ibm pc dos ibm ms-dos identical products eventually diverged starting ms-dos version 6.0 digital research follow microsoft version numbering scheme example ms-dos 4 released july 1988 followed dr dos 5.0 may 1990 ms-dos 5.0 came april 1991 dr dos 6.0 released following june products collectively referred dos even though disk operating system generic term used systems unrelated x86 ibm pc ms-dos also generic reference dos ibm pc compatible computers microsoft control windows platform programming practices intentionally made windows appear ran poorly competing versions dos crippled ability dos makers continue compete ms-dos digital research release interim releases circumvent windows limitations inserted artificially designed specifically provide microsoft competitive advantage 1-hop neighbor's text information: msx.msx msx standardized home computer architecture announced microsoft june 16 1983 conceived marketed kazuhiko nishi vice-president microsoft japan director ascii corporation nishi conceived project attempt create unified standards among various home computing system manufacturers period msx systems popular japan several countries difficult determine many msx computers sold worldwide eventually 5 million msx-based units sold japan alone despite microsoft involvement msx-based machines released united states great success nintendo family computer msx platform major japanese game studios konami hudson soft produced video games metal gear series example first written msx hardware exact meaning msx abbreviation remains matter debate 2001 kazuhiko nishi recalled many assumed derived microsoft extended referring built-in microsoft extended basic msx basic specifically adapted microsoft msx system others believed stood matsushita-sony however said team original definition machines software exchangeability conflicts earlier explanation 1985 named msx mx missile early 1980s home computers manufactured japan nec pc-6001 pc-8000 series fujitsu fm-7 fm-8 hitachi basic master featured variant microsoft basic interpreter integrated on-board roms hardware design computers various dialects basics incompatible japanese consumer electronics firms panasonic canon casio yamaha pioneer sanyo searching ways enter new home computer market nishi proposed msx attempt create single industry standard home computers inspired success vhs standard video cassette recorders many japanese electronic manufacturers along goldstar philips spectravideo built promoted msx computers piece hardware software msx logo compatible msx products manufacturers particular expansion cartridge form function part standard msx expansion game cartridge would work msx computer nishi standard built around spectravideo sv-328 computer standard consisted primarily several off-the-shelf parts main cpu 3.58 mhz zilog z80 texas instruments tms9918 graphics chip 16 kb dedicated vram sound partial i/o support provided ay-3-8910 chip manufactured general instrument gi intel 8255 programmable peripheral interface chip used parallel i/o keyboard choice components shared many home computers games consoles period colecovision home computer emulator later available msx systems could run software sega sg-1000 video game system reduce overall system cost many msx models used custom ic known msx-engine integrated glue logic 8255 ppi ym2149 compatible soundchip sometimes even z80 cpu however almost msx systems used professional keyboard instead chiclet keyboard driving price compared original sv-328 consequently components alongside microsoft msx basic made msx competitive though somewhat expensive home computer package 27 june 1983 msx formally announced press conference slew big japanese firms declared plans introduce machines japanese companies avoided intensely competitive u.s. home computer market throes commodore-led price war spectravideo yamaha briefly marketed msx machines u.s. spectravideo msx enjoyed little success yamaha cx5m model built interface various types midi equipment billed digital music tool standard personal computer 1980s europe became largest computer games market opposed console games world extremely popular commodore 64 atari 8-bit sinclair zx spectrum computers dominated time msx launched europe several popular 8-bit home computers also arrived far late capture extremely crowded european 8-bit computer market problem game software developers method msx-1 computers addressed video ram could quite slow compared systems gave direct access video memory fact completely different features msx-1 video chip using msx video access method compensate slower video access efficiently used porting mostly spectrum software made msx-1 appear slower running ported games minor compatibility issues also plagued ported spectrum games example toshiba hx-10 machine unable read certain key combinations time preventing spectrum standard q p steering whereas machines manufacturers worked fine later ported games tended use msx-1 joystick port used msx official arrow keys space bar offered option choose keys control program solving problem larger problem designers msx standard bank switching protocol prescribe hardware manufacturers banks cartridges importantly ram found moreover msx bios provide information either thus requiring programmers implement complex routines find resources often programmers assumed ram cartridges would available default bank switch location reality systems ram cartridge slot default location another bank switch location i.e toshiba hx-20 cases programs failed run saw 32 kb available memory instead full 64 kb almost msx-1 machines offered mainstream msx-1 machines offered least full 64 kb ram exceptions early phillips msx-1 models vg8000 offered 16 kb ram vg8010 32 kb casio pv-7 low budget msx targeted playing games 8 kb msx spawned four generations msx 1983 msx2 1985 msx2+ 1988 msx turbor 1990 first three 8-bit computers based z80 microprocessor msx turbor based custom 16-bit r800 microprocessor developed ascii corporation time msx turbor standard announced 1990 panasonic manufacturing msx computers initial model fs-a1st met moderate success upgraded model fs-a1gt introduced 1991 sold poorly due high retail cost 99800 yen production turbor ended 1993 panasonic decided focus release 3do msx3 scheduled market 1990 delays development vdp—then named v9978 pre-release spec sheets—caused yamaha miss time market deadline place improved msx2+ released msx turbor features new r800 processor dma 24-bit addressing disabled vdp eventually delivered two years planned deadline time market moved attempt reduce financial loss yamaha stripped nearly v9958 compatibility marketed resulting v9990 e-vdp iii video-chipset pc vga graphic cards moderate success sony also employed v7040 rgb encoder chip many products msx-fan magazine also mentions impressive power v9990 able compete much expensive hardware sharp x68000 japan south korea argentina brazil msx paramount home computer system 1980s also quite popular continental europe especially netherlands spain uk hand popular affordable model toshiba hx-10p msx computer commonly seen available around entire nation france italy enjoyed moderate success philips vg-8020 computer much impact netherlands spain italy belgium france canon v-20 affordable n't much success impact like amstrad cpc thomson to7/mo5 series computers classrooms full networked yamaha msx used teaching informatics schools arab countries soviet union cuba wildly popular government education schools centers however msx never took u.s. canada mexico china taiwan hong kong denmark singapore malaysia philippines indonesia czech republic hungary poland serbia bulgaria romania south africa india portugal never became worldwide standard makers envisioned msx lack success markets became apparent us manufacturer commodore business machines overhauled product line early 1980s introduced models plus/4 commodore 16 intended better compete features msx computers cuban government moved modernize studies computer systems 1985 higher pedagogical institutes schools pre-university education supplied toshiba panasonic msx systems resident msx basic language popularly known intelligent keyboards proved useful minister education continued process installing similar systems throughout secondary junior high centers finalized elementary schools adult education institutions newly nationwide formed “ computer electronic youth clubs ” 1987 forming computer clubs allowed cuban government interest educate common citizen computer subjects since selling systems personal private computer public banned see censorship cuba 1980s sakhr صخر computers developed al alamiah kuwaiti company started production first arabic version msx computers started producing yamaha ax100 models including msx2 msx2+ popular affordable model within arab states persian gulf sakhr msx ax170 also first arabise basic msx logo al-alamiah produced common models including ax100 ax123 ax150 ax170 ah200 ax200 ax230 ax235 ax250 ax330 ax350-i ax350-ii ax355 ax370 ax500 ax550 ax660 ax990 msx console famicom game slot msx computer ax330 user switch msx famicom modes pressing button back computer variants compatible sega mega drive ax660 ax990 sega master system pal cartridges playable ax660 ax990 tv game computer cartridge converter master system converter attached time connecting sega master system cartridge game inlet computer attaching master system converter play sega master cartridges ax660 ax990 possible inlet depth physical shape master system converter prevent converter attached correctly ax660 ax990 computers many msx computers used 1980s former eastern bloc countries tool subtitling pirated films vhs betamax cassettes msx computers used simplicity ability display prepared titles real time superimposed text mastering tapes msx arrived argentina late 1984 popular model talent msx dpc-200 based daewoo msx dpc-200 models spectravideo svi 728 svi x´press 3.5 built-in drive later came toshiba smaller numbers gradiente models brazil late 1987 talent presented msx2 tpc-310 ´turbo´ argentine market ´turbo´ name referring msx2+ also based daewoo design msx highly successful computer argentina commodore 64 thanks use education national level msx-logo language widely used schools msxii+ never made market argentina msx production ceased 1990 total 9 million msx computers sold japan making relatively popular still global standard intended comparison rival 8-bit computers commodore 64 sold 17 million units worldwide lifetime apple ii sold 6 million units zx spectrum 5 million units atari 8-bit sold least 4 million units amstrad cpc sold 3 million units tandy trs-80 model 1 sold 250,000 units sony msx2 machine launched space board russian mir spacecraft one professional broadcast video workstation based sony hitbit hb-f900 msx2 computer system msx closely resembled spectravideo sv-328 home computer spectravideo even claimed msx compatible advertisements actual launch msx systems fact completely compatible led new short-lived kind software cracking converting since msx games unplayable sv-328 computer sv-328 crackers developed method modifying msx games make work sv-328 cases included downloading msx bios sv-328 tape floppy disk spectravideo later launched svi-728 completely adhered msx standard sega sg-1000 memotech mtx colecovision many similarities msx1 standard none really compatible porting games systems somewhat easy also common port games zx spectrum msx since cpu spectrum 128 soundchip zx spectrum graphic mode could easily emulated msx screen-2 mode default msx machines hardcoded character set keyboard scan code handling algorithm msx full application software compatibility firmware bios level due minor hardware differences replacement bios another different pc may render incorrect scan code translations thus incorrect behaviour keyboard subsystem application software 2011 age labs introduced language pack firmware aiming make model support several localizations default installed gr8bit instead kanji-rom allows changing character set keyboard layout machine startup allowed changing japanese russian international portuguese locales ability change locales machine operation using newly introduced basic command lang selected locale setting stored unused rtc nvram memory space 2001 kazuhiko nishi initiated 'msx revival around official msx emulator called msxplayer official msx emulator msx copyrights maintained msx association 2004 dutch company bazix announced become representatives msx association europe english contact questions regarding msx trademarks copyrights licensing october 17 2006 bazix launched woomb.net website selling msx games english languages selection 14 games japan game sales began earlier project egg woomb.net english counterpart japanese services offered d4 enterprise also announced august 2006 launch new msx2 compatible system called one chip-msx system based altera cyclone ep1c12q240c8 fpga one chip-msx similar concept c-one commodore 64 clone also built basis single fpga chip new msx system housed box made transparent blue plastic used standard monitor tv pc keyboard two msx cartridge slots supports audio extensions msx-music scc+ sd/mmc-flashcard used external storage medium emulating disk drive used boot msx-dos due vhdl programmable hardware possible give device new hardware extensions simply running reconfiguration program msx-dos one chip-msx also two usb connectors used adding supporting vhdl code june 7 2008 msx resource center foundation reported msx trademark moved msx association msx licensing corporation referring benelux trademark register page msx names msx licensing corporation entitled entity till 28-10-2013 time website msx licensing corporation linked source text saying 'we planning revitalize msx innovative computer platform however website later changed contain logo itny partners link itny partners english japanese websites mention msx licensing corporation bazix reported website front page longer representative msx association due unable achieve goals bringing commercial msx revival beyond japanese borders transfer msx trademark msx association msx licensing corporation outlook progress western one chip msx project time soon result woomb.net taken offline well website redirecting bazix website solution free msx association contributions completed according post cooperate d4 enterprise msx licensing corporation one retro gaming related projects july 4 2008 msx association european contact website states official contact place msx association europe reports msx trademark copyright msx licensing corporation holding ever since 1983 explains msx association chaired dr. kazuhiko nishi operational division msx licensing corporation manages trademarks logo copyrights msx according article d4 enterprise refuse pay royalties msx association use ese artists factory work 1chipmsx software licenses project egg thus deal kazuhiko nishi 'directly msx licensing corporation article mentions well ese msx system 3 1chipmsx also known one chip msx ocm based july 5 2008 msx association europe website posted announcement reporting d4 enterprise selling 1chipmsx illegally post stated bazix longer representative europe due bazix cutting relationship 2011 age labs announced launch msx kit called gr8bit do-it-yourself computer learning purposes licensed msx licensing corporation kit priced 499 includes necessary components assemble working msx2 compatible computer except atx chassis power supply floppy drive hard disk ps/2 keyboard monitor also comes assembly operational manuals supplement compiled vendor community support gr8bit engineering community korean forum members made zemmix neo created new version msx called mini iq3000 cutie similar features iq-2000 msx2 made korea daewoo electronics based 1chipmsx special features like 'scan line generator 'multi language support scan line generator generates scan lines show msx screen better quality supports 2 languages time normally shows korean font working korean version msx pressing 'del key booting changes japanese mode even though default mode korean default font allocation table japanese shows japanese characters executing japanese version software popular famous msx games written japanese software-houses konami hudson soft several popular video game franchises initially established msx others received various installments msx including several titles unique system largely reworked versions games formats note clones unlicensed equipment keyboard functionally separate unit could connected non-multiplexed multiplexed interfaces multiplexed keyboard units feature additional data direction line allowing sending scan line number keyboard using data lines used return scan code decreasing overall number wires keyboard machine non-multiplexed interface usually used internal keyboards external keyboards like panasonic cf-3300 multiplexed interface used external keyboards e.g yamaha yis805 model keyboard organized matrix maximum 11 input lines 8 output lines accounting maximum 88 keys including control numerical alphanumerical keys scan line regularly queried identify state keys line query speed identified system interrupt frequency organization allows system sense state key exhibiting notorious problem 8042 microcontroller-based keyboards pressing several keys simultaneously usually 3 generates wrong input characters renders inability sense press keys due keyboard scan controlled system interrupts one troubleshooting hints msx machine display image assuming power present press caps key see respective led toggles toggle system likely suffering serious problem lack image screen i.e problem video cable video display interface overall 2009 kamil karimov designed adapter board connect ps/2 keyboard multiplexed msx keyboard interface firmware embedded attiny chip tailored daewoo cpc machines 2011 age labs embedded ps/2 keyboard controller unit based microchip microcontroller gr8bit do-it-yourself machine firmware developed directly convert ps/2 scan codes msx keyboard scan codes thus fully transparent applications allowing use controller unit different msx-compatible machines different localization setups msx standard requires least 1 cartridge slot msx models 2 slots interchangeable cases makes difference slot cartridge inserted physical connector 50 pin 2 x 25 contacts standard 2.54 mm 0.1 inch pitch edge connector using cartridge slots wide variety peripherals could connected regular game cartridges size audio cassette so-called konami size despite higher cost popular format due reliability ease use around 1985 hudson soft released credit card-sized bee card meant cheaper convenient alternative rom cartridges commercial failure titles released format source files development msx cartridges available age labs eagle msx systems generally built-in disk drive games published mainly cartridge cassette tape sony created battery backed ram cartridge hbi-55 data cartridge computers hit-bit line msx systems could used store programs data alternative cassette tapes floppy disk drives available msx however form cartridge containing disk interface electronics bios extension rom floppy disk drive interface connected external case drive south-america many systems used floppy disk drive europe drives popular japan msx1 systems included built-in 3.5 disk drive like panasonic previously named matsushita cf-3000 europe range philips msx2 systems nms 8230 8235 8245 8250 featured either 360 720 kb 3.5 floppy drives 1985 msx2 released systems often always included built-in 3.5 disk drive consequently popular media games software shifted floppy disks msx-dos disk operating system internal software mechanisms much like cp/m cp/m software could ported reasonably easily file system compatible ms-dos user commands also similar early ms-dos versions way microsoft could promote msx home use promoting ms-dos based personal computers office environments msx 3.5 floppy disks directly compatible ms-dos although details like file undeletion boot sector code different like ms-dos 1 msx disks formatted msx-dos 1 support subdirectories september 2012 age labs extended standard including support 1.44mb 3.5 ” format 1.44mb diskette size goes two configurations standard 1 sector per cluster 9 fat sectors compatible 4 sectors per cluster 3 fat sectors msx computers emulated many platforms today early msx emulators often based code pioneer fmsx portable msx emulator marat fayzullin many emulators removed fayzullin z80 emulation code entirely later versions avoid legal problems time fmsx n't free software somewhat later fmsx source code became free use non-profit use however license still required commercial use december 31 2013 windows version fmsx 3.7 released free anyone use official msx emulator msxplayer produced msx association inventor msx standard kazuhiko nishi president version 0.146.u mess currently supports 90 percent msx versions february 2007 nintendo japan announced msx games available wii virtual console emulator confirmed games would cost 700 wii points become available middle 2007 also became available wii u december 25 2013 ultimately 13 games mainly konami titles wii plus 1 wii u released service japan Target text information: the_light_corridor.light corridor light corridor first-person puzzle game available atari st amiga amstrad cpc commodore 64 ms-dos msx zx spectrum released 1990 infogrames player must capture light rays order accomplish ultimate challenge illumination stars newborn universe player uses paddle hit metal ball long corridor player releases ball stuck paddle beginning game travel corridor hits wall similar obstacle bounces back towards player point player need hit ball ball hit lose life game continue player stopped ball attached paddle ball travelling corridor player must walk follow object game reach end corridor obstacles moving elevator-style doors make navigating corridor difficult success relies player ’ quick reactions forward planning collectable power-ups make progress easier colour corridor changes every four levels fifty levels total game played one two players two player games players alternate turns level construction kit included player create levels save future use sinclair user gave 93 overall score crash called simple wildly addictive sinclair said frustratingly difficult worth going back I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	1,720	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: chatbot.chatbot chatbot piece software conducts conversation via auditory textual methods programs often designed convincingly simulate human would behave conversational partner although 2019 far short able pass turing test chatbots typically used dialog systems various practical purposes including customer service information acquisition chatbots use sophisticated natural language processing systems many simpler ones scan keywords within input pull reply matching keywords similar wording pattern database term chatterbot originally coined michael mauldin creator first verbot julia 1994 describe conversational programs today chatbots accessed via virtual assistants google assistant amazon alexa via messaging apps facebook messenger wechat via individual organizations apps websites chatbots classified usage categories conversational commerce e-commerce via chat analytics communication customer support design developer tools education entertainment finance food games health hr marketing news personal productivity shopping social sports travel utilities beyond chatbots conversational ai refers use messaging apps speech-based assistants chatbots automate communication create personalized customer experiences scale 1950 alan turing famous article computing machinery intelligence published proposed called turing test criterion intelligence criterion depends ability computer program impersonate human real-time written conversation human judge sufficiently well judge unable distinguish reliably—on basis conversational content alone—between program real human notoriety turing proposed test stimulated great interest joseph weizenbaum program eliza published 1966 seemed able fool users believing conversing real human however weizenbaum claim eliza genuinely intelligent introduction paper presented debunking exercise artificial intelligence ... machines made behave wondrous ways often sufficient dazzle even experienced observer particular program unmasked inner workings explained ... magic crumbles away stands revealed mere collection procedures ... observer says could written thought moves program question shelf marked intelligent reserved curios ... object paper cause re-evaluation program explained programs ever needed eliza key method operation copied chatbot designers ever since involves recognition clue words phrases input output corresponding pre-prepared pre-programmed responses move conversation forward apparently meaningful way e.g responding input contains word 'mother 'tell family thus illusion understanding generated even though processing involved merely superficial eliza showed illusion surprisingly easy generate human judges ready give benefit doubt conversational responses capable interpreted intelligent interface designers come appreciate humans readiness interpret computer output genuinely conversational—even actually based rather simple pattern-matching—can exploited useful purposes people prefer engage programs human-like gives chatbot-style techniques potentially useful role interactive systems need elicit information users long information relatively straightforward falls predictable categories thus example online help systems usefully employ chatbot techniques identify area help users require potentially providing friendlier interface formal search menu system sort usage holds prospect moving chatbot technology weizenbaum shelf ... reserved curios marked genuinely useful computational methods classic historic early chatbots eliza 1966 parry 1972 recent notable programs include a.l.i.c.e. jabberwacky d.u.d.e agence nationale de la recherche cnrs 2006 eliza parry used exclusively simulate typed conversation many chatbots include functional features games web searching abilities 1984 book called policeman beard half constructed published allegedly written chatbot racter though program released would capable one pertinent field ai research natural language processing usually weak ai fields employ specialized software programming languages created specifically narrow function required example a.l.i.c.e uses markup language called aiml specific function conversational agent since adopted various developers called alicebots nevertheless a.l.i.c.e still purely based pattern matching techniques without reasoning capabilities technique eliza using back 1966 strong ai would require sapience logical reasoning abilities jabberwacky learns new responses context based real-time user interactions rather driven static database recent chatbots also combine real-time learning evolutionary algorithms optimise ability communicate based conversation held still currently general purpose conversational artificial intelligence software developers focus practical aspect information retrieval chatbot competitions focus turing test specific goals two annual contests loebner prize chatterbox challenge latter offline since 2015 however materials still found web archives chatbots used diverse fashion across verticals many different types channel e.g websites social messaging etc business application accelerated rapidly 2019 leading van baker research vice president gartner predict “ 2020 50 medium large enterprises deployed product chatbots many companies chatbots run messaging apps simply via sms used b2c customer service sales marketing 2016 facebook messenger allowed developers place chatbots platform 30,000 bots created messenger first six months rising 100,000 september 2017 since september 2017 also part pilot program whatsapp airlines klm aeroméxico announced participation testing airlines previously launched customer services facebook messenger platform bots usually appear one user contacts sometimes act participants group chat many banks insurers media companies e-commerce companies airlines hotel chains retailers health care providers government entities restaurant chains used chatbots answer simple questions increase customer engagement promotion offer additional ways order 2017 study showed 4 companies used chatbots according 2016 study 80 businesses said intended one 2020 previous generations chatbots present company websites e.g ask jenn alaska airlines debuted 2008 expedia virtual customer service agent launched 2011 newer generation chatbots includes ibm watson-powered rocky introduced february 2017 new york city-based e-commerce company rare carat provide information prospective diamond buyers used marketers script sequences messages similar autoresponder sequence sequences triggered user opt-in use keywords within user interactions trigger occurs sequence messages delivered next anticipated user response user response used decision tree help chatbot navigate response sequnces deliver correct response message companies explore ways use chatbots internally example customer support human resources even internet-of-things iot projects overstock.com one reportedly launched chatbot named mila automate certain simple yet time-consuming processes requesting sick leave large companies lloyds banking group royal bank scotland renault citroën using automated online assistants instead call centres humans provide first point contact saas chatbot business ecosystem steadily growing since f8 conference facebook mark zuckerberg unveiled messenger would allow chatbots app large companies like hospitals aviation organizations architects designing reference architectures intelligent chatbots used unlock share knowledge experience organization efficiently reduce errors answers expert service desks significantly intelligent chatbots make use kinds artificial intelligence like image moderation natural language understanding nlu natural language generation nlg machine learning deep learning nowadays high majority high-tech banking organizations looking integration automated ai-based solutions chatbots customer service order provide faster cheaper assistance clients becoming increasingly technodexterous particularly chatbots efficiently conduct dialogue usually substituting communication tools email phone sms banking area major application related quick customer service answering common requests transactional support several studies accomplished analytics agencies juniper gartner report significant reduction cost customer services leading billions dollars economy next 10 years gartner predicts integration 2020 chatbots least 85 client applications customer service juniper study announces impressive amount 8 billion retained annually 2022 due use chatbots since 2016 facebook allows businesses deliver automated customer support e-commerce guidance content interactive experiences chatbots large variety chatbots facebook messenger platform developed 2016 russia-based tochka bank launched world first facebook bot range financial services particularly including possibility making payments july 2016 barclays africa also launched facebook chatbot making first bank africa france third largest bank total assets société générale launched chatbot called sobot march 2018 80 users sobot express satisfaction tested il never remplace expertise provided human advisor according sg deputy director bertrand cozzarolo several potential advantages using chatbots interaction customer banking chatbots also incorporated devices primarily meant computing toys hello barbie internet-connected version doll uses chatbot provided company toytalk previously used chatbot range smartphone-based characters children characters behaviors constrained set rules effect emulate particular character produce storyline ibm watson computer used basis chatbot-based educational toys companies cognitoys intended interact children educational purposes process building testing deploying chatbots done cloud-based chatbot development platforms offered cloud platform service paas providers oracle cloud platform snatchbot ibm watson cloud platforms provide natural language processing artificial intelligence mobile backend service chatbot development api companies like microsoft azure aarc currently providing bot engines chatbot platforms software developed malicious chatbots frequently used fill chat rooms spam advertisements mimicking human behavior conversations entice people revealing personal information bank account numbers commonly found yahoo messenger windows live messenger aol instant messenger instant messaging protocols also published report chatbot used fake personal ad dating service website tay ai chatbot learns previous interaction caused major controversy due targeted internet trolls twitter bot exploited 16 hours began send extremely offensive tweets users suggests although bot learnt effectively experience adequate protection put place prevent misuse text-sending algorithm pass human instead chatbot message would credible therefore human-seeming chatbots well-crafted online identities could start scattering fake news seem plausible instance making false claims presidential election enough chatbots might even possible achieve artificial social proof creation implementation chatbots still developing area heavily related artificial intelligence machine learning provided solutions possessing obvious advantages important limitations terms functionalities use cases however changing time common ones listed chatbots increasingly present businesses often used automate tasks require skill-based talents customer service taking place via messaging apps well phone calls growing numbers use-cases chatbot deployment gives organisations clear return investment call centre workers may particularly risk ai-driven chatbots study forrester june 2017 predicts 25 today jobs likely impacted ai technologies 2019 Target text information: juergen_pirner.juergen pirner juergen pirner born 1956 german creator jabberwock chatterbot 2003 loebner prize pirner created jabberwock modelling jabberwocky lewis carroll poem name initially jabberwock would give rude fantasy-related answers years pirner programmed better responses 2007 taught 2.7 million responses pirner lives hamburg germany I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	0	Computational Linguistics	wikics	4,923	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: database.database database organized collection data generally stored accessed electronically computer system databases complex often developed using formal design modeling techniques database management system dbms software interacts end users applications database capture analyze data dbms software additionally encompasses core facilities provided administer database sum total database dbms associated applications referred database system often term database also used loosely refer dbms database system application associated database computer scientists may classify database-management systems according database models support relational databases became dominant 1980s model data rows columns series tables vast majority use sql writing querying data 2000s non-relational databases became popular referred nosql use different query languages formally database refers set related data way organized access data usually provided database management system dbms consisting integrated set computer software allows users interact one databases provides access data contained database although restrictions may exist limit access particular data dbms provides various functions allow entry storage retrieval large quantities information provides ways manage information organized close relationship term database often used casually refer database dbms used manipulate outside world professional information technology term database often used refer collection related data spreadsheet card index size usage requirements typically necessitate use database management system existing dbmss provide various functions allow management database data classified four main functional groups database dbms conform principles particular database model database system refers collectively database model database management system database physically database servers dedicated computers hold actual databases run dbms related software database servers usually multiprocessor computers generous memory raid disk arrays used stable storage raid used recovery data disks fail hardware database accelerators connected one servers via high-speed channel also used large volume transaction processing environments dbmss found heart database applications dbmss may built around custom multitasking kernel built-in networking support modern dbmss typically rely standard operating system provide functions since dbmss comprise significant market computer storage vendors often take account dbms requirements development plans databases dbmss categorized according database model support relational xml type computer run server cluster mobile phone query language used access database sql xquery internal engineering affects performance scalability resilience security sizes capabilities performance databases respective dbmss grown orders magnitude performance increases enabled technology progress areas processors computer memory computer storage computer networks development database technology divided three eras based data model structure navigational sql/relational post-relational two main early navigational data models hierarchical model codasyl model network model relational model first proposed 1970 edgar f. codd departed tradition insisting applications search data content rather following links relational model employs sets ledger-style tables used different type entity mid-1980s computing hardware become powerful enough allow wide deployment relational systems dbmss plus applications early 1990s however relational systems dominated large-scale data processing applications remain dominant ibm db2 oracle mysql microsoft sql server searched dbms dominant database language standardised sql relational model influenced database languages data models object databases developed 1980s overcome inconvenience object-relational impedance mismatch led coining term post-relational also development hybrid object-relational databases next generation post-relational databases late 2000s became known nosql databases introducing fast key-value stores document-oriented databases competing next generation known newsql databases attempted new implementations retained relational/sql model aiming match high performance nosql compared commercially available relational dbmss introduction term database coincided availability direct-access storage disks drums mid-1960s onwards term represented contrast tape-based systems past allowing shared interactive use rather daily batch processing oxford english dictionary cites 1962 report system development corporation california first use term data-base specific technical sense computers grew speed capability number general-purpose database systems emerged mid-1960s number systems come commercial use interest standard began grow charles bachman author one product integrated data store ids founded database task group within codasyl group responsible creation standardization cobol 1971 database task group delivered standard generally became known codasyl approach soon number commercial products based approach entered market codasyl approach relied manual navigation linked data set formed large network applications could find records one three methods later systems added b-trees provide alternate access paths many codasyl databases also added straightforward query language however final tally codasyl complex required significant training effort produce useful applications ibm also dbms 1966 known information management system ims ims development software written apollo program system/360 ims generally similar concept codasyl used strict hierarchy model data navigation instead codasyl network model concepts later became known navigational databases due way data accessed bachman 1973 turing award presentation programmer navigator ims classified ibm hierarchical database idms cincom systems total database classified network databases ims remains use edgar codd worked ibm san jose california one offshoot offices primarily involved development hard disk systems unhappy navigational model codasyl approach notably lack search facility 1970 wrote number papers outlined new approach database construction eventually culminated groundbreaking relational model data large shared data banks paper described new system storing working large databases instead records stored sort linked list free-form records codasyl codd idea use table fixed-length records table used different type entity linked-list system would inefficient storing sparse databases data one record could left empty relational model solved splitting data series normalized tables relations optional elements moved main table would take room needed data may freely inserted deleted edited tables dbms whatever maintenance needed present table view application/user relational model also allowed content database evolve without constant rewriting links pointers relational part comes entities referencing entities known one-to-many relationship like traditional hierarchical model many-to-many relationship like navigational network model thus relational model express hierarchical navigational models well native tabular model allowing pure combined modeling terms three models application requires instance common use database system track information users name login information various addresses phone numbers navigational approach data would placed single record unused items would simply placed database relational approach data would normalized user table address table phone number table instance records would created optional tables address phone numbers actually provided linking information back together key system relational model bit information used key uniquely defining particular record information collected user information stored optional tables would found searching key instance login name user unique addresses phone numbers user would recorded login name key simple re-linking related data back single collection something traditional computer languages designed navigational approach would require programs loop order collect records relational approach would require loops collect information one record codd suggestions set-oriented language would later spawn ubiquitous sql using branch mathematics known tuple calculus demonstrated system could support operations normal databases inserting updating etc well providing simple system finding returning sets data single operation codd paper picked two people berkeley eugene wong michael stonebraker started project known ingres using funding already allocated geographical database project student programmers produce code beginning 1973 ingres delivered first test products generally ready widespread use 1979 ingres similar system r number ways including use language data access known quel time ingres moved emerging sql standard ibm one test implementation relational model prtv production one business system 12 discontinued honeywell wrote mrds multics two new implementations alphora dataphor rel dbms implementations usually called relational actually sql dbmss 1970 university michigan began development micro information management system based d.l childs set-theoretic data model micro used manage large data sets us department labor u.s. environmental protection agency researchers university alberta university michigan wayne state university ran ibm mainframe computers using michigan terminal system system remained production 1998 1970s 1980s attempts made build database systems integrated hardware software underlying philosophy integration would provide higher performance lower cost examples ibm system/38 early offering teradata britton lee inc. database machine another approach hardware support database management icl cafs accelerator hardware disk controller programmable search capabilities long term efforts generally unsuccessful specialized database machines could keep pace rapid development progress general-purpose computers thus database systems nowadays software systems running general-purpose hardware using general-purpose computer data storage however idea still pursued certain applications companies like netezza oracle exadata ibm started working prototype system loosely based codd concepts system r early 1970s first version ready 1974/5 work started multi-table systems data could split data record optional stored single large chunk subsequent multi-user versions tested customers 1978 1979 time standardized query language – sql – added codd ideas establishing workable superior codasyl pushing ibm develop true production version system r known sql/ds later database 2 db2 larry ellison oracle database simply oracle started different chain based ibm papers system r. though oracle v1 implementations completed 1978 n't oracle version 2 ellison beat ibm market 1979 stonebraker went apply lessons ingres develop new database postgres known postgresql postgresql often used global mission critical applications .org .info domain name registries use primary data store many large companies financial institutions sweden codd paper also read mimer sql developed mid-1970s uppsala university 1984 project consolidated independent enterprise another data model entity–relationship model emerged 1976 gained popularity database design emphasized familiar description earlier relational model later entity–relationship constructs retrofitted data modeling construct relational model difference two become irrelevant 1980s ushered age desktop computing new computers empowered users spreadsheets like lotus 1-2-3 database software like dbase dbase product lightweight easy computer user understand box c. wayne ratliff creator dbase stated dbase different programs like basic c fortran cobol lot dirty work already done data manipulation done dbase instead user user concentrate rather mess dirty details opening reading closing files managing space allocation dbase one top selling software titles 1980s early 1990s 1990s along rise object-oriented programming saw growth data various databases handled programmers designers began treat data databases objects say person data database person attributes address phone number age considered belong person instead extraneous data allows relations data relations objects attributes individual fields term object-relational impedance mismatch described inconvenience translating programmed objects database tables object databases object-relational databases attempt solve problem providing object-oriented language sometimes extensions sql programmers use alternative purely relational sql programming side libraries known object-relational mappings orms attempt solve problem xml databases type structured document-oriented database allows querying based xml document attributes xml databases mostly used applications data conveniently viewed collection documents structure vary flexible highly rigid examples include scientific articles patents tax filings personnel records nosql databases often fast require fixed table schemas avoid join operations storing denormalized data designed scale horizontally recent years strong demand massively distributed databases high partition tolerance according cap theorem impossible distributed system simultaneously provide consistency availability partition tolerance guarantees distributed system satisfy two guarantees time three reason many nosql databases using called eventual consistency provide availability partition tolerance guarantees reduced level data consistency newsql class modern relational databases aims provide scalable performance nosql systems online transaction processing read-write workloads still using sql maintaining acid guarantees traditional database system databases used support internal operations organizations underpin online interactions customers suppliers see enterprise software databases used hold administrative information specialized data engineering data economic models examples include computerized library systems flight reservation systems computerized parts inventory systems many content management systems store websites collections webpages database one way classify databases involves type contents example bibliographic document-text statistical multimedia objects another way application area example accounting music compositions movies banking manufacturing insurance third way technical aspect database structure interface type section lists adjectives used characterize different kinds databases connolly begg define database management system dbms software system enables users define create maintain control access database dbms acronym sometime extended indicated underlying database model rdbms relational oodbms ordbms object orientated model ordbms object-relational extensions indicate characteristic ddbms distributed database management systems functionality provided dbms vary enormously core functionality storage retrieval update data codd proposed following functions services fully-fledged general purpose dbms provide also generally expected dbms provide set utilities purposes may necessary administer database effectively including import export monitoring defragmentation analysis utilities core part dbms interacting database application interface sometimes referred database engine often dbmss configuration parameters statically dynamically tuned example maximum amount main memory server database use trend minimise amount manual configuration cases embedded databases need target zero-administration paramount large major enterprise dbmss tended increase size functionality involved thousands human years development effort lifetime early multi-user dbms typically allowed application reside computer access via terminals terminal emulation software client–server architecture development application resided client desktop database server allowing processing distributed evolved multitier architecture incorporating application servers web servers end user interface via web browser database directly connected adjacent tier general-purpose dbms provide public application programming interfaces api optionally processor database languages sql allow applications written interact database special purpose dbms may use private api specifically customised linked single application example email system performing many functions general-purpose dbms message insertion message deletion attachment handling blocklist lookup associating messages email address forth however functions limited required handle email external interaction database via application program interfaces dbms range database tool allows users execute sql queries textually graphically web site happens use database store search information programmer code interactions database sometimes referred datasource via application program interface api via database language particular api language chosen need supported dbms possible indirectly via pre-processor bridging api api aim database independent odbc commonly known example common api include jdbc ado.net database languages special-purpose languages allow one following tasks sometimes distinguished sublanguages database languages specific particular data model notable examples include database language may also incorporate features like database storage container physical materialization database comprises internal physical level database architecture also contains information needed e.g. metadata data data internal data structures reconstruct conceptual level external level internal level needed putting data permanent storage generally responsibility database engine a.k.a storage engine though typically accessed dbms underlying operating system often using operating systems file systems intermediates storage layout storage properties configuration setting extremely important efficient operation dbms thus closely maintained database administrators dbms operation always database residing several types storage e.g. memory external storage database data additional needed information possibly large amounts coded bits data typically reside storage structures look completely different way data look conceptual external levels ways attempt optimize best possible levels reconstruction needed users programs well computing additional types needed information data e.g. querying database dbmss support specifying character encoding used store data multiple encodings used database various low-level database storage structures used storage engine serialize data model written medium choice techniques indexing may used improve performance conventional storage row-oriented also column-oriented correlation databases often storage redundancy employed increase performance common example storing materialized views consist frequently needed external views query results storing views saves expensive computing time needed downsides materialized views overhead incurred updating keep synchronized original updated database data cost storage redundancy occasionally database employs storage redundancy database objects replication one copies increase data availability improve performance simultaneous multiple end-user accesses database object provide resiliency case partial failure distributed database updates replicated object need synchronized across object copies many cases entire database replicated database security deals various aspects protecting database content owners users ranges protection intentional unauthorized database uses unintentional database accesses unauthorized entities e.g. person computer program database access control deals controlling person certain computer program allowed access information database information may comprise specific database objects e.g. record types specific records data structures certain computations certain objects e.g. query types specific queries using specific access paths former e.g. using specific indexes data structures access information database access controls set special authorized database owner personnel uses dedicated protected security dbms interfaces may managed directly individual basis assignment individuals privileges groups elaborate models assignment individuals groups roles granted entitlements data security prevents unauthorized users viewing updating database using passwords users allowed access entire database subsets called subschemas example employee database contain data individual employee one group users may authorized view payroll data others allowed access work history medical data dbms provides way interactively enter update database well interrogate capability allows managing personal databases data security general deals protecting specific chunks data physically i.e. corruption destruction removal e.g. see physical security interpretation parts meaningful information e.g. looking strings bits comprise concluding specific valid credit-card numbers e.g. see data encryption change access logging records accessed attributes changed changed logging services allow forensic database audit later keeping record access occurrences changes sometimes application-level code used record changes rather leaving database monitoring set attempt detect security breaches database transactions used introduce level fault tolerance data integrity recovery crash database transaction unit work typically encapsulating number operations database e.g. reading database object writing acquiring lock etc abstraction supported database also systems transaction well defined boundaries terms program/code executions included transaction determined transaction programmer via special transaction commands acronym acid describes ideal properties database transaction atomicity consistency isolation durability database built one dbms portable another dbms i.e. dbms run however situations desirable migrate database one dbms another reasons primarily economical different dbmss may different total costs ownership tcos functional operational different dbmss may different capabilities migration involves database transformation one dbms type another transformation maintain possible database related application i.e. related application programs intact thus database conceptual external architectural levels maintained transformation may desired also aspects architecture internal level maintained complex large database migration may complicated costly one-time project factored decision migrate spite fact tools may exist help migration specific dbmss typically dbms vendor provides tools help importing databases popular dbmss designing database application next stage building database typically appropriate general-purpose dbms selected used purpose dbms provides needed user interfaces used database administrators define needed application data structures within dbms respective data model user interfaces used select needed dbms parameters like security related storage allocation parameters etc. database ready data structures needed components defined typically populated initial application data database initialization typically distinct project many cases using specialized dbms interfaces support bulk insertion making operational cases database becomes operational empty application data data accumulated operation database created initialised populated needs maintained various database parameters may need changing database may need tuned tuning better performance application data structures may changed added new related application programs may written add application functionality etc sometimes desired bring database back previous state many reasons e.g. cases database found corrupted due software error updated erroneous data achieve backup operation done occasionally continuously desired database state i.e. values data embedding database data structures kept within dedicated backup files many techniques exist effectively decided database administrator bring database back state e.g. specifying state desired point time database state files used restore state static analysis techniques software verification applied also scenario query languages particular *abstract interpretation framework extended field query languages relational databases way support sound approximation techniques semantics query languages tuned according suitable abstractions concrete domain data abstraction relational database system many interesting applications particular security purposes fine grained access control watermarking etc dbms features might include increasingly calls single system incorporates core functionalities build test deployment framework database management source control borrowing developments software industry market offerings devops database first task database designer produce conceptual data model reflects structure information held database common approach develop entity-relationship model often aid drawing tools another popular approach unified modeling language successful data model accurately reflect possible state external world modeled example people one phone number allow information captured designing good conceptual data model requires good understanding application domain typically involves asking deep questions things interest organization like customer also supplier product sold two different forms packaging product different products plane flies new york dubai via frankfurt one flight two maybe even three answers questions establish definitions terminology used entities customers products flights flight segments relationships attributes producing conceptual data model sometimes involves input business processes analysis workflow organization help establish information needed database left example help deciding whether database needs hold historic data well current data produced conceptual data model users happy next stage translate schema implements relevant data structures within database process often called logical database design output logical data model expressed form schema whereas conceptual data model theory least independent choice database technology logical data model expressed terms particular database model supported chosen dbms terms data model database model often used interchangeably article use data model design specific database database model modeling notation used express design popular database model general-purpose databases relational model precisely relational model represented sql language process creating logical database design using model uses methodical approach known normalization goal normalization ensure elementary fact recorded one place insertions updates deletions automatically maintain consistency final stage database design make decisions affect performance scalability recovery security like depend particular dbms often called physical database design output physical data model key goal stage data independence meaning decisions made performance optimization purposes invisible end-users applications two types data independence physical data independence logical data independence physical design driven mainly performance requirements requires good knowledge expected workload access patterns deep understanding features offered chosen dbms another aspect physical database design security involves defining access control database objects well defining security levels methods data database model type data model determines logical structure database fundamentally determines manner data stored organized manipulated popular example database model relational model sql approximation relational uses table-based format common logical data models databases include object-relational database combines two related structures physical data models include models include specialized models optimized particular types data database management system provides three views database data typically one conceptual logical physical internal view data number different external views allows users see database information business-related way rather technical processing viewpoint example financial department company needs payment details employees part company expenses need details employees interest human resources department thus different departments need different views company database three-level database architecture relates concept data independence one major initial driving forces relational model idea changes made certain level affect view higher level example changes internal level affect application programs written using conceptual level interfaces reduces impact making physical changes improve performance conceptual view provides level indirection internal external one hand provides common view database independent different external view structures hand abstracts away details data stored managed internal level principle every level even every external view presented different data model practice usually given dbms uses data model external conceptual levels e.g. relational model internal level hidden inside dbms depends implementation requires different level detail uses types data structure types separating external conceptual internal levels major feature relational database model implementations dominate 21st century databases database technology active research topic since 1960s academia research development groups companies example ibm research research activity includes theory development prototypes notable research topics included models atomic transaction concept related concurrency control techniques query languages query optimization methods raid database research area several dedicated academic journals example acm transactions database systems -tods data knowledge engineering -dke annual conferences e.g. acm sigmod acm pods vldb ieee icde Target text information: digital_notam.digital notam digital notam digitam data set made available digital services containing information concerning establishment condition change aeronautical facility service procedure hazard timely knowledge essential systems automated equipment used personnel concerned flight operations digital notam encoding based aeronautical information exchange model aixm version 5 developed cooperation european organisation safety air navigation eurocontrol united states federal aviation administration faa support international ais community.the digitam eliminates free form text contained within notam replaces text series structured facts obtain aeronautical entity concerned 2012 federal aviation administration faa successfully launched first global digital notam notice airmen system airports airplanes united states I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	7,197	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: development_of_windows_vista.development windows vista development windows vista occurred span five half years starting earnest may 2001 prior release microsoft windows xp operating system continuing november 2006 microsoft originally expected ship new version sometime late 2003 minor step windows xp codenamed whistler windows 7 codenamed blackcomb vienna vista original codename longhorn allusion plan whistler blackcomb large ski resorts british columbia longhorn name bar two mountains whistler visitors pass reach blackcomb gradually windows longhorn assimilated many important new features technologies slated blackcomb resulting release date pushed back times many microsoft developers also re-tasked improving security windows xp faced ongoing delays concerns feature creep microsoft announced august 27 2004 making significant changes longhorn development started afresh building windows server 2003 codebase re-incorporating features would intended actual operating system release previously announced features winfs ngscb dropped postponed longhorn named windows vista mid-2005 unprecedented beta-test program started involved hundreds thousands volunteers companies september 2005 october 2006 microsoft released regular community technology previews ctp beta testers two release candidates general public development windows vista came conclusion november 8 2006 announcement completion co-president windows development jim allchin early development stages longhorn generally characterized incremental improvements updates windows xp period microsoft fairly quiet worked marketing public relations focus strongly focused windows xp windows server 2003 released april 2003 occasional builds longhorn leaked onto popular file sharing networks irc bittorrent edonkey various newsgroups known builds prior first sanctioned development release longhorn may 2003 derived builds builds longhorn vista identified label always displayed bottom-right corner desktop typical build label would look like longhorn build 3663.lab06_n.020728-1728 higher build numbers n't automatically mean latest features every development team microsoft included typically team working certain feature subsystem would generate working builds developers would test code deemed stable changes would incorporated back main development tree microsoft number build labs exist compilation entirety windows performed team lab given build originated shown part build label date time build follows builds beta 1 beta 2 display build label version information dialog winver icons windows xp installing milestone 2 builds oobe setup process windows xp different music build 3663 build date july 28 2002 first known build leaked screenshots first sighting plex style microsoft regarded place-holder theme development versions ready demonstrate aero build 3670 build date august 19 2002 screenshots build showed variation device manager implemented inside windows explorer feature later appeared windows 7 build 3683 build date september 23 2002 leaked october 20 2002 first longhorn build leaked internet build first several working title longhorn xp professional visually significantly different windows xp one notable changes windows logo white colored like versions windows also templates documents pictures notably different well open save dialog boxes also included template incorporating aesthetic changes new user interface options new sidebar also present contained many gadgets would much later seen windows sidebar analog clock slide show search capability option version sidebar also made possible move start button disable traditional taskbar entirely early revision winfs also included little way user interface included appeared early testers nothing service consumed large amounts memory processor time display properties control panel first significant departure built new avalon api build 3706 build date october 29 2002 leaked may 22 2006 one first builds include desktop composition engine dce later became desktop window manager dwm build appeared internet long builds time period included several changes first reported part later milestone builds including internet explorer 6.05 plex theme build 3718 build date november 19 2002 leaked april 30 2004 included dce early hardware-accelerated alpha transparency transition effects demonstration dce capabilities programs literally flipped taskbar twisted minimized several months relatively little news activity microsoft longhorn build 4008 build date february 19 2003 made appearance internet around february 28 2003 also privately handed select group software developers evolutionary release build 3683 contained number small improvements including modified blue plex theme new simplified windows image-based installer operates graphical mode outset completed install operating system approximately one third time windows xp hardware optional new taskbar introduced thinner previous build displayed time differently notable visual functional difference however came windows explorer incorporation plex theme made blue dominant color entire application windows xp-style task pane almost completely replaced large horizontal pane appeared toolbars new search interface allowed filtering results searching windows help natural-language queries would used integrate winfs animated search characters also removed view modes also replaced single slider would resize icons real-time list thumbnail details mode depending slider file metadata also made visible easily editable active encouragement fill missing pieces information also note conversion windows explorer .net application build 4015 build date march 28 2003 leaked internet april 28 2003 number features microsoft working rolled build range parental controls also moved enlarged windows logo left side start button lot additional configurability sidebar including able put start bar bottom screen notion libraries later known virtual folders files libraries collected content around hard drive user could filter content save folder microsoft originally intended replace special shell folders documents music etc virtual folders however change deemed drastic dropped beta 1 release mid-2005 libraries later included windows 7 build also notable debut boot screen progress bar seen final release though 4015 version blue green new download manager shell location suggested internet explorer would get mozilla-style download manager though functionality apparent significant memory leak problems windows explorer sidebar made build difficult use resulted third-party hacks mitigate problem back-end database outlook express changed completely became dependent winfs store email winfs still significant performance memory usage issues became common testers disable winfs entirely thus rendering outlook express inoperative windows hardware engineering conference winhec conference may 2003 microsoft gave first public demonstrations new desktop window manager aero demonstrations done revised build 4015 never released number sessions developers hardware engineers conference focused new features well next-generation secure computing base previously known palladium time microsoft proposed solution creating secure computing environment also conference microsoft reiterated roadmap delivering longhorn pointing early 2005 release date build 4028 build date july 1 2003 first known server build based windows server.net rc1 later became windows server 2003 traditional client bits visual style look present disabled default build 4029 build date june 19 2003 leaked september 23 2003 build contained technologies new build 4015 windows explorer went number changes larger image video previews displayed tooltip mouse hovered file column-level filtering results introduced overall performance explorer somewhat improved build 4015 though memory leak issues entirely resolved also new analog clock user interface batch image processing images also introduced making possible user rotate number images build 4029 name displayed onghornlay rofessionalpay ersionvay 2003 pig latin longhorn professional version 2003 various places around operating system presumed screenshots build fake seemingly obvious mistake microsoft later explained merely test new code locate reduce number places operating system code name defined build 4033 build date july 17 2003 similar 4029 contained ui improvements including updated plex theme build 4039 build date august 27 2003 leaked august 22 2007 build includes phodeo 3d view displaying photos full dwm glass last build contain plex visual style build 4042 build date september 9 2003 probably earliest build slate theme lab06 instead plex theme winmain seen previous builds however aero glass build 4039 still present word removed computer network places build 4050 build date september 28 2003 shown teched 2004 israel one many 4050-numbered builds used microsoft demos notably 2003 professional developers conference official pdc 2003 build build date october 1 2003 build number 4051 released general public leak october 20 2003 introduced slate theme debuted 4042.lab06 build also contained updated version internet explorer version number 6.05 new features noted reviewers included download manager pop-up blocker add-on manager tool clear browsing history exception download manager eventually discarded features appeared builds internet explorer included preview builds windows xp service pack 2 months later windows sidebar enabled word start removed start button development used later windows vista build 4053 build date october 22 2003 leaked march 2 2004 minor changes build 4066 build date february 26 2004 although build identified server build contained many features ever seen associated desktop builds updated version phodeo included well sidebar mini-windows media player associated sidebar tiles functioning build desktop window manager jade theme build also replaced many xp icons new longhorn icons greatly resemble icons final version vista build leaked december 20 2008 may 2004 microsoft changed plans include next-generation secure computing base technology longhorn technology better known original code-name palladium garnered much criticism analysts security specialists researchers often cited advocates non-microsoft operating systems reason migrate preferred platform ross anderson example published paper collating many concerns criticisms part larger analysis trusted computing light large amount negative response analysts enterprise customers software developers microsoft shelved many aspects ngscb project indefinite period time aspect ngscb included final release operating system bitlocker make use trusted platform module chip facilitate secure startup full-drive encryption build 4067 build date february 12 2004 private beta shown jim allchin keynote winhec 2004 build 4074 build date april 25 2004 official winhec 2004 preview build leaked may 2004 build introduced improved jade theme although slate theme retained default also font segoe ui introduced jade theme also familiar pre-reset build build 4083 build date may 16 2004 – leaked november 10 2004 sidebar winfs dropped release considered highly unstable including absence programs start menu driver installation issues build 4093 build date august 19 2004 – one last builds compiled development reset considered highly unstable contained sidebar winfs avalon-based windows movie maker preliminary version windows anytime upgrade microsoft anna speech synthesizer avalon-based display properties control panel applet hidden \windows\system32 folder similar one build 3683 2004 become obvious windows team microsoft losing sight needed done complete next version windows ship customers internally microsoft employees describing longhorn project another cairo cairo.net referring cairo development project company embarked first half 1990s never resulted shipping operating system though nearly technologies developed time end windows 95 windows nt microsoft shocked 2005 apple release mac os x tiger offered limited subset features planned longhorn particular fast file searching integrated graphics sound processing appeared impressive reliability performance compared contemporary longhorn builds longhorn builds major explorer.exe system leaks prevented os performing well added confusion development teams later builds code developed failed reach stability september 23 2005 front-page article wall street journal microsoft co-president jim allchin overall responsibility development delivery windows explained development longhorn crashing ground due large part haphazard methods features introduced integrated core operating system without clear focus end-product december 2003 allchin enlisted help two senior executives brian valentine amitabh srivastava former experienced shipping software microsoft notably windows server 2003 latter spent career microsoft researching developing methods producing high-quality testing systems srivastava employed team core architects visually map entirety windows operating system proactively work towards development process would enforce high levels code quality reduce interdependencies components general make things worse vista things conjunction fact many microsoft skilled developers engineers working windows server 2003 led decision reset development longhorn building code would become windows server 2003 service pack 1 instead older windows.net server release candidate 1 build 3663 change announced internally microsoft employees august 26 2004 began earnest september though would take several months new development process build methodology would used development teams number complaints came individual developers bill gates new development process going prohibitively difficult work within changes build labs also resulted period time several months builds longhorn leaked onto internet build 3790.1232 build date august 19 2004 notable first build longhorn based server 2003 code base windows xp interface successive internal builds several months gradually integrated lot fundamental work done previous three years much stricter rules code could brought main builds builds period time described variously longhorn d1 milestone 8 9 depending whether new old build tree worked evidence similar build marked build 5000 built september 8 2004 also found build 5001 build date september 12 2004 windows longhorn build also windows xp interface wallpaper windows xp bull long horns boot screen also windows xp lh replacing xp lh represents longhorn build 5048 built april 1 2005 official winhec 2005 preview build described longhorn developer preview made available winhec attendees april 24 2005 build time period made available microsoft officially distributed outside winhec build quickly appeared file sharing networks aero visual style made first appearance build desktop window manager present disabled hidden default keynote presentation bill gates also announced many winfx developer apis originally planned exclusively longhorn going backported windows xp server 2003 final user interface longhorn would seen longer features device-independent resolutions rasterized icons virtual folders registry virtualization discussed well build 5048 closer resemblance windows xp prior longhorn builds 2003 2004 surprised many leading well-known windows enthusiast paul thurrott write thoughts positive positive painful build deal year waiting step back ways hope microsoft surprises sleeves makings train wreck months later thurrott stated vista development process since recovered recent builds build 5060 build date april 17 2005 major difference build 5048 except new style logon screen desktop wallpaper changed microsoft considered several names new operating system end microsoft chose windows vista confirmed july 22 2005 believing wonderful intersection product really windows stands resonates customers needs group project manager greg sullivan told paul thurrott— want pc adapt help cut clutter focus ’ important windows vista bringing clarity world reference three marketing points vista—clear connected confident focus matters microsoft co-president jim allchin also liked name saying vista creates right imagery new product capabilities inspires imagination possibilities done windows—making people ’ passions come alive windows vista beta 1 build 5112 build date july 20 2005 released july 27 2005 first longhorn build called windows vista available microsoft developer network msdn technet subscribers well select group microsoft beta testers compared winhec build released earlier year vista beta 1 large advancement introducing new user interface features windows shell drastically changed yet introducing virtual folders new search interface number new high-resolution icons revamped windows explorer interface away menus toolbar buttons present previous versions beta 1 also introduced many underlying technologies slated vista including new networking audio stacks parental controls fairly complete working build .net framework 3.0 still referred winfx build 5219 build date august 30 2005 microsoft started releasing regular community technical previews ctp beta testers less stability work made actual betas build 5219 also known ctp1 september ctp distributed among 2005 pdc attendees september 13 2005 released microsoft beta testers msdn subscribers first public ultimate edition build included super fetch although enabled default refresh saw return windows sidebar removed part development reset introduction desktop gadgets part microsoft gadgets line mini-applications microsoft stated intended make additional gadgets available download web site time build also supported new version windows media center code-named diamond although microsoft stated winfs make debut windows vista users build 5219 noticed winfs fact included version several windows 'rumor sites newsgroups neowin paul thurrott supersite windows speculated winfs would fact ready time windows vista release build 5231 build date october 4 2005 also known ctp2 october 2005 ctp released msdn subscribers microsoft beta testers october 17 2005 ultimate build introduced windows media player version 11 updated volume control utility added control volume level every running program build 5259 built november 17 2005 released microsoft technology adoption program tap members november 22 2005 originally announced released november 18 november ctp microsoft cancelled november ctp due instability however released build tap members sidebar temporarily removed build new ui changes including ability change color clarity ui windows antispyware soon windows defender integrated outlook express renamed windows mail idw build therefore gone ctp testing process leaked internet december 7 2005 december ctp built december 14 2005 build number 5270 released testers msdn december 19 2005 close feature complete since feature complete build delayed late january 2006 build windows antispyware renamed windows defender ie7 new icon/logo minor ui changes december ctp also last build windows vista supported bypassing wddm driver model requirement hence allowing desktop window manager uxss time build run using software vertex emulation change post 5270 builds well known keys 'usemachinecheck 'enablemachinecheck allow running desktop window manager software emulation mode february ctp built february 17 2006 build number 5308 released february 22 2006 first feature-complete ctp build meant enterprises also first build upgrade compatibility build according microsoft one feature appear next ctp customers see final release however later builds brought improvements previously expected unstaged revision made build released february 28 2006 build 5308.60 built february 23 released result windows server longhorn many issues february ctp also incorporated numerous virtual folders including attachments favorite music fresh tracks important e-mail last 7 days e-mail last 30 days documents last 30 days pictures videos recently changed shared unread e-mail user files intel developer forum march 9 2006 microsoft announced change plans support efi windows vista uefi 2.0 specification replaces efi 1.10 completed early 2006 time microsoft announcement firmware manufacturers completed production implementation could used testing result decision made postpone introduction uefi support windows support uefi 64-bit platforms postponed vista service pack 1 windows server 2008 32-bit uefi supported microsoft expect many systems built market moves 64-bit processors february ctp refresh built march 21 2006 build number 5342 released march 24 2006 build shipped technical beta testers corporate customers microsoft used testing board extensive feedback got february ctp described release external developer workstation intent providing interim build ctps microsoft claimed still track deliver next ctp second quarter build last beta 2 fork build included minor ui changes notably improvements media center new aero aurora effects faster setup process new sidebar gadgets slight improvements overall performance stability paint also slightly improved new screenshot snapping/saving tool included slightly redesigned network center build meet ctp quality measurements available ultimate edition 32-bit x86 64-bit x64 systems april edw built april 19 2006 build number 5365 released april 21 2006 introduced changes visual user interface elements behavior user account control number new backgrounds also introduced two new screensavers added well sidebar enabled default automatic defragmentation hard drive hold'em game shipped previous ctps dropped due apparent political sensitivity issues microsoft offers separate web download windows vista ultimate users windows vista beta 2 preview built may 1 2006 build number 5381 leaked may 2 2006 officially released may 6 2006 microsoft technical beta testers featured mostly performance tweaks minor changes compared build 5365 build microsoft entered beta 2 escrow windows vista beta 2 built may 18 2006 build number 5384 released microsoft developer network subscribers first since 5308 microsoft connect testers may 23 2006 conjunction bill gates keynote presentation winhec 2006 conference june 6 microsoft extended availability beta 2 users making vista available free download several languages web site technology web sites described release largest download event software history june microsoft made two significant changes plans windows vista one issue inclusion xml paper specification support vista microsoft office 2007 become major point dispute adobe systems first introduced may 2005 xps known time metro characterized pdf-killer adobe representative stated threatened addition longhorn however year later adobe changed stance saw inclusion new document format anti-competitive attack portable document format microsoft refused remove xps altogether noting core vista print spooling system offered ability system builders oems remove user-visible aspects document format operating system days later announced pc-to-pc sync would ship windows vista june 14 2006 windows developer philip su posted blog entry decried development process windows vista stating code way complicated pace coding tremendously slowed overbearing process. post also described windows vista approximately 50 million lines code 2,000 developers working product build 5456 build date june 20 2006 released june 24 2006 new features included revamped aero subsystem completely overhauled significantly less obtrusive user account control interface list view windows explorer brought back removed beta 1 microsoft developer ben betz later explained blog entry felt removing list mode made sense based usability research inability support windows explorer new grouping feature feature restored based great deal feedback beta testers release notes build state time zone bug plagued almost previous builds windows vista patched quite issues regional settings ime also resolved new windows aero mouse pointer scheme introduced introduced anti-aliasing mouse pointer first time many remaining windows xp-style icons replaced new icons disk space used clean installation also significantly reduced build 5472 build date july 13 2006 released july 17 2006 aside incorporating number bug fixes localization improvements build also introduced revised basic theme replaces gray theme seen previous builds light blue theme network center significantly revised well collating status information one place reducing number steps get configuration options desktop backgrounds icons introduced flip3d saw layout tweaks new windows aero mouse cursor set default build huge performance improvement beta 2 comparable possibly even faster windows xp demonstration speech recognition feature new windows vista microsoft financial analyst meeting july 27 2006 software recognized phrase dear mom dear aunt several failed attempts correct error sentence eventually became dear aunt let set double killer delete select developer vista speech recognition team later explained bug build vista causing microphone gain level set high resulting audio received speech recognition software incredibly distorted august 8 2006 microsoft security response center provided critical security fixes windows vista beta 2 making first microsoft product get security updates still beta build 5536 build date august 21 2006 released august 24 2006 august 29 august 31 first 100,000 users downloaded microsoft site among notable changes featured new ties windows live online services new icons welcome center minor updates aero appearance slightly bluish tint glass effect big speed improvements including setup speed many bug fixes tweaked anti-aliasing flip 3d feature released publicly august 29 2006 release candidate 1 rc1 built august 29 2006 build number 5600.16384 released select group beta testers september 1 2006 september 6 rc1 released msdn technet subscribers well registered customer preview program cpp members beta 2 pid september 14 microsoft re-opened cpp new members cpp ended november 26 2006 public release release candidate 1 resulted number extensive reviews analyses various technology news web sites immediately release weeks following ars technica ken fisher wrote performance improved significantly beta 2 suggesting faster machines may perform better windows xp also criticised usefulness windows sidebar continued intrusiveness user account control crn review noted five specific categories improvements release candidate 1 installation speed device driver support performance improvements several components security multimedia capabilities criticism vista user interface arose well chris pirillo describing near-final state sloppy build 5700 build date august 10 2006 first build rtm branch shown student day presentation microsoft tech-ed 2006 australia appeared run faster previous pre-rc1 build 5472 ui improvements higher build number necessarily indicate newer build microsoft began work rtm branch time wrapping rc1 branch allowing mainstream rc1 developers easily flow new development stage parallel development helps explain build 5700 older even pre-rc1 builds build 5728 build date september 17 2006 released september 22 2006 technical beta participants following day microsoft released 32-bit version build public 64-bit version arriving september 25 october 1 microsoft reached goals program participation longer offered build public response significant amount feedback rc1 testers 5728 contained many improvements one inclusion check box sound properties allowed user disable windows vista startup sound welcome center also improved new icons eliminating use one icon several different items old icons user folder replaced build microsoft neared goal vista installing 15 minutes reviewers reporting 5728 took little 16 minutes clean install however performing upgrade installation windows xp still slow sometimes taking hour complete release candidate 2 rc2 built october 3 2006 build number 5744.16384 released cpp members tap testers msdn/technet subscribers technical beta testers friday october 6 2006 available download october 9 aggressive development schedule final build would officially released general public testing nevertheless pre-release product keys work final rtm build several testers reported rc2 faster stable build 5728 however rc2 regular interim build major milestone name suggests rigorously tested rc1 rc1 may stable certain situations build fixed many compatibility issues plagued previous builds vista gui continued improved contained minor tweaks one prominent new ability customize color transparency maximized windows previous builds windows became predominantly black maximized effect could altered users control panel icon windows sideshow also added release manufacturing rtm build final version code shipped retailers distributors purpose pre-rtm build eliminate last show-stopper bugs may prevent code responsibly shipped customers well anything else consumers may find annoying thus unlikely major new features introduced instead work focus vista fit-and-finish days developers managed drop vista bug count 2470 september 22 1400 time rc2 shipped early october however still way go vista ready rtm microsoft internal processes required vista bug count drop 500 fewer product could go escrow rtm builds 32-bit versions released build 5808 build date october 12 2006 released tap testers october 19 2006 build notable first build released testers since microsoft entered rtm escrow build 5800 explains build numbers jumped 57xx 58xx build 5824 build date october 17 2006 released wide number internal testers later day hope build would become final rtm however catastrophic show-stopper bug found destroyed system upgraded windows xp completely reinstalling windows would fix computer build 5840 build date october 18 2006 made available internal testers according paul thurrott build contain major bug build 5824 testing produced positive feedback build contained large number new final icons well new set final wallpapers including new default wallpaper based aurora swoosh seen prior builds also last build feature windows xp sound scheme release manufacturing rtm built november 1 2006 build number 6000.16386 version windows vista ships customers microsoft announced build finalized november 8 2006 five years development rtm build number jumped 6000 reflect vista internal version number nt 6.0 jumping rtm build numbers common practice among consumer-oriented windows versions like windows 98 build 1998 windows 98 se build 2222 windows b.3000 windows xp b.2600 compared business-oriented versions like windows 2000 b.2195 server 2003 b.3790 november 16 2006 microsoft made final build available msdn technet plus subscribers business-oriented enterprise edition made available volume license customers november 30 windows vista launched general customer availability january 30 2007 service pack 1 beta released microsoft connect selected testers september 24 2007 build offered optionally windows update registry key installed tester key later leaked net resulting deactivation microsoft release build number vista jumped 6001.16659.070916-1443 build also removed group policy management console gpmc client computers replaced downloadable version later date also removed search menu option right hand bar start menu including option re-add start menu customization list build broke hp touch smart family applications also caused bugs resuming sleep cases rendered 64-bit pcs trusted platform module tpm chips unable finish booting build also contained unspecified improvements speed responsiveness os service pack 1 release candidate preview released microsoft connect selected testers november 12 2007 release build number vista increased 6001.17042.071107.1618 changes build covered microsoft connect non-disclosure agreement nda service pack 1 release candidate first released microsoft connect testers december 4 2007 build released msdn technet several weeks later days build released public officially microsoft download center public preview sp1 release build number vista increased 6001.17052.071129.2315 build contained number notable changes enhancements service pack 1 release candidate refresh released microsoft connect selected testers january 9 2008 released public january 11 2008 release build number 6001.17128.080101.1935 service pack 1 release candidate refresh 2 released microsoft connect selected testers january 24 2008- windows update release build number 6001.18000 details build covered microsoft connect non-disclosure agreement nda service pack 1 released manufacturing monday february 4 2008 final build service pack 1 went live tuesday march 18 2008 microsoft download center windows update build confirmed sources microsoft exactly code rc refresh 2 also giving exactly build number full build string release refresh 2 6001.18000.longhorn_rtm.080118-1840 build 6001.18063 release date june 24 2008 microsoft released kb952709 reliability performance update windows vista build notable two reasons first first publicly released update increases vista build number beyond 6001.18000 final build service pack 1 second build replaces 6001 longhorn _rtm.080118-1840 build string sp1 6001. vistasp1 _gdr.080425-1930 longhorn build string present early development vista seen official release build update reintroduced sp1 beta left sp1 released build marks removal release version vista contain longhorn codename prominent manner microsoft started work service pack 2 soon service pack 1 released windows server 2008 uses codebase windows vista service pack 1 service pack 2 first service pack released windows server 2008 windows vista simultaneously sharing binary windows vista service pack 2 pre-beta build number 6002.16489.lh_sp2beta.080924-1740 version 105 released october 2008 windows vista service pack 2 beta build number 6002.16497.081017-1605 version 113 released december 4 2008 download became available microsoft download center windows vista service pack 2 rc escrow build number 6002.16659.090114-1728 version 275 released january 2009 windows vista service pack 2 release candidate build number 6002.16670.090130-1715 version 286 released february 2009 windows vista service pack 2 rtm escrow build connect beta testers build number 6002.17043.090312-1835 version released march 2009 available installed via windows update windows vista service pack 2 rtm escrow build number 6002.17506.090313-1730 version released march 2009 leak file sharing websites windows vista service pack 2 rtm build number 6002.18005.090410-1830 released 28 april 2009 officially released microsoft via windows update 26 may 2009 – find build revision number windows vista windows server 2008 installed 1-hop neighbor's text information: features_new_to_windows_10.features new windows 10 windows 10 introduced number new elements including option use touch-optimized interface known tablet mode traditional desktop interface similar windows 7 along live tiles windows 8 however unlike previous versions windows major features release completed rtm windows 10 continues receive major features changes beyond initial release market microsoft describes windows 10 'operating system service receive ongoing updates features functionality supplemented ability enterprise environments receive non-critical updates slower pace use long-term support milestones receive critical updates security patches ten-year lifespan support terry myerson executive vice president microsoft windows devices group argued goal model reduce fragmentation across windows platform windows 10 codenamed threshold 1 first release windows 10 carries build number 10.0.10240 build n't contain version number microsoft retroactively named version 1507 standing july 2015 matching versioning scheme later updates threshold 1 announced event september 30 2014 first preview following day final release made available windows insiders july 15 2015 followed public release july 29 2015 free upgrade windows 7 windows 8.1 threshold 1 release windows 10 supported users long term servicing branch ltsb new feature indicated release added since windows 8.1 update 1 released april 2014 mail app adds user-configurable swipe gesture controls pop3 email support google calendar support added calendar app settings app expanded similar functionality control panel albeit metro-style user interface map app download maps offline use microsoft edge new browser windows 10 successor internet explorer although internet explorer remain compatibility legacy purposes cortana integrated edge accessible option ask cortana right click menu well reading view ability write notes directly web pages save onenote reading list feature also added users save articles content accessed read later microsoft edge also includes share button toolbar tapping clicking bring system share panel users able share webpage installed applications reading list third-party apps facebook twitter since release microsoft edge scored 402 555 points html5test windows 10 introduced universal windows platform uwp extension windows runtime platform originally introduced windows 8 uwp emphasizes core set apis common variations operating system enabling ability code single application adaptations user interface differences different device families states including desktops laptops tablets smartphones via windows 10 mobile xbox one new device classes surface hub hololens application may also react available displays input device connected monitor suitable docking station uwp app smartphone take appearance app pc information also synchronized versions app different devices notifications licensing windows 10 includes directx 12 alongside wddm 2.0 unveiled march 2014 gdc directx 12 aims provide console-level efficiency closer metal access hardware resources reduced cpu graphics driver overhead performance improvements achieved low-level programming reduce single-threaded cpu bottlenecking caused abstraction higher level apis performance gains achieved allowing developers direct access gpu resources similar low-level rendering initiatives amd mantle apple metal api opengl successor vulkan wddm 2.0 introduces new virtual memory management allocation system reduce workload kernel-mode driver windows 10 brings updates xbox app introduced windows 8 games xbox one streamed windows 10 device excluding smartphones windows 10 introduces game bar provides screenshot video capture functionality windows games users invoke game bar record gameplay take screenshot using appropriate keyboard shortcuts windows 10 also continuously capture gameplays background allows user request last users defined moments gameplay saved hard disk useful user wants save and/or share moment gameplay think explicitly record beforehand windows 10 also allows web apps desktop software using either win32 .net framework packaged distribution windows store desktop software distributed windows store packaged using app-v system allow sandboxing web apps executed remote servers access windows functions notifications camera access windows 8 locally packaged web apps written using html winjs called action center windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 successor called security maintenance title action center windows 10 usurped sidebar provides list received notifications group quick actions buttons different settings areas accessed clicking notifications icon system tray swiping right screen touchscreens windows 10 brings improvements system command-line interface unlike previous versions windows nt win32 console windows resized without restrictions made cover full screen pressing combination keyboard microsoft also enabled use standard keyboard shortcuts cut copy paste within console word wrapping keyboard shortcuts move caret select manipulate text become available features word wrap transparency also included user option disable new features return legacy console wish continuum blanket title group features windows 10 designed enable smoother transitions default interface mode designed use keyboard mouse interface designed touchscreen environments especially hybrid devices laplets enabling tablet mode switches primary interface full screen version start menu opens applications maximized view default taskbar also modified adding back button next start button default hiding buttons opened pinned applications task view used primary means switching programs windows prompt switch two modes automatically certain events occur plugging keyboard mouse tablet switching laplet laptop state vice versa windows 10 brought cortana assistant windows phone 8.1 windows 10 default cortana appears search pane taskbar changed button like tablet mode activated voice using command hey cortana user searches start menu user searches cortana search pane cortana users ask cortana questions weather calendar events types notifications along online information cortana currently requires microsoft account function windows 10 reintroduced start menu seen versions windows prior 8 however unlike versions new start menu includes live tile features windows 8 possible resize start menu view recently added used applications also made full screen tablet users users prefer windows 8-like experience right hand side start menu used pin tiles menu contain limited amount columns depending screen resolution columns divided groups title every group divided 6 8 columns depending user settings allow either 6 8 small sized tiles next task view task switching virtual desktop system accessible via taskbar button keyboard shortcut swiping left touchscreen activating task view shows zoomed display windows currently opened specific monitor clicking window switches task view also displayed window snapped half screen three windows snapped fourths screen prompting window occupy remainder screen task view also allows creation virtual workspaces windows dragged workspaces modern settings app windows 8 continues evolve windows 10 incorporating system setting configuration functionality windows control panel ultimate goal make settings app feature complete obviating need control panel push-button reset function changed utilize files current windows installation rebuild system rather separate recovery image system updates carry new installation re-downloaded separate refresh option removed users given explicit choices within reset process remove personal files applications keep personal files remove applications perform full factory reset mac address randomization wifi introduced try prevent third parties using mac address track devices windows 10 november update windows 10 version 1511 codenamed threshold 2 first major update windows 10 carries build number 10.0.10586 version 1511 referencing date release november 2015 first preview released august 18 2015 final release made available windows insiders november 3 2015 followed public release november 12 2015 existing windows 10 users free upgrade windows 7 windows 8.1 unlike initial release windows branch also made available existing windows phone 8.1-devices xbox one preview release windows server 2016 pre-installed new windows 10 mobile-devices like microsoft lumia 950 threshold 2 release windows 10 supported users current branch businesses cbb changes highlight features new since threshold 1 release windows 10 windows 10 anniversary update windows 10 version 1607 codenamed redstone 1 second major update windows 10 first 2 major updates given redstone codename released july 29 2016 universal windows platform apps support extensions allowing add-ons dlcs apps games respectively furthermore add-ons managed windows settings app anniversary update windows 10 adds windows subsystem linux allows ubuntu user space run natively windows subsystem translate linux system call ubuntu uses windows nt kernel allows bash ubuntu command line apps run within windows console however interoperability restriction bash run windows apps windows run linux software project centennial allows win32 .net apps repackaged appx allow use full set windows runtime apis also allow apps distributed windows store new workspace environment pen users includes virtual sticky notes pen could used take notes sticky notes features optical character recognition ocr highlight relevant text used cortana workspace also includes sketchpad ability take screenshot draw virtual ruler windows 10 creators update windows 10 version 1703 codenamed redstone 2 feature update windows 10 slated released april 11 2017 first preview release seeded windows insiders august 11 2016 redstone 2 release windows 10 currently development branch available windows insiders changes highlights features new since redstone 1 release windows 10 april 2018 update windows 10 version 1803 fifth feature update windows 10 windows 10 october 2018 update windows 10 version 1809 sixth feature update windows 10 1-hop neighbor's text information: windows_me.windows windows millennium edition windows marketed pronunciation pronoun codenamed millennium graphical operating system developed microsoft part windows 9x family operating systems successor windows 98 released manufacturing june 19 2000 general availability september 14 2000 windows last operating system released windows 9x series targeted specifically home pc users included internet explorer 5.5 windows media player 7 new windows movie maker software provided basic video editing designed easy use home users microsoft also updated graphical user interface shell features windows explorer first introduced windows 2000 released business-oriented operating system seven months earlier windows could upgraded internet explorer 6 sp1 sp2 sv1 internet explorer 7 outlook express 6 sp1 windows media player 9 series microsoft .net framework including version 2.0 supported however versions 2.0 sp1 3.x greater office xp last version microsoft office compatible windows windows continuation windows 9x model still dos-based like predecessors restricted access real mode ms-dos order decrease system boot time october 2001 windows xp released became windows successor popularizing features introducing visual themes including reliable windows nt kernel 1998 microsoft stated would version windows 9x windows 98 may 1999 however microsoft released windows 98 second edition announced new version windows 9x later revealed codenamed millennium 2000 released windows millennium edition windows least three beta versions windows available development phase september 24 1999 microsoft announced windows millennium beta 1 released windows millennium beta 2 released november 24 1999 added couple new features system file protection game options control panel several interim builds released beta 1 2 added features automatic updates personalized menus beta 3 released april 11 2000 version marked first appearance final version startup shutdown sounds derived windows 2000 previous betas used windows 98 startup shutdown sounds final version boot screen first featured pre-beta 3 build 2470 general availability date windows millennium edition september 14 2000 launch time microsoft announced time-limited promotion september 2000 – january 2001 entitled windows 95 windows 98 users upgrade windows 59.95 instead regular retail upgrade price 109 shortly windows released manufacturing june 19 2000 microsoft launched campaign-initiative promote windows u.s. dubbed meet tour national partnered promotional program featured windows oems partners interactive multimedia attraction 25 cities across u.s launched september 14 2000 compared releases windows windows short shelf-life year microsoft aimed make first consumer windows os based nt kernel however happen windows rushed market neptune project canceled windows along windows 2000 eventually succeded nt-based windows xp launched august 24 2001 windows featured shell enhancements inherited windows 2000 personalized menus customizable windows explorer toolbars auto-complete windows explorer address bar run box windows 2000 advanced file type association features displaying comments shortcuts tooltips extensible columns details view icolumnprovider interface icon overlays integrated search pane windows explorer sort name function menus places bar common dialogs open save cascading start menu special folders plus 95 plus 98 themes updated graphics notification area windows later supported 16-bit high color icons multimedia control panel also updated windows 98 se taskbar start menu options allowed disabling drag drop feature could prevent moving resizing taskbar easier new users windows restricted support real mode ms-dos result codice_5 windows disregards codice_1 codice_21 codice_22 directly executes codice_23 default configuration system would neither boot ms-dos command prompt exit dos windows real mode drivers codice_24 could loaded older applications require real mode could run microsoft argued change improved speed reliability boot process windows codice_1 codice_2 files used set global environment variables two files present scanned settings relating environment variables commands present removed windows registry key see two files thus contain settings preferences configure global environment computer boot phase starting new virtual dos machine vdm specify edit startup values windows 98 would present codice_2 file user must edit following windows registry key troubleshooting crash recovery windows cd-rom windows startup disk user-createable floppy disk known emergency boot disk ebd allowed booting real mode ms-dos possible restore real mode dos functionality various unofficial means additionally registry setting exists re-enables restart ms-dos mode option shutdown dialog box unlike past versions windows 9x windows entirely aimed home users thus certain enterprise-oriented features removed several features predecessors work officially unsupported microsoft windows including automated installation active directory client services system policy editor personal web server asp features supported predecessors windows 98 windows 95 resource kit publication targeted towards system administrators never published windows features removed never updated work windows included microsoft fax quickview drivespace well gui fat32 conversion tool several windows explorer commands removed windows windows heavily panned many users critics mainly due stability issues due many bugs glitches windows considered one worst operating systems time pc world article dubbed windows mistake edition placed 4th worst tech products time feature 2006 article states shortly appeared late 2000 users reported problems installing getting run getting work hardware software getting stop running byron hinson julien jay writing activewin took appreciative look operating system removal real mode dos noted removal dos clearly made difference windows terms stability far less blue screens death seen booting speed greatly increased recommendation operating system upgrade users windows 95 98 stated windows n't revolutionary os clear microsoft focused efforts make user-friendly stable packed full multimedia options result great enhancements added really worth wait along windows 2000 nt family windows last version windows lacked product activation system restore suffered bug date-stamping functionality could cause system restore date-stamp snapshots taken 8 september 2001 incorrectly could prevent system restore locating snapshots cause system restore process fail microsoft released update fix problem one common errors startup shutdown computer would display blue screen death instead starting shutting well logo graphic failing load boot microsoft planned stop support windows december 31 2004 however order give customers time migrate newer windows versions particularly developing emerging markets microsoft decided maintain support july 11 2006 support windows 98 also ended date microsoft ended support products company considers obsolete running products expose users security risks 2011 microsoft removed update website windows updates site windows 98 windows 98 se also terminated year windows also contained microsoft java virtual machine caused well windows 98 windows 98 se pulled microsoft developer network end 2003 windows designed handle 512 mb ram default systems larger ram pools may lose stability however depending hardware software configuration sometimes possible manually tweak installation continue working somewhat larger amounts ram well systems 1.5 gb ram may reboot continuously startup windows windows spellings used referring operating system windows used microsoft pc world Target text information: windows_hpc_server_2008.windows hpc server 2008 windows hpc server 2008 released microsoft 22 september 2008 successor product windows compute cluster server 2003 like wccs windows hpc server 2008 designed high-end applications require high performance computing clusters hpc stands high performance computing version server software claimed efficiently scale thousands cores includes features unique hpc workloads new high-speed networkdirect rdma highly efficient scalable cluster management tools service-oriented architecture soa job scheduler mpi library based open-source mpich2 cluster interoperability standards high performance computing basic profile hpcbp specification produced open grid forum ogf june 2008 system built collaboratively national center supercomputing applications ncsa microsoft ranked 23 top500 list ranking world fastest supercomputers linpack score 68.5 teraflops ncsa supercomputer uses windows server hpc red hat enterprise linux 4 november 2011 ranking dropped 253 since windows computers dropped top500 list linux also replaced operating systems list november 2008 rankings published top500 windows hpc system built shanghai supercomputer center achieved peak performance 180.6 teraflops ranked 11 list june 2015 last windows machine left list dropped later ranked 436 barely made top500 windows azure dropping earlier windows hpc server 2008 r2 based windows server 2008 r2 released 20 september 2010 windows hpc server 2008 r2 microsoft released hpc pack 2008 r2 four flavors express enterprise workstation cycle harvesting later simplified offer releasing hpc pack 2012 combined capabilities four versions hpc pack 2008 r2 hpc pack 2012 installed top windows server 2012 standard datacenter I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	7,615	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: nokia_e7-00.nokia e7-00 nokia e7-00 also known nokia e7 business-oriented qwerty smartphone nokia nokia eseries announced nokia world september 2010 together nokia c6-01 nokia c7 started shipping february 2011 second phone nokia n8 running symbian^3 operating system compared nokia n8 fixed mass storage 16gb without memory card slot fm transmitter less advanced camera extended depth field instead autofocus n8 e90 like nokia n8 comes hdmi-out connector non-user-replaceable battery smaller e90 keyboard spring mechanism nokia n97 mini like n8 anodized aluminium casing different bulkier heavier e90 compared nokia n97 mini e90 e7-00 multitouch capacitive touchscreen unlike n8 n97 mini e90 e7-00 active-matrix oled amoled clearblack technology slightly lower resolution e90 vlasta berka general manager nokia singapore malaysia brunei talked trend users using smartphones business parliament finland bought 200 e7s spring 2011 late april 2012 50 phones serviced warranty fixed os update e7 battery user-removable although unofficial online tutorials replace battery exist 1-hop neighbor's text information: nokia_n97.nokia n97 nokia n97 high-end smartphone part nseries line nokia announced 2 december 2008 released june 2009 successor nokia n96 n97 nokia second s60-based touchscreen phone nokia 5800 xpressmusic features slide-out qwerty keyboard n97 runs symbian v9.4 symbian^1/s60 5th edition design mostly based nokia n79 smaller 'mini variant later released nokia flagship time touchscreen devices becoming increasingly prevalent n97 highly anticipated despite good sales considered disaster hardware software sides thought contributed nokia decline nokia executive admitted 2010 n97 regrettable failure nokia n97 released us flagship stores 9 june 2009 26 june 2009 released worldwide september 2009 two million n97 handsets reportedly sold three months following release n97 shipped trial versions quick office adobe reader boingo joikuspot ovi maps ovi store initial software mixed reception prompting release new firmware october 2009 nokia released new firmware kinetic scrolling n97 address major issues present firmware device launched october 2009 n97 mini downsized version original n97 made available n97 mini generally seen improvement original n97 informal tests shown battery last nearly two days regular use phone various features original n97 nokia quoted following claimed operating times optional dvb-h nokia mobile tv receiver su-33w possible watch television phone compatible nokia n-gage platform touchscreen common criticisms original n97 relative lack ram free disk space c drive around 50 mb free ram available boot phone become sluggish close programs order conserve memory many first party applications also install c around 50 mb free space used quickly also temporary os files placed issue resolved n97 mini user often 250 mb free space c drive memory mapping alteration firmware version 20 allowed applications use less ram free better helping ease strain lower amount free ram end-user anssi vanjoki evp markets nokia admitted quality control software issue device saying tremendous disappointment terms experience quality consumers though according vanjoki later repaired firmware updates steve litchfield symbian 2011 blog post wrote n97 really device ruled world almost literally everything yet became one device nokia literally apologise publicly one device became millstone around neck nokia acknowledged many devices cover lens mounted close causing scratches dust debris later units nokia reportedly fixed issue others original n97 speed problems built gps lock phones easily lose track current location making free turn turn navigation software provided nokia unusable users lens cover gps issues fixed warranty official nokia service centre despite nokia phones great signal reception nokia n97 follow tradition poor overall signal strength even comparison phones placed side side n97 connected network user interface s60 5th edition software platform built top symbian os 9.4 criticized site techradar inconsistent menu items require two taps activated 2010 nokia officially apologized number customers experienced issues n97 buggy software led large number potential customers choosing brands nokia time period despite generally lukewarm reviews phone sold well however marketing iphone killer tarnished nokia smartphone reputation time n97 mini downsized version n97 available since october 2009 n97 mini downsized features original n97 8 gb storage memory touchscreen shorter battery life uses 2.0 nokia n97 software default also redesign keypad first big d-pad left side replaced four arrow keys right side also space keys keys little bit higher giving much better feel typing major differences listed following table limited edition called n97 mini raoul limited edition released relation fashion house fj benjamin raoul brand also features new fashion asia widget went sale late october 2009 malaysia singapore user interface s60 5th edition software platform built top symbian os 9.4 criticized site techradar inconsistent menu items require two taps activated compared original n97 cheaper n97 mini reviewed improvement especially keyboard three phones considered successors n97 firstly n8 became new multimedia flagship 2010 also c6 similar sliding-out qwerty keyboard however since c6 uses specifications maemo-powered n900 also featuring keyboard yet considerably better specifications considered successor 1-hop neighbor's text information: nokia_n79.nokia n79 nokia n79 symbian os v9.3 smartphone member nokia nseries multimedia smartphone family running s60 3rd edition feature pack 2 officially announced nokia 26 august 2008 n79 advanced device 5 megapixel camera dual led flash gps many improvements nokia n78 retailed 350 euros upon release october 2008 n79 somewhat vibrant style compared usual nseries devices rotated nokia logo would later appear nokia n97 nokia advertised n79 bold-coloured xpress-on covers change software colour theme cover also slim nseries standards considered attractive features include 2.4-inch display 369 mhz arm11 processor physical keylock switch fm transmitter navi wheel 14 january 2009 nokia announced would ship sports edition dubbed n79 active included bluetooth heart rate monitor armband new version nokia sports tracker application photos music maps navigation video Target text information: nokia_eseries.nokia eseries nokia eseries consists business-oriented smartphones running symbian os emphasis enhanced connectivity support corporate e-mail push services well enterprise-styled products many featuring qwerty keyboards devices advanced office features s60 platform phones equipped wireless lan also provide voip client sip protocol throughout series lifetime main competitors blackberry products research motion eseries marketed 2011 october 12 2005 mobile phone manufacturer nokia announced company refers eseries consisting three mobile phones nokia e60 nokia e61 nokia e70 may 18 2006 nokia announced addition e50 series refers business device rather smartphone february 12 2007 nokia announced addition three new devices series e61i e65 e90 april 11 2008 nokia australia advised e61i discontinued may 2008 replaced featured smaller e71 later releases included e72 e52 e5 last eseries device nokia e6 2011 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	5,211	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: underground_(dreyfus_book).underground dreyfus book underground tales hacking madness obsession electronic frontier 1997 book suelette dreyfus researched julian assange describes exploits group australian american british black hat hackers late 1980s early 1990s among assange book also mentions hackers contacts protagonists among erik bloodaxe legion doom corrupt masters deception first chapter underground relates diffusion reactions computer security community wank worm attacked dec vms computers decnet 1989 purportedly coded melbourne hacker book sold 10,000 copies author made electronic edition book freely available 2001 announced slashdot server housing book crashed due demand book reached 400,000 downloads within two years 2002 documentary realm hackers directed kevin anderson centered phoenix electron inspired book Target text information: john_threat.john threat john lee a.k.a john threat used name corrupt member masters deception mod new york based hacker group early '90s result participation great hacker war mod rival hacker group legion doom indicted federal wiretapping charges 1992 pled guilty sentenced one year federal detention center participation great hacker war landed cover wired magazine 1994 lee born july 6 1973 brooklyn new york grew brownsville member decepticons brooklyn-based street gang formed early '80s named villains saturday morning cartoon transformers lee attended stuyvesant high school went new york university freshman year nyu lee sentenced prison role great hacker war lee also editing producing directing credits film television 2004 founded mediathreat llc film production company 2005 directed original documentary dead prez bigger hip hop 2011 co-directed music video make single ca n't friends everyone diane martel lee also gained notoriety 2001 revealed anonymous editor urbanexpose.com controversial entertainment gossip website I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	3,896	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: john_ousterhout.john ousterhout john kenneth ousterhout born october 15 1954 professor computer science stanford university founded electric cloud john graham-cumming ousterhout professor computer science university california berkeley created tcl scripting language tk platform-independent widget toolkit proposed idea coscheduling ousterhout also led research group designed experimental sprite operating system first log-structured file system ousterhout author magic vlsi computer-aided design cad program received bachelor degree physics yale university 1975 ph.d. computer science carnegie mellon university 1980 ousterhout received grace murray hopper award 1987 work cad systems very-large-scale integrated circuits work inducted 1994 fellow association computing machinery ousterhout member national academy engineering 1994 ousterhout left berkeley join sun microsystems laboratories hired team join tcl development several years sun left co-founded scriptics inc. later renamed ajuba solutions january 1998 provide professional tcl development tools tcl team followed sun ajuba purchased interwoven october 2000 joined faculty stanford university 2008 1-hop neighbor's text information: tcl.tcl tcl pronounced tickle tee cee ell high-level general-purpose interpreted dynamic programming language designed goal simple powerful tcl casts everything mold command even programming constructs like variable assignment procedure definition tcl supports multiple programming paradigms including object-oriented imperative functional programming procedural styles commonly used embedded c applications rapid prototyping scripted applications guis testing tcl interpreters available many operating systems allowing tcl code run wide variety systems tcl compact language used embedded systems platforms full form several small-footprint versions popular combination tcl tk extension referred tcl/tk enables building graphical user interface gui natively tcl tcl/tk included standard python installation form tkinter tcl programming language created spring 1988 john ousterhout working university california berkeley originally born frustration according author programmers devising languages intended embedded applications tcl gained acceptance ousterhout awarded acm software system award 1997 tcl/tk name originally comes tool command language conventionally spelled tcl rather tcl tcl conferences workshops held united states europe tcl features include safe-tcl subset tcl restricted features tcl scripts harm hosting machine application file system access limited arbitrary system commands prevented execution uses dual interpreter model untrusted interpreter running code untrusted script designed nathaniel borenstein marshall rose include active messages e-mail safe-tcl included e-mail application/safe-tcl multipart/enabled-mail supported functionality safe-tcl since incorporated part standard tcl/tk releases syntax semantics tcl covered twelve rules known dodekalogue tcl script consists series command invocations command invocation list words separated whitespace terminated newline semicolon first word name command may built language found available library defined script subsequent words serve arguments command following example uses puts command display string text host console sends string hello world standard output device along appended newline character variables results commands substituted strings example uses set expr commands store result calculation variable note tcl use codice_3 assignment operator uses puts short put string print result together explanatory text codice_4 character introduces comment comments appear anywhere interpreter expecting command name seen examples one basic construct language command quoting mechanisms substitution rules determine arguments command processed one special substitution occurs parsing commands arguments final character line i.e. immediately newline backslash backslash-newline combination spaces tabs immediately following newline replaced single space provides line continuation mechanism whereby long lines source code wrapped next line convenience readers continuing normal argument processing word begins double-quote character codice_5 extends next double-quote character word thus contain whitespace semicolons without characters interpreted special meaning i.e. treated normal text characters word begins opening curly-brace character codice_6 extends next closing curly-brace character codice_7 inside curly braces forms substitution suppressed except previously mentioned backslash-newline elimination words enclosed either construct known bare words bare double-quoted words three types substitution may occur substitution proceeds left-to-right single scan word substituted text scanned possible substitutions however number substitutions appear single word tcl 8.5 onwards word may prefixed codice_12 causes word split apart constituent sub-words purposes building command invocation similar codice_13 sequence lisp quasiquote feature consequence rules result command may used argument command also operator command string concatenation language concatenates directly note unlike unix command shells tcl reparse string unless explicitly directed makes interactive use cumbersome scripted use predictable e.g. presence spaces filenames cause difficulties single equality sign codice_3 serves special role language double equality sign codice_15 test equality used expression contexts codice_16 command first argument codice_17 commands part standard library special place library replaced desired majority tcl commands especially standard library variadic codice_18 constructor scripted command procedures allows one define default values unspecified arguments catch-all argument allow code process arbitrary numbers arguments tcl statically typed variable may contain integers floats strings lists command names dictionaries value values reinterpreted subject syntactic constraints types demand however values immutable operations appear change actually return new value instead important commands refer program execution data operations usual execution control commands looping commands additionally controlled following commands codice_1 allows command script executed scope current innermost scope stack command script may call procedures use uplevel command net effect transforming call stack call tree originally implemented permit tcl procedures reimplement built-in commands like still ability manipulate local variables example following tcl script reimplementation command omitting exception handling codice_2 arranges one local variables current procedure refer variables enclosing procedure call global variables upvar command simplifies implementation call-by-name procedure calling also makes easier build new control constructs tcl procedures decr command works like built-in codice_54 command except subtracts value variable instead adding tcl 8.6 added built-in dynamic object system tcloo 2012 includes features tcl object oriented oo syntax 2012 various extension packages emerged enable object-oriented programming widespread existing tcl source code popular extensions include tcloo added build strong object oriented system also enable extension packages build object oriented abstractions using foundation release tcloo incr tcl updated use tcloo foundation tcl web server pure-tcl implementation http protocol server runs script top vanilla tcl interpreter apache rivet open source programming system apache http server allows developers use tcl scripting language creating dynamic web applications rivet similar php asp jsp rivet primarily developed damon courtney david welton massimo manghi harald oehlmann karl lehenbauer rivet use thousands publicly available tcl packages offer countless features database interaction oracle postgresql mysql sqlite etc interfaces popular applications gd graphics library tcl interfaces natively c language originally written framework providing syntactic front-end commands written c commands language including things might otherwise keywords codice_17 codice_25 implemented way command implementation function passed array values describe already substituted arguments command free interpret values sees fit digital logic simulators often include tcl scripting interface simulating verilog vhdl systemverilog hardware languages tools exist e.g swig ffidl automatically generate necessary code connect arbitrary c functions tcl runtime critcl reverse allowing embedding arbitrary c code inside tcl script compiling runtime dll tcl language always allowed extension packages provide additional functionality gui terminal-based application automation database access commonly used extensions include 1-hop neighbor's text information: java_(programming_language).java programming language java general-purpose programming language class-based object-oriented although pure object-oriented language contains primitive types designed implementation dependencies possible intended let application developers write run anywhere wora meaning compiled java code run platforms support java without need recompilation java applications typically compiled bytecode run java virtual machine jvm regardless underlying computer architecture syntax java similar c c++ fewer low-level facilities either java one popular programming languages use according github particularly client-server web applications reported 9 million developers java originally developed james gosling sun microsystems since acquired oracle released 1995 core component sun microsystems java platform original reference implementation java compilers virtual machines class libraries originally released sun proprietary licenses may 2007 compliance specifications java community process sun relicensed java technologies gnu general public license meanwhile others developed alternative implementations sun technologies gnu compiler java bytecode compiler gnu classpath standard libraries icedtea-web browser plugin applets latest versions java 12 released march 2019 java 11 currently supported long-term support lts version released september 25 2018 oracle released legacy java 8 lts last free public update january 2019 commercial use otherwise still support java 8 public updates personal use least december 2020 oracle others highly recommend uninstall older versions java serious risks due unresolved security issues since java 9 10 longer supported oracle advises users immediately transition java 11 java 12 also non-lts option james gosling mike sheridan patrick naughton initiated java language project june 1991 java originally designed interactive television advanced digital cable television industry time language initially called oak oak tree stood outside gosling office later project went name green finally renamed java java coffee gosling designed java c/c++-style syntax system application programmers would find familiar sun microsystems released first public implementation java 1.0 1996 promised write run anywhere wora providing no-cost run-times popular platforms fairly secure featuring configurable security allowed network- file-access restrictions major web browsers soon incorporated ability run java applets within web pages java quickly became popular java 1.0 compiler re-written java arthur van hoff comply strictly java 1.0 language specification advent java 2 released initially j2se 1.2 december 1998 1999 new versions multiple configurations built different types platforms j2ee included technologies apis enterprise applications typically run server environments j2me featured apis optimized mobile applications desktop version renamed j2se 2006 marketing purposes sun renamed new j2 versions java ee java java se respectively 1997 sun microsystems approached iso/iec jtc 1 standards body later ecma international formalize java soon withdrew process java remains de facto standard controlled java community process one time sun made java implementations available without charge despite proprietary software status sun generated revenue java selling licenses specialized products java enterprise system november 13 2006 sun released much java virtual machine jvm free open-source software foss terms gnu general public license gpl may 8 2007 sun finished process making jvm core code available free software/open-source distribution terms aside small portion code sun hold copyright sun vice-president rich green said sun ideal role regard java evangelist following oracle corporation acquisition sun micro-systems 2009–10 oracle described steward java technology relentless commitment fostering community participation transparency prevent oracle filing lawsuit google shortly using java inside android sdk see google section java software runs everything laptops data centers game consoles scientific supercomputers april 2 2010 james gosling resigned oracle january 2016 oracle announced java run-time environments based jdk 9 discontinue browser plugin five primary goals creation java language java 8 supported java 8 11 long term support lts versions major release versions java along release dates sun defined supports four editions java targeting different application environments segmented many apis belong one platforms platforms classes java apis organized separate groups called packages package contains set related interfaces classes exceptions refer separate platforms description packages available sun also provided edition called personal java superseded later standards-based java configuration-profile pairings one design goal java portability means programs written java platform must run similarly combination hardware operating system adequate run time support achieved compiling java language code intermediate representation called java bytecode instead directly architecture-specific machine code java bytecode instructions analogous machine code intended executed virtual machine vm written specifically host hardware end users commonly use java runtime environment jre installed machine standalone java applications web browser java applets standard libraries provide generic way access host-specific features graphics threading networking use universal bytecode makes porting simple however overhead interpreting bytecode machine instructions made interpreted programs almost always run slowly native executables just-in-time jit compilers compile byte-codes machine code runtime introduced early stage java platform-independent adapted particular platform run java virtual machine translates java bytecode platform machine language programs written java reputation slower requiring memory written c++ however java programs execution speed improved significantly introduction just-in-time compilation 1997/1998 java 1.1 addition language features supporting better code analysis inner classes stringbuilder class optional assertions etc optimizations java virtual machine hotspot becoming default sun jvm 2000 java 1.5 performance improved addition java.util.concurrent package including lock free implementations concurrentmaps multi-core collections improved java 1.6 platforms offer direct hardware support java micro controllers run java bytecode hardware instead software java virtual machine arm-based processors could hardware support executing java bytecode jazelle option though support mostly dropped current implementations arm java uses automatic garbage collector manage memory object lifecycle programmer determines objects created java runtime responsible recovering memory objects longer use references object remain unreachable memory becomes eligible freed automatically garbage collector something similar memory leak may still occur programmer code holds reference object longer needed typically objects longer needed stored containers still use methods non-existent object called null pointer exception thrown one ideas behind java automatic memory management model programmers spared burden perform manual memory management languages memory creation objects implicitly allocated stack explicitly allocated deallocated heap latter case responsibility managing memory resides programmer program deallocate object memory leak occurs program attempts access deallocate memory already deallocated result undefined difficult predict program likely become unstable crash partially remedied use smart pointers add overhead complexity note garbage collection prevent logical memory leaks i.e memory still referenced never used garbage collection may happen time ideally occur program idle guaranteed triggered insufficient free memory heap allocate new object cause program stall momentarily explicit memory management possible java java support c/c++ style pointer arithmetic object addresses arithmetically manipulated e.g adding subtracting offset allows garbage collector relocate referenced objects ensures type safety security c++ object-oriented languages variables java primitive data types either stored directly fields objects stack methods rather heap commonly true non-primitive data types see escape analysis conscious decision java designers performance reasons java contains multiple types garbage collectors default hotspot uses parallel scavenge garbage collector however also several garbage collectors used manage heap 90 applications java concurrent mark-sweep cms garbage collector sufficient oracle aims replace cms garbage-first collector g1 solved memory management problem relieve programmer burden handling properly kind resources like network database connections file handles etc. especially presence exceptions paradoxically presence garbage collector faded necessity explicit destructor method classes thus rendering management resources difficult syntax java largely influenced c++ unlike c++ combines syntax structured generic object-oriented programming java built almost exclusively object-oriented language code written inside classes every data item object exception primitive data types i.e integers floating-point numbers boolean values characters objects performance reasons java reuses popular aspects c++ method unlike c++ java support operator overloading multiple inheritance classes though multiple inheritance supported interfaces java uses comments similar c++ three different styles comments single line style marked two slashes codice_1 multiple line style opened codice_2 closed codice_3 javadoc commenting style opened codice_4 closed codice_3 javadoc style commenting allows user run javadoc executable create documentation program read integrated development environments ides eclipse allow developers access documentation within ide traditional hello world program written java source files must named public class contain appending suffix codice_6 example codice_7 must first compiled bytecode using java compiler producing file named codice_8 executed launched java source file may contain one public class contain multiple classes public access modifier number public inner classes source file contains multiple classes make one class introduced codice_9 keyword public preceded codice_10 keyword name source file public class name class declared public may stored .java file compiler generate class file class defined source file name class file name class .class appended class file generation anonymous classes treated name concatenation name enclosing class integer keyword codice_10 denotes method called code classes class may used classes outside class hierarchy class hierarchy related name directory .java file located called access level modifier access level modifiers include keywords codice_12 codice_13 keyword codice_14 front method indicates static method associated class specific instance class static methods invoked without reference object static methods access class members also static methods designated static instance methods require specific instance class operate keyword codice_15 indicates main method return value caller java program exit error code must call system.exit explicitly method name codice_16 keyword java language simply name method java launcher calls pass control program java classes run managed environments applets enterprise javabeans use need codice_17 method java program may contain multiple classes codice_16 methods means vm needs explicitly told class launch main method must accept array objects convention referenced codice_19 although legal identifier name used since java 5 main method also use variable arguments form codice_20 allowing main method invoked arbitrary number codice_21 arguments effect alternate declaration semantically identical codice_19 parameter still array codice_21 objects allows alternative syntax creating passing array java launcher launches java loading given class specified command line attribute jar starting codice_24 method stand-alone programs must declare method explicitly codice_25 parameter array objects containing arguments passed class parameters codice_16 often passed means command line printing part java standard library class defines public static field called codice_27 object instance class provides many methods printing data standard including also appends new line passed string string codice_28 automatically converted string object compiler java applets programs embedded applications typically web page displayed web browser java applet api deprecated since java 9 2017 java servlet technology provides web developers simple consistent mechanism extending functionality web server accessing existing business systems servlets server-side java ee components generate responses typically html pages requests typically http requests clients java servlet api extent superseded two standard java technologies web services javaserver pages jsp server-side java ee components generate responses typically html pages http requests clients jsps embed java code html page using special delimiters codice_29 codice_30 jsp compiled java servlet java application right first time accessed generated servlet creates response swing graphical user interface library java se platform possible specify different look feel pluggable look feel system swing clones windows gtk+ motif supplied sun apple also provides aqua look feel macos prior implementations looks feels may considered lacking swing java se 6 addresses problem using native gui widget drawing routines underlying platforms javafx software platform creating delivering desktop applications well rich internet applications rias run across wide variety devices javafx intended replace swing standard gui library java se included foreseeable future javafx support desktop computers web browsers microsoft windows linux macos javafx support native os look feels 2004 generics added java language part j2se 5.0 prior introduction generics variable declaration specific type container classes example problem easy way create container accepts specific types objects either container operates subtypes class interface usually codice_31 different container class created contained class generics allow compile-time type checking without create many container classes containing almost identical code addition enabling efficient code certain runtime exceptions prevented occurring issuing compile-time errors java prevented runtime type errors codice_32 occurring would type safe 2016 type system java proven unsound criticisms directed java include implementation generics speed handling unsigned numbers implementation floating-point arithmetic history security vulnerabilities primary java vm implementation hotspot java class library standard library developed support application development java controlled sun microsystems cooperation others java community process program companies individuals participating process influence design development apis process subject controversy 2010 class library contains features javadoc comprehensive documentation system created sun microsystems used many java developers provides developers organized system documenting code javadoc comments extra asterisk beginning i.e delimiters codice_4 codice_3 whereas normal multi-line comments java set delimiters codice_2 codice_3 oracle corporation current owner official implementation java se platform following acquisition sun microsystems january 27 2010 implementation based original implementation java sun oracle implementation available microsoft windows still works xp later versions currently officially supported macos linux solaris java lacks formal standardization recognized ecma international iso/iec ansi third-party standards organization oracle implementation de facto standard oracle implementation packaged two different distributions java runtime environment jre contains parts java se platform required run java programs intended end users java development kit jdk intended software developers includes development tools java compiler javadoc jar debugger oracle also released graalvm high performance java dynamic compiler interpreter openjdk another notable java se implementation licensed gnu gpl implementation started sun began releasing java source code gpl java se 7 openjdk official java reference implementation goal java make implementations java compatible historically sun trademark license usage java brand insists implementations compatible resulted legal dispute microsoft sun claimed microsoft implementation support rmi jni added platform-specific features sun sued 1997 2001 settlement us 20 million well court order enforcing terms license sun result microsoft longer ships java windows platform-independent java essential java ee even rigorous validation required certify implementation environment enables portable server-side applications java programming language requires presence software platform order compiled programs executed oracle supplies java platform use java android sdk alternative software platform used primarily developing android applications gui system java language key pillar android open source mobile operating system although android built linux kernel written largely c android sdk uses java language basis android applications bytecode language supported android sdk incompatible java bytecode runs virtual machine optimized low-memory devices smartphones tablet computers depending android version bytecode either interpreted dalvik virtual machine compiled native code android runtime android provide full java se standard library although android sdk include independent implementation large subset supports java 6 java 7 features offering implementation compatible standard library apache harmony use java-related technology android led legal dispute oracle google may 7 2012 san francisco jury found apis could copyrighted google infringed oracle copyrights use java android devices district judge william haskell alsup ruled may 31 2012 apis copyrighted reversed united states court appeals federal circuit may 2014 may 26 2016 district court decided favor google ruling copyright infringement java api android constitutes fair use march 2018 ruling overturned appeals court sent case determining damages federal court san francisco google filed petition writ certiorari supreme court united states january 2019 challenge two rulings made appeals court towards oracle favor Target text information: usenix_annual_technical_conference.usenix annual technical conference usenix annual technical conference usenix atc canonically usenix conference computing professions sponsored usenix association conference includes computing tutorials single track technical session presenting refereed research papers sig meetings bofs several notable announcements talks usenix 1995 james gosling announced oak become java programming language john ousterhout first presented tcl usenet announced considered one prestigious operating systems venues rating australian ranking ict conferences era prior 1995 two usenix technical conferences held year one held summer winter I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	3,013	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: windows_aero.windows aero windows aero backronym authentic energetic reflective open design language introduced windows vista operating system changes made aero interface affected many elements windows interface including incorporation new look along changes interface guidelines reflecting appearance layout phrasing tone instructions text applications windows aero force development windows vista windows 7 2012 development windows 8 windows server 2012 microsoft moved design language codenamed metro aero interface unveiled windows vista complete redesign windows interface replacing windows xp luna theme release windows vista beta 1 july 2005 little shown aero public leaked builds previous user interfaces plex featured longhorn builds 3683–4042 slate first featured lab06 compile build 4042 used development reset jade builds 4074 4094 microsoft started using aero theme public builds build 5048 first build full-featured aero build 5219 build 5270 released december 2005 contained implementation aero theme virtually complete according sources microsoft though number stylistic changes introduced operating system release windows aero incorporated following features windows vista windows aero revised windows 7 several ui changes touch friendly interface many new visual effects features including pointing device gestures windows 8 windows server 2012 adopted metro design language inherit elements aero aero glass theme replaced flatter solid colored theme transparency effects removed interface aside taskbar maintains transparency longer blur effect flip 3d also removed switches metro-style apps pre-release versions windows 8 used updated version aero glass flatter squared look glass theme ultimately removed final version first time since release windows 95 microsoft completely revised user interface guidelines covering aesthetics common controls buttons radio buttons task dialogs wizards common dialogs control panels icons fonts user notifications tone text used windows vista windows 7 computers meet certain hardware software requirements aero glass theme used default primarily incorporating various animation transparency effects desktop using hardware acceleration desktop window manager dwm personalize section added control panel windows vista users customize glass effects either opaque transparent change color tinted enabling aero glass also enables new features including enhanced alt-tab menu taskbar thumbnails live previews windows flip 3d window switching mechanism cascades windows 3d effect windows 7 features refinements aero glass including larger window buttons default minimize maximize close query revised taskbar thumbnails ability manipulate windows dragging top sides screen side make fill half screen top maximize ability hide windows hovering show desktop button taskbar ability minimize windows shaking one use dwm extension aero glass theme requires video card 128mb graphics memory least 64mb video ram 1gb system ram on-board graphics supporting pixel shader 2.0 wddm-compatible drivers aero glass also available windows 7 starter available limited extent windows vista home basic automatically disabled user detected running non-genuine copy windows windows server 2008 windows server 2008 r2 also support aero glass part desktop experience component disabled default wizard 97 prevailing standard wizard design visual layout functionality used windows 98 windows server 2003 well microsoft products time frame aero wizards replacement wizard 97 incorporating visual updates match aesthetics rest aero well changing interaction flow specifically notifications allow application operating system component icon notification area create pop-up window information event problem windows first introduced windows 2000 known colloquially balloons similar appearance speech balloons commonly seen comics balloons often criticized prior versions windows due intrusiveness especially regard interacted full-screen applications games entire application minimized bubble came notifications aero aim less intrusive gradually fading appearing full-screen application screensaver displayed—in cases notifications queued appropriate time larger icons multiple font sizes colors also introduced aero notification windows segoe ui typeface default font aero languages use latin greek cyrillic character sets default font size also increased 8pt 9pt improve readability segoe ui typeface prior windows 8 numeral zero 0 narrow capital letter wider windows 8 segoe ui keeps difference numeral one 1 top hook capital letter equal crown base windows 8 1 base crown base aero base icons designed iconfactory previously designed windows xp icons vista user experience guidelines also address issue tone writing text used aero user interface prior design guidelines microsoft done much address issue user interface text phrased way information requests presented user consistent parts operating system guidelines vista applications suggest messages present technically accurate advice concisely objectively positively assume intelligent user motivated solve particular problem specific advice includes use second person active voice e.g print photos camera avoidance words like please sorry thank 1-hop neighbor's text information: windows_display_driver_model.windows display driver model windows display driver model wddm graphic driver architecture video card drivers running microsoft windows versions beginning windows vista replacement previous windows 2000 windows xp display driver model xddm/xpdm aimed enabling better performance graphics new graphics functionality stability display drivers windows vista windows 7 choose either adhere wddm xddm removal xddm windows 8 however wddm became option wddm provides functionality required render desktop applications using desktop window manager compositing window manager running top direct3d also supports new dxgi interfaces required basic device management creation wddm specification requires least direct3d 9-capable video card display driver must implement device driver interfaces direct3d 9ex runtime order run legacy direct3d applications may optionally implement runtime interfaces direct3d 10 higher wddm drivers enable new areas functionality uniformly provided earlier display driver models include context graphics virtualization means individual processes user mode see memory adjacent processes even means insertion forged commands command stream wddm drivers allow video memory virtualized video data paged video memory system ram case video memory available turns insufficient store video data textures currently unused data moved system ram disk swapped data needed fetched back virtualization could supported previous driver models xp driver model extent responsibility driver instead handled runtime level runtime handles scheduling concurrent graphics contexts list commands put queue execution gpu preempted runtime critical task arrives begun execution differs native threads cpu one task interrupted therefore take longer necessary make computer appear less responsive hybrid scheduling algorithm native light threads cooperation threads would achieve seamless parallelism important note scheduling new concept previously responsibility individual driver developers wddm attempts unify experience across different vendors controlling execution gpu tasks direct3d graphics surface memory area contains information textured meshes used rendering 2d 3d scene wddm allows direct3d surfaces shared across processes thus application incorporate mesh created another application scene rendering sharing textures processes wddm difficult would required copying data video memory system memory back video memory new device wddm driver hangs encounters fault graphics stack restart driver graphics hardware fault intercepted necessary driver reset drivers windows xp free deal hardware faults saw fit either reporting user attempting recover silently wddm driver hardware faults cause driver reset user notified popup unifies behavior across vendors previous drivers fully implemented kernel mode whereas wddm implemented partly user mode user mode area fails unrecoverable error cause application quit unexpectedly instead producing blue screen error would previous driver models wddm also allows graphics hardware reset users update drivers without requiring reboot new driver model requires graphics hardware shader model 2.0 support least since fixed function pipeline translated 2.0 shaders however according microsoft 2009 1–2 percent hardware running windows vista used xddm rest already wddm capable also requires hardware features consequently sm 2.0-supporting hardware intel gma 900 fails wddm certification one limitations wddm driver model version 1.0 support multiple drivers multi-adapter multi-monitor setup multi-monitor system one graphics adapter powering monitors adaptors must use wddm driver one driver used windows disable one wddm 1.1 limitation wddm 1.0/1.1 allow modes previously handled driver spanning mode stretching desktop across two monitors although dual view still available one chief scenarios windows display driver model enables desktop window manager since desktop application windows managed dwm direct3d applications number open windows directly affects amount video memory required limit number open windows video memory available may prove insufficient necessitating virtualization window contents dwm composes final desktop generated different processes cross-process surface sharing necessary also directx applications running alongside dwm dwm-managed desktop must able access gpu shared manner necessitating scheduling though true microsoft implementation composited desktop windows vista hand composited desktop need theoretically require new display driver model work expected successful implementations composited desktops done windows vista platforms quartz compiz windowfx approach microsoft attempted try make sure wddm unified experience across different gpus multiple vendors standardizing features performance software features missing driver models could made immaterial extensions less restrictive simply different driver model place windows vista introduced wddm 1.0 new display driver architecture designed better performing reliable support new technologies including hdcp hybrid sleep combines hibernation sleep mode functionality enhanced stability event power failure also requires wddm windows 7 supports major additions wddm known wddm 1.1 details new version unveiled winhec 2008 new features include hardware acceleration gdi direct2d/directwrite operations helps reduce memory footprint windows 7 dwm compositing engine longer needs keep system memory copy surfaces used gdi/gdi+ windows vista dxgi 1.1 direct3d 11 direct2d directwrite made available windows vista platform update however gdi/gdi+ vista continues rely software rendering desktop window manager continues use direct3d 9ex wddm 1.1 drivers backward compatible wddm 1.0 specification 1.0 1.1 drivers used windows vista without platform update windows 8 includes wddm 1.2 dxgi 1.2 new features first previewed build 2011 conference include performance improvements well support stereoscopic 3d rendering video playback major features include preemptive multitasking gpu finer granularity dma buffer primitive triangle pixel instruction-level reduced memory footprint improved resource sharing faster timeout detection recovery 16-bit color surface formats 565 5551 4444 mandatory windows 8 direct3d 11 video supports yuv 4:4:4/4:2:2/4:2:0/4:1:1 video formats 8 10 16-bit precision well 4 8-bit palettized formats wddm 1.2 supports display-only render-only wddm drivers microsoft basic display driver warp-based microsoft basic render driver replaced kernel-mode vga driver wddm 1.0/1.1 allows rudimentary task scheduling using batch queue granularity improvements multitasking well fast context switching support virtual memory initially expected versions tentatively named wddm 2.0 wddm 2.1 announced winhec 2006 windows 8.1 includes wddm 1.3 dxgi 1.3 new additions include ability trim dxgi adapter memory usage multi-plane overlays overlapping swap chains swap chain scaling select backbuffer subregion swap chain lower-latency swap chain presentation driver feature additions include wireless displays miracast yuv format ranges cross-adapter resources gpu engine enumeration capabilities graphics kernel performance improvements windows 10 includes wddm 2.0 designed dramatically reduce workload kernel-mode driver gpus support virtual memory addressing allow multithreading parallelism user-mode driver result lower cpu utilization windows 10 also includes dxgi 1.4 direct3d 12 api announced build 2014 requires wddm 2.0 new api away automatic resource-management pipeline-management tasks allow developers take full low-level control adapter memory rendering states display driver model windows 8.1 windows phone converged unified model windows 10 new memory model implemented gives gpu per-process virtual address space direct addressing video memory still supported wddmv2 graphics hardware requires considered legacy case ihvs expected develop new hardware supports virtual addressing significant changes made ddi enable new memory model windows 10 anniversary update version 1607 includes wddm 2.1 supports shader model 6.0 mandatory feature levels 12_0 12_1 dxgi 1.5 supports hdr10 10-bit high dynamic range wide gamut format defined itu-t rec 2100/rec.2020 variable refresh rates windows 10 creators update version 1703 includes wddm 2.2 tailored virtual augmented mixed reality stereoscopic rendering windows mixed reality platform dxgi 1.6 windows 10 fall creators update version 1709 includes wddm 2.3 following list new features windows display driver development windows 10 version 1709 windows 10 april 2018 update version 1803 includes wddm 2.4 following updates display driver development windows 10 version 1803 since introduction windows 10 april 2018 update due changes wddm became possible use dual graphics laptops example allows run programs games powerful video card display image via built-in graphics directly internal pci-e external bus without connect monitor powerful video card also act solution problem vga video output video card present motherboard windows 10 october 2018 update version 1809 includes wddm 2.5 updates display driver development windows 10 version 1809 include following windows 10 may 2019 update version 1903 includes wddm 2.6 super-wet ink feature revolves around front-buffer rendering ihv drivers support creation “ displayable ” textures formats modes supported hardware allocating texture app requested along “ shadow ” texture format/layout displayed copying two present-time “ shadow ” may necessarily texture normal way think may compression data additionally may required exist may optimization instead runtime evolve understand aspects displayable surfaces whether shadow must exist display particular vidpnsource/plane whether optimal shadow exist transfer contents application surface shadow surface runtime explicit operation opposed implicit within present request setting mode dynamically flipping original shadow surfaces scanout may begin shortly vblank scans vertically top bottom image completes shortly next vblank always case depending timing pixel clock layout data texture especially actually compression available new ddis added separate understand transformations occur prior scanout order possible enable front-buffer rendering variable rate shading coarse pixel shading mechanism enable allocation rendering performance/power varying rates across rendered images previous model order use msaa multi-sample anti-aliasing reduce geometric aliasing amount reduce geometric aliasing needs known up-front target allocated amount reduce geometric aliasing ’ changed target allocated wddm 2.6 new model extends msaa opposite coarse pixel direction adding new concept coarse shading shading performed frequency coarser pixel group pixels shaded single unit result broadcast samples group coarse shading api allows apps specify number pixels belong shaded group coarse pixel size varied render target allocated different portions screen different draw passes different course shading rates multiple-tier implementation available two user-queryable caps tiers 1 2 coarse shading available single-sampled msaa resources msaa resources shading performed per-coarse-pixel per-sample usual however tiers 1 2 msaa resources coarse sampling used shade frequency per-pixel per-sample tier 1 shading rate specified per-draw-basis nothing granular shading rate applies uniformly drawn independently lies within render target tier 2 shading rate specified per-draw-basis tier 1 also specified combination per-draw-basis semantic per-provoking-vertex screenspace image shading rates three sources combined using set combiners screen space image tile size 16x16 smaller shading rate requested app guaranteed delivered exactly precision temporal reconstruction filters sv_shadingrate ps input supported per-provoking vertex rate also referred per-primitive rate valid one viewport used sv_viewportindex written per-provoking vertex rate also referred per-primitive rate used one viewport supportspervertexshadingratewithmultipleviewports cap marked true additionally case used sv_viewportindex written collect diagnostic info allows os collect private data drivers graphics adapters consist rendering display functions new feature requirement wddm 2.6 new ddi allow os collect information time driver loaded currently os uses dxgkddicollectdebuginfo function implemented miniport query driver private data tdr timeout detection recovery related cases new ddi used collect data variety reasons os call ddi diagnostic needed providing type information requested driver collect private information important investigate issue submit os dxgkddicollectdebuginfo eventually deprecated replaced dxgkddicollectdiagnosticinfo background processing allows user mode drivers express desired threading behavior runtime control/monitor user mode drivers would spin background threads assign threads low priority possible rely nt scheduler ensure threads ’ disrupt critical-path threads generally success apis allow apps adjust amount background processing appropriate workloads perform work driver hot update reduces server downtime much possible os component needs updated driver hot patch used apply security patch kernel mode driver case driver asked save adapter memory adapter stopped driver unloaded new driver loaded adapter started 1-hop neighbor's text information: desktop_window_manager.desktop window manager desktop window manager dwm previously desktop compositing engine dce window manager windows vista windows 7 windows 8 windows 10 enables use hardware acceleration render graphical user interface windows originally created enable portions new windows aero user experience allowed effects transparency 3d window switching also included windows server 2008 requires desktop experience feature compatible graphics drivers installed desktop window manager compositing window manager means program buffer writes data dwm composites program buffer final image comparison stacking window manager windows xp earlier also windows vista windows 7 windows aero disabled comprises single display buffer programs write dwm works different ways depending operating system windows 7 windows vista version graphics drivers uses wddm 1.0 1.1 windows 7 wddm 1.1 drivers dwm writes program buffer video ram even graphics device interface gdi program windows 7 supports limited hardware acceleration gdi need keep copy buffer system ram cpu write compositor access graphics applications easily allows visual effects string together visuals multiple applications transparency dwm uses directx 9 perform function compositing rendering gpu freeing cpu task managing rendering off-screen buffers display however affect applications painting off-screen buffers – depending technologies used might still cpu-bound dwm-agnostic rendering techniques like gdi redirected buffers rendering user interface ui bitmaps dwm-aware rendering technologies like wpf directly make internal data structures available dwm-compatible format window contents buffers converted directx textures desktop full-screen direct3d surface windows represented mesh consisting two adjacent mutually-inverted triangles transformed represent 2d rectangle texture representing ui chrome mapped onto rectangles window transitions implemented transformations meshes using shader programs windows vista transitions limited set built-in shaders implement transformations greg schechter developer microsoft suggested might opened developers users plug effects future release dwm maps primary desktop object 3d surface desktop objects including virtual desktops well secure desktop used user account control applications render off-screen buffer read buffer embedded applications well since off-screen buffer constantly updated application embedded rendering dynamic representation application window static rendering live thumbnail previews windows flip work windows vista windows 7 dwm exposes public api allows applications access thumbnail representations size thumbnail fixed applications request thumbnails size smaller original window size even larger dwm scale properly returning windows flip 3d use public thumbnail apis allow directly accessing direct3d textures instead flip 3d implemented directly dwm engine desktop window manager uses media integration layer mil unmanaged compositor shares windows presentation foundation represent windows composition nodes composition tree composition tree represents desktop windows hosted rendered mil back scene front since windows contribute final image color resultant pixel decided one window used implement effects per-pixel transparency dwm allows custom shaders invoked control pixels multiple applications used create displayed pixel dwm includes built-in pixel shader 2.0 programs compute color pixel window averaging color pixel determined window behind neighboring pixels shaders used dwm achieve blur effect window borders windows managed dwm optionally areas requested application since mil provides retained mode graphics system caching composition trees job repainting refreshing screen windows moved handled dwm mil freeing application responsibility background data already composition tree off-screen buffers directly used render background pre-vista windows oss background applications requested re-render sending codice_1 message dwm uses double-buffered graphics prevent flickering tearing moving windows compositing engine uses optimizations culling improve performance well redrawing areas changed compositor multi-monitor aware dwm natively supports full-screen applications games dwm perform window compositing therefore performance appreciably decrease windows 8 windows server 2012 dwm used times disabled due new start screen experience implemented since dwm process usually required run times windows 8 users experiencing issue process seeing memory usage decrease system reboot often first step long list troubleshooting tasks help possible prevent dwm restarting temporarily windows 8 causes desktop turn black taskbar grey break start screen/modern apps desktop apps continue function appear like windows 7 vista basic theme based single-buffer renderer used xp also use windows 8 centered title bar visible within windows preinstallation environment starting windows without dwm work lock screen requires dwm done fly practical purposes starting windows 10 disabling dwm way cause entire compositing engine break even traditional desktop apps due universal app implementations taskbar new start menu.unlike predecessors windows 8 supports basic display adapters windows advanced rasterization platform warp uses software rendering cpu render interface rather graphics card allows dwm function without compatible drivers level performance normal graphics card dwm windows 8 also adds support stereoscopic 3d rendering techniques dwm-aware output must redirected dwm buffers windows either gdi directx used rendering make two work dwm redirection techniques provided gdi used ui rendering technique microsoft windows application window notified part comes view job application render without dwm rendering rasterizes ui buffer video memory rendered screen dwm gdi calls redirected use canonical display driver cdd.dll software renderer buffer equal size window allocated system memory cdd.dll outputs buffer rather video memory another buffer allocated video memory represent directx surface used texture window meshes system memory buffer converted directx surface separately kept sync round-about route required gdi output directly directx pixel format surface read compositor composited desktop video memory writing output gdi system memory hardware accelerated conversion directx surface gdi window minimized invisible visible monitor full screen directx application limitation gdi gdi bitmap buffer longer received application requesting device context painting updating sometimes seen gdi operation copying one window another outputs black empty regions instead expected window content thus dwm uses last bitmap rendered buffer application minimized starting windows 7 canonical display driver longer renders system memory copy wddm 1.1/dxgi 1.1 compliant video driver present applications using directx write 3d surface directx implementation windows vista uses wddm share surface dwm dwm uses surface directly maps window meshes windows presentation foundation wpf applications directx applications compositor renders shared surfaces composited final desktop applications mix either rendering technique across multiple child windows long gdi directx used render window case ordering directx gdi rendering guaranteed guaranteed gdi bitmap system memory translated video memory surface means final composition may contain gdi-rendered elements prevent dwm temporarily turned long application mixes gdi directx window running windows vista dwm requires compatible physical virtual hardware windows 7 desktop window manager reworked use direct3d 10.1 hardware requirements remain windows vista direct3d 9 hardware supported 10 level 9 layer introduced direct3d 11 runtime windows 8 requirements 7 also use software rendering compatible video hardware absent hardware virtualization software emulate hardware required dwm include virtualbox 4.1 later vmware fusion 3.0 later vmware workstation 7.0 onwards addition windows virtual pc allows composition using remote desktop protocol Target text information: mirror_driver.mirror driver mirror driver display driver virtual device mirrors drawing operations one additional physical display devices video mirroring active time system draws primary video device location inside mirrored area copy draw operation executed mirrored video device real-time windows mirror drivers first introduced 1998 windows 2000 display driver model renamed later xpdm 2006 windows vista microsoft introduced new windows display driver model older drivers still supported vista since older model encompass support features first introduced vista newer features would necessarily disabled older driver active consequence mirror driver designed older model active windows remote assistance windows live mesh use vista disabled desktop window manager windows aero similar situation existed transition windows 7 windows 8 beginning ddk targeted windows 8 mirror drivers fulfill exacting specifications must support specific set functions windows installations come two mirror drivers preinstalled mnmdd used netmeeting rdpdd chained dd used terminal server/remotedesktop services third-party mirror drivers included screen readers jaws window-eyes freedombox monitoring software lanschool remote desktop software timbuktu logmein ultravnc tightvnc radmin remotepc I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	2,495	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: protected_mode.protected mode computing protected mode also called protected virtual address mode operational mode x86-compatible central processing units cpus allows system software use features virtual memory paging safe multi-tasking designed increase operating system control application software processor supports x86 protected mode powered begins executing instructions real mode order maintain backward compatibility earlier x86 processors protected mode may entered system software sets one descriptor table enables protection enable pe bit control register 0 cr0 protected mode first added x86 architecture 1982 release intel 80286 286 processor later extended release 80386 386 1985 due enhancements added protected mode become widely adopted become foundation subsequent enhancements x86 architecture although many enhancements added instructions new registers also brought benefits real mode intel 8086 predecessor 286 originally designed 20-bit address bus memory allowed processor access 2 bytes memory equivalent 1 megabyte time 1 megabyte considered relatively large amount memory designers ibm personal computer reserved first 640 kilobytes use applications operating system remaining 384 kilobytes bios basic input/output system memory add-on devices cost memory decreased memory use increased 1 mb limitation became significant problem intel intended solve limitation along others release 286 initial protected mode released 286 widely used example used microsoft xenix around 1984 coherent minix several shortcomings inability access bios dos calls due inability switch back real mode without resetting processor prevented widespread usage acceptance additionally hampered fact 286 allowed memory access 16 bit segments via four segment registers meaning 4*2 bytes equivalent 256 kilobytes could accessed time changing segment register protected mode caused 6-byte segment descriptor loaded cpu memory segment register load instruction took many tens processor cycles making much slower 8086 therefore strategy computing segment addresses on-the-fly order access data structures larger 128 kilobytes combined size two data segments became impractical even programmers mastered 8086/8088 286 maintained backwards compatibility precursor 8086 initially entering real mode power real mode functioned virtually identically 8086 allowing vast majority existing 8086 software run unmodified newer 286 real mode also served basic mode protected mode could set solving sort chicken-and-egg problem access extended functionality 286 operating system would set tables memory controlled memory access protected mode set addresses tables special registers processor set processor protected mode enabled 24 bit addressing allowed processor access 2 bytes memory equivalent 16 megabytes release 386 1985 many issues preventing widespread adoption previous protected mode addressed 386 released address bus size 32 bits allows 2 bytes memory accessing equivalent 4 gigabytes segment sizes also increased 32 bits meaning full address space 4 gigabytes could accessed without need switch multiple segments addition increased size address bus segment registers many new features added intention increasing operational security stability protected mode used virtually modern operating systems run x86 architecture microsoft windows linux many others furthermore learning failures 286 protected mode satisfy needs multiuser dos intel added separate virtual 8086 mode allowed multiple virtualized 8086 processors emulated 386 hardware support required virtualizing protected mode however wait another 20 years release 386 following additional features added protected mode release 386 protected mode offer direct method switch back real mode protected mode entered ibm devised workaround implemented ibm involved resetting cpu via keyboard controller saving system registers stack pointer often interrupt mask real-time clock chip ram allowed bios restore cpu similar state begin executing code reset later triple fault used reset 286 cpu lot faster cleaner keyboard controller method depend ibm at-compatible hardware work 80286 cpu system enter protected mode global descriptor table gdt must first created minimum three entries null descriptor code segment descriptor data segment descriptor ibm-compatible machine a20 line 21st address line also must enabled allow use address lines cpu access beyond 1 megabyte memory first 20 allowed used power-up guarantee compatibility older software written intel 8088-based ibm pc pc/xt models performing two steps pe bit must set cr0 register far jump must made clear prefetch input queue release 386 protected mode could exited loading segment registers real mode values disabling a20 line clearing pe bit cr0 register without need perform initial setup steps required 286 protected mode number features designed enhance operating system control application software order increase security system stability additions allow operating system function way would significantly difficult even impossible without proper hardware support protected mode four privilege levels rings numbered 0 3 ring 0 privileged 3 least use rings allows system software restrict tasks accessing data call gates executing privileged instructions environments operating system device drivers run ring 0 applications run ring 3 according intel 80286 programmer reference manual part binary compatibility real-mode code ability access 16 mb physical memory 1 gb virtual memory apparent changes application programmers without limitations application utilized relied techniques would n't run reality almost dos application programs violated rules due limitations virtual 8086 mode introduced 386 despite potential setbacks windows 3.0 successors take advantage binary compatibility real mode run many windows 2.x windows 2.0 windows 2.1x applications run real mode windows 2.x protected mode release 386 protected mode offers intel manuals call virtual 8086 mode virtual 8086 mode designed allow code previously written 8086 run unmodified concurrently tasks without compromising security system stability virtual 8086 mode however completely backwards compatible programs programs require segment manipulation privileged instructions direct hardware access use self-modifying code generate exception must served operating system addition applications running virtual 8086 mode generate trap use instructions involve input/output i/o negatively impact performance due limitations programs originally designed run 8086 run virtual 8086 mode result system software forced either compromise system security backwards compatibility dealing legacy software example compromise seen release windows nt dropped backwards compatibility ill-behaved dos applications real mode logical address points directly physical memory location every logical address consists two 16 bit parts segment part logical address contains base address segment granularity 16 bytes i.e segment may start physical address 0 16 32 ... 2-16 offset part logical address contains offset inside segment i.e physical address calculated codice_1 address line a20 enabled respectively segment_part × 16 offset mod 2 a20 every segment size 2 bytes protected mode replaced 16-bit selector 13 upper bits bit 3 bit 15 contain index entry inside descriptor table next bit bit 2 specifies whether operation used gdt ldt lowest two bits bit 1 bit 0 selector combined define privilege request values 0 3 represent highest lowest privilege respectively means byte offset descriptors descriptor table 16-bit selector provided lower three bits zeroed descriptor table entry defines real linear address segment limit value segment size attribute bits flags segment address inside descriptor table entry length 24 bits every byte physical memory defined bound segment limit value inside descriptor table entry length 16 bits segment length 1 byte 2 byte calculated linear address equals physical memory address segment address inside descriptor table entry expanded 32 bits every byte physical memory defined bound segment limit value inside descriptor table entry expanded 20 bits completed granularity flag g-bit short 386 processor also uses 32 bit values address offset maintaining compatibility 286 protected mode new default flag d-bit short added d-bit code segment 0 commands inside segment interpreted 16-bit commands default 1 interpreted 32-bit commands addition adding virtual 8086 mode 386 also added paging protected mode paging system software restrict control task access pages sections memory many operating systems paging used create independent virtual address space task preventing one task manipulating memory another paging also allows pages moved primary storage onto slower larger secondary storage hard disk drive allows memory used physically available primary storage x86 architecture allows control pages two arrays page directories page tables originally page directory size one page four kilobytes contained 1,024 page directory entries pde although subsequent enhancements x86 architecture added ability use larger page sizes pde contained pointer page table page table also originally four kilobytes size contained 1,024 page table entries pte pte contained pointer actual page physical address used four-kilobyte pages used given time one page directory may active use use rings privileged call gates task state segment tss introduced 286 preemptive multitasking made possible x86 architecture tss allows general-purpose registers segment selector fields stacks modified without affecting another task tss also allows task privilege level i/o port permissions independent another task many operating systems full features tss used commonly due portability concerns due performance issues created hardware task switches result many operating systems use hardware software create multitasking system operating systems like os/2 1.x try switch processor protected real modes slow unsafe real mode program easily crash computer os/2 1.x defines restrictive programming rules allowing family api bound program run either real protected mode early unix operating systems os/2 1.x windows used mode windows 3.0 able run real mode programs 16-bit protected mode switching protected mode decided preserve single privilege level model used real mode windows applications dlls hook interrupts direct hardware access lasted windows 9x series windows 1.x 2.x program written properly avoids segment arithmetic run way real protected modes windows programs generally avoid segment arithmetic windows implements software virtual memory scheme moving program code data memory programs running manipulating absolute addresses dangerous programs keep handles memory blocks running starting old program windows 3.0 running protected mode triggers warning dialog suggesting either run windows real mode obtain updated version application updating well-behaved programs using mark utility memory parameter avoids dialog possible gui programs running 16-bit protected mode gui programs running real mode windows 3.1 real mode longer supported could accessed modern 32-bit operating systems virtual 8086 mode still used running applications e.g dpmi compatible dos extender programs virtual dos machines windows 3.x applications windows windows subsystem certain classes device drivers e.g changing screen-resolution using bios functionality os/2 2.0 later control 32-bit kernel however 64-bit operating systems run long mode longer use since virtual 8086 mode removed long mode 1-hop neighbor's text information: virtual_8086_mode.virtual 8086 mode 80386 microprocessor later virtual 8086 mode also called virtual real mode v86-mode vm86 allows execution real mode applications incapable running directly protected mode processor running protected mode operating system hardware virtualization technique allowed multiple 8086 processors emulated 386 chip emerged painful experiences 80286 protected mode suitable run concurrent real mode applications well vm86 mode uses segmentation scheme identical real mode compatibility reasons creates 20-bit linear addresses manner 20-bit physical addresses created real mode subject protected mode memory paging mechanism virtual 8086 mode mode protected-mode task consequently processor switch vm86 non-vm86 tasks enabling multitasking legacy dos applications use virtual 8086 mode operating system sets virtual 8086 mode monitor program manages real-mode program emulates filters access system hardware software resources monitor must run privilege level 0 protected mode 8086 program runs vm86 mode privilege level 3 real-mode program attempts things like access certain i/o ports use hardware devices access certain regions memory space cpu traps events calls v86 monitor examines real mode program trying either acts proxy interface hardware emulates intended function real-mode program trying access terminates real-mode program trying something either allowed adequately supported reboot machine set video display mode supported hardware emulated write operating system code v86 monitor also deny permission gently emulating failure requested operation—for example make disk drive always appear ready fact even checked drive simply permit real-mode program access also v86 monitor things like map memory pages intercept calls interrupts preempt real-mode program allowing real-mode programs multitasked like protected-mode programs intercepting hardware software i/o real-mode program tracking state v86 program expects allow multiple programs share hardware without interfering v86 mode provides way real-mode programs designed single-tasking environment like dos run concurrently multitasking environment used execute certain dos programs flexos 386 since 1987 concurrent dos 386 since 1987 windows/386 2.10 since 1987 desqview 386 since 1988 windows 3.x since 1990 multiuser dos since 1991 windows workgroups 3.1x since 1992 os/2 2.x since 1992 4690 os since 1993 real/32 since 1995 running 386 enhanced mode well windows 95 98 98 se virtual dos machines sco unix merge linux dosemu dos programs use protected mode execute using user mode emulator ntvdm x86 windows nt-based operating systems also use vm86 mode limited direct hardware access common problem running 8086 code protected mode memory addressing totally different protected mode real mode mentioned working vm86 mode segmentation mechanism reconfigured work like real mode paging mechanism still active transparent real mode code thus memory protection still applicable isolation address space interrupts hardware software int instruction occur processor switches vm86 mode returns work full protected mode handle interrupt also servicing interrupt ds es fs gs registers pushed new stack zeroed pentium architecture added number enhancements virtual 8086 mode however documented intel starting subsequent p6 microarchitecture recent formal name virtual 8086 mode enhancements abbreviated vme older documentation may use extensions last word vme acronym expansion later intel 486 chips also support enhancements address mainly 8086 virtualization overhead particular focus virtual interrupts extensions publicly documented p6 documentation official documentation referred famed appendix h omitted public documentation shared selected partners nda activating vme done setting bit number 0 0x1 value cr4 vme interrupt speed-up enhancements found useful non-vm86 protected tasks also enabled separately setting bit number 1 0x2 value called pvi protected mode virtual interrupts detecting whether processor supports vme including pvi done using cpuid instruction testing value second bit bit number 1 0x2 value edx register set vme supported processor linux latter bit reported vme flag /proc/cpuinfo file flags section virtual 8086 mode basic idea iopl less 3 pushf/popf/sti/cli/int/iret instructions treat value vif real 32-bit eflags register value simulated 16-bit flags register 32-bit pushfd/popfd continues gp fault vip cause gp fault setting simulated directing os process pending interrupts pvi idea affects cli/sti instructions first generation amd ryzen cpus found feature broken vme implementation second generation ryzen 2000 series fixed issue support virtual 8086 mode available x86-64 long mode although still present 64-bit capable processors running legacy mode addition vt-x added back ability run virtual 8086 mode x86-64 long mode done transitioning physical processor vmx root mode launching logical virtual processor running virtual 8086 mode westmere later intel processors usually start logical processor directly real mode using unrestricted guest feature requires extended page tables method removes need resort nested virtual 8086 mode simply run legacy bios booting Target text information: virtual_dma_services.virtual dma services computing virtual dma services vds refer application programming interface allow dos win16 applications device drivers perform dma operations running protected virtual 8086 mode I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	1,068	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: system_information_(mac).system information mac system information previously known system profiler software utility derived field service diagnostics produced apple service diagnostic engineering team time located apple satellite buildings campbell california bundled classic mac os since mac os 7.6 name apple system profiler mac os x v10.0 first release macos renamed system profiler release mac os x 10.7 lion renamed system information new features lion ability look support information user hardware model well os x mountain lion later versions macos users also access system information holding option key system information ... replace mac apple menu compiles technical information installed hardware devices drivers applications system settings system software programs kernel extensions installed host computer export information plain text rtf plist xml format information used diagnose problems system profiler extremely useful attempting diagnose hardware problem user send information directly apple user desires support scripting automation applescript limited support automator system information also accessed using system_profiler command terminal application information execute man system_profiler system_profiler -h macos terminal application 1-hop neighbor's text information: property_list.property list macos ios nextstep gnustep programming frameworks property list files files store serialized objects property list files use filename extension .plist thus often referred p-list files property list files often used store user settings also used store information bundles applications task served resource fork old mac os since data represented property lists somewhat abstract underlying file format implemented many ways namely nextstep used one format represent property list subsequent gnustep macos frameworks introduced differing formats nextstep property lists designed human-readable edited hand serialized ascii syntax somewhat like programming language strings represented binary data represented arrays represented dictionaries represented one limitation original next property list format could represent nsvalue number boolean etc object gnustep adopts nextstep format additions first supports nsvalue objects represented plain ascii second supports nsdate objects serialized *dyyyy-mm-dd hh mm ss timezone gnustep also read write property lists formats used macos macos also read nextstep format apple sets aside favor two new formats mac os x 10.0 nextstep format deprecated new xml format introduced public dtd defined apple xml format supports non-ascii characters storing nsvalue objects unlike gnustep ascii property list format apple ascii property list format support since xml files however space-efficient means storage mac os x 10.2 introduced new format property list files stored binary files starting mac os x 10.4 default format preference files mac os x 10.7 support reading writing files json format introduced json property lists fully compatible though example property lists native date data types json format support conversely json permits null values property lists support explicit nulls plutil utility introduced mac os x 10.2 used check syntax property lists convert property list file one format another also defaults utility introduced nextstep used manipulate plist files used storage preferences also known os x defaults hence name command line via preferences domain utility used edit arbitrary plist files another tool plistbuddy command line utility resides /usr/libexec/plistbuddy useful merging plist files altering entries related software development xml json property lists hand-editable text editor additionally apple provides support xcode editing property lists hierarchical viewer/editor handle plists formatted binary xml json mac os x 10.4 apple provides applescript interface reading property list files system events application mac os x 10.5 apple provides applescript interface editing creating writing property list files well xml format tags related foundation classes corefoundation types data storage formats follows binary file format documented comment block c code source file apple open sourced implementation binary plists foundation library apple describes implementation opaque plist manual page documentation means reliance format discouraged binary file format magic number first bytes file indicate valid plist file text bplist binary file store information captured xml json file formats array set dictionary binary types made pointers objref keyref entries index object table file means binary plists capture fact example separate array dictionary serialized file data element stored captured xml file converting binary file result copy data element placed xml file additionally binary file uid type used identify data items serialized practice uid type simply expanded 64 bit integer complete list data stored taken c code source file follows although best known apple darwin systems including ios macos plist files also present windows computers apple software itunes safari installed windows files typically binary files although applications may generate plist files formats windows plist files stored user ’ home directory following path plist files windows typically store preferences information rather using windows registry options editing plist files windows extensive macos file xml json format care text editor notepad++ used apple ships utility named plutil.exe apple application support package part itunes convert binary plist files xml edited text xml editor plisteditorpro afterwards convert back binary using plutil.exe provides zero cost solution plist editing windows commercial tool plistinator plist editor handles xml binary plist files windows introduced 2006 first released netbsd 4.0 2007 proplib library used serialising data kernel userland one sample users proplib second revision sysmon envsys framework system monitoring netbsd proplib library also ported dragonfly 2010 available since dragonfly bsd 2.8 1-hop neighbor's text information: homekit.homekit homekit software framework apple lets users set ios device configure communicate control smart-home appliances designing rooms items actions homekit service users enable automatic actions house simple voice dictation siri apps homekit first released ios 8 september 2014 homekit support also included macos mojave used devices siri manufacturers homekit-enabled devices required mfi program homekit products required encryption co-processor later changed ios 11 added support software authentication equipment manufactured without homekit support enabled use gateway product hub connects devices homekit service Target text information: i/o_kit.i/o kit i/o kit written iokit source code sometimes elsewhere open-source framework xnu kernel helps developers code device drivers apple macos ios operating systems i/o kit framework evolved nextstep driverkit shared similarities either mac os 9 device driver framework bsd i/o kit framework implemented subset c++ omits features apple feels unsafe use multithreaded kernel exceptions multiple inheritance templates run-time type information embedded c++ chosen partly apple believed developers would comfortable writing drivers commonly used language objective-c still providing object-oriented framework allowing device driver developers focus coding features specific hardware instead reimplementing features common given device addition providing common code device drivers framework also provides power management driver stacking automatic configuration dynamic loading drivers I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	3,035	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: cloudbook.cloudbook cloudbook discontinued x86 subnotebook ultra-mobile pc developed everex using via processor chipset nanobook reference design competed asus eee pc olpc xo-1 classmate pc device categorized netbook around 2008 term cloudbook resurrected refer small-storage laptops depend networked storage services cloud come packaged device google chrome os cloudbooks chromebooks installed google drive windows os cloudbooks bundled microsoft onedrive sales gpc tc2502 everex desktop left company inquiries customers seeking similar additional open source mobile platforms everex decided build two systems classic laptop also running gos v2 called gbook system based via nanobook reference design also used packard bell easynote xs release originally planned january 25 2008 everex pushed release back citing problems version gos wanted use delay needed everex wanted rewrite gos v2 cloudbook would use gnome window manager instead enlightenment 17 making even compatible ubuntu e17 dock replaced avant window navigator approach looks functionality older gos versions cloudbook expected released united states february 15 2008 wal-mart zareason pushed back february 21 wal-mart zareason received part shipment price device set us 399 came one year limited warranty 24/7 toll free technical support nivio also created cloudbook based nokia/intel meego platform owned us trademark cloudbook cloudpc aiming use linux platform delivering full windows experience desktop service appstore renting software launched airtel india nivio co-founded sachin dev duggal saurabh p dhoot everex cloudbook uniquely located built-in pointing device stamp-sized touchpad upper right side computer instead bottom keyboard common notebook computers cloudbook intended held one hand typing two hands using mouse-cursor control left thumb controlling two mouse buttons right thumb small trackpad mousepad keys placed directly screen design chosen system could even used standing walking around instead sitting cloudbook sold ultra-mobile pc umpc feature even though touch-screen cloudbook came completely new version compared version used gpc gos linux distribution based ubuntu application software mozilla skype facebook faqly openoffice.org google originally gos came enlightenment 0.17 window manager though pre-installed operating system gos everex released windows xp hardware drivers making simple install microsoft windows xp however everex warns software outside original gos covered warranty though hardware warranty unaffected next generation cloudbook advertised processor running 1.6 ghz 80gb disk drive touch pad wimax however company ceased operations 1-hop neighbor's text information: citrix_systems.citrix systems citrix systems inc. american multinational software company provides server application desktop virtualization networking software service saas cloud computing technologies citrix solutions claimed use 400,000 clients worldwide including 99 fortune 100 98 fortune 500 company founded richardson texas 1989 ed iacobucci served chairman departure 2000 began developing remote access products microsoft operating systems licensing source code microsoft partnership company throughout history 1990s citrix came prominence industry leader thin client technology enabling purpose-built devices access remote servers resources company launched first initial public offering 1995 competitors experienced large revenue increases 1995 1999 citrix acquired sequoia software corp. 2001 expertcity provider remote desktop products 2003 followed dozen acquisitions 2005 2012 allowed citrix expand server desktop virtualization cloud computing infrastructure service software service offerings 2014 citrix acquired framehawk used technology improve delivery virtual desktops applications wireless networks 2016 part us 1.8 billion product deal logmein citrix spun goto product line new business entity entitled getgo 2017 citrix completed merger getgo logmein products citrix corporate headquarters fort lauderdale florida santa clara california subsidiary operations california massachusetts additional development centers australia canada denmark germany india united kingdom citrix january 2018 reported revenue continuing operations 2.82 billion fiscal year 2017 compared 2.74 billion fiscal year 2016 3 increase april 2017 company employed approximately 8,100 employees worldwide citrix founded richardson texas 1989 former ibm developer ed iacobucci 3 million funding following initial setup development iacobucci moved company former home coral springs florida company first employees five engineers ibm iacobucci convinced join team iacobucci served chairman company roger roberts became ceo citrix 1990 citrix originally named citrus changed name existing company claimed trademark rights citrix name portmanteau citrus unix company first product citrix multiuser extension os/2 developed two years citrix licensed os/2 source code microsoft developed independent computing architecture ica protocol citrix multiuser multiuser allowed multiple users working separate computers remote access software server even computers built run os/2 three days product launched 1991 microsoft announced would switching os/2 windows switch made multiuser nearly unusable without significant changes make compatible windows dos company discussed closing 1991 investments intel microsoft kleiner perkins caufield byers among others allowed company work new version multiuser multi-win version 2.0 released 1992 compatible dos applications allowed five users 1993 citrix released new remote applications server winview ability run dos windows applications 1994 company yearly revenue equaled us 10 million company launched winframe multi-user operating system based microsoft windows nt 1995 new product allowed 15 users first thin client windows citrix initial public offering december 1995 company share price doubled 15 30 mid-1990s citrix became leader growing industry competitors company revenues doubled year year 1995 1999 following weeks discussions iacobucci able persuade microsoft agree license citrix technology windows nt server 4.0 resulted windows terminal server edition 1998 agreement allowed citrix keep position marketplace nt 4.0 compatible citrix also earned 75 million agreement along royalty arrangement valued approximately 100 million citrix released metaframe 1.0 conjunction terminal server edition due weaknesses microsoft remote desktop protocol rdp terminal server edition worked best using ica protocol developed citrix found metaframe meant citrix technology purchased installed machines running terminal server edition 1997 company opened new headquarters fort lauderdale florida also opened offices sydney london paris year 1998 mark templeton became ceo citrix serving vice president marketing also 1998 licensed ica protocol ibm key tronics citrix licensed ica protocol motorola use digital wireless handsets 1999 1999 thin-client model citrix used became software trend company customers increased 15 million major clients included sears chevron sudden drop stocks 2000 led iacobucci leaving company ceo mark templeton demoted president senior executive officer templeton later reinstated 2001 2001 citrix acquired sequoia software corp. 185 million year released metaframe xp new platform using metaframe technology later rebranded citrix presentation server 2005 july 9 2002 citrix announced 10 job cut time company employed 1,900 workers announcement stock hit five-year low citrix acquired expertcity provider remote desktop products december 2003 225 million cash stock acquisition largest company date acquisition citrix gained expertcity existing products gotomypc gotoassist expertcity became citrix online division company 2004 company introduced citrix gotomeeting 2005 2012 company acquired dozen companies allowed expand new markets citrix acquired acceleration hardware maker netscaler 2005 allowed company offer optimized application delivery company entered server desktop virtualization market purchase xensource august 2007 citrix expanded cloud infrastructure service iaas offerings august 2010 acquisition vmlogix february 2011 citrix entered european software service saas market acquisition netviewer 2007 company opened headquarters silicon valley 2008 company changed name presentation server product line xenapp also 2008 citrix announced expanded alliance microsoft desktop virtualization solutions january 29 2009 citrix announced 460 employee positions would cut comprising 10 workforce august 2010 citrix announced partnership google bring company products chrome os devices july 14 2015 citrix added full support windows 10 desktop virtualization products company became leader iaas acquisition cloud.com provider cloud infrastructure companies july 2011 citrix began offering vdi-in-a-box small medium businesses acquisition kaviza may 2011 company acquired technology cloud-based file sharing storage purchase sharefile october 2011 may 2012 citrix acquired virtual computer maker intelligent desktop virtualization technology used company xenclient enterprise edition citrix entered mobile video telecom markets june 2012 company acquired bytemobile also 2012 company acquired zenprise zenprise mobile application management mam technology released xenmobile february 2013 citrix acquired framehawk january 2014 order use company technology improve delivery virtual desktops applications wireless networks including cellular speed quality may poor may 2014 citrix acquired scalextreme bolster cloud capabilities core business unit xendesktop xenapp auto scaling patching automation complex deployments cloud january 29 2015 citrix announced 700 full-time 200 contractor positions would eliminated constituted 10 workforce cuts expected save 90 100 million year two hundred layoffs occurred fort lauderdale florida company headquartered company 10,081 employees february 2015 december 2015 citrix employed approximately 9,500 people noted november restructure due eliminate nearly 700 full-time jobs december 31 2018 citrix approximately 8,200 employees citrix reported net income 251.7 million 2014 339.5 million 2013 july 2015 company announced several changes board directors including robert calderoni becoming executive chairman adding jesse cohn senior partner activist hedge fund elliott management month company announced president ceo mark templeton would retire replacement found october 21 company named executive chairman robert calderoni interim president ceo january 2016 kirill tatarinov former microsoft executive named president ceo citrix joined company board calderoni remained executive chairman board july 2016 part deal boston-based saas company logmein citrix announced spun goto product line included gotomeeting gotowebinar gotowebcast gototraining gotoassist gotomypc wholly owned subsidiary called getgo february 2017 citrix completed merger getgo became subsidiary logmein transaction valued approximately 1.8 billion david henshall became company ceo july 2017 also 2017 citrix expanded partnership google may google announced would add support run citrix xenapp chrome web browser including graphics processing unit acceleration july companies announced working allow citrix cloud deploy virtualized apps desktops google cloud october 2017 citrix told regulators plans lay staff across functions consolidate offices fall 2017 2018 company carried layoffs raleigh north carolina office closures santa barbara california tempe arizona citrix unveiled citrix analytics security software 2017 citrix synergy conference orlando florida may 2017 software detects responds security threats relying artificial intelligence 2018 citrix changed names products represent shift cloud operating model company stated made name changes present unified product line end users create manage deploy workspaces apps data single console company dropped xen netscaler brand names xenapp xendesktop became citrix virtual apps desktops xenmobile became citrix endpoint management sharefile integration became citrix content collaboration xenserver became citrix hypervisor cedexis became citrix intelligent traffic management netscaler products kept identities yet netscaler brand name replaced citrix citrix governed ten member board directors citrix headquarters fort lauderdale florida santa clara california united states offices california north carolina citrix research development centers located u.s. australia india japan greece united kingdom citrix organized three units workspace services delivery network mobility apps citrix licenses services products directly clients including professionals smes companies called value-added resellers resell products services adding additional features citrix publicly traded ticker symbol ctxs 2014 company ranked 741 fortune 1000 1,793 forbes global 2000 citrix revenue 2015 equaled us 3.28 billion increase 3.14 billion 2014 2.91 billion 2013 citrix expanded added new technologies services number mergers acquisitions first acquisition datapac 1997 citrix purchased order utilize datapac technology position asia-pacific region major acquisitions include expertcity 2004 netscaler 2005 xensource 2007 sharefile 2011 2015 citrix acquired nearly 50 companies november 2018 citrix paid 200m acquire sapho software startup develops micro apps workers citrix creates software allows individuals enterprise work collaborate remotely regardless device network main areas company works desktop apps desktop service daas networking cloud software service saas citrix offers number products related desktop application virtualization tools allow access windows desktops applications independently machine actually device operating system citrix xenapp provides application virtualization integrated part xendesktop citrix xendesktop citrix vdi-in-a-box xenclient provide desktop virtualization desktopplayer mac allows online offline access windows virtual desktops macs citrix workspace cloud platform building delivering desktops applications cloud sharefile allows companies organizations sync share files xenmobile offers mobile app device management citrix receiver client software allows universal access virtual applications desktops appdna software provides application migration management citrix technology enables service providers provide desktop service daas offerings customers including business apps desktops products include worx mobile apps secure email browser document sharing citrix workspace suite mobile workspaces citrix products related cloud computing networking include citrix xenserver server virtualization netscaler brand network appliances including wan optimization devices software-defined wan delivery equipment application delivery controllers adc gateways appfirewall web application firewall managed cloud management software citrix cloud company also bytemobile adaptive traffic management aims optimize mobile video services traffic management policy control caching bytemobile insight provides mobile data subscriber analytics citrix software service saas products focused collaboration communications offerings include podio cloud-based collaboration service openvoice provides audio conferencing company philanthropic activities include corporate giving—such corporate donations in-kind gifts—and employee match programs addition citrix employees allowed take two paid volunteer days year participate company annual global day impact —an event encourages citrix employees volunteer local communities near fort lauderdale headquarters citrix provided business training non-profit teams particular company helped local non-profit organization launch computer wheels offer training low-income neighborhoods 2007 company connected broward county florida neighborhood agogo ghana donated technology training furthermore company raleigh office began program called project code 2014 leads youth local boys girls clubs coding exercises teaches computer science addition philanthropic activities citrix donated open-source technology non-profit software organizations continue development gain contributors citrix gave cloudstack apache foundation 2012 xen hypervisor linux foundation 2013 1-hop neighbor's text information: nec.nec nec world fourth largest pc manufacturer 1990 nec semiconductors business unit worldwide semiconductor sales leader 1985 1990 second largest 1995 one top three 2000 one top 10 2006 remained one top 20 semiconductor sales leaders merging renesas electronics nec member sumitomo group nec 463 2017 fortune 500 list kunihiko iwadare takeshiro maeda established nippon electric limited partnership august 31 1898 using facilities bought miyoshi electrical manufacturing company iwadare acted representative partner maeda handled company sales western electric interest japanese phone market represented walter tenney carleton carleton also responsible renovation miyoshi facilities agreed partnership would reorganized joint-stock company treaty would allow july 17 1899 revised treaty japan united states went effect nippon electric company limited organized day western electric company become first japanese joint-venture foreign capital iwadare named managing director ernest clement carleton named directors maeda mototeru fujii assigned auditors iwadare maeda carleton handled overall management company started production sales maintenance telephones switches nec modernized production facilities construction mita plant 1901 mita shikokumachi completed december 1902 japanese ministry communications adopted new technology 1903 common battery switchboard supplied nec common battery switchboards powered subscriber phone eliminating need permanent magnet generator subscriber phone switchboards initially imported manufactured locally 1909 nec started exporting telephone sets china 1904 1905 iwadare visited western electric u.s. see management production control return japan discontinued oyakata system sub-contracting replaced new system managers employees direct employees company inefficiency also removed production process company paid higher salaries incentives efficiency new accounting cost controls put place time clocks installed 1899 1907 number telephone subscribers japan rose 35,000 95,000 nec entered china market 1908 implementation telegraph treaty japan china also entered korean market setting office seoul january 1908 period 1907 1912 sales rose 1.6 million yen 2 million yen expansion japanese phone service key part nec success period expansion take pause ministry communications delayed third expansion plan phone service march 1913 despite 120,000 potential telephone-subscribers waiting phone installations nec sales fell sixty percent 1912 1915 interim iwadare started importing appliances including electric fans kitchen appliances washing machines vacuum cleaners electric fans never seen japan imports intended prop company sales 1916 government resumed delayed telephone-expansion plan adding 75,000 subscribers 326,000 kilometers new toll lines thanks third expansion plan nec expanded time much rest japanese industry contracted 1919 nec started first association sumitomo engaging sumitomo densen seizosho manufacture cables part venture nec provided cable manufacturing equipment sumitomo densen rights western electrics duplex cable patents also transferred sumitomo densen great kantō earthquake struck japan 1923 140,000 people killed 3.4 million left homeless four nec factories destroyed killing 105 nec engineers workers thirteen tokyo telephone offices destroyed fire telephone telegraph service interrupted damage telephone cables response ministry communications accelerated major programs install automatic telephone switching systems enter radio broadcasting first automatic switching systems strowger-type model made automatic telephone manufacturing co. atm united kingdom nec participated installation automatic switching systems ultimately becoming general sales agent atm nec developed strowger-type automatic switching system 1924 first japan one plants almost leveled kanto earthquake mita plant chosen support expanding production new three-story steel-reinforced concrete building built starting 1925 modeled western electric hawthorne works nec started radio communications business 1924 japan first radio broadcaster radio tokyo founded 1924 started broadcasting 1925 nec imported broadcasting equipment western electric expansion radio broadcasting osaka nagoya marked emergence radio industry nec established radio research unit 1924 nec started developing electron tubes 1925 1930 manufacturing first 500 w radio transmitter provided chinese xinjing station 100 kw radio broadcasting system 1934 photo-telegraphic equipment developed nec transmitted photos accession ceremony emperor hirohito ceremony held kyoto 1928 newspapers asahi shimbun mainichi shimbun competing cover ceremony asahi shimbun using siemens device mainichi planning use french photo-telegraphic equipment end papers acquired used nec product due faster transmission rate higher picture quality 1929 nippon electric provided japan ministry communications a-type switching system first systems developed japan nippon supplied japan ministry communications nonloaded line carrier equipment long distance telephone channels 1937 world war ii described company blackest days history 1938 mita tamagawa plants placed military control direct supervision military officers 1939 nippon electric established research laboratory tamagawa plant became first japanese company successfully test microwave multiplex communications december 22 1941 enemy property control law passed nec shares owned international standard electric corporation ise itt subsidiary western electric affiliate seized capital technical relations abruptly severed munitions company law passed october 1943 placing overall control nec plants military jurisdiction ueno plant leveled military attack march 1945 fire bombings april may heavily damaged tamagawa plant reducing capacity forty percent okayama plant totally destroyed bombing attack june year end war nec production substantially reduced damage facilities material personnel shortages war production slowly returned civilian use nec re-opened major plants end january 1946 nec began transistor research development 1950 started exporting radio-broadcast equipment korea first major postwar contract 1951 nec received deming prize excellence quality control 1952 computer research development began 1954 nec produced first crossbar switching system japan installed nippon telegraph telephone public corporation currently nippon telegraph telephone corporation ntt 1956 nec began joint research development ntt electronic switching systems year nec established taiwan telecommunication company first postwar overseas joint venture 1958 completed neac-1101 neac-1102 computers year 1959 nec demonstrated first transistorized computer neac-2201 demonstrated unesco automath show paris company began integrated circuit research development 1960 1963 nec started trading american depositary receipts ten million shares sold united states nippon electric new york nec america inc. incorporated year nec supplied kdd submarine cable systems laying pacific ocean 1964 supplied short-haul 24 channel pcm carrier transmission equipment ntt 1965 nec de mexico s. a. de c. v. nec brasil s. a. nec australia pty ltd. established 1968 1969 nec supplied comsat corporation spade satellite communications system 1971 1972 switzerland ordered nec satellite communications earth station year small transportable satellite communications earth station set china shares nec common stock listed amsterdam stock exchange 1973 nec also designed automated broadcasting system japan broadcasting corporation year nec electronics europe gmbh also established 1974 acos series computer introduced new central research laboratories completed 1975 1977 japan national space development agency launched nec geostationary meteorological satellite named himawari period nec introduced concept c c integration computers communications nec america inc. opened plant dallas texas manufacture pabx telephone systems 1978 also acquired electronic arrays inc. california year start semiconductor chip production united states 1980 nec created first digital signal processor nec µpd7710 nec semiconductors uk ltd. established 1981 producing vlsis lsis nec introduced 8-bit pc-8800 series personal computer 1981 followed 16-bit pc-9800 series 1982 1983 nec stock listed basel geneva zurich switzerland exchanges nec quickly became dominant leader japanese pc industry holding 80 market share nec changed english company name nec corporation year nec information systems inc. started manufacturing computers related products united states 1984 nec also released v-series processor year 1986 nec delivered sx-2 super computer houston advanced research center woodlands texas year neax61 digital switching system went service 1987 nec technologies uk ltd. established united kingdom manufacture vcrs printers computer monitors mobile telephones europe also year nec licensed technology hudson soft video game manufacturer create video game console called pc-engine later released 1989 turbografx-16 north american market successor pc-fx released japan 1994 pc-engine achieved considerable following said nec held much stronger influence video game industry role leading semiconductor manufacturer direct video game products nec usa inc. established 1989 holding company north american operations 1983 nec brasil brazilian subsidiary nec forced nationalise corporate stock orders brazilian military government whereby shareholder control nec brasil ceded private equity group brasilinvest brazilian investment banker mário garnero since nec brasil foundation 1968 become major supplier telecommunications equipment brazilian government 1986 minister communications antônio carlos magalhães put nec brasil financial difficulties suspending government contract payments company whose main client federal government subsidiary crisis nec corporation japan sold nec brasil organizações globo onemillion us dollars us 1,000,000 shortly thereafter magalhães resumed government contracts corresponding payments nec brazil became valued 350million us dollars us 350,000,000 suspicions regarding nec-globo deal included among things unilateral breach contract globo founder roberto marinho regarding management regional television station brazilian state bahia took national stage 1992 first corruption charges impeached brazilian president fernando collor de mello organizações globo subsequently sold shares nec brazil hit all-time high state monopoly years back nec corporation 1999 following break-up privatisation brazilian state-owned telephone monopoly telebrás 1990 new head office building known super tower completed shiba tokyo additionally joint-venture agreements established manufacture market digital electronic switching systems lsis china 1993 nec asynchronous transfer mode atm switching system neax61 nippon electronic automatic exchange atm service node went service united states nec europe ltd. established holding company european operations year nec c c research laboratories nec europe ltd. opened germany 1994 nec china co ltd. established holding company chinese operations 1996 1997 nec developed 4gbit dram semiconductor group honored one first japan quality awards 1998 nec opened world advanced semiconductor r facility nec 1 personal computer vendor japan 1980s faced increasing competition fujitsu seiko epson ibm japan nevertheless early 1990s nec still largest well 50 market share japanese market competition heated later rival fujitsu started aggressively market computers industry standard x86 instead nec 1997 nec share reduced 35 nec celebrated 100th anniversary 1999 nec electronics corporation separated nec 2002 new semiconductor company nec laboratories america inc. nec labs started november 2002 merger nec research institute neci nec usa computer communications research laboratory ccrl nec built earth simulator computer esc fastest supercomputer world 2002 2004 since produced nec n343i 2006 2003 nec 20.8 market share personal computer market japan slightly ahead fujitsu 2007 nec nissan co. corp. started evaluating joint venture produce lithium ion batteries hybrid electric cars april 23 2009 renesas technology corp nec electronics corp struck basic agreement merge around april 2010 april 1 2010 nec electronics renesas technology merged forming renesas electronics set fourth largest semiconductor company according isuppli published data q3 2010 nec held 19.8 market share pc market japan january 27 2011 nec formed pc joint venture chinese pc maker lenovo fourth largest pc maker world part deal companies said statement establish new company called lenovo nec holdings b.v. registered netherlands nec receive us 175 million lenovo issuance lenovo shares lenovo unit 51 stake joint venture nec hold 49 stake february 2011 bloomberg news said joint venture would allow lenovo expand field servers nec masato yamamoto said nec would able grow china january 26 2012 nec corporation announced would cut 10,000 jobs globally due big loss nec consolidated financial statement line economic crisis europe lagged development smartphones domestic market compare apple samsung previously january 2009 nec cut 20,000 jobs mainly sluggish semiconductor liquid crystal display related businesses 2013 nec biggest pc server manufacturer japan 23.6 share august 2014 nec corporation commissioned build super-fast undersea data transmission cable linking united states japan consortium international companies consisting china mobile international china telecom global global transit google kddi singtel pipeline went online june 30 2016 april 2017 kemet corporation purchase 61 controlling interest nec tokin nec making nec tokin wholly owned subsidiary purchase complete company change name tokin corporation nec structured organization around three principal segments solutions network solutions electronic devices solutions business delivers computing solutions business enterprises government individual customers—in form software hardware related services network solutions business designs provides broadband network systems mobile wireless communications network systems mobile handsets broadcast systems nec electronic devices business includes semiconductors displays electronic components nec produces versa notebooks international market lavie series japanese markets principal subsidiaries nec include defense products include achievements nec include nec ranked consistently top four companies previous five years number u.s. patents issued averaging 1764 year nec main title sponsor davis cup competition 2002 bnp paribas took sponsorship nec 1982 2012 sponsored nec cup go tournament japan nec 1986 2003 sponsored nec shun-ei go tournament young players japan nec sponsored english football club everton 1985 1995 1995 fa cup final triumph everton final game decade-long nec sponsorship danka took sponsors nec signed deal sponsor sauber f1 team 2011 season 2014 season nec signed new deal sponsor sahara force india f1 team 2015 season april 2013 nec became umbrella sponsor pga tour latinoamérica third-tier men professional golf tour nec one sponsored v.league volleyball started works teams years came include professional players nec also used montedio yamagata football soccer j league sponsors along local companies Target text information: nivio.nivio nivio company marketing desktop virtualization services allow customer use computer application software without personal computer sachin dev duggal saurabh pradeep dhoot founded nivio 2004 two founders met students imperial college london 2000 initial funding came two executives deutsche bank duggal worked time claimed idea came 20 minutes presentation headquarters switzerland development center gurgaon nvivo announced test first online windows xp-based desktop service 2007 early reviews mixed noting high data-rate continuous connections needed good response times existing products companies citrix systems advanced micro devices announced investment undisclosed value august 2007 several patents related technology assigned smx inet global services sa nivio subsidiary december 2008 nivio named technology pioneer world economic forum affordable computing access nivio announced nivio companion june 2009 bharti airtel limited india internet service provider companion low-cost product including keyboard mouse set-top-box style terminal monthly service charge user gets internet access microsoft office 2007 functionality 10 gbytes storage one motivation given rampant software piracy india indian media reported company young founders since 2007 january 2010 duggal promoted cloud computing world economic forum davos february 2010 nivio announced operations australia hosted nec polaris data centre springfield queensland july 2010 company estimated us 5 million revenues profitable earlier nivio companion product called test november 2010 duggal dhoot claimed goal education 2012 nivio reported announce devices called cloudbook cloudpc provide access services although us patent trademark office shows cloudbook trademark application date december 2009 nholdings business nivio product everex marketed cloudbook around 2008 registration nholdings sa gives location mont-sur-lausanne formerly using name smx inet global services sa microsoft remote desktop services technology allowed nivio officially licensed service provider license agreement use remote desktop protocol contrasts services onlive desktop trucloud licensing terms raised questions press approach also contrasted official support microsoft office ipad videocon aec partners invested us 21 million company february 2012 co-founder dhoot nephew videocon chairman venugopal dhoot offices opened palo alto california silicon valley well new delhi april 2012 nivio announced application use microsoft office files stored google drive product received mixed reviews since products still by-invitation beta testing stages judged easy use kate russell bbc reported company products august 2012 near end 2012 duggal stepped operational roles nivio frank houghton became chief operating officer company announced would provide services businesses stuart collingwood president europe middle east africa 2014 company appears gone web site shut twitter feed dormant since 2013 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	4,977	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: content_security_policy.content security policy content security policy csp computer security standard introduced prevent cross-site scripting xss clickjacking code injection attacks resulting execution malicious content trusted web page context candidate recommendation w3c working group web application security widely supported modern web browsers csp provides standard method website owners declare approved origins content browsers allowed load website—covered types javascript css html frames web workers fonts images embeddable objects java applets activex audio video files html5 features standard originally named content restrictions proposed robert hansen 2004 first implemented firefox 4 quickly picked browsers version 1 standard published 2012 w3c candidate recommendation quickly versions level 2 published 2014. draft level 3 developed new features quickly adopted web browsers following header names use part experimental csp implementations website declare multiple csp headers also mixing enforcement report-only ones header processed separately browser csp also delivered within html code using html meta tag although case effectiveness limited support sandbox directive also available internet explorer 10 internet explorer 11 using experimental codice_3 header number web application frameworks support csp example angularjs natively django middleware instructions ruby rails posted github web framework support however required csp contents somehow depend web application state—such usage codice_5 origin otherwise csp rather static delivered web application tiers application example load balancer web server december 2015 december 2016 methods bypassing codice_6 whitelisting origins published january 2016 another method published leverages server-wide csp whitelisting exploit old vulnerable versions javascript libraries hosted server frequent case cdn servers may 2017 one method published bypass csp using web application frameworks code codice_1 header present server response compliant client enforces declarative whitelist policy one example goal policy stricter execution mode javascript order prevent certain cross-site scripting attacks practice means number features disabled default using csp new application may quite straightforward especially csp-compatible javascript framework existing applications may require refactoring—or relaxing policy recommended coding practice csp-compatible web applications load code external source files codice_18 parse json instead evaluating use codice_19 set event handlers time requested resource script execution violates policy browser fire codice_20 request value specified codice_21 containing details violation csp reports standard json structures captured either application api public csp report receivers according original csp 1.0 processing model 2012–2013 csp interfere operation browser add-ons extensions installed user feature csp would effectively allowed add-on extension bookmarklet inject script web sites regardless origin script thus exempt csp policies however policy since modified csp 1.1 following wording note use word may instead prior absolute wording note user agents may allow users modify bypass policy enforcement user preferences bookmarklets third-party additions user agent mechanisms.the absolute wording used browser users request/demand adherence policy changes installed popular browsers firefox chrome safari support particularly contentious sites like twitter github started using strong csp policies 'broke use bookmarklets w3c web application security working group considers script part trusted computing base implemented browser however argued working group representative cox communications exemption potential security hole could exploited malicious compromised add-ons extensions 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_security_hacking_incidents.list security hacking incidents timeline computer security hacker history covers important noteworthy events history security hacking cracking 1-hop neighbor's text information: internet_security.internet security internet security branch computer security specifically related internet often involving browser security world wide web also network security applies applications operating systems whole objective establish rules measures use attacks internet internet represents insecure channel exchanging information leads high risk intrusion fraud phishing online viruses trojans worms many methods used protect transfer data including encryption from-the-ground-up engineering current focus prevention much real time protection well known new threats internet user tricked forced downloading software malicious intent onto computer software comes many forms viruses trojan horses spyware worms denial-of-service attack dos attack distributed denial-of-service attack ddos attack attempt make computer resource unavailable intended users another way understanding ddos seeing attacks cloud computing environment growing due essential characteristics cloud computing although means carry motives targets dos attack may vary generally consists concerted efforts prevent internet site service functioning efficiently temporarily indefinitely according businesses participated international business security survey 25 respondents experienced dos attack 2007 16.8 experienced one 2010 dos attacks often use bots botnet carry attack phishing attack targets online users extraction sensitive information username password credit card information phishing occurs attacker pretends trustworthy entity either via email web page victims directed fake web pages dressed look legitimate via spoof emails instant messenger/social media avenues often tactics email spoofing used make emails appear legitimate senders long complex subdomains hide real website host insurance group rsa said phishing accounted worldwide losses 10.8 billion 2016 applications used access internet resources may contain security vulnerabilities memory safety bugs flawed authentication checks severe bugs give network attackers full control computer security applications suites incapable adequate defense kinds attacks common widespread web-browser application vulnerability so-called cross-origin resource sharing vulnerability- maximum security privacy make sure adopt adequate countermeasures example patches provided webkit-based browsers tcp/ip protocols may secured cryptographic methods security protocols protocols include secure sockets layer ssl succeeded transport layer security tls web traffic pretty good privacy pgp email ipsec network layer security ipsec designed protect tcp/ip communication secure manner set security extensions developed internet task force ietf provides security authentication ip layer transforming data using encryption two main types transformation form basis ipsec authentication header ah esp two protocols provide data integrity data origin authentication anti-replay service protocols used alone combination provide desired set security services internet protocol ip layer basic components ipsec security architecture described terms following functionalities set security services provided ip layer includes access control data origin integrity protection replays confidentiality algorithm allows sets work independently without affecting parts implementation ipsec implementation operated host security gateway environment giving protection ip traffic multi-factor authentication mfa method computer access control user granted access successfully presenting several separate pieces evidence authentication mechanism – typically least two following categories knowledge something know possession something inherence something internet resources websites email may secured using multi-factor authentication online sites offer customers ability use six-digit code randomly changes every 30–60 seconds security token keys security token built mathematical computations manipulate numbers based current time built device means every thirty seconds certain array numbers possible would correct validate access online account website user logging would made aware device serial number would know computation correct time built device verify number given indeed one handful six-digit numbers works given 30-60 second cycle 30–60 seconds device present new random six-digit number log website email messages composed delivered stored multiple step process starts message composition user finishes composing message sends message transformed standard format rfc 2822 formatted message afterwards message transmitted using network connection mail client referred mail user agent mua connects mail transfer agent mta operating mail server mail client provides sender ’ identity server next using mail server commands client sends recipient list mail server client supplies message mail server receives processes message several events occur recipient server identification connection establishment message transmission using domain name system dns services sender ’ mail server determines mail server recipient server opens connection recipient mail server sends message employing process similar used originating client delivering message recipient pretty good privacy provides confidentiality encrypting messages transmitted data files stored using encryption algorithm triple des cast-128 email messages protected using cryptography various ways following first two methods message signing message body encryption often used together however encrypting transmissions mail servers typically used two organizations want protect emails regularly sent example organizations could establish virtual private network vpn encrypt communications mail servers internet unlike methods encrypt message body vpn encrypt entire messages including email header information senders recipients subjects cases organizations may need protect header information however vpn solution alone provide message signing mechanism provide protection email messages along entire route sender recipient mime transforms non-ascii data sender site network virtual terminal nvt ascii data delivers client simple mail transfer protocol smtp sent internet server smtp receiver side receives nvt ascii data delivers mime transformed back original non-ascii data message authentication code mac cryptography method uses secret key encrypt message method outputs mac value decrypted receiver using secret key used sender message authentication code protects message data integrity well authenticity computer firewall controls access networks generally consists gateways filters vary one firewall another firewalls also screen network traffic able block traffic dangerous firewalls act intermediate server smtp hypertext transfer protocol http connections firewalls impose restrictions incoming outgoing network packets private networks incoming outgoing traffic must pass firewall authorized traffic allowed pass firewalls create checkpoints internal private network public internet also known choke points borrowed identical military term combat limiting geographical feature firewalls create choke points based ip source tcp port number also serve platform ipsec using tunnel mode capability firewall used implement vpns firewalls also limit network exposure hiding internal network system information public internet packet filter first generation firewall processes network traffic packet-by-packet basis main job filter traffic remote ip host router needed connect internal network internet router known screening router screens packets leaving entering network stateful firewall circuit-level gateway proxy server operates network level open systems interconnection osi model statically defines traffic allowed circuit proxies forward network packets formatted unit data containing given port number port permitted algorithm main advantage proxy server ability provide network address translation nat hide user ip address internet effectively protecting internal information internet application-level firewall third generation firewall proxy server operates top osi model ip suite application level network packet forwarded connection established using known protocol application-level gateways notable analyzing entire messages rather individual packets data data sent received web browser statistics tend affect amount web browser exploited example internet explorer 6 used majority web browser market share considered extremely insecure vulnerabilities exploited due former popularity since browser choice evenly distributed internet explorer 28.5 firefox 18.4 google chrome 40.8 vulnerabilities exploited many different browsers antivirus software internet security programs protect programmable device attack detecting eliminating malware antivirus software mainly shareware early years internet several free security applications internet choose platforms password manager software application helps user store organize passwords password managers usually store passwords encrypted requiring user create master password single ideally strong password grants user access entire password database top bottom called security suites first offered sale 2003 mcafee contain suite firewalls anti-virus anti-spyware also offer theft protection portable storage device safety check private internet browsing cloud anti-spam file shredder make security-related decisions answering popup windows several free charge Target text information: troy_hunt.troy hunt troy hunt australian web security expert known public education outreach security topics created pwned data breach search website allows non-technical users see personal information compromised also authored several popular security-related courses pluralsight regularly presents keynotes workshops security topics also creator asafaweb tool performs automated security analysis asp.net websites starting 2011 hunt named microsoft valuable professional mvp developer security recognized microsoft mvp year 2011 also named microsoft regional director 2016 part work administering pwned hibp website hunt frequently involved publication data breaches often cited journalists data breach expert june 2018 hibp contains 5 billion compromised user accounts governments australia united kingdom spain use service monitor official domains popular services 1password eve online okta kogan integrated hibp account verification process hibp included gizmodo october 2018 list 100 websites shaped internet know august 2015 following ashley madison data breach hunt received many emails ashley madison members asking help criticized company poor job informing userbase february 2016 children toy maker vtech suffered major data breach months earlier updated terms service absolve wrongdoing event future breaches hunt added data vtech breach databases pwned published blog post harshly criticizing vtech new policy calling grossly negligent later removed vtech breach database citing two people besides access data wishing reduce chance spread february 2017 hunt published details vulnerabilities internet-connected children toy cloudpets allowed access 820,000 user records well 2.2 million audio files belonging users november 2017 hunt testified united states house committee energy commerce impact data breaches also november 2017 hunt joined report uri project launched 2015 scott helme allows real time monitoring csp hpkp violations website bringing funding expertise project hunt known efforts security education computer professionals created several dozen courses pluralsight online education training website computer creative professionals one primary course authors pluralsight ethical hacking path collection courses designed certified ethical hacker certification additionally hunt works education speaking technology conferences running workshops primary workshop titled hack first aims teach software developers little security background defend applications looking attacker perspective I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	101	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: omap.omap omap open multimedia applications platform family developed texas instruments series image/video processors proprietary system chips socs portable mobile multimedia applications omap devices generally include general-purpose arm architecture processor core plus one specialized co-processors earlier omap variants commonly featured variant texas instruments tms320 series digital signal processor platform created december 12 2002 stmicroelectronics texas instruments jointly announced initiative open mobile application processor interfaces omapi intended used 2.5 3g mobile phones going produced 2003 later merged larger initiative renamed mipi alliance omap texas instruments implementation standard stmicroelectronics implementation named nomadik omap enjoy success smartphone tablet market 2011 lost ground qualcomm snapdragon september 26 2012 texas instruments announced would wind operations smartphone tablet oriented chips instead focus embedded platforms november 14 2012 texas instruments announced would cut 1,700 jobs due shift mobile embedded platforms last omap5 chips released q2 2013 omap family consists three product groups classified performance intended application two main distribution channels exist parts available channels genesis omap product line partnership cell phone vendors main distribution channel involves sales directly wireless handset vendors parts developed suit evolving cell phone requirements flexible powerful enough support sales less specialized catalog channels omap 1 parts many omap 3 parts catalog versions different sales support models parts obsolete perspective handset vendors may still needed support products developed using catalog parts distributor-based inventory management parts originally intended use application processors smartphones processors powerful enough run significant operating systems linux android symbian support connectivity personal computers support various audio video applications omap 1 family started ti-enhanced arm core changed standard arm926 core included many variants easily distinguished according manufacturing technology 130 nm except omap171x series cpu peripheral set distribution channel direct large handset vendors catalog-based distributors march 2009 omap1710 family chips still available handset vendors products using omap 1 processors include hundreds cell phone models nokia 770 internet tablets parts marketed handset vendors products using include internet tablets mobile phones 3rd generation omap omap 3 broken 3 distinct groups omap34x omap35x omap36x omap34x omap36x distributed directly large handset cell phone manufacturers omap35x variant omap34x intended catalog distribution channels omap36x 45 nm version 65 nm omap34x higher clock speed omap 3611 found devices like bookeen cybook odyssey licensed crippled version omap 3621 silicon marking officially 3611 sold able drive e-ink screen access iva dsp video technology higher end omap 3 parts derived part davinci product line first packaged higher end c64x+ dsps image processing controllers arm9 processors last seen older omap 1 generation arm cortex-a8 highlighted list omap 3 soc image video audio iva2 accelerator units capabilities devices support 12 megapixel camera images though support 5 3 megapixels support hd imaging 4th generation omaps omap 4430 used google glass 4460 formerly named 4440 4470 use dual-core arm cortex-a9 cpu two arm cortex-m3 cores part ducati sub-system off-loading low-level tasks 4430 4460 use powervr sgx540 integrated 3d graphics accelerator running clock frequency 304 384 mhz respectively 4470 powervr sgx544 gpu supports directx 9 enables use windows 8 well dedicated 2d graphics core increased power efficiency 50-90 omap 4 come iva3 multimedia hardware accelerator programmable dsp enables 1080p full hd multi-standard video encode/decode omap 4 uses arm cortex-a9 arm simd engine media processing engine aka neon may significant performance advantage cases nvidia tegra 2 arm cortex-a9s non-vector floating point units also uses dual-channel lpddr2 memory controller compared nvidia tegra 2 single-channel memory controller 5th generation omap omap 5 soc uses dual-core arm cortex-a15 cpu two additional cortex-m4 cores offload a15s less computationally intensive tasks increase power efficiency two powervr sgx544mp graphics cores dedicated ti 2d bitblt graphics accelerator multi-pipe display sub-system signal processor respectively support 24 20 megapixel cameras front rear 3d hd video recording chip also supports 8 gb dual channel lpddr2/ddr3 memory output four hd 3d displays 3d hdmi 1.4 video output omap 5 also includes three usb 2.0 ports one lowspeed usb 3.0 otg port sata 2.0 controller marketed handset manufacturers intended highly integrated low cost chips consumer products omap-dm series intended used digital media coprocessors mobile devices high megapixel digital still video cameras image signal processor isp used accelerate processing camera images marketed handset manufacturers many newer versions highly integrated use low cost cell phones omap l-1x parts marketed catalog channels different technological heritage omap parts rather deriving directly cell phone product lines grew video-oriented davinci product line removing video-specific features using upgraded davinci peripherals notable feature use floating point dsp instead customary fixed point one hawkboard uses omap-l138 many mobile phones use omap socs including nokia n9 n90 n91 n92 n95 n82 e61 e62 e63 e90 mobile phones well nokia 770 n800 n810 n900 internet tablets motorola droid samsung galaxy tab 2 7.0 droid x droid 2 palm pre pandora touch book also use omap soc omap3430 others use omap soc include sony ericsson satio idou vivaz samsung phones running symbian including omnia hd nook color archos tablets archos 80 gen 9 archos 101 gen 9 kindle fire hd blackberry playbook kobo arc b n nook hd also all-in-one smart displays using omap 4 socs viewsonic vsd220 omap 4430 omap socs also used basis number hobbyist prototyping evaluation boards beagleboard pandaboard omap3 board gumstix presonus digital mixing boards 1-hop neighbor's text information: buffalo_network-attached_storage_series.buffalo network-attached storage series buffalo network-attached storage series network-attached storage devices modified miniature general purpose linux-based computers linkstation terastation intended general public kuro box intended expert hackers cheap platform linux development devices undergone various improvements since first produced example first generation device 100base-tx network adapter using parallel ata hard drive current version 1000base-t-capable connection uses serial ata interface older generations device used powerpc mips processors latest version device uses arm architecture processor linkstation powerpc mips arm based network attached storage appliance sold north america europe japan significantly notable among linux community japan us/europe hackable generic linux appliance made tasks file storage task designed linkstation ethernet usb serial ports video output made buffalo technology division melco produced japan 2006 also available american retailers best buy compusa well europe kuro box name series powerpc arm processor based computers intended use network-attached storage device original kuro box made spare hardware components manufacturer linkstation recent versions kuro box use later linkstation hardware hardware similar linkstation kuro box versions provided without hard drive case physical dimensions shape corresponding linkstation black color japanese symbols kuro box 玄箱 meaning box operated expert esoteric knowledge silver lettering side panel name also pun kuro different kanji 黒 also means 'black since january 2012 terastation uses lio iscsi target device runs linux included changes linux source code buffalo required release modified versions source code per terms gnu general public license due availability source code relatively low cost device several community projects centered around two main replacement firmware releases available device first openlink based official buffalo firmware improvements features added freelink debian distribution product designed manufacturer accept user-supplied linux distribution several including kurobox-specific distribution called sylver debian gentoo linux fedora core ported various user groups us/europe japan like linkstation device runs version linux debian gentoo linux distributions netbsd reported ported device various iterations ships universal plug play protocol distribution multimedia stored device also configured variety different media servers twonkyvision media server slimserver/squeezecenter server itunes server using digital audio access protocol samba server lio iscsi target mldonkey client well network file system server posix-based systems use backup server modified use rsync back synchronize data one many computers network pushing data even linkstation pulling data remote servers—beside use buffalo-provided backup software windows also found use number ways notably usb interface comes configured print server also use common unix printing system act usb printer users managed get use number usb devices version 2.6 linux kernel enhanced usb support additionally apache http server software already installed purpose providing buffalo configuration screens device easily converted lightweight web server buffalo content deleted serve content operator choice 1-hop neighbor's text information: hp_touchpad.hp touchpad hp touchpad tablet computer developed designed hewlett-packard hp touchpad launched july 1 2011 united states july 15 canada united kingdom france germany august 15 australia august 18 2011 49 days touchpad launched united states hp announced would discontinue current devices running webos remaining touchpad stock received substantial price reductions quickly sold hp touchpad announced february 9 2011 webos think beyond event held fort mason center san francisco alongside hp veer hp pre 3 initial sales device sold 25,000 270,000 units meet hp expectations rapidly becoming overshadowed launch ipad 2 march august 16 2011 reported best buy refused pay hp touchpad stock europe touchpad estimated sold 12,000 first month release australia harvey norman exclusive retailer sold 1,200 units four days sale industry commentators suggested lack apps platform lackluster advertising hindering sales august 18 hp announced would discontinue webos devices hp cto shane robison noted touchpad half generation generation behind ipad n't going drive volume years later member development team described device made cast-off reject ipad parts august 19 2011 hp announced substantial price drop touchpad canada usa price 99 16gb model 149 32gb model quickly sold large numbers buyers acquired touchpad firesale prices brick-and-mortar retailers reportedly sold entire inventories within hours morning august 20 online retailers including barnes noble amazon.com best buy took orders august 22 rapidly exceeded inventory forced cancel many orders similar sale held australian harvey norman stores several stores selling inventory within hour similar sales took place uk several stores reducing prices £89 16gb £115 32gb hp touchpad became tablet highest approval rating hp touchpad stock immediately sold domestically overseas consumers rushing take advantage price promotion following successful sale clear component suppliers inventories touch panels batteries chassis hp announced august 30 would make another production run touchpad units used fulfill existing orders businesses like tiger direct best buy bundles set price 249.99 299.99 following meg whitman appointment ceo hp conjunction announcement company plans continue developing webos open-source operating system said company would continue using os devices specifically resuming use tablets said would happen 2012 would probably take place 2013 february 2013 hp sold source code transferred remaining webos team lg effectively ending webos deployment tablets consumer products hp touchpad touchscreen tablet runs hp webos several notable features touchpad uses card multitasking found palm pre phones integrated webcam front hp touchpad enables video conferencing backlit home button bottom hp touchpad also allows haptic feedback vibration function hardware includes arm-based qualcomm snapdragon processor 1gb ram touch share allows pre 3 mobile share information websites touching sensors touchpad sensors touchpad receive calls text messages forwarded phone using palm profile well make receive calls via skype application independent site estimated 16gb 32gb hp touchpad contained 296.15 318.15 materials respectively cost assemble 10 hp touchpad 9.7 inch 1024×768 pixel gorilla glass multitouch capacitive touch screen interaction finger capacitive stylus available separate purchase touchpad virtual keyboard configured one four preset sizes number row top common qwerty layout touchpad also features invensense 3-axis gyroscope touchpad three separate physical buttons sleep/wake button top right home button bottom front launches card view app launcher set volume rockers right device holding power button home button together creates screen snapshot touchpad stereo speakers feature beats audio atheros ar6003 chipset supports dual band 2.4 ghz 5 ghz wi-fi 802.11a/b/g/n bluetooth 2.1 edr a2dp stereo bluetooth tablet share urls phone calls text messages webos phones via bluetooth pairing pairing non-webos smartphones enabled software update 3.0.4 touchpad uses rechargeable 6000 6300 mah lithium-ion polymer battery rated 3,7 v total 22,2 wh charged via microusb connector optional wireless charging touchstone charger using touchstone touchpad enters mode called exhibition mode displays simple information clock schedule media battery life estimated nine hours hp review engadget battery lasted eight half hours july 2011 hp announced webos hardware roadmap included hp touchpad 4g faster 1.5 ghz processor 32 gb flash memory integrated a-gps 3.5g hspa+ wireless mobile broadband capabilities demo models displayed press show released sale except hp employees later appeared ebay craigslist august white model 64 gb flash memory 1.5 ghz processor wi-fi – without 3.5g – built small quantities shipped small number touchpad go models codenamed opal 7-inch display 32 gb flash memory 1.5-ghz processor cellular capabilities made sent technology review websites smaller touchpads however mass-produced overall inspiration later carried hp slate 7 touchpad sold webos operating system offers video chat wireless printing hp printers email integration ebooks web browsing document editing access hp catalog additional apps downloaded webos card-based multitasking environment open applications arranged stacks webos unobtrusively notifies users messages emails calendar agenda items appearing top right screen rapidly reviewed swipe gesture webos 3.0 integrates adobe flash last updated version 3.0.5 january 12 2012 hp supports funding new open source project webos scalability easy app development base attracts developers open source webos provides standardized java development tools build port apps webos rapidly open webos released hp directly work touchpad due proprietary code hp however released open source webos community edition use touchpad october 6 2011 reported customers received new touchpads android installed instead webos hp investigating unofficial release commented october 22 2011 android 2.3 gingerbread alpha version became available touchpad port based cyanogenmod enhanced distribution android allows touchpad run android apps natively android port touchpad replace webos provides multi-boot touchpad owners start tablets android webos oss android 3.0 'honeycomb ported touchpad source code publicly available january 17 2012 port android 4.0 ice cream sandwich based cyanogenmod 9 became available preliminary alpha build alpha 0 features including hardware-accelerated video playback microphone camera functional time updated alpha 0.5 around january 24 2012 alpha 0.6 around january 30 2012 bringing fixes stability improvements february 2 2012 hp released source code android 2.3 hp touchpad cyanogenmod team received source code hp started working touchpad tablet port phonenews.com reported android kernel based qualcomm ’ reference android source code used hp internally accelerate release touchpad never intended public use rather ensure touchpad ’ hardware would ready release consumers alongside webos 3 webos 3 lagging behind hardware development android also used manufacturing lines test touchpads ultimately flashed webos cyanogenmod 9 cm9 based android 4.0.4 official stable builds features working also unofficial cm10 cm10.1 cm10.2 cm11 based builds features working cm11 builds stability daily use dependent kernel used development kernels based linux 3.0 3.4 proceeding rom based 3.4 kernel unstable may features missing rom based 3.0 kernel generally stable android 5.0 works touchpad although sluggish android 7.0 nougat made available september 2016 via evervolv android open source project aosp rom authored flintman nearly feature complete usable runs better 5.1 android 7.1.1 nougat made available around december 2016 via evervolv authored flintman well second option lineageos authored invisiblek android 9.0 pie made available april 2019 via evervolv android open source project aosp rom linux distributions compiled arm architecture successfully run via chroot also x11 windowing system common many linux systems ported run within webos allows graphical applications made linux run webos port ubuntu run natively touchpad development january 2012 boots via moboot multiboot bootloader using method android port port early alpha stage functional development ended 2012 addition ubuntu alpha port arch linux arm january 2012 provides full touchscreen support gnome 3 lxde wi-fi access bluetooth camera sound installed using previously mentioned moboot method luneos linux-based operating system designed specifically native execution touch devices touchstone wireless charging dock charging touchstone touchpad set exhibition mode allowing user choose display photos digital photo frame upcoming appointments clock items using third party extensions touchstone also enables wireless communication hp pre3 touchpad tapping specific region transfer web links pre technology known “ touch share ” touchstone usb power cable attached usb standard-a plug end must plugged high-power usb power adapter hp touchpad power adapter newer high-current usb adapter hp shows warning user manual plug laptop north america touchstone ships ac power adapter included touchpad bluetooth wireless keyboard typical qwerty layout plus additional keys special touchpad capabilities power slide switch bottom two aa batteries required special touchpad keys power card view cursor left/up/right/down volume +/- mute brightness +/- fast forward play-pause rewind show virtual keyboard show type show notifications keyboard pair bluetooth devices key functions may missing keyboard layout outside alpha numeric keys specific touchpad power adapter converts wall ac usb dc accessory contains following items touchpad adapter cable touchstone adapter-only ships accessory protective case doubles stand watching videos typing holes edges case access microusb connector 3.5 mm jack connector internal microphone folded open opening speaker along binding edge case raised surface power volume buttons easily found touchpad charge case using either microusb cable touchstone dock early reviews hp touchpad mixed david pogue new york times wrote works beautifully conveys far information ipad 2 tablet offers real multitasking open apps always running jason chen gizmodo wrote actually holding touchpad say deceptively heavy around weight ipad 'd think would lighter back made plastic said overly heavy heavier 'd think looking matt buchanan also writing gizmodo praised os interface concept 'good conceptually described performance slow motion ... give thing six months could amazing well guess says everything needs said verge also noted poor performance describing interface 'intuitive natural 'sluggish unfinished ... bit hard sell right due firesale touchpad hp led non-apple tablets sold us 2011 december 2011 hp touchpad second desired tablet 5 percent share tablet sales estimated 903,354 devices sold hp touchpad firesale effect future android tablet sales low pricing scheme compared ipad used kindle fire nexus 7 commercially successful android tablets originally priced 199 Target text information: palm_pre_2.palm pre 2 palm pre 2 styled palm prē 2 slider smartphone designed marketed palm inc. hewlett-packard multi-touch screen physical sliding keyboard smartphone third use palm linux-based mobile operating system webos releasing version 2.0 pre 2 functions camera phone portable media player location navigation capabilities pre also serves personal information manager number communication collaboration applications bluetooth wi-fi connectivity built-in palm pre 2 announced october 19 2010 initial launch date october 22 2010 french carrier sfr also announced pre 2 would coming united states carrier verizon wireless rogers wireless canada also unlocked umts developer phone additions include flat gorilla glass screen instead curved plastic predecessors surrounded plastic trim faster processor upgraded camera plastic door covered microusb port previous iterations considered flimsy removed otherwise pre 2 size design predecessors pre 2 last mobile phone branded palm name pre 3 veer touchpad branded hp devices august 11 2010 webos developer geoff gauchet discovered unknown device code name roadrunner accessing foursquare app using new version webos version 2.0 october 12 2010 several specifications pre 2 including processor speed memory leaked france sfr website prior official launch october 22 november 18 2010 pre 2 became available u.s. unlocked developer device december 20 2010 pre 2 launched canada rogers wireless february 17 2011 pre 2 launched u.s. verizon wireless pre 2 first phone use version 2.0 hp palm webos last version available pre 2 version 2.2.4 subject carrier approval certain models however I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	11,337	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: client_(computing).client computing client computer program part operation relies sending request another program computer hardware software accesses service made available server may may located another computer example web browsers clients connect web servers retrieve web pages display email clients retrieve email mail servers online chat uses variety clients vary depending chat protocol used multiplayer video games online video games may run client computer term client may also applied computers devices run client software users use client software client part client–server model still used today clients servers may computer programs run machine connect via inter-process communication techniques combined internet sockets programs may connect service operating possibly remote system internet protocol suite servers wait potential clients initiate connections may accept term first applied devices capable running stand-alone programs could interact remote computers via network computer terminals clients time-sharing mainframe computer one classification client computers devices either thick clients thin clients hybrid clients thick client also known rich client fat client client performs bulk data processing operations necessarily rely server personal computer common example fat client relatively large set features capabilities light reliance upon server example computer running art program krita sketchup ultimately shares result work network thick client computer runs almost entirely standalone machine save send receive files via network standard called workstation thin client minimal sort client thin clients use resources host computer thin client generally presents processed data provided application server performs bulk required data processing device using web application office web apps thin client hybrid client mixture two client models similar fat client processes locally relies server storing persistent data approach offers features fat client multimedia support high performance thin client high manageability flexibility device running online version video game diablo iii example hybrid client 1-hop neighbor's text information: computer_virus.computer virus computer virus type malware executed replicates modifying computer programs inserting code replication succeeds affected areas said infected computer virus virus writers use social engineering deceptions exploit detailed knowledge security vulnerabilities initially infect systems spread virus vast majority viruses target systems running microsoft windows employing variety mechanisms infect new hosts often using complex anti-detection/stealth strategies evade antivirus software motives creating viruses include seeking profit e.g. ransomware desire send political message personal amusement demonstrate vulnerability exists software sabotage denial service simply wish explore cybersecurity issues artificial life evolutionary algorithms computer viruses currently cause billions dollars worth economic damage year due causing system failure wasting computer resources corrupting data increasing maintenance costs stealing personal information etc response free open-source antivirus tools developed industry antivirus software cropped selling freely distributing virus protection users various operating systems even though currently existing antivirus software able uncover computer viruses especially new ones computer security researchers actively searching new ways enable antivirus solutions effectively detect emerging viruses already become widely distributed term virus also misused extension refer types malware malware encompasses computer viruses along many forms malicious software computer worms ransomware spyware adware trojan horses keyloggers rootkits bootkits malicious browser helper object bhos malicious software majority active malware threats actually trojan horse programs computer worms rather computer viruses term computer virus coined fred cohen 1985 misnomer viruses often perform type harmful activity infected host computers acquisition hard disk space central processing unit cpu time accessing private information e.g. credit card numbers corrupting data displaying political humorous messages user screen spamming e-mail contacts logging keystrokes even rendering computer useless however viruses carry destructive payload attempt hide themselves—the defining characteristic viruses self-replicating computer programs modify software without user consent first academic work theory self-replicating computer programs done 1949 john von neumann gave lectures university illinois theory organization complicated automata work von neumann later published theory self-reproducing automata essay von neumann described computer program could designed reproduce von neumann design self-reproducing computer program considered world first computer virus considered theoretical father computer virology 1972 veith risak directly building von neumann work self-replication published article selbstreproduzierende automaten mit minimaler informationsübertragung self-reproducing automata minimal information exchange article describes fully functional virus written assembler programming language siemens 4004/35 computer system 1980 jürgen kraus wrote diplom thesis selbstreproduktion bei programmen self-reproduction programs university dortmund work kraus postulated computer programs behave way similar biological viruses first known description self-reproducing program short story occurs 1970 story gregory benford describes computer program called virus installed computer telephone modem dialling capability randomly dials phone numbers hit modem answered another computer attempts program answering computer program second computer also begin dialling random numbers search yet another computer program program rapidly spreads exponentially susceptible computers countered second program called vaccine idea explored two 1972 novels harlie one david gerrold terminal man michael crichton became major theme 1975 novel shockwave rider john brunner 1973 michael crichton sci-fi movie westworld made early mention concept computer virus central plot theme causes androids run amok alan oppenheimer character summarizes problem stating ... clear pattern suggests analogy infectious disease process spreading one ... area next replies stated perhaps superficial similarities disease must confess find difficult believe disease machinery creeper virus first detected arpanet forerunner internet early 1970s creeper experimental self-replicating program written bob thomas bbn technologies 1971 creeper used arpanet infect dec pdp-10 computers running tenex operating system creeper gained access via arpanet copied remote system message 'm creeper catch displayed reaper program created delete creeper 1982 program called elk cloner first personal computer virus appear wild —that outside single computer computer lab created written 1981 richard skrenta ninth grader mount lebanon high school near pittsburgh attached apple dos 3.3 operating system spread via floppy disk 50th use elk cloner virus would activated infecting personal computer displaying short poem beginning elk cloner program personality 1984 fred cohen university southern california wrote paper computer viruses – theory experiments first paper explicitly call self-reproducing program virus term introduced cohen mentor leonard adleman 1987 fred cohen published demonstration algorithm perfectly detect possible viruses fred cohen theoretical compression virus example virus malicious software malware putatively benevolent well-intentioned however antivirus professionals accept concept benevolent viruses desired function implemented without involving virus automatic compression instance available windows operating system choice user virus definition make unauthorised changes computer undesirable even damage done intended page one dr solomon virus encyclopaedia undesirability viruses even nothing reproduce thoroughly explained article describes useful virus functionalities published j b. gunn title use virus functions provide virtual apl interpreter user control 1984 first ibm pc virus wild boot sector virus dubbed c brain created 1986 farooq alvi brothers lahore pakistan reportedly deter unauthorized copying software written first virus specifically target microsoft windows winvir discovered april 1992 two years release windows 3.0 virus contain windows api calls instead relying dos interrupts years later february 1996 australian hackers virus-writing crew vlad created bizatch virus also known boza virus first known virus target windows 95 late 1997 encrypted memory-resident stealth virus win32.cabanas released—the first known virus targeted windows nt also able infect windows 3.0 windows 9x hosts even home computers affected viruses first one appear commodore amiga boot sector virus called sca virus detected november 1987 viable computer virus must contain search routine locates new files new disks worthwhile targets infection secondly every computer virus must contain routine copy program search routine locates three main virus parts infection mechanism also called 'infection vector virus spreads propagates virus typically search routine locates new files new disks infection trigger also known logic bomb compiled version could activated time within executable file virus run determines event condition malicious payload activated delivered particular date particular time particular presence another program capacity disk exceeding limit double-click opens particular file payload actual body data performs actual malicious purpose virus payload activity might noticeable e.g. causes system slow freeze time payload harmful activity times non-destructive distributive called virus hoax virus phases life cycle computer virus described using analogy biology life cycle divided four phases virus program idle stage virus program managed access target user computer software stage virus take action virus eventually activated trigger states event execute virus date presence another program file capacity disk exceeding limit user taking certain action e.g. double-clicking certain icon opening e-mail etc. viruses stage virus starts propagating multiplying replicating virus places copy programs certain system areas disk copy may identical propagating version viruses often morph change evade detection professionals anti-virus software infected program contain clone virus enter propagation phase dormant virus moves phase activated perform function intended triggering phase caused variety system events including count number times copy virus made copies actual work virus payload released destructive deleting files disk crashing system corrupting files relatively harmless popping humorous political messages screen computer viruses infect variety different subsystems host computers software one manner classifying viruses analyze whether reside binary executables .exe .com files data files microsoft word documents pdf files boot sector host hard drive combination memory-resident virus simply resident virus installs part operating system executed remains ram time computer booted shut resident viruses overwrite interrupt handling code functions operating system attempts access target file disk sector virus code intercepts request redirects control flow replication module infecting target contrast non-memory-resident virus non-resident virus executed scans disk targets infects exits i.e remain memory done executing many common applications microsoft outlook microsoft word allow macro programs embedded documents emails programs may run automatically document opened macro virus document virus virus written macro language embedded documents users open file virus code executed infect user computer one reasons dangerous open unexpected suspicious attachments e-mails opening attachments e-mails unknown persons organizations help reduce likelihood contracting virus cases virus designed e-mail appears reputable organization e.g. major bank credit card company boot sector viruses specifically target boot sector and/or master boot record mbr host hard disk drive solid-state drive removable storage media flash drives floppy disks etc. email viruses viruses intentionally rather accidentally uses email system spread virus infected files may accidentally sent email attachments email viruses aware email system functions generally target specific type email system microsoft outlook commonly used harvest email addresses various sources may append copies email sent may generate email messages containing copies attachments order avoid detection users viruses employ different kinds deception old viruses especially dos platform make sure last modified date host file stays file infected virus approach fool antivirus software however especially maintain date cyclic redundancy checks file changes viruses infect files without increasing sizes damaging files accomplish overwriting unused areas executable files called cavity viruses example cih virus chernobyl virus infects portable executable files files many empty gaps virus 1 kb length add size file viruses try avoid detection killing tasks associated antivirus software detect example conficker 2010s computers operating systems grow larger complex old hiding techniques need updated replaced defending computer viruses may demand file system migrate towards detailed explicit permission every kind file access kinds antivirus software employ various techniques counter stealth mechanisms infection occurs recourse clean system unreliable microsoft windows operating systems ntfs file system proprietary leaves antivirus software little alternative send read request windows os files handle requests viruses trick antivirus software intercepting requests operating system os virus hide intercepting request read infected file handling request returning uninfected version file antivirus software interception occur code injection actual operating system files would handle read request thus antivirus software attempting detect virus either given permission read infected file read request served uninfected version file reliable method avoid stealth viruses reboot medium known clear security software used check dormant operating system files security software relies virus signatures employ heuristics security software may also use database file hashes windows os files security software identify altered files request windows installation media replace authentic versions older versions windows file cryptographic hash functions windows os files stored windows—to allow file integrity/authenticity checked—could overwritten system file checker would report altered system files authentic using file hashes scan altered files would always guarantee finding infection modern antivirus programs try find virus-patterns inside ordinary programs scanning so-called virus signatures unfortunately term misleading viruses possess unique signatures way human beings virus signature merely sequence bytes antivirus program looks known part virus better term would search strings different antivirus programs employ different search strings indeed different search methods identifying viruses virus scanner finds pattern file perform checks make sure found virus merely coincidental sequence innocent file notifies user file infected user delete cases clean heal infected file viruses employ techniques make detection means signatures difficult probably impossible viruses modify code infection infected file contains different variant virus one method evading signature detection use simple encryption encipher encode body virus leaving encryption module static cryptographic key cleartext change one infection next case virus consists small decrypting module encrypted copy virus code virus encrypted different key infected file part virus remains constant decrypting module would example appended end case virus scanner directly detect virus using signatures still detect decrypting module still makes indirect detection virus possible since would symmetric keys stored infected host entirely possible decrypt final virus probably required since self-modifying code rarity may reason virus scanners least flag file suspicious old compact way use arithmetic operation like addition subtraction use logical conditions xoring byte virus constant exclusive-or operation repeated decryption suspicious code modify code encryption/decryption may part signature many virus definitions simpler older approach use key encryption consisted operations parameters like incrementing decrementing bitwise rotation arithmetic negation logical viruses called polymorphic viruses employ means encryption inside executable virus encrypted certain events virus scanner disabled updates computer rebooted called cryptovirology said times executable decrypt virus execute hidden runtimes infecting computer sometimes disabling antivirus software polymorphic code first technique posed serious threat virus scanners like regular encrypted viruses polymorphic virus infects files encrypted copy decoded decryption module case polymorphic viruses however decryption module also modified infection well-written polymorphic virus therefore parts remain identical infections making difficult detect directly using signatures antivirus software detect decrypting viruses using emulator statistical pattern analysis encrypted virus body enable polymorphic code virus polymorphic engine also called mutating engine mutation engine somewhere encrypted body see polymorphic code technical detail engines operate viruses employ polymorphic code way constrains mutation rate virus significantly example virus programmed mutate slightly time programmed refrain mutating infects file computer already contains copies virus advantage using slow polymorphic code makes difficult antivirus professionals investigators obtain representative samples virus bait files infected one run typically contain identical similar samples virus make likely detection virus scanner unreliable instances virus may able avoid detection avoid detected emulation viruses rewrite completely time infect new executables viruses utilize technique said metamorphic code enable metamorphism metamorphic engine needed metamorphic virus usually large complex example w32/simile consisted 14,000 lines assembly language code 90 part metamorphic engine software often designed security features prevent unauthorized use system resources many viruses must exploit manipulate security bugs security defects system application software spread infect computers software development strategies produce large numbers bugs generally also produce potential exploitable holes entrances virus order replicate virus must permitted execute code write memory reason many viruses attach executable files may part legitimate programs see code injection user attempts launch infected program virus code may executed simultaneously operating systems use file extensions determine program associations microsoft windows extensions may hidden user default makes possible create file different type appears user example executable may created named picture.png.exe user sees picture.png therefore assumes file digital image likely safe yet opened runs executable client machine vast majority viruses target systems running microsoft windows due microsoft large market share desktop computer users diversity software systems network limits destructive potential viruses malware open-source operating systems linux allow users choose variety desktop environments packaging tools etc. means malicious code targeting systems affect subset users many windows users running set applications enabling viruses rapidly spread among microsoft windows systems targeting exploits large numbers hosts linux unix general always natively prevented normal users making changes operating system environment without permission windows users generally prevented making changes meaning viruses easily gain control entire system windows hosts difference continued partly due widespread use administrator accounts contemporary versions like windows xp 1997 researchers created released virus linux—known bliss bliss however requires user run explicitly infect programs user access modify unlike windows users unix users log administrator root user except install configure software result even user ran virus could harm operating system bliss virus never became widespread remains chiefly research curiosity creator later posted source code usenet allowing researchers see worked many users install antivirus software detect eliminate known viruses computer attempts download run executable file may distributed email attachment usb flash drives example antivirus software blocks known malicious websites attempt install malware antivirus software change underlying capability hosts transmit viruses users must update software regularly patch security vulnerabilities holes antivirus software also needs regularly updated order recognize latest threats malicious hackers individuals always creating new viruses german av-test institute publishes evaluations antivirus software windows android examples microsoft windows anti virus anti-malware software include optional microsoft security essentials windows xp vista windows 7 real-time protection windows malicious software removal tool included windows security updates patch tuesday second tuesday month windows defender optional download case windows xp additionally several capable antivirus software programs available free download internet usually restricted non-commercial use free programs almost good commercial competitors common security vulnerabilities assigned cve ids listed us national vulnerability database secunia psi example software free personal use check pc vulnerable out-of-date software attempt update ransomware phishing scam alerts appear press releases internet crime complaint center noticeboard ransomware virus posts message user screen saying screen system remain locked unusable ransom payment made phishing deception malicious individual pretends friend computer security expert benevolent individual goal convincing targeted individual reveal passwords personal information commonly used preventative measures include timely operating system updates software updates careful internet browsing avoiding shady websites installation trusted software certain browsers flag sites reported google confirmed hosting malware google two common methods antivirus software application uses detect viruses described antivirus software article first far common method virus detection using list virus signature definitions works examining content computer memory random access memory ram boot sectors files stored fixed removable drives hard drives floppy drives usb flash drives comparing files database known virus signatures virus signatures strings code used identify individual viruses virus antivirus designer tries choose unique signature string found legitimate program different antivirus programs use different signatures identify viruses disadvantage detection method users protected viruses detected signatures recent virus definition update protected new viruses see zero-day attack second method find viruses use heuristic algorithm based common virus behaviors method ability detect new viruses antivirus security firms yet define signature also gives rise false positives using signatures false positives disruptive especially commercial environment may lead company instructing staff use company computer system services checked system viruses slow productivity regular workers one may reduce damage done viruses making regular backups data operating systems different media either kept unconnected system time hard drive read-only accessible reasons using different file systems way data lost virus one start using backup hopefully recent backup session optical media like cd dvd closed becomes read-only longer affected virus long virus infected file copied onto cd/dvd likewise operating system bootable cd used start computer installed operating systems become unusable backups removable media must carefully inspected restoration gammima virus example propagates via removable flash drives many websites run antivirus software companies provide free online virus scanning limited cleaning facilities purpose websites sell antivirus products services websites—like google subsidiary virustotal.com—allow users upload one suspicious files scanned checked one antivirus programs one operation additionally several capable antivirus software programs available free download internet usually restricted non-commercial use microsoft offers optional free antivirus utility called microsoft security essentials windows malicious software removal tool updated part regular windows update regime older optional anti-malware malware removal tool windows defender upgraded antivirus product windows 8 viruses disable system restore important windows tools task manager cmd example virus ciadoor many viruses removed rebooting computer entering windows safe mode networking using system tools microsoft safety scanner system restore windows windows xp windows vista windows 7 restore registry critical system files previous checkpoint often virus cause system hang freeze subsequent hard reboot render system restore point day corrupted restore points previous days work provided virus designed corrupt restore files exist previous restore points microsoft system file checker improved windows 7 later used check repair corrupted system files restoring earlier clean virus-free copy entire partition cloned disk disk image backup copy one solution—restoring earlier backup disk image relatively simple usually removes malware may faster disinfecting computer—or reinstalling reconfiguring operating system programs scratch described restoring user preferences reinstalling operating system another approach virus removal may possible recover copies essential user data booting live cd connecting hard drive another computer booting second computer operating system taking great care infect computer executing infected programs original drive original hard drive reformatted os programs installed original media system restored precautions must taken avoid reinfection restored executable files computer networks became widespread viruses spread removable media particularly floppy disks early days personal computer many users regularly exchanged information programs floppies viruses spread infecting programs stored disks others installed disk boot sector ensuring would run user booted computer disk usually inadvertently personal computers era would attempt boot first floppy one left drive floppy disks fell use successful infection strategy boot sector viruses common wild many years traditional computer viruses emerged 1980s driven spread personal computers resultant increase bulletin board system bbs modem use software sharing bulletin board–driven software sharing contributed directly spread trojan horse programs viruses written infect popularly traded software shareware bootleg software equally common vectors viruses bbss viruses increase chances spreading computers infecting files network file system file system accessed computers macro viruses become common since mid-1990s viruses written scripting languages microsoft programs microsoft word microsoft excel spread throughout microsoft office infecting documents spreadsheets since word excel also available mac os could also spread macintosh computers although viruses ability send infected email messages viruses take advantage microsoft outlook component object model com interface old versions microsoft word allow macros replicate additional blank lines two macro viruses simultaneously infect document combination two also self-replicating appear mating two would likely detected virus unique parents virus may also send web address link instant message contacts e.g. friends colleagues e-mail addresses stored infected machine recipient thinking link friend trusted source follows link website virus hosted site may able infect new computer continue propagating viruses spread using cross-site scripting first reported 2002 academically demonstrated 2005 multiple instances cross-site scripting viruses wild exploiting websites myspace samy worm yahoo 1-hop neighbor's text information: sender_id.sender id sender id anti-spoofing proposal former marid ietf working group tried join sender policy framework spf caller id sender id defined primarily experimental rfc 4406 additional parts rfc 4405 rfc 4407 rfc 4408 sender id heavily based spf additions differences discussed sender id tries improve spf spf verify header addresses one indicate claimed sending party one header addresses typically displayed user may used reply emails header addresses different address spf tries verify spf verifies mail address also called envelope sender however many similar email header fields contain sending party information therefore sender id defines rfc 4407 purported responsible address pra well set heuristic rules establish address many typical headers email syntactically sender id almost identical spf except codice_1 replaced one syntactical difference sender id offers feature positional modifiers supported spf practice far positional modifier specified sender id implementation practice pra scheme usually offers protection email legitimate offering real protection case spam phishing pra legitimate email either familiar header field case mailing lists sender header field case phishing spam however pra may based resent-* header fields often displayed user effective anti-phishing tool mua mail user agent mail client need modified display either pra sender id return-path header field spf pra tries counter problem phishing spf mfrom tries counter problem spam bounces auto-replies forged return-paths two different problems two different proposed solutions pra disadvantage forwarders mailing lists support modifying mail header e.g insert codice_6 codice_7 latter violates rfc 2822 incompatible rfc 822 spf mailing lists continue work forwarders wishing support spf need modify smtp mail rcpt mail new concept original rfc 821 smtp forwarders always added host name reverse path mail problematic point core sender id specification recommendation interpret codice_1 policies like codice_3 instead codice_2 never intended published spf drafts since 2003 unknown large number codice_1 policies evaluation pra could cause bogus results many cases pra mfrom different problem basis appeal internet architecture board iab response another prior appeal iesg already noted sender id advance ietf standards track without addressing incompatibility must rfc 2822 sender id proposal subject controversy regarding intellectual property licensing issues microsoft holds patents key parts sender id used license patents terms compatible gnu general public license considered problematic free software implementations general october 23 2006 microsoft placed patents open specification promise compatible free open source licenses recent version gpl license version 3.x Target text information: digital_postmarks.digital postmarks digital postmark dpm technology applies trusted time stamps issued postal operator electronic document validates electronic signatures stores archives non-repudiation data needed support potential court challenge guarantees certainty date time postmarking global standard renamed electronic postal certification mark epcm 2007 shortly new iteration technology developed microsoft poste italiane key addition traditional postmarking technology integrity electronically postmarked item meaning kind falsification tampering easily definitely detected additionally content confidentiality guaranteed since document certification carried without access reading postal operator epcm eventually available upu international postal operators 191 member countries willing compliant standard thus granting interoperability certified communications postal operators united states us postal service operates non-global standard called electronic postmark although soon expected provide services utilizing epcm united states end 2010 authentidate authorized usps epm provider however contract allowed expire dpm fundamentally non-repudiation service supporting designed protect sanctity mail digital form working current infrastructure easy implement providing functionality even client-side software provides automated functionality client software digital postmark used variety business applications key dates development digital postmark recognizing great potential digital postmark numerous postal administrations worldwide begun deploying dpm-based solutions five postal services – canada france italy portugal united states – developed digital postmark use today major software developers also working incorporate global standard popular applications used millions people worldwide universal postal union upu identified trust services greatest opportunity global postal growth specifically identified digital postmark important trust service providing excellent defense online fraud abuse united states postal service usps electronic postmark epm © proprietary variation digital postmark issued usps introduced 1996 u.s postal service service offering provides proof integrity authentication electronic transactions applied email epostmarks inc. see epostmarks homepage usps epm web-based service third-party verify authenticity electronic content electronic proof postmarked postal service provides evidence support non-repudiation electronic transactions epm designed deter detect fraudulent tampering altering electronic data usps wrote key features electronic postmark usps listed laws relevant epm follows digital postmark dpm also network security mechanism developed penn state researchers ihab hamadeh george kesidis identify region packet set packets comes developed way combat spam denial-of-service virus attacks isolating source attacks still allowing good messages pass digital postmark works perimeter router marks packet border region-identifying data also called border router packet marking uses obsolete unused portion packet place regional mark-up room exist one portion packet region information broken hashed subsequently retrievable way I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	744	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: united_states_computer_emergency_readiness_team.united states computer emergency readiness team united states computer emergency readiness team us-cert organization within department homeland security ’ dhs national protection programs directorate nppd specifically us-cert branch office cybersecurity communications cs c national cybersecurity communications integration center nccic us-cert responsible analyzing reducing cyber threats vulnerabilities disseminating cyber threat warning information coordinating incident response activities division brings advanced network digital media analysis expertise bear malicious activity targeting networks within united states abroad dhs cyber security division created us-cert september 2003 protect internet infrastructure united states coordinating defense responding cyber-attacks 24-hour operational arm nccic accepts triages collaboratively responds incidents provides technical assistance information system operators disseminates timely notifications regarding current potential security threats exploits vulnerabilities public via national cyber awareness system ncas us-cert operates side-by-side industrial control systems computer emergency response team ics-cert deals security related industrial control systems entities operate together within nccic provide single source support critical infrastructure stakeholders five operational aspects enable us-cert meet objectives improving nation ’ cybersecurity posture coordinate cyber information sharing proactively manage cyber risks protecting constitutional rights americans feature involved reviewing researching vetting documenting computer network defense cnd attributes available us-cert classified unclassified helps promote improved mitigation resources federal departments agencies across einstein network requesting deployment countermeasures response credible cyber threats feature conducts technical analysis data provided partners constituents monitoring systems understand nature attacks threats vulnerabilities well develop tips indicators warnings actionable information us-cert ’ cnd mission feature conducts digital forensic examinations malware artifact analysis reverse engineering determine attack vectors mitigation techniques identifies possible threats based analysis malicious code digital media provides indicators mitigate prevent future intrusions feature informs cnd community potential threats allows hardening cyber defenses well develops near real-time/rapid response community products e.g. reports white papers critical event occurs detected operations create tailored product describing event recommended course action mitigation techniques applicable ensure constituents made aware protect organization appropriately feature supports nccic information sharing development web presence responsible establishing maintaining assured communications developing disseminating information products supporting development maintenance collaboration tools feature partners foreign governments entities enhance global cybersecurity defense posture supports bilateral engagements cert-to-cert information sharing/trust building activities improvements related global collaboration agreements data sharing standards january 2015 report senator tom coburn ranking member committee homeland security governmental affairs expressed concern us-cert always provide information nearly quickly alternative private sector threat analysis companies 1-hop neighbor's text information: man-in-the-middle_attack.man-in-the-middle attack cryptography computer security man-in-the-middle attack mitm attack attacker secretly relays possibly alters communications two parties believe directly communicating one example mitm attack active eavesdropping attacker makes independent connections victims relays messages make believe talking directly private connection fact entire conversation controlled attacker attacker must able intercept relevant messages passing two victims inject new ones straightforward many circumstances example attacker within reception range unencrypted wireless access point wi-fi could insert man-in-the-middle aims circumvent mutual authentication mitm attack succeed attacker impersonates endpoint sufficiently well satisfy expectations cryptographic protocols include form endpoint authentication specifically prevent mitm attacks example tls authenticate one parties using mutually trusted certificate authority suppose alice wishes communicate bob meanwhile mallory wishes intercept conversation eavesdrop optionally deliver false message bob first alice asks bob public key bob sends public key alice mallory able intercept mitm attack begin mallory sends alice forged message appears originate bob instead includes mallory public key alice believing public key bob encrypts message mallory key sends enciphered message back bob mallory intercepts deciphers message using private key possibly alters wants re-enciphers using public key intercepted bob originally tried send alice bob receives newly enciphered message believes came alice example shows need alice bob way ensure truly using public keys rather public key attacker otherwise attacks generally possible principle message sent using public-key technology variety techniques help defend mitm attacks mitm attacks prevented detected two means authentication tamper detection authentication provides degree certainty given message come legitimate source tamper detection merely shows evidence message may altered cryptographic systems secure mitm attacks provide method authentication messages require exchange information public keys addition message secure channel protocols often using key-agreement protocols developed different security requirements secure channel though attempted remove requirement secure channel public key infrastructure transport layer security may harden transmission control protocol mitm attacks structures clients servers exchange certificates issued verified trusted third party called certificate authority ca original key authenticate ca subject mitm attack certificates issued ca may used authenticate messages sent owner certificate use mutual authentication server client validate communication covers ends mitm attack though default behavior connections authenticate server attestments verbal communications shared value zrtp recorded attestments audio/visual recordings public key hash used ward mitm attacks visual media much difficult time-consuming imitate simple data packet communication however methods require human loop order successfully initiate transaction corporate environment successful authentication indicated browser green padlock always imply secure connection remote server corporate security policies might contemplate addition custom certificates workstations web browsers order able inspect encrypted traffic consequence green padlock indicate client successfully authenticated remote server corporate server/proxy used ssl/tls inspection http public key pinning hpkp sometimes called certificate pinning helps prevent mitm attack certificate authority compromised server provide list pinned public key hashes first transaction subsequent transactions require one keys list must used server order authenticate transaction dnssec extends dns protocol use signatures authenticate dns records preventing simple mitm attacks directing client malicious ip address latency examination potentially detect attack certain situations long calculations lead tens seconds like hash functions detect potential attacks parties check discrepancies response times example say two parties normally take certain amount time perform particular transaction one transaction however take abnormal length time reach party could indicative third party interference inserting additional latency transaction quantum cryptography theory provides tamper-evidence transactions no-cloning theorem protocols based quantum cryptography typically authenticate part classical communication unconditionally secure authentication scheme e.g wegman-carter authentication captured network traffic suspected attack analyzed order determine whether attack determine source attack important evidence analyze performing network forensics suspected attack includes notable non-cryptographic mitm attack perpetrated belkin wireless network router 2003 periodically would take http connection routed would fail pass traffic destination instead responded intended server reply sent place web page user requested advertisement another belkin product outcry technically literate users 'feature removed later versions router firmware 2011 security breach dutch certificate authority diginotar resulted fraudulent issuing certificates subsequently fraudulent certificates used perform mitm attacks 2013 nokia xpress browser revealed decrypting https traffic nokia proxy servers giving company clear text access customers encrypted browser traffic nokia responded saying content stored permanently company organizational technical measures prevent access private information 2017 equifax withdrew mobile phone apps following concern mitm vulnerabilities notable real-life implementations include following 1-hop neighbor's text information: aurora_generator_test.aurora generator test idaho national laboratory ran aurora generator test 2007 demonstrate cyberattack could destroy physical components electric grid experiment used computer program rapidly open close diesel generator circuit breakers phase rest grid cause explode vulnerability referred aurora vulnerability vulnerability especially concern much grid equipment supports using modbus legacy communications protocols designed without security mind n't support authentication confidentiality replay protection means attacker communicate device control use aurora vulnerability destroy prepare experiment researchers procured installed 2.25 mw generator connected substation also needed access programmable digital relay another device controls breaker access could mechanical digital interface experiment researchers used cyberattack open close breakers sync maximize stress time breakers closed torque synchronization caused generator bounce shake eventually causing parts generator ripped apart sent flying parts generator landed far 80 feet away generator unit destroyed roughly three minutes however researchers assessed damage iteration attack real attack could destroyed unit much quickly experiment designated unclassified official use september 27 2007 cnn published article based information video dhs released july 3 2014 dhs released many documents related experiment part unrelated foia request aurora vulnerability caused out-of-sync closing protective relays close imperfect analogy would imagine effect shifting car reverse driven highway effect revving engine car neutral shifting drive aurora attack designed open circuit breaker wait system generator slip synchronism reclose breaker protection system recognizes responds attack ... traditional generator protection elements typically actuate block reclosing 15 cycles many variables affect time every system needs analyzed determine specific vulnerability aurora attack ... although main focus aurora attack potential 15-cycle window opportunity immediately target breaker opened overriding issue fast generator moves away system synchronism failure even single generator could cause widespread outages possibly cascading failure entire power grid occurred northeast blackout 2003 additionally even outages removal single component n-1 resilience large window second attack failure could take year replace destroyed generator many generators transformers custom-built aurora vulnerability mitigated preventing out-of-phase opening closing breakers suggested methods include adding functionality protective relays ensure synchronism adding time delay closing breakers one mitigation technique add synchronism-check function protective relays potentially connect two systems together implement function must prevent relay closing unless voltage frequency within pre-set range devices ieee 25 sync check relay well ieee 46,47,50 53 used prevent out-of-phase opening closing breakers discussion whether aurora hardware mitigation devices hmd cause failures may 2011 quanta technology published article used rtds real time digital simulator testing examine performance multiple commercial relay devices available aurora hmds quote relays subject different test categories find performance dependable need operate secure response typical power system transients faults power swing load switching ... general technical shortcomings protection scheme ’ design identified documented using real time testing results rtds testing showed yet single solution widely applied case present required reliability level presentation quanta technology dominion succinctly stated reliability assessment hmds dependable secure joe weiss cybersecurity control system professional disputed findings report claimed misled utilities wrote report done great deal damage implying aurora mitigation devices cause grid issues several utilities used quanta report basis installing aurora mitigation devices unfortunately report several questionable assumptions include applying initial conditions hardware mitigation designed address slower developing faults nominal grid frequencies existing protection address “ slower ” developing faults nominal grid frequencies 59 hz 61 hz aurora hardware mitigation devices fast out-of-phase condition faults currently gaps protection i.e. protected device grid march 4 2007 idaho national laboratory demonstrated aurora vulnerability june 21 2007 nerc notified industry aurora vulnerability september 27 2007 cnn released previously-classified demonstration video aurora attack homepage video downloaded october 13 2010 nerc released recommendation industry aurora vulnerability july 3 2014 us department homeland security released 840 pages documents related aurora Target text information: resilient_control_systems.resilient control systems modern society computerized digital control systems used reliably automate many industrial operations take granted power plant automobiles drive however complexity systems designers integrate roles responsibilities humans interact systems cyber security highly networked systems led new paradigm research philosophy next generation control systems resilient control systems consider elements disciplines contribute effective design cognitive psychology computer science control engineering develop interdisciplinary solutions solutions consider things tailor control system operating displays best enable user make accurate reproducible response design cyber security protections system defends attack changing behaviors better integrate widely distributed computer control systems prevent cascading failures result disruptions critical industrial operations context cyber-physical systems resilient control systems aspect focuses unique interdependencies control system compared information technology computer systems networks due importance operating critical industrial operations originally intended provide efficient mechanism controlling industrial operations development digital control systems allowed flexibility integrating distributed sensors operating logic maintaining centralized interface human monitoring interaction ease readily adding sensors logic software done relays isolated analog instruments led wide acceptance integration systems industries however digital control systems often integrated phases cover different aspects industrial operation connected network leading complex interconnected interdependent system control theory applied often nothing digital version analog counterparts dependence digital control systems upon communications networks precipitated need cybersecurity due potential effects confidentiality integrity availability information achieve resilience next generation control systems therefore addressing complex control system interdependencies including human systems interaction cyber security recognized challenge research resilience engineering last decade focused two areas organizational information technology organizational resilience considers ability organization adapt survive face threats including prevention mitigation unsafe hazardous compromising conditions threaten existence information technology resilience considered number standpoints networking resilience considered quality service computing considered issues dependability performance face unanticipated changes however based upon application control dynamics industrial processes functionality determinism primary considerations captured traditional objectives information technology considering paradigm control systems one definition suggested resilient control systems tolerate fluctuations via structure design parameters control structure control parameters however definition taken perspective control theory application control system consideration malicious actor cyber security directly considered might suggest definition effective reconstitution control attack intelligent adversaries proposed however definition focuses resilience response malicious actor consider cyber-physical aspects control system definition resilience considers benign malicious human interaction addition complex interdependencies control system application use term “ recovery ” used context resilience paralleling response rubber ball stay intact force exerted recover original dimensions force removed considering rubber ball terms system resilience could defined ability maintain desired level performance normalcy without irrecoverable consequences resilience context based upon yield strength ball control systems require interaction environment namely sensors valves pumps make industrial operation reactive environment control systems require awareness state make corrective changes industrial process maintain normalcy mind consideration discussed cyber-physical aspects human systems integration cyber security well definitions resilience broader critical infrastructure level following deduced definition resilient control system considering flow digital control system basis resilient control system framework designed referring left side fig 1 resilient control system holistically considers measures performance normalcy state space center understanding performance priority provide basis appropriate response combination human automation embedded within multi-agent semi-autonomous framework finally right information must tailored consumer address need position desirable response several examples scenarios resilience differs provides benefit control system design available literature primary tenets resilience contrasted traditional reliability presented considering integrated approach resilient control systems cyber-physical tenants complement fundamental concept dependable reliable computing characterizing resilience regard control system concerns including design considerations provide level understanding assurance safe secure operation industrial facility tenants discussed individually summarize challenges address order achieve resilience benign human ability quickly understand novel solutions provide ability adapt unexpected conditions behavior provide additional resilience control system reproducibly predicting human behavior continuing challenge ability capture historic human preferences applied bayesian inference bayesian belief networks ideally solution would consider direct understanding human state using sensors eeg considering control system design interaction goal would tailor amount automation necessary achieve level optimal resilience mixed initiative response presented human would actionable information provides basis targeted reproducible response contrast challenges prediction integration benign human control systems abilities malicious actor hacker undermine desired control system behavior also create significant challenge control system resilience application dynamic probabilistic risk analysis used human reliability provide basis benign actor however decidedly malicious intentions adversarial individual organization nation make modeling human variable objectives motives however defining control system response intentions malicious actor looks forward level recognized behavior gain advantage provide pathway undermining system whether performed separately preparation cyber attack system behaviors provide opportunity successful attack without detection therefore considering resilient control system architecture atypical designs imbed active passively implemented randomization attributes would suggested reduce advantage much current critical infrastructure controlled web interconnected control systems either architecture termed distributed control systems dcs supervisory control data acquisition scada application control moving toward decentralized state moving smart grid complex interconnected nature individual homes commercial facilities diverse power generation storage creates opportunity challenge ensuring resulting system resilient threats ability operate systems achieve global optimum multiple considerations overall efficiency stability security require mechanisms holistically design complex networked control systems multi-agent methods suggest mechanism tie global objective distributed assets allowing management coordination assets optimal benefit semi-autonomous constrained controllers react rapidly maintain resilience rapidly changing conditions establishing metric capture resilience attributes complex least considered based upon differences interactions interdependencies evaluating control cyber cognitive disturbances especially considered disciplinary standpoint leads measures already established however metric instead based upon normalizing dynamic attribute performance characteristic impacted degradation alternative suggested specifically applications base metrics resilience characteristics given follows type disturbance performance characteristics exist time data integrity time terms delay mission communications latency data terms corruption modification normalizing factors general idea base metric “ expected ” necessarily actual initiator degradation considering time metrics basis resilient un-resilient systems observed fig 2 dependent upon abscissa metrics chosen fig 2 reflects generalization resiliency system several common terms represented graphic including robustness agility adaptive capacity adaptive insufficiency resiliency brittleness overview definitions terms following explanations provided abscissa fig 2 recognized cyber cognitive influences affect data time underscores relative importance recognizing forms degradation resilient control designs cybersecurity single cyberattack degrade control system multiple ways additionally control impacts characterized indicated terms fundamental seem little value correlating impact terms like cost development use cases provide means relevance codified example given impact system dynamics data performance control loop directly ascertained show approach instability operational impact nature control systems implies starting point development resilience metrics control physical process based upon quantifiable performance measures including first principles stochastic ability provide measurement basis correlating operational performance adaptation also becomes starting point correlation data time variations come cognitive cyber-physical sources effective understanding based upon developing manifold adaptive capacity correlates design operational buffer power system manifold based upon real reactive power assets controllable latitude maneuver impact disturbances time modern distribution system mds assets aggregated individual contributions shown fig 3 figure assets include battery b alternate tie line source c asymmetric p/q-conjectured source distribution static synchronous compensator dstatcom e low latency four quadrant source energy limit 1 considering current digital control system designs cyber security systems dependent upon considered border protections i.e. firewalls passwords etc malicious actor compromised digital control system industrial operation man-in-the-middle attack data corrupted control system industrial facility operator would way knowing data compromised someone security engineer recognized attack occurring operators trained provide prompt appropriate response stabilize industrial facility likelihood corrupt data would lead operator reacting situation lead plant upset resilient control system per fig 1 cyber physical data fused recognize anomalous situations warn operator 2 society becomes automated variety drivers including energy efficiency need implement ever effective control algorithms naturally follow however advanced control algorithms dependent upon data multiple sensors predict behaviors industrial operation make corrective responses type system become brittle insofar unrecognized degradation sensor lead incorrect responses control algorithm potentially worsened condition relative desired operation industrial facility therefore implementation advanced control algorithms resilient control system also requires implementation diagnostic prognostic architectures recognize sensor degradation well failures industrial process equipment associated control algorithms world advancing automation dependence upon advancing technologies skill sets needed keep united states forefront innovation challenges may appear rooted design better means better control infrastructures greater safety efficiency generation use energy however evolution technologies developed achieve current design automation achieved complex environment cyber-attack human error design operation damaging storm wreak havoc infrastructure depend nation next generation systems need consider broader picture ensure path forward failures lead ever greater catastrophic events critical resource students tomorrow expected advance designs require perspective challenges contributions others fulfill need addressing need courses developed provide perspectives relevant examples overview issues provide opportunity create resilient solutions universities george mason university northeastern tie critical infrastructure operations important aspect courses development technologies designed set stage next generation automation become evident effective teams comprised several disciplines however developing level effectiveness time consuming done professional environment expend lot energy time provides little obvious benefit desired outcome clear earlier stem disciplines successfully integrated effective recognizing ’ contributions working together achieve common set goals professional world team competition venues resilience week natural outcome developing environment allowing interdisciplinary participation providing exciting challenge motivate students pursue stem education standards policy define resilience nomenclature metrics needed establish value proposition investment includes government academia industry ieee industrial electronics society taken lead forming technical committee toward end purpose committee establish metrics standards associated codifying promising technologies promote resilience automation effort distinct supply chain community focus resilience security efforts iso nist I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	4,489	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: cloud_computing.cloud computing cloud computing on-demand availability computer system resources especially data storage computing power without direct active management user term generally used describe data centers available many users internet large clouds predominant today often functions distributed multiple locations central servers connection user relatively close may designated edge server clouds may limited single organization enterprise clouds available many organizations public cloud cloud computing relies sharing resources achieve coherence economies scale advocates public hybrid clouds note cloud computing allows companies avoid minimize up-front infrastructure costs proponents also claim cloud computing allows enterprises get applications running faster improved manageability less maintenance enables teams rapidly adjust resources meet fluctuating unpredictable demand cloud providers typically use pay-as-you-go model lead unexpected operating expenses administrators familiarized cloud-pricing models availability high-capacity networks low-cost computers storage devices well widespread adoption hardware virtualization service-oriented architecture autonomic utility computing led growth cloud computing 2019 linux used type operating systems used including microsoft offerings thus described dominant cloud computing popularized amazon.com releasing elastic compute cloud product 2006 references phrase cloud computing appeared early 1996 first known mention compaq internal document cloud symbol used represent networks computing equipment original arpanet early 1977 csnet 1981—both predecessors internet word cloud used metaphor internet standardized cloud-like shape used denote network telephony schematics simplification implication specifics end points network connected relevant purposes understanding diagram term cloud used refer platforms distributed computing early 1993 apple spin-off general magic used describing paired telescript personalink technologies wired april 1994 feature bill andy excellent adventure ii andy hertzfeld commented telescript general magic distributed programming language 1960s initial concepts time-sharing became popularized via rje remote job entry terminology mostly associated large vendors ibm dec. full-time-sharing solutions available early 1970s platforms multics ge hardware cambridge ctss earliest unix ports dec hardware yet data center model users submitted jobs operators run ibm mainframes overwhelmingly predominant 1990s telecommunications companies previously offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits began offering virtual private network vpn services comparable quality service lower cost switching traffic saw fit balance server use could use overall network bandwidth effectively began use cloud symbol denote demarcation point provider responsible users responsible cloud computing extended boundary cover servers well network infrastructure computers became diffused scientists technologists explored ways make large-scale computing power available users time-sharing experimented algorithms optimize infrastructure platform applications prioritize cpus increase efficiency end users use cloud metaphor virtualized services dates least general magic 1994 used describe universe places mobile agents telescript environment could go described andy hertzfeld use cloud metaphor credited general magic communications employee david hoffman based long-standing use networking telecom addition use general magic also used promoting associated personalink services cloud computing existence since 2000 august 2006 amazon created subsidiary amazon web services introduced elastic compute cloud ec2 april 2008 google released google app engine beta early 2008 nasa opennebula enhanced reservoir european commission-funded project became first open-source software deploying private hybrid clouds federation clouds mid-2008 gartner saw opportunity cloud computing shape relationship among consumers services use services sell observed organizations switching company-owned hardware software assets per-use service-based models projected shift computing ... result dramatic growth products areas significant reductions areas 2008 u.s. national science foundation began cluster exploratory program fund academic research using google-ibm cluster technology analyze massive amounts data february 2010 microsoft released microsoft azure announced october 2008 july 2010 rackspace hosting nasa jointly launched open-source cloud-software initiative known openstack openstack project intended help organizations offering cloud-computing services running standard hardware early code came nasa nebula platform well rackspace cloud files platform open source offering along open-source solutions cloudstack ganeti opennebula attracted attention several key communities several studies aim comparing open sources offerings based set criteria march 1 2011 ibm announced ibm smartcloud framework support smarter planet among various components smarter computing foundation cloud computing critical part june 7 2012 oracle announced oracle cloud cloud offering poised first provide users access integrated set solutions including applications saas platform paas infrastructure iaas layers may 2012 google compute engine released preview rolled general availability december 2013 2019 revealed linux used microsoft azure dominant elsewhere goal cloud computing allow users take benefit technologies without need deep knowledge expertise one cloud aims cut costs helps users focus core business instead impeded obstacles main enabling technology cloud computing virtualization virtualization software separates physical computing device one virtual devices easily used managed perform computing tasks operating system–level virtualization essentially creating scalable system multiple independent computing devices idle computing resources allocated used efficiently virtualization provides agility required speed operations reduces cost increasing infrastructure utilization autonomic computing automates process user provision resources on-demand minimizing user involvement automation speeds process reduces labor costs reduces possibility human errors cloud computing uses concepts utility computing provide metrics services used cloud computing attempts address qos quality service reliability problems grid computing models cloud computing shares characteristics cloud computing exhibits following key characteristics national institute standards technology definition cloud computing identifies five essential characteristics though service-oriented architecture advocates everything service acronyms eaas xaas simply aas cloud-computing providers offer services according different models three standard models per nist infrastructure service iaas platform service paas software service saas models offer increasing abstraction thus often portrayed layers stack infrastructure- platform- software-as-a-service need related example one provide saas implemented physical machines bare metal without using underlying paas iaas layers conversely one run program iaas access directly without wrapping saas infrastructure service iaas refers online services provide high-level apis used dereference various low-level details underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources location data partitioning scaling security backup etc hypervisor runs virtual machines guests pools hypervisors within cloud operational system support large numbers virtual machines ability scale services according customers varying requirements linux containers run isolated partitions single linux kernel running directly physical hardware linux cgroups namespaces underlying linux kernel technologies used isolate secure manage containers containerisation offers higher performance virtualization hypervisor overhead also container capacity auto-scales dynamically computing load eliminates problem over-provisioning enables usage-based billing iaas clouds often offer additional resources virtual-machine disk-image library raw block storage file object storage firewalls load balancers ip addresses virtual local area networks vlans software bundles nist definition cloud computing describes iaas consumer able deploy run arbitrary software include operating systems applications consumer manage control underlying cloud infrastructure control operating systems storage deployed applications possibly limited control select networking components e.g. host firewalls iaas-cloud providers supply resources on-demand large pools equipment installed data centers wide-area connectivity customers use either internet carrier clouds dedicated virtual private networks deploy applications cloud users install operating-system images application software cloud infrastructure model cloud user patches maintains operating systems application software cloud providers typically bill iaas services utility computing basis cost reflects amount resources allocated consumed nist definition cloud computing defines platform service paas vendors offer development environment application developers provider typically develops toolkit standards development channels distribution payment paas models cloud providers deliver computing platform typically including operating system programming-language execution environment database web server application developers develop run software cloud platform instead directly buying managing underlying hardware software layers paas underlying computer storage resources scale automatically match application demand cloud user allocate resources manually integration data management providers also use specialized applications paas delivery models data examples include ipaas integration platform service dpaas data platform service ipaas enables customers develop execute govern integration flows ipaas integration model customers drive development deployment integrations without installing managing hardware middleware dpaas delivers integration—and data-management—products fully managed service dpaas model paas provider customer manages development execution programs building data applications customer dpaas users access data data-visualization tools platform service paas consumers manage control underlying cloud infrastructure including network servers operating systems storage control deployed applications possibly configuration settings application-hosting environment nist definition cloud computing defines software service software service saas model users gain access application software databases cloud providers manage infrastructure platforms run applications saas sometimes referred on-demand software usually priced pay-per-use basis using subscription fee saas model cloud providers install operate application software cloud cloud users access software cloud clients cloud users manage cloud infrastructure platform application runs eliminates need install run application cloud user computers simplifies maintenance support cloud applications differ applications scalability—which achieved cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines run-time meet changing work demand load balancers distribute work set virtual machines process transparent cloud user sees single access-point accommodate large number cloud users cloud applications multitenant meaning machine may serve one cloud-user organization pricing model saas applications typically monthly yearly flat fee per user prices become scalable adjustable users added removed point proponents claim saas gives business potential reduce operational costs outsourcing hardware software maintenance support cloud provider enables business reallocate operations costs away hardware/software spending personnel expenses towards meeting goals addition applications hosted centrally updates released without need users install new software one drawback saas comes storing users data cloud provider server result could unauthorized access data mobile backend service model also known backend service baas web app mobile app developers provided way link applications cloud storage cloud computing services application programming interfaces apis exposed applications custom software development kits sdks services include user management push notifications integration social networking services relatively recent model cloud computing baas startups dating 2011 later trends indicate services gaining significant mainstream traction enterprise consumers serverless computing cloud computing code execution model cloud provider fully manages starting stopping virtual machines necessary serve requests requests billed abstract measure resources required satisfy request rather per virtual machine per hour despite name actually involve running code without servers serverless computing named business person owns system purchase rent provision servers virtual machines back-end code run function service faas service-hosted remote procedure call leverages serverless computing enable deployment individual functions cloud run response events faas included broader term serverless computing terms may also used interchangeably private cloud cloud infrastructure operated solely single organization whether managed internally third party hosted either internally externally undertaking private cloud project requires significant engagement virtualize business environment requires organization reevaluate decisions existing resources improve business every step project raises security issues must addressed prevent serious vulnerabilities self-run data centers generally capital intensive significant physical footprint requiring allocations space hardware environmental controls assets refreshed periodically resulting additional capital expenditures attracted criticism users still buy build manage thus benefit less hands-on management essentially lacking economic model makes cloud computing intriguing concept cloud called public cloud services rendered network open public use public cloud services may free technically may little difference public private cloud architecture however security consideration may substantially different services applications storage resources made available service provider public audience communication effected non-trusted network generally public cloud service providers like amazon web services aws ibm oracle microsoft google operate infrastructure data center access generally via internet aws oracle microsoft google also offer direct connect services called aws direct connect oracle fastconnect azure expressroute cloud interconnect respectively connections require customers purchase lease private connection peering point offered cloud provider hybrid cloud composition public cloud private environment private cloud on-premise resources remain distinct entities bound together offering benefits multiple deployment models hybrid cloud also mean ability connect collocation managed and/or dedicated services cloud resources gartner defines hybrid cloud service cloud computing service composed combination private public community cloud services different service providers hybrid cloud service crosses isolation provider boundaries ca n't simply put one category private public community cloud service allows one extend either capacity capability cloud service aggregation integration customization another cloud service varied use cases hybrid cloud composition exist example organization may store sensitive client data house private cloud application interconnect application business intelligence application provided public cloud software service example hybrid cloud extends capabilities enterprise deliver specific business service addition externally available public cloud services hybrid cloud adoption depends number factors data security compliance requirements level control needed data applications organization uses another example hybrid cloud one organizations use public cloud computing resources meet temporary capacity needs met private cloud capability enables hybrid clouds employ cloud bursting scaling across clouds cloud bursting application deployment model application runs private cloud data center bursts public cloud demand computing capacity increases primary advantage cloud bursting hybrid cloud model organization pays extra compute resources needed cloud bursting enables data centers create in-house infrastructure supports average workloads use cloud resources public private clouds spikes processing demands specialized model hybrid cloud built atop heterogeneous hardware called cross-platform hybrid cloud cross-platform hybrid cloud usually powered different cpu architectures example x86-64 arm underneath users transparently deploy scale applications without knowledge cloud hardware diversity kind cloud emerges rise arm-based system-on-chip server-class computing community cloud shares infrastructure several organizations specific community common concerns security compliance jurisdiction etc whether managed internally third-party either hosted internally externally costs spread fewer users public cloud private cloud cost savings potential cloud computing realized cloud computing platform assembled distributed set machines different locations connected single network hub service possible distinguish two types distributed clouds public-resource computing volunteer cloud multicloud use multiple cloud computing services single heterogeneous architecture reduce reliance single vendors increase flexibility choice mitigate disasters etc differs hybrid cloud refers multiple cloud services rather multiple deployment modes public private legacy issues transferring large amounts data cloud well data security data cloud initially hampered adoption cloud big data much data originates cloud advent bare-metal servers cloud become solution use cases including business analytics geospatial analysis hpc cloud refers use cloud computing services infrastructure execute high-performance computing hpc applications applications consume considerable amount computing power memory traditionally executed clusters computers 2016 handful companies including r-hpc amazon web services univa silicon graphics international sabalcore gomput penguin computing offered high performance computing cloud penguin demand pod cloud one first non-virtualized remote hpc services offered pay-as-you-go basis penguin computing launched hpc cloud 2016 alternative amazon ec2 elastic compute cloud uses virtualized computing nodes cloud architecture systems architecture software systems involved delivery cloud computing typically involves multiple cloud components communicating loose coupling mechanism messaging queue elastic provision implies intelligence use tight loose coupling applied mechanisms others cloud engineering application engineering disciplines cloud computing brings systematic approach high-level concerns commercialization standardization governance conceiving developing operating maintaining cloud computing systems multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions diverse areas systems software web performance information technology engineering security platform risk quality engineering cloud computing poses privacy concerns service provider access data cloud time could accidentally deliberately alter delete information many cloud providers share information third parties necessary purposes law order without warrant permitted privacy policies users must agree start using cloud services solutions privacy include policy legislation well end users choices data stored users encrypt data processed stored within cloud prevent unauthorized access identity management systems also provide practical solutions privacy concerns cloud computing systems distinguish authorized unauthorized users determine amount data accessible entity systems work creating describing identities recording activities getting rid unused identities according cloud security alliance top three threats cloud insecure interfaces api data loss leakage hardware failure —which accounted 29 25 10 cloud security outages respectively together form shared technology vulnerabilities cloud provider platform shared different users may possibility information belonging different customers resides data server additionally eugene schultz chief technology officer emagined security said hackers spending substantial time effort looking ways penetrate cloud real achilles heels cloud infrastructure making big holes bad guys get data hundreds thousands companies stored large cloud servers hackers theoretically gain control huge stores information single attack—a process called hyperjacking examples include dropbox security breach icloud 2014 leak dropbox breached october 2014 7 million users passwords stolen hackers effort get monetary value bitcoins btc passwords able read private data well data indexed search engines making information public problem legal ownership data user stores data cloud cloud provider profit many terms service agreements silent question ownership physical control computer equipment private cloud secure equipment site someone else control public cloud delivers great incentive public cloud computing service providers prioritize building maintaining strong management secure services small businesses n't expertise security could find secure use public cloud risk end users understand issues involved signing cloud service persons sometimes n't read many pages terms service agreement click accept without reading important cloud computing becoming popular required services work example intelligent personal assistant apple siri google fundamentally private cloud seen secure higher levels control owner however public cloud seen flexible requires less time money investment user according bruce schneier downside limited customization options cloud computing cheaper economics scale and—like outsourced task—you tend get get restaurant limited menu cheaper personal chef cook anything want fewer options much cheaper price feature bug also suggests cloud provider might meet legal needs businesses need weigh benefits cloud computing risks cloud computing control back end infrastructure limited cloud vendor cloud providers often decide management policies moderates cloud users able deployment cloud users also limited control management applications data services includes data caps placed cloud users cloud vendor allocating certain amount bandwidth customer often shared among cloud users privacy confidentiality big concerns activities instance sworn translators working stipulations nda might face problems regarding sensitive data encrypted cloud computing beneficial many enterprises lowers costs allows focus competence instead matters infrastructure nevertheless cloud computing proven limitations disadvantages especially smaller business operations particularly regarding security downtime technical outages inevitable occur sometimes cloud service providers csps become overwhelmed process serving clients may result temporary business suspension since technology systems rely internet individual able access applications server data cloud outage cloud computing still subject research driving factor evolution cloud computing chief technology officers seeking minimize risk internal outages mitigate complexity housing network computing hardware in-house major cloud technology companies invest billions dollars per year cloud research development example 2011 microsoft committed 90 percent 9.6 billion r budget cloud research investment bank centaur partners late 2015 forecasted saas revenue would grow 13.5 billion 2011 32.8 billion 2016 issue carrying investigations cloud storage devices physically accessed generated number changes way digital evidence located collected new process models developed formalize collection scenarios existing digital forensics tools employed access cloud storage networked drives although slow process generating large amount internet traffic alternative approach deploy tool processes cloud organizations using office 365 'e5 subscription option use microsoft built-in ediscovery resources although provide functionality typically required forensic process 1-hop neighbor's text information: failover.failover computing related technologies networking failover switching redundant standby computer server system hardware component network upon failure abnormal termination previously active application server system hardware component network failover switchover essentially operation except failover automatic usually operates without warning switchover requires human intervention systems designers usually provide failover capability servers systems networks requiring near-continuous availability high degree reliability server level failover automation usually uses heartbeat system connects two servers either using separate cable example rs-232 serial ports/cable network connection long regular pulse heartbeat continues main server second server second server bring systems online may also third spare parts server running spare components hot switching prevent downtime second server takes work first soon detects alteration heartbeat first machine systems ability send notification failover certain systems intentionally failover entirely automatically require human intervention automated manual approval configuration runs automatically human approved failover failback process restoring system component service previously state failure back original working state standby system go functioning back standby use virtualization software allowed failover practices become less reliant physical hardware process referred migration running virtual machine moved one physical host another little disruption service term failover although probably use engineers much earlier found 1962 declassified nasa report term switchover found 1950s describing hot cold standby systems current meaning immediate switchover running system hot delayed switchover system needs starting cold conference proceedings 1957 describes computer systems emergency switchover i.e failover scheduled failover maintenance 1-hop neighbor's text information: ibm.ibm international business machines corporation ibm american multinational information technology company headquartered armonk new york operations 170 countries company began 1911 founded endicott new york computing-tabulating-recording company ctr renamed international business machines 1924 ibm produces sells computer hardware middleware software provides hosting consulting services areas ranging mainframe computers nanotechnology ibm also major research organization holding record u.s. patents generated business 26 consecutive years inventions ibm include automated teller machine atm floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database sql programming language upc barcode dynamic random-access memory dram ibm mainframe exemplified system/360 dominant computing platform 1960s 1970s ibm continually shifted business operations focusing higher-value profitable markets includes spinning printer manufacturer lexmark 1991 sale personal computer thinkpad/thinkcentre x86-based server businesses lenovo 2005 2014 respectively acquiring companies pwc consulting 2002 spss 2009 weather company 2016 red hat 2019 also 2015 ibm announced would go fabless continuing design semiconductors offloading manufacturing globalfoundries nicknamed big blue ibm one 30 companies included dow jones industrial average one world largest employers 380,000 employees known ibmers least 70 ibmers based outside united states country largest number ibmers india ibm employees awarded five nobel prizes six turing awards ten national medals technology usa five national medals science usa 1880s technologies emerged would ultimately form core international business machines ibm julius e. pitrap patented computing scale 1885 alexander dey invented dial recorder 1888 herman hollerith 1860–1929 patented electric tabulating machine willard bundy invented time clock record worker arrival departure time paper tape 1889 june 16 1911 four companies amalgamated new york state charles ranlett flint forming fifth company computing-tabulating-recording company ctr based endicott new york five companies 1,300 employees offices plants endicott binghamton new york dayton ohio detroit michigan washington d.c. toronto manufactured machinery sale lease ranging commercial scales industrial time recorders meat cheese slicers tabulators punched cards thomas j. watson sr. fired national cash register company john henry patterson called flint 1914 offered position ctr watson joined ctr general manager 11 months later made president court cases relating time ncr resolved learned patterson pioneering business practices watson proceeded put stamp ncr onto ctr companies implemented sales conventions generous sales incentives focus customer service insistence well-groomed dark-suited salesmen evangelical fervor instilling company pride loyalty every worker favorite slogan think became mantra company employees watson first four years revenues reached 9 million company operations expanded europe south america asia australia watson never liked clumsy hyphenated name computing-tabulating-recording company february 14 1924 chose replace expansive title international business machines 1933 subsidiaries merged one company ibm 1937 ibm tabulating equipment enabled organizations process unprecedented amounts data clients including u.s. government first effort maintain employment records 26 million people pursuant social security act tracking persecuted groups hitler third reich largely german subsidiary dehomag 1949 thomas watson sr. created ibm world trade corporation subsidiary ibm focused foreign operations 1952 stepped almost 40 years company helm son thomas watson jr. named president 1956 company demonstrated first practical example artificial intelligence arthur l. samuel ibm poughkeepsie new york laboratory programmed ibm 704 merely play checkers learn experience 1957 fortran scientific programming language developed 1961 ibm developed sabre reservation system american airlines introduced highly successful selectric typewriter 1963 ibm employees computers helped nasa track orbital flights mercury astronauts year later moved corporate headquarters new york city armonk new york latter half 1960s saw ibm continue support space exploration participating 1965 gemini flights 1966 saturn flights 1969 lunar mission april 7 1964 ibm announced first computer system family ibm system/360 spanned complete range commercial scientific applications large small allowing companies first time upgrade models greater computing capability without rewrite applications followed ibm system/370 1970 together 360 370 made ibm mainframe dominant mainframe computer dominant computing platform industry throughout period early 1980s operating systems ran os/vs1 mvs middleware built top cics transaction processing monitor near-monopoly-level hold computer industry became almost synonymous ibm products due marketshare 1974 ibm engineer george j. laurer developed universal product code ibm world bank first introduced financial swaps public 1981 entered swap agreement ibm pc originally designated ibm 5150 introduced 1981 soon became industry standard 1991 ibm spun printer manufacturing new business called lexmark 1993 ibm posted us 8 billion loss – time biggest american corporate history lou gerstner hired ceo rjr nabisco turn company around 2002 ibm acquired pwc consulting 2003 initiated project redefine company values hosting three-day online discussion key business issues 50,000 employees result three values dedication every client success innovation matters—for company world trust personal responsibility relationships 2005 company sold personal computer business chinese technology company lenovo 2009 acquired software company spss inc. later 2009 ibm blue gene supercomputing program awarded national medal technology innovation u.s. president barack obama 2011 ibm gained worldwide attention artificial intelligence program watson exhibited jeopardy game-show champions ken jennings brad rutter company also celebrated 100th anniversary year june 16 2012 ibm announced agreed buy kenexa year later also acquired softlayer technologies web hosting service deal worth around 2 billion 2014 ibm announced would sell x86 server division lenovo 2.1 billion also year ibm began announcing several major partnerships companies including apple inc. twitter facebook tencent cisco underarmour box microsoft vmware csc macy sesame workshop parent company sesame street salesforce.com 2015 ibm announced three major acquisitions merge healthcare 1 billion data storage vendor cleversafe digital assets weather company including weather.com weather channel mobile app also year ibmers created film boy atom first molecule movie tell story 2016 ibm acquired video conferencing service ustream formed new cloud video unit april 2016 posted 14-year low quarterly sales following month groupon sued ibm accusing patent infringement two months ibm accused groupon patent infringement separate lawsuit 2015 ibm bought digital part weather company october 2018 ibm announced intention acquire red hat 34 billion acquisition completed july 9 2019 june 2019 ibm cut 2,000 jobs ibm headquartered armonk new york community north midtown manhattan principal building referred chq glass stone edifice parcel amid 432-acre former apple orchard company purchased mid-1950s two ibm buildings within walking distance chq north castle office previously served ibm headquarters louis v. gerstner jr. center learning formerly known ibm learning center ilc resort hotel training center 182 guest rooms 31 meeting rooms various amenities ibm operates 174 countries mobility centers smaller markets areas major campuses larger ones new york city ibm several offices besides chq including ibm watson headquarters astor place manhattan outside new york major campuses united states include austin texas research triangle park raleigh-durham north carolina rochester minnesota silicon valley california ibm real estate holdings varied globally diverse towers occupied ibm include 1250 rené-lévesque montreal canada tour descartes paris france one atlantic center atlanta georgia usa beijing china ibm occupies pangu plaza city seventh tallest building overlooking beijing national stadium bird nest home 2008 summer olympics ibm india private limited indian subsidiary ibm headquartered bengaluru karnataka facilities bengaluru ahmedabad delhi kolkata mumbai chennai pune gurugram noida bhubaneshwar coimbatore visakhapatnam hyderabad notable buildings include ibm rome software lab rome italy hursley house winchester uk 330 north wabash chicago illinois united states cambridge scientific center cambridge massachusetts united states ibm toronto software lab toronto canada ibm building johannesburg johannesburg south africa ibm building seattle seattle washington united states ibm hakozaki facility tokyo japan ibm yamato facility yamato japan ibm canada head office building ontario canada watson iot headquarters munich germany defunct ibm campuses include ibm somers office complex somers new york company contributions industrial architecture design include works eero saarinen ludwig mies van der rohe i.m pei van der rohe building chicago recognized 1990 honor award national building museum ibm recognized one top 20 best workplaces commuters united states environmental protection agency epa 2005 recognized fortune 500 companies provided employees excellent commuter benefits help reduce traffic air pollution 2004 concerns raised related ibm contribution early days pollution original location endicott new york fiscal year 2017 ibm reported earnings us 5.7 billion annual revenue us 79.1 billion decline 1.0 previous fiscal cycle ibm shares traded 125 per share market capitalization valued us 113.9 billion september 2018 ibm ranked 34 2018 fortune 500 rankings largest united states corporations total revenue ibm large diverse portfolio products services offerings fall categories cloud computing artificial intelligence commerce data analytics internet things iot infrastructure mobile security ibm cloud includes infrastructure service iaas software service saas platform service paas offered public private hybrid cloud delivery models instance ibm bluemix paas enables developers quickly create complex websites pay-as-you-go model ibm softlayer dedicated server managed hosting cloud computing provider 2011 reported hosting 81,000 servers 26,000 customers ibm also provides cloud data encryption services icdes using cryptographic splitting secure customer data ibm also hosts industry-wide cloud computing mobile technologies conference interconnect year hardware designed ibm categories include ibm power microprocessors employed inside many console gaming systems including xbox 360 playstation 3 nintendo wii u. ibm secure blue encryption hardware built microprocessors 2014 company revealed truenorth neuromorphic cmos integrated circuit announced 3 billion investment following five years design neural chip mimics human brain 10 billion neurons 100 trillion synapses uses 1 kilowatt power 2016 company launched all-flash arrays designed small midsized companies includes software data compression provisioning snapshots across various systems outsourcing also represents major service provided ibm 40 data centers worldwide alphaworks ibm source emerging software technologies spss software package used statistical analysis ibm kenexa suite provides employment retention solutions includes brassring applicant tracking system used thousands companies recruiting ibm also owns weather company provides weather forecasting includes weather.com weather underground smarter planet initiative seeks achieve economic growth near-term efficiency sustainable development societal progress targeting opportunities smart grids water management systems solutions traffic congestion greener buildings services provisions include redbooks publicly available online books best practices ibm products developerworks website software developers professionals how-to articles tutorials well software downloads code samples discussion forums podcasts blogs wikis resources developers technical professionals ibm watson technology platform uses natural language processing machine learning reveal insights large amounts unstructured data watson debuted 2011 american game-show jeopardy competed champions ken jennings brad rutter three-game tournament watson since applied business healthcare developers universities example ibm partnered memorial sloan kettering cancer center assist considering treatment options oncology patients melanoma screenings also several companies begun using watson call centers either replacing assisting customer service agents january 2019 ibm introduced first commercial quantum computer ibm q system one ibm also provides infrastructure new york city police department ibm cognos analytics perform data visualizations compstat crime data research part ibm since founding organized efforts trace roots back 1945 watson scientific computing laboratory founded columbia university new york city converting renovated fraternity house manhattan west side ibm first laboratory ibm research constitutes largest industrial research organization world 12 labs 6 continents ibm research headquartered thomas j. watson research center new york facilities include almaden lab california austin lab texas australia lab melbourne brazil lab são paulo rio de janeiro china lab beijing shanghai ireland lab dublin haifa lab israel india lab delhi bangalore tokyo lab zurich lab africa lab nairobi terms investment ibm r expenditure totals several billion dollars year 2012 expenditure approximately us 6.9 billion recent allocations included 1 billion create business unit watson 2014 3 billion create next-gen semiconductor along 4 billion towards growing company strategic imperatives cloud analytics mobile security social 2015 ibm leading proponent open source initiative began supporting linux 1998 company invests billions dollars services software based linux ibm linux technology center includes 300 linux kernel developers ibm also released code different open source licenses platform-independent software framework eclipse worth approximately us 40 million time donation three-sentence international components unicode icu license java-based relational database management system rdbms apache derby ibm open source involvement trouble-free however see sco v. ibm famous inventions developments ibm include automated teller machine atm dynamic random access memory dram electronic keypunch financial swap floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database risc sabre airline reservation system sql universal product code upc bar code virtual machine additionally 1990 company scientists used scanning tunneling microscope arrange 35 individual xenon atoms spell company acronym marking first structure assembled one atom time major part ibm research generation patents since first patent traffic signaling device ibm one world prolific patent sources 2018 company holds record patents generated business marking 25 consecutive years achievement five ibmers received nobel prize leo esaki thomas j. watson research center yorktown heights n.y. 1973 work semiconductors gerd binnig heinrich rohrer zurich research center 1986 scanning tunneling microscope georg bednorz alex müller also zurich 1987 research superconductivity several ibmers also turing award including first female recipient frances e. allen current research includes collaboration university michigan see computers act academic advisor undergraduate computer science engineering students university partnership combining cloud internet things iot platforms make interoperable provide developers easier tools company also involved research advanced algorithms machine learning decision-making processes end company recently released analysis tool algorithms make decisions scanning biases automated decision-making ibm nicknamed big blue part due blue logo color scheme also partially since ibm de facto dress code white shirts blue suits company logo undergone several changes years current 8-bar logo designed 1972 graphic designer paul rand general replacement 13-bar logo since period photocopiers render large areas well aside logo ibm used helvetica corporate typeface 50 years replaced 2017 custom-designed ibm plex ibm valuable brand result 100 years operations marketing campaigns since 1996 ibm exclusive technology partner masters tournament one four major championships professional golf ibm creating first masters.org 1996 first course cam 1998 first iphone app live streaming 2009 first-ever live 4k ultra high definition feed united states major sporting event 2016 result ibm ceo ginni rometty became third female member master governing body augusta national golf club ibm also major sponsor professional tennis engagements u.s. open wimbledon australian open french open company also sponsored olympic games 1960–2000 national football league 2003–2012 2012 ibm brand valued 75.5 billion ranked interbrand second-best brand worldwide year also ranked top company leaders fortune number two green company u.s. newsweek second-most respected company barron fifth-most admired company fortune 18th-most innovative company fast company number one technology consulting number two outsourcing vault 2015 forbes ranked ibm fifth-most valuable brand january 1969 last day johnson administration united states department justice antitrust division filed suit ibm alleging company engaged monopolistic business practices talks ibm would agree settlement consent decree two sides unable come terms case went trial 1975 legal matter justice department estimated would take 60 days three years millions pages evidence justice department decided drop suit new york times article states ibm never publicly disclosed much spent defending suit estimated tens millions dollars ibm one largest workforces world employees big blue referred ibmers company among first corporations provide group life insurance 1934 survivor benefits 1935 training women 1935 paid vacations 1937 training disabled people 1942 ibm hired first black salesperson 1946 1952 ceo thomas j. watson jr. published company first written equal opportunity policy letter one year u.s. supreme court decision brown vs. board education 11 years civil rights act 1964 human rights campaign rated ibm 100 index gay-friendliness every year since 2003 ibm providing same-sex partners employees health benefits anti-discrimination clause additionally 2005 ibm became first major company world commit formally use genetic information employment decisions 2017 ibm named working mother 100 best companies list 32nd consecutive year ibm several leadership development recognition programs recognize employee potential achievements early-career high potential employees ibm sponsors leadership development programs discipline e.g. general management gmldp human resources hrldp finance fldp year company also selects 500 ibmers ibm corporate service corps csc described corporate equivalent peace corps gives top employees month humanitarian work abroad certain interns ibm also program called extreme blue partners top business technical students develop high-value technology compete present business case company ceo internship end company also various designations exceptional individual contributors senior technical staff member stsm research staff member rsm distinguished engineer de distinguished designer dd prolific inventors also achieve patent plateaus earn designation master inventor company prestigious designation ibm fellow since 1963 company names handful fellows year based technical achievement programs recognize years service quarter century club established 1924 sellers eligible join hundred percent club composed ibm salesmen meet quotas convened atlantic city new jersey year company also selects 1,000 ibmers annually award best ibm award includes all-expenses paid trip awards ceremony exotic location ibm culture evolved significantly century operations early days dark gray suit white shirt sincere tie constituted public uniform ibm employees ibm management transformation 1990s ceo louis v. gerstner jr. relaxed codes normalizing dress behavior ibm employees company culture also given different plays company acronym ibm saying stands 've moved due relocations layoffs others saying stands 'm pursuant prevalent work-from-anywhere norm others saying stands 'm mentored due company open door policy encouragement mentoring levels terms labor relations company traditionally resisted labor union organizing although unions represent ibm workers outside united states japan ibm employees also american football team complete pro stadium cheerleaders televised games competing japanese x-league big blue 2015 ibm started giving employees option choosing either pc mac primary work device resulting ibm becoming world largest mac shop 2016 ibm eliminated forced rankings changed annual performance review system focus frequent feedback coaching skills development many ibmers also achieved notability outside work leaving ibm business former ibm employees include apple inc. ceo tim cook former eds ceo politician ross perot microsoft chairman john w. thompson sap co-founder hasso plattner gartner founder gideon gartner advanced micro devices amd ceo lisa su former citizens financial group ceo ellen alemany former yahoo chairman alfred amoroso former ceo c. michael armstrong former xerox corporation ceos david t. kearns g. richard thoman former fair isaac corporation ceo mark n. greene citrix systems co-founder ed iacobucci asos.com chairman brian mcbride former lenovo ceo steve ward former teradata ceo kenneth simonds government alumna patricia roberts harris served united states secretary housing urban development first african american woman serve united states cabinet samuel k. skinner served u.s. secretary transportation white house chief staff alumni also include u.s senators mack mattingly thom tillis wisconsin governor scott walker former u.s ambassadors vincent obsitnik slovakia arthur k. watson france thomas watson jr. soviet union former u.s representatives todd akin glenn andrews robert garcia katherine harris amo houghton jim ross lightfoot thomas j. manton donald w. riegle jr. ed zschau others nasa astronaut michael j. massimino canadian astronaut governor-general julie payette harvey mudd college president maria klawe western governors university president emeritus robert mendenhall former university kentucky president lee t. todd jr. nfl referee bill carollo former rangers f.c chairman john mcclelland recipient nobel prize literature j. m. coetzee thomas watson jr. also served 11th national president boy scouts america company 14 member board directors responsible overall corporate management includes ceos american express ford motor company boeing dow chemical johnson johnson cemex well president rensselaer polytechnic institute 2011 ibm became first technology company warren buffett holding company berkshire hathaway invested initially bought 64 million shares costing 10.5 billion dollars years increased ibm holdings however reduced 94.5 2.05 million shares end 2017 may 2018 completely ibm Target text information: really_simple_systems.really simple systems really simple systems crm cloud crm provider offering crm systems small medium sized companies company states mission everything small business needs manage sales marketing really simple systems crm founded 2004 john paterson former ceo zeus technology coo systems union public launch january 2006 really simple systems crm 17,000 users hosted customer relationship management systems customers include royal academy red cross nhs ibm well thousands small medium sized companies company headquartered united kingdom office australia company software satisfaction awards best small business crm system twice 2008 2010 2011 company eurocloud award database marketing award 2014 best cloud application annual eurocloud awards finalist crm idol november 2017 pc mag listed really simple systems best lead management software article 2018 company finalist small businesss awards business innovation devops excellence awards 2019 2018 company listed 40 100 best tech companies uk g2 crowd october 2006 company marketing module launched initially offering campaign management email marketing added august 2012 october 2010 company launched free edition freemium two user hosted crm system existing product renamed enterprise edition may 2013 company accredited entry uk government gcloud cloudstore catalogue john paterson ceo really simple systems awarded crm idol citizen year 2014 july 2013 really simple systems launched cross-platform version crm running seamlessly desktops laptops tablets smartphones january 2015 company upgraded email marketing offer built-in alternative third party products mailchimp constant contact version 5 launched march 2017 offered new user interface custom dashboards help drawers grid customisation september 2017 company announced compliance european union general data protection regulation gdpr phased roll-out gdpr compliance features email marketing module february 2018 launched set gdpr compliance tools allowing users email marketing module collect consent digital marketing communications company headquartered petersfield hampshire united kingdom january 2008 company opened first overseas office sydney australia four really simple systems crm pricing plans product consists three modules really simple systems crm delivered software service application version 5 product written using lamp stack version 4 previous versions used microsoft technology javascript used client current version uses html5 responsive design deliver cross-platform availability applications runs two geographically dispersed datacentres automated failover achieve 99.999 uptime I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	970	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: macos_server.macos server macos server product formerly called mac os x server os x server mac os x server stand-alone operating system whereas macos server sold operating system add-on app provides additional server programs along management administration tools ios macos prior version 10.7 lion mac os x server separate similar unix server operating system apple inc. architecturally identical desktop counterpart mac os x release version 10.7 lion mac os x mac os x server combined one release separate server operating system longer sold server-specific server applications work group management administration software tools mac os x server offered macos server add-on package macos sold mac app store 19.99 june 2019 along workgroup manager 10.8 available apple support web site tools simplify access key network services including mail transfer agent afp smb servers ldap server domain name server others also included particularly later versions numerous additional services tools manage web server wiki server chat server calendar server many others mac os x server provided operating system xserve computers rack mounted server computers designed apple also optionally pre-installed mac mini mac pro sold separately use macintosh computer meeting minimum requirements macos server based open source foundation called darwin uses open industry standards protocols included services applications file sharing sharing contact information calendars schedule events send secure instant messages conduct live video conferences send receive email contribute comment wikis publish company-wide blog produce distribute podcasts set websites first version mac os x mac os x server 1.0 mac os x server 1.0 – 1.2v3 based rhapsody hybrid openstep next computer mac os 8.5.1 gui looked like mixture mac os 8 platinum appearance openstep next-based interface included runtime layer called blue box running legacy mac os-based applications within separate window discussion implementing 'transparent blue box would intermix mac os applications written rhapsody yellow box environment would happen mac os x classic environment apple file services macintosh manager quicktime streaming server webobjects netboot included mac os x server 1.0 – 1.2v3 could use firewire devices released may 21 2001 mac os x server 10.0 included new aqua user interface apache php mysql tomcat webdav support macintosh manager netboot released september 25 2001 released august 23 2002 10.2 mac os x server release includes updated open directory user file management release based ldap beginning deprecation next-originated netinfo architecture new workgroup manager interface improved configuration significantly release also saw major updates netboot netinstall many common network services provided ntp snmp web server apache mail server postfix cyrus ldap openldap afp print server inclusion samba version 3 allows tight integration windows clients servers mysql v4.0.16 php v4.3.7 also included released october 24 2003 10.3 mac os x server release includes updated open directory user file management release based ldap beginning deprecation next-originated netinfo architecture new workgroup manager interface improved configuration significantly many common network services provided ntp snmp web server apache mail server postfix cyrus ldap openldap afp print server inclusion samba version 3 allows tight integration windows clients servers mysql v4.0.16 php v4.3.7 also included released april 29 2005 10.4 release adds 64-bit application support access control lists xgrid link aggregation e-mail spam filtering spamassassin virus detection clamav gateway setup assistant servers software update ichat server using xmpp boot camp assistant dashboard weblogs august 10 2006 apple announced first universal binary release mac os x server version 10.4.7 supporting powerpc intel processors time apple announced release intel-based mac pro xserve systems released october 26 2007 leopard server sold 999 unlimited client license features released august 28 2009 snow leopard server sold 499 included unlimited client licenses new features released july 20 2011 releasing developer preview mac os x lion february 2011 apple indicated beginning lion mac os x server would bundled operating system would marketed separate product however months later company said would instead sell server components us 49.99 add-on lion distributed mac app store well lion combined cost upgrade lion purchase os x server add-on costs approximately us 50 nonetheless significantly lower retail cost snow leopard server us 499 lion server came unlimited client licenses snow leopard server lion server includes new versions ical server wiki server mail server significantly lion server used ios mobile device management released july 25 2012 like lion mountain lion separate server edition os x server package available mountain lion mac app store us 19.99 included server management application called server well additional administrative tools manage client profiles xsan mountain lion server like lion server provided unlimited client licenses purchased could run unlimited number systems released october 22 2013 separate server edition mavericks separate server edition mountain lion package available mac app store 19.99 includes server management app called server well additional administrative tools manage client profiles xsan purchased run unlimited number machines enrolled mac ios developer programs given code download os x server free released october 16 2014 separate server edition yosemite separate server edition mavericks package available mac app store 19.99 includes server management app called server well additional administrative tools manage client profiles xsan purchased run unlimited number machines enrolled mac ios developer programs given code download os x server free released september 16 2015 version 5.0.3 os x server operates either os x yosemite 10.10.5 os x el capitan 10.11 released march 21 2016 os x server 5.1 requires 10.11.4 el capitan previous versions os x server ’ work 10.11.4 el capitan released september 20 2016 version 5.2 macos server operates either os x el capitan 10.11 macos sierra 10.12 released march 17 2017 version 5.3 macos server operates macos sierra 10.12.4 later released september 25 2017 version 5.4 macos server operates macos high sierra 10.13 later released january 23 2018 version 5.5 macos server operates macos high sierra 10.13.3 later released april 24 2018 version 5.6 macos server operates macos high sierra 10.13.5 later released september 28 2018 version 5.7 macos server operates macos mojave 10.14 later version apple stopped bundling open source services calendar server contacts server mail server dns dhcp vpn server websites macos server included services limited profile manager open directory xsan released march 25 2019 version 5.8 macos server operates macos mojave 10.14 later profile manager supports new restrictions payloads commands file print services directory services authentication mail services calendaring web hosting collaboration services application servers media streaming client management networking vpn distributed computing high-availability features file systems management features macos server available english japanese french german simplified chinese dutch italian korean spanish traditional chinese 1-hop neighbor's text information: ia-32.ia-32 ia-32 short intel architecture 32-bit sometimes also called i386 32-bit version x86 instruction set architecture designed intel first implemented 80386 microprocessor 1985 ia-32 first incarnation x86 supports 32-bit computing result ia-32 term may used metonym refer x86 versions support 32-bit computing within various programming language directives ia-32 still sometimes referred i386 architecture contexts certain iterations ia-32 isa sometimes labelled i486 i586 i686 referring instruction supersets offered 80486 p5 p6 microarchitectures respectively updates offered numerous additions alongside base ia-32 set i.e floating-point capabilities mmx extensions intel historically largest manufacturer ia-32 processors second biggest supplier amd 1990s via transmeta chip manufacturers also produced ia-32 compatible processors e.g winchip modern era intel still produces ia-32 processors intel quark microcontroller platform however since 2000s majority manufacturers intel included moved almost exclusively implementing cpus based 64-bit variant x86 x86-64 x86-64 specification offers legacy operating modes operate ia-32 isa backwards compatibility even given contemporary prevalence x86-64 2018 ia-32 protected mode versions many modern operating systems still maintained e.g microsoft windows ubuntu linux distribution spite ia-32 name causing potential confusion 64-bit evolution x86 originated amd would known ia-64 name instead belonging intel itanium architecture primary defining characteristic ia-32 availability 32-bit general-purpose processor registers example eax ebx 32-bit integer arithmetic logical operations 32-bit offsets within segment protected mode translation segmented addresses 32-bit linear addresses designers took opportunity make improvements well significant changes described 1-hop neighbor's text information: md5deep.md5deep md5deep software package used computer security system administration computer forensics communities run large numbers files several different cryptographic digests originally authored jesse kornblum time special agent air force office special investigations still maintains name md5deep misleading version 2.0 md5deep package contains several different programs able perform md5 sha-1 sha-256 tiger192 whirlpool digests named digest type followed word deep thus name may confuse people thinking provides md5 algorithm package supports many md5deep invoked several different ways typically users operate recursively md5deep walks one directory time giving digests file found recursing subdirectories within recursive behavior approximately depth-first search benefit presenting files lexicographical order unix-like systems similar functionality often obtained combining find hashing utilities md5sum sha256sum tthsum md5deep exists windows unix-based systems including os x present os x fink homebrew macports projects binary packages exist free unix systems many vendors initially resist including md5deep mistakenly believe functions reproduced one line shell scripting matching function program however done easily shell md5deep written employee u.s. government government time public domain software surrounding graphical front-ends may copyrighted Target text information: macports.macports macports formerly called darwinports package management system simplifies installation software macos darwin operating systems open-source software project simplify installation open source software similar aim function fink bsd ports collections darwinports started 2002 part opendarwin project involvement number apple inc. employees including landon fuller kevin van vechten jordan hubbard macports allows installation number packages entering command sudo port install packagename terminal download compile necessary install requested software also installing required dependencies automatically installed packages updated command sudo port upgrade outdated official gui application called pallet also available version 1.0 released april 28 2005 december 2005 project reached milestone surpassing 3000 ports time package installation involved source code downloaded compiled end user machine version 2.0 released 2011 introduced support prebuilt binary archives default ports installed using prebuilt binary archive available built source otherwise macports 21,600 ports macports hosted mac os forge open source hosting service created maintained apple inc. third-party projects supported apple apple closed mac os forge 2016 project moved github best-effort support sourced community macports supports universal binaries powerpc intel-based versions mac os x migrating powerpc installation macports version intel mac requires reinstalling installed ports I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	9,487	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: linux_on_z_systems.linux z systems linux ibm z linux z short previously linux z systems collective term linux operating system compiled run ibm mainframes especially ibm z ibm linuxone servers similar terms imply meaning linux zenterprise linux zseries linux/390 linux/390x etc terms zlinux z/linux also sometimes used terms discouraged ibm create implication ibm-offered ibm-distributed version linux incorrect zlinux without slash also incorrect software software nomenclature involves slash z/vm z/os z/vse etc hardware z900 z13 etc linux ibm z originated two separate efforts port linux ibm system/390 servers first effort bigfoot project developed linas vepstas late 1998 early 1999 independent distribution since abandoned ibm published collection patches additions linux 2.2.13 kernel december 18 1999 start today mainline linux z formal product announcements quickly followed 2000 including integrated facility linux ifl engines think blue linux early mainframe distribution consisting mainly red hat packages added ibm kernel commercial linux distributors introduced mainframe editions quickly initial kernel work start ibm involvement linux patches ibm z included object code oco modules without source code soon ibm replaced oco modules open source modules linux z free software gnu general public license according ibm may 2006 1,700 customers running linux mainframes virtualization required default ibm z option run linux z without degree virtualization first 64-bit mainframe models z900 z800 included non-virtualized basic mode first layer virtualization provided processor resource system manager pr/sm deploy one logical partitions lpars lpar supports variety operating systems including linux ibm z hypervisor called z/vm also run second layer virtualization lpars create many virtual machines vms resources assigned lpars support kvm z another hypervisor option linux applications lpar access data applications lpars cics ibm db2 ims linux mainframe subsystems running physical mainframe utilize hipersockets – fast memory-only tcp/ip connections compared tcp/ip standard network interface cards nics also known open system adapters osas mainframes hipersockets improve end-user responsiveness reduce network latency processing overhead security since network connection intercept reliability since network connection lose zec12 zbc12 later models hipersocket concept extended beyond physical machine boundary via rdma converged ethernet roce adapter facilitate secure high speed inter-system communication applications lpar system thus use hipersockets communicate applications lpar b system b ensure security performance attributes beginning linux kernel version 4.1 released early 2015 linux z available 64-bit operating system compatible z/architecture mainframes previously linux z also available 31-bit operating system compatible older model mainframes introduced prior 2000 z900 model however newer 64-bit linux kernel 64-bit linux z distributions still backward compatible applications compiled 31-bit linux z historically linux kernel architecture designations s390 s390x distinguish 31-bit 64-bit linux z kernels respectively s390 also refers generally one linux z kernel architecture linux runs standard general purpose mainframe cps central processors well ifls integrated facility linux ifls mainframe processors dedicated running linux either natively hypervisor z/vm kvm z microcode restricts ifls running traditional workloads z/os physically identical ibm z processors ifls typically less expensive acquire ibm cps linux z gives flexibility running linux advantages fault-tolerant mainframe hardware capable 90,000 i/o operations per second mean time failure mtbf measured decades using virtualization numerous smaller servers combined onto one mainframe gaining benefits centralization cost reduction still allowing specialized servers instead paravirtualization ibm mainframes use full virtualization permits workload density far greater paravirtualization combining full virtualization hardware plus lightweight virtual machine containers run linux isolation somewhat similar concept docker result platform supports virtual servers single footprint also lower operating costs additional savings seen reduced need floor space power cooling networking hardware infrastructure needed support data center ibm mainframes allow transparent use redundant processor execution steps integrity checking important critical applications certain industries banking.. mainframes typically allow hot-swapping hardware processors memory ibm z provides fault tolerance key components including processors memory i/o interconnect power supply channel paths network cards others internal monitoring possible problems detected problem components designed switched without even failing single transaction rare event failure firmware automatically enable spare component disable failing component notify ibm dispatch service representative transparent operating system allowing routine repairs performed without shutting system many industries continue rely mainframes considered best option terms reliability security cost linux z generally appropriate premises small businesses would fewer 10 distributed linux servers although expensive per-processor licensed software quickly reduce rule thumb software vendors including ibm treat highly virtualized ifls like non-virtualized processors platforms licensing purposes words single ifl running scores linux instances still typically counts one ordinary cpu cpu price software licensing test development quality assurance training redundant production server instances run one ifl ifls needed peak demand performance capacity thus beyond minimum threshold linux z quickly become cost-advantageous factoring labor software costs cost equation linux z always well understood controversial many businesses governments difficulty measuring much less basing decisions software labor costs costs outage security breaches acquisition costs often visible small non-scalable servers cheap nonetheless non-acquisition costs less real usually far greater hardware acquisition prices also individual users departments within larger businesses governments sometimes difficulty sharing computing infrastructure resources matter citing loss control server centralization linux z provides might reward cooperation better service lower costs say cooperation always easily accomplished within corporate bureaucracy linux z also supports less expensive disk storage devices z/os linux require ficon escon attachment although z/os may use disk space efficiently balance due hardware-assisted database compression common z/os smaller number operating system instances z/os typically requires also operational advantages using ficon-attached storage linux z example support z/vm live guest relocation mainframe characteristics designed business workloads transaction processing especially conjunction concurrent high volume batch processing large database management mainframe design traditionally emphasizes balanced performance computing elements including input/output implemented via channel i/o mainframes offload i/o system accounting non-core computing tasks main cpus much possible z/architecture additionally offloads cryptographic calculations example single ibm z13 machine 141 processor cores available configure ifls however every machine also 27 additional main cores 2 spares 1 firmware support remainder running system accounting i/o support tasks addition i/o adapter typically two powerpc processors z13 supports hundreds i/o adapters also separate processors handling memory cache control tasks environmental monitoring internal interconnections examples historically mainframes general linux z particular execute cpu-intensive single task computations notably high performance compared certain platforms notable exceptions cryptographic calculations examples included scientific simulations weather forecasting molecular modeling supercomputers including linux-based supercomputers excel workloads bifurcation mainframes platforms significantly blurred recent years starting introduction 2008 system z10 machine based quad-core 4.4 ghz processors hardware decimal floating point mainframe processor technology continued evolve especially introduction ibm linuxone ibm z13 models 2015 ibm started promoting mainframes ideal platforms run real-time analytics computationally intensive tasks mainframes historically run well ibm sold x86 server product line lenovo 2014 mainframes provide graphics sound adapters ill-suited digital media editing computer-aided design cad except perhaps support roles e.g content storage parts inventories metadata management security services etc like versions linux linux z governed gpl free software license complete linux z source code available numerous parties free equal basis architectural support part main linux kernel effort ibm assigns several programmers community effort ibm means participant though obstacles running linux z distribution ibm z system ibm routinely tests three particular linux z distributions red hat suse starting 2015 canonical ubuntu linux notable linux z distributions include debian fedora slackware centos gentoo nearly every free open-source software package available linux generally available linux z including apache http server samba software jboss postgresql mysql php python programming language concurrent versions system cvs gnu compiler collection gcc llvm perl rust among many others red hat suse offer mainline support distributions running linux z 2015 canonical announced plans offer official support distribution starting early 2016 ibm global services also offers support contracts including 24x7 coverage standard linux software applications readily available pre-compiled including popular closed-source enterprise software packages websphere db2 oracle databases applications sap r/3 sap erp ibm java developer kit jdk name ibm offers resources developers wishing target linux z linux z supports unicode ascii like linux distribution—it ebcdic-based operating system however convenience linux able read kernel parameters ebcdic z/vm takes advantage capability porting linux applications linux z fairly straightforward potential issues include endianness linux z big-endian reliance non-portable libraries particularly source code available programs easily cross compiled z/architecture binaries non-mainframe linux systems least three software-based ibm z mainframes emulators 1-hop neighbor's text information: ibm.ibm international business machines corporation ibm american multinational information technology company headquartered armonk new york operations 170 countries company began 1911 founded endicott new york computing-tabulating-recording company ctr renamed international business machines 1924 ibm produces sells computer hardware middleware software provides hosting consulting services areas ranging mainframe computers nanotechnology ibm also major research organization holding record u.s. patents generated business 26 consecutive years inventions ibm include automated teller machine atm floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database sql programming language upc barcode dynamic random-access memory dram ibm mainframe exemplified system/360 dominant computing platform 1960s 1970s ibm continually shifted business operations focusing higher-value profitable markets includes spinning printer manufacturer lexmark 1991 sale personal computer thinkpad/thinkcentre x86-based server businesses lenovo 2005 2014 respectively acquiring companies pwc consulting 2002 spss 2009 weather company 2016 red hat 2019 also 2015 ibm announced would go fabless continuing design semiconductors offloading manufacturing globalfoundries nicknamed big blue ibm one 30 companies included dow jones industrial average one world largest employers 380,000 employees known ibmers least 70 ibmers based outside united states country largest number ibmers india ibm employees awarded five nobel prizes six turing awards ten national medals technology usa five national medals science usa 1880s technologies emerged would ultimately form core international business machines ibm julius e. pitrap patented computing scale 1885 alexander dey invented dial recorder 1888 herman hollerith 1860–1929 patented electric tabulating machine willard bundy invented time clock record worker arrival departure time paper tape 1889 june 16 1911 four companies amalgamated new york state charles ranlett flint forming fifth company computing-tabulating-recording company ctr based endicott new york five companies 1,300 employees offices plants endicott binghamton new york dayton ohio detroit michigan washington d.c. toronto manufactured machinery sale lease ranging commercial scales industrial time recorders meat cheese slicers tabulators punched cards thomas j. watson sr. fired national cash register company john henry patterson called flint 1914 offered position ctr watson joined ctr general manager 11 months later made president court cases relating time ncr resolved learned patterson pioneering business practices watson proceeded put stamp ncr onto ctr companies implemented sales conventions generous sales incentives focus customer service insistence well-groomed dark-suited salesmen evangelical fervor instilling company pride loyalty every worker favorite slogan think became mantra company employees watson first four years revenues reached 9 million company operations expanded europe south america asia australia watson never liked clumsy hyphenated name computing-tabulating-recording company february 14 1924 chose replace expansive title international business machines 1933 subsidiaries merged one company ibm 1937 ibm tabulating equipment enabled organizations process unprecedented amounts data clients including u.s. government first effort maintain employment records 26 million people pursuant social security act tracking persecuted groups hitler third reich largely german subsidiary dehomag 1949 thomas watson sr. created ibm world trade corporation subsidiary ibm focused foreign operations 1952 stepped almost 40 years company helm son thomas watson jr. named president 1956 company demonstrated first practical example artificial intelligence arthur l. samuel ibm poughkeepsie new york laboratory programmed ibm 704 merely play checkers learn experience 1957 fortran scientific programming language developed 1961 ibm developed sabre reservation system american airlines introduced highly successful selectric typewriter 1963 ibm employees computers helped nasa track orbital flights mercury astronauts year later moved corporate headquarters new york city armonk new york latter half 1960s saw ibm continue support space exploration participating 1965 gemini flights 1966 saturn flights 1969 lunar mission april 7 1964 ibm announced first computer system family ibm system/360 spanned complete range commercial scientific applications large small allowing companies first time upgrade models greater computing capability without rewrite applications followed ibm system/370 1970 together 360 370 made ibm mainframe dominant mainframe computer dominant computing platform industry throughout period early 1980s operating systems ran os/vs1 mvs middleware built top cics transaction processing monitor near-monopoly-level hold computer industry became almost synonymous ibm products due marketshare 1974 ibm engineer george j. laurer developed universal product code ibm world bank first introduced financial swaps public 1981 entered swap agreement ibm pc originally designated ibm 5150 introduced 1981 soon became industry standard 1991 ibm spun printer manufacturing new business called lexmark 1993 ibm posted us 8 billion loss – time biggest american corporate history lou gerstner hired ceo rjr nabisco turn company around 2002 ibm acquired pwc consulting 2003 initiated project redefine company values hosting three-day online discussion key business issues 50,000 employees result three values dedication every client success innovation matters—for company world trust personal responsibility relationships 2005 company sold personal computer business chinese technology company lenovo 2009 acquired software company spss inc. later 2009 ibm blue gene supercomputing program awarded national medal technology innovation u.s. president barack obama 2011 ibm gained worldwide attention artificial intelligence program watson exhibited jeopardy game-show champions ken jennings brad rutter company also celebrated 100th anniversary year june 16 2012 ibm announced agreed buy kenexa year later also acquired softlayer technologies web hosting service deal worth around 2 billion 2014 ibm announced would sell x86 server division lenovo 2.1 billion also year ibm began announcing several major partnerships companies including apple inc. twitter facebook tencent cisco underarmour box microsoft vmware csc macy sesame workshop parent company sesame street salesforce.com 2015 ibm announced three major acquisitions merge healthcare 1 billion data storage vendor cleversafe digital assets weather company including weather.com weather channel mobile app also year ibmers created film boy atom first molecule movie tell story 2016 ibm acquired video conferencing service ustream formed new cloud video unit april 2016 posted 14-year low quarterly sales following month groupon sued ibm accusing patent infringement two months ibm accused groupon patent infringement separate lawsuit 2015 ibm bought digital part weather company october 2018 ibm announced intention acquire red hat 34 billion acquisition completed july 9 2019 june 2019 ibm cut 2,000 jobs ibm headquartered armonk new york community north midtown manhattan principal building referred chq glass stone edifice parcel amid 432-acre former apple orchard company purchased mid-1950s two ibm buildings within walking distance chq north castle office previously served ibm headquarters louis v. gerstner jr. center learning formerly known ibm learning center ilc resort hotel training center 182 guest rooms 31 meeting rooms various amenities ibm operates 174 countries mobility centers smaller markets areas major campuses larger ones new york city ibm several offices besides chq including ibm watson headquarters astor place manhattan outside new york major campuses united states include austin texas research triangle park raleigh-durham north carolina rochester minnesota silicon valley california ibm real estate holdings varied globally diverse towers occupied ibm include 1250 rené-lévesque montreal canada tour descartes paris france one atlantic center atlanta georgia usa beijing china ibm occupies pangu plaza city seventh tallest building overlooking beijing national stadium bird nest home 2008 summer olympics ibm india private limited indian subsidiary ibm headquartered bengaluru karnataka facilities bengaluru ahmedabad delhi kolkata mumbai chennai pune gurugram noida bhubaneshwar coimbatore visakhapatnam hyderabad notable buildings include ibm rome software lab rome italy hursley house winchester uk 330 north wabash chicago illinois united states cambridge scientific center cambridge massachusetts united states ibm toronto software lab toronto canada ibm building johannesburg johannesburg south africa ibm building seattle seattle washington united states ibm hakozaki facility tokyo japan ibm yamato facility yamato japan ibm canada head office building ontario canada watson iot headquarters munich germany defunct ibm campuses include ibm somers office complex somers new york company contributions industrial architecture design include works eero saarinen ludwig mies van der rohe i.m pei van der rohe building chicago recognized 1990 honor award national building museum ibm recognized one top 20 best workplaces commuters united states environmental protection agency epa 2005 recognized fortune 500 companies provided employees excellent commuter benefits help reduce traffic air pollution 2004 concerns raised related ibm contribution early days pollution original location endicott new york fiscal year 2017 ibm reported earnings us 5.7 billion annual revenue us 79.1 billion decline 1.0 previous fiscal cycle ibm shares traded 125 per share market capitalization valued us 113.9 billion september 2018 ibm ranked 34 2018 fortune 500 rankings largest united states corporations total revenue ibm large diverse portfolio products services offerings fall categories cloud computing artificial intelligence commerce data analytics internet things iot infrastructure mobile security ibm cloud includes infrastructure service iaas software service saas platform service paas offered public private hybrid cloud delivery models instance ibm bluemix paas enables developers quickly create complex websites pay-as-you-go model ibm softlayer dedicated server managed hosting cloud computing provider 2011 reported hosting 81,000 servers 26,000 customers ibm also provides cloud data encryption services icdes using cryptographic splitting secure customer data ibm also hosts industry-wide cloud computing mobile technologies conference interconnect year hardware designed ibm categories include ibm power microprocessors employed inside many console gaming systems including xbox 360 playstation 3 nintendo wii u. ibm secure blue encryption hardware built microprocessors 2014 company revealed truenorth neuromorphic cmos integrated circuit announced 3 billion investment following five years design neural chip mimics human brain 10 billion neurons 100 trillion synapses uses 1 kilowatt power 2016 company launched all-flash arrays designed small midsized companies includes software data compression provisioning snapshots across various systems outsourcing also represents major service provided ibm 40 data centers worldwide alphaworks ibm source emerging software technologies spss software package used statistical analysis ibm kenexa suite provides employment retention solutions includes brassring applicant tracking system used thousands companies recruiting ibm also owns weather company provides weather forecasting includes weather.com weather underground smarter planet initiative seeks achieve economic growth near-term efficiency sustainable development societal progress targeting opportunities smart grids water management systems solutions traffic congestion greener buildings services provisions include redbooks publicly available online books best practices ibm products developerworks website software developers professionals how-to articles tutorials well software downloads code samples discussion forums podcasts blogs wikis resources developers technical professionals ibm watson technology platform uses natural language processing machine learning reveal insights large amounts unstructured data watson debuted 2011 american game-show jeopardy competed champions ken jennings brad rutter three-game tournament watson since applied business healthcare developers universities example ibm partnered memorial sloan kettering cancer center assist considering treatment options oncology patients melanoma screenings also several companies begun using watson call centers either replacing assisting customer service agents january 2019 ibm introduced first commercial quantum computer ibm q system one ibm also provides infrastructure new york city police department ibm cognos analytics perform data visualizations compstat crime data research part ibm since founding organized efforts trace roots back 1945 watson scientific computing laboratory founded columbia university new york city converting renovated fraternity house manhattan west side ibm first laboratory ibm research constitutes largest industrial research organization world 12 labs 6 continents ibm research headquartered thomas j. watson research center new york facilities include almaden lab california austin lab texas australia lab melbourne brazil lab são paulo rio de janeiro china lab beijing shanghai ireland lab dublin haifa lab israel india lab delhi bangalore tokyo lab zurich lab africa lab nairobi terms investment ibm r expenditure totals several billion dollars year 2012 expenditure approximately us 6.9 billion recent allocations included 1 billion create business unit watson 2014 3 billion create next-gen semiconductor along 4 billion towards growing company strategic imperatives cloud analytics mobile security social 2015 ibm leading proponent open source initiative began supporting linux 1998 company invests billions dollars services software based linux ibm linux technology center includes 300 linux kernel developers ibm also released code different open source licenses platform-independent software framework eclipse worth approximately us 40 million time donation three-sentence international components unicode icu license java-based relational database management system rdbms apache derby ibm open source involvement trouble-free however see sco v. ibm famous inventions developments ibm include automated teller machine atm dynamic random access memory dram electronic keypunch financial swap floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database risc sabre airline reservation system sql universal product code upc bar code virtual machine additionally 1990 company scientists used scanning tunneling microscope arrange 35 individual xenon atoms spell company acronym marking first structure assembled one atom time major part ibm research generation patents since first patent traffic signaling device ibm one world prolific patent sources 2018 company holds record patents generated business marking 25 consecutive years achievement five ibmers received nobel prize leo esaki thomas j. watson research center yorktown heights n.y. 1973 work semiconductors gerd binnig heinrich rohrer zurich research center 1986 scanning tunneling microscope georg bednorz alex müller also zurich 1987 research superconductivity several ibmers also turing award including first female recipient frances e. allen current research includes collaboration university michigan see computers act academic advisor undergraduate computer science engineering students university partnership combining cloud internet things iot platforms make interoperable provide developers easier tools company also involved research advanced algorithms machine learning decision-making processes end company recently released analysis tool algorithms make decisions scanning biases automated decision-making ibm nicknamed big blue part due blue logo color scheme also partially since ibm de facto dress code white shirts blue suits company logo undergone several changes years current 8-bar logo designed 1972 graphic designer paul rand general replacement 13-bar logo since period photocopiers render large areas well aside logo ibm used helvetica corporate typeface 50 years replaced 2017 custom-designed ibm plex ibm valuable brand result 100 years operations marketing campaigns since 1996 ibm exclusive technology partner masters tournament one four major championships professional golf ibm creating first masters.org 1996 first course cam 1998 first iphone app live streaming 2009 first-ever live 4k ultra high definition feed united states major sporting event 2016 result ibm ceo ginni rometty became third female member master governing body augusta national golf club ibm also major sponsor professional tennis engagements u.s. open wimbledon australian open french open company also sponsored olympic games 1960–2000 national football league 2003–2012 2012 ibm brand valued 75.5 billion ranked interbrand second-best brand worldwide year also ranked top company leaders fortune number two green company u.s. newsweek second-most respected company barron fifth-most admired company fortune 18th-most innovative company fast company number one technology consulting number two outsourcing vault 2015 forbes ranked ibm fifth-most valuable brand january 1969 last day johnson administration united states department justice antitrust division filed suit ibm alleging company engaged monopolistic business practices talks ibm would agree settlement consent decree two sides unable come terms case went trial 1975 legal matter justice department estimated would take 60 days three years millions pages evidence justice department decided drop suit new york times article states ibm never publicly disclosed much spent defending suit estimated tens millions dollars ibm one largest workforces world employees big blue referred ibmers company among first corporations provide group life insurance 1934 survivor benefits 1935 training women 1935 paid vacations 1937 training disabled people 1942 ibm hired first black salesperson 1946 1952 ceo thomas j. watson jr. published company first written equal opportunity policy letter one year u.s. supreme court decision brown vs. board education 11 years civil rights act 1964 human rights campaign rated ibm 100 index gay-friendliness every year since 2003 ibm providing same-sex partners employees health benefits anti-discrimination clause additionally 2005 ibm became first major company world commit formally use genetic information employment decisions 2017 ibm named working mother 100 best companies list 32nd consecutive year ibm several leadership development recognition programs recognize employee potential achievements early-career high potential employees ibm sponsors leadership development programs discipline e.g. general management gmldp human resources hrldp finance fldp year company also selects 500 ibmers ibm corporate service corps csc described corporate equivalent peace corps gives top employees month humanitarian work abroad certain interns ibm also program called extreme blue partners top business technical students develop high-value technology compete present business case company ceo internship end company also various designations exceptional individual contributors senior technical staff member stsm research staff member rsm distinguished engineer de distinguished designer dd prolific inventors also achieve patent plateaus earn designation master inventor company prestigious designation ibm fellow since 1963 company names handful fellows year based technical achievement programs recognize years service quarter century club established 1924 sellers eligible join hundred percent club composed ibm salesmen meet quotas convened atlantic city new jersey year company also selects 1,000 ibmers annually award best ibm award includes all-expenses paid trip awards ceremony exotic location ibm culture evolved significantly century operations early days dark gray suit white shirt sincere tie constituted public uniform ibm employees ibm management transformation 1990s ceo louis v. gerstner jr. relaxed codes normalizing dress behavior ibm employees company culture also given different plays company acronym ibm saying stands 've moved due relocations layoffs others saying stands 'm pursuant prevalent work-from-anywhere norm others saying stands 'm mentored due company open door policy encouragement mentoring levels terms labor relations company traditionally resisted labor union organizing although unions represent ibm workers outside united states japan ibm employees also american football team complete pro stadium cheerleaders televised games competing japanese x-league big blue 2015 ibm started giving employees option choosing either pc mac primary work device resulting ibm becoming world largest mac shop 2016 ibm eliminated forced rankings changed annual performance review system focus frequent feedback coaching skills development many ibmers also achieved notability outside work leaving ibm business former ibm employees include apple inc. ceo tim cook former eds ceo politician ross perot microsoft chairman john w. thompson sap co-founder hasso plattner gartner founder gideon gartner advanced micro devices amd ceo lisa su former citizens financial group ceo ellen alemany former yahoo chairman alfred amoroso former ceo c. michael armstrong former xerox corporation ceos david t. kearns g. richard thoman former fair isaac corporation ceo mark n. greene citrix systems co-founder ed iacobucci asos.com chairman brian mcbride former lenovo ceo steve ward former teradata ceo kenneth simonds government alumna patricia roberts harris served united states secretary housing urban development first african american woman serve united states cabinet samuel k. skinner served u.s. secretary transportation white house chief staff alumni also include u.s senators mack mattingly thom tillis wisconsin governor scott walker former u.s ambassadors vincent obsitnik slovakia arthur k. watson france thomas watson jr. soviet union former u.s representatives todd akin glenn andrews robert garcia katherine harris amo houghton jim ross lightfoot thomas j. manton donald w. riegle jr. ed zschau others nasa astronaut michael j. massimino canadian astronaut governor-general julie payette harvey mudd college president maria klawe western governors university president emeritus robert mendenhall former university kentucky president lee t. todd jr. nfl referee bill carollo former rangers f.c chairman john mcclelland recipient nobel prize literature j. m. coetzee thomas watson jr. also served 11th national president boy scouts america company 14 member board directors responsible overall corporate management includes ceos american express ford motor company boeing dow chemical johnson johnson cemex well president rensselaer polytechnic institute 2011 ibm became first technology company warren buffett holding company berkshire hathaway invested initially bought 64 million shares costing 10.5 billion dollars years increased ibm holdings however reduced 94.5 2.05 million shares end 2017 may 2018 completely ibm Target text information: communications_controller_for_linux.communications controller linux communications controller linux communications controller linux system z ccl ibm software product announced 2005 runs linux system z emulates ibm 37xx communications controller ccl runs unmodified ibm network control program ncp allow consolidation sna network infrastructure ip according ibm sna traffic enters leaves ccl sna network flows osa adapter however wide area network infrastructure need sna consolidate sna traffic use tunneling data link switching dlsw encapsulate sna communication ip network ccl supports ethernet token ring local area network lan connectivity directly connectivity dlsw router x.25 requires ibm npsi software plus third party package ccl support bisync start-stop according ibm figures ccl offers performance average 3745 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	5,480	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: c_(programming_language).c programming language c letter c general-purpose procedural computer programming language supporting structured programming lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations design c provides constructs map efficiently typical machine instructions found lasting use applications previously coded assembly language applications include operating systems well various application software computers ranging supercomputers embedded systems c originally developed bell labs dennis ritchie 1972 1973 make utilities running unix later applied re-implementing kernel unix operating system 1980s c gradually gained popularity nowadays one widely used programming languages c compilers various vendors available majority existing computer architectures operating systems c standardized ansi since 1989 see ansi c subsequently international organization standardization c imperative procedural language designed compiled using relatively straightforward compiler provide low-level access memory provide language constructs map efficiently machine instructions require minimal runtime support despite low-level capabilities language designed encourage cross-platform programming standards-compliant c program written portability mind compiled wide variety computer platforms operating systems changes source code language become available various platforms embedded microcontrollers supercomputers like procedural languages algol tradition c facilities structured programming allows lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations c executable code contained within subroutines also called functions though strictly sense functional programming function parameters always passed value pass-by-reference simulated c explicitly passing pointer values c program source text free-format using semicolon statement terminator curly braces grouping blocks statements c language also exhibits following characteristics c include certain features found languages object orientation garbage collection implemented emulated often use external libraries e.g. glib object system boehm garbage collector many later languages borrowed directly indirectly c including c++ c unix c shell go java javascript limbo lpc objective-c perl php python rust swift verilog systemverilog hardware description languages languages drawn many control structures basic features c. python dramatic exception also express highly similar syntax c tend combine recognizable expression statement syntax c underlying type systems data models semantics radically different origin c closely tied development unix operating system originally implemented assembly language pdp-7 dennis ritchie ken thompson incorporating several ideas colleagues eventually decided port operating system pdp-11 original pdp-11 version unix developed assembly language thompson needed programming language make utilities first tried make fortran compiler soon gave idea made new language b thompson simplified version bcpl however utilities written b b slow b could take advantage pdp-11 features byte addressability 1972 ritchie started improve b resulted creating new language c. c compiler utilities made included version 2 unix version 4 unix released nov. 1973 unix kernel extensively re-implemented c. time c language acquired powerful features codice_12 types unix one first operating system kernels implemented language assembly earlier instances include multics system written pl/i master control program mcp burroughs b5000 written algol 1961 around 1977 ritchie stephen c. johnson made changes language facilitate portability unix operating system johnson portable c compiler served basis several implementations c new platforms 1978 brian kernighan dennis ritchie published first edition c programming language book known c programmers k r served many years informal specification language version c describes commonly referred k r c second edition book covers later ansi c standard described k r introduced several language features even publication 1989 ansi standard many years k r c still considered lowest common denominator c programmers restricted maximum portability desired since many older compilers still use carefully written k r c code legal standard c well early versions c functions return types codice_30 must declared used function definition functions used without prior declaration presumed return type codice_30 example codice_30 type specifiers commented could omitted k r c required later standards since k r function declarations include information function arguments function parameter type checks performed although compilers would issue warning message local function called wrong number arguments multiple calls external function used different numbers types arguments separate tools unix lint utility developed among things could check consistency function use across multiple source files years following publication k r c several features added language supported compilers particular pcc vendors included large number extensions lack agreement standard library together language popularity fact even unix compilers precisely implemented k r specification led necessity standardization late 1970s 1980s versions c implemented wide variety mainframe computers minicomputers microcomputers including ibm pc popularity began increase significantly 1983 american national standards institute ansi formed committee x3j11 establish standard specification c. x3j11 based c standard unix implementation however non-portable portion unix c library handed ieee working group 1003 become basis 1988 posix standard 1989 c standard ratified ansi x3.159-1989 programming language c version language often referred ansi c standard c sometimes c89 1990 ansi c standard formatting changes adopted international organization standardization iso iso/iec 9899:1990 sometimes called c90 therefore terms c89 c90 refer programming language ansi like national standards bodies longer develops c standard independently defers international c standard maintained working group iso/iec jtc1/sc22/wg14 national adoption update international standard typically occurs within year iso publication one aims c standardization process produce superset k r c incorporating many subsequently introduced unofficial features standards committee also included several additional features function prototypes borrowed c++ codice_15 pointers support international character sets locales preprocessor enhancements although syntax parameter declarations augmented include style used c++ k r interface continued permitted compatibility existing source code c89 supported current c compilers c code written today based program written standard c without hardware-dependent assumptions run correctly platform conforming c implementation within resource limits without precautions programs may compile certain platform particular compiler due example use non-standard libraries gui libraries reliance compiler- platform-specific attributes exact size data types byte endianness cases code must compilable either standard-conforming k r c-based compilers codice_38 macro used split code standard k r sections prevent use k r c-based compiler features available standard c. ansi/iso standardization process c language specification remained relatively static several years 1995 normative amendment 1 1990 c standard iso/iec 9899/amd1:1995 known informally c95 published correct details add extensive support international character sets c standard revised late 1990s leading publication iso/iec 9899:1999 1999 commonly referred c99 since amended three times technical corrigenda c99 introduced several new features including inline functions several new data types including codice_39 codice_40 type represent complex numbers variable-length arrays flexible array members improved support ieee 754 floating point support variadic macros macros variable arity support one-line comments beginning codice_41 bcpl c++ many already implemented extensions several c compilers c99 part backward compatible c90 stricter ways particular declaration lacks type specifier longer codice_30 implicitly assumed standard macro codice_43 defined value codice_44 indicate c99 support available gcc solaris studio c compilers support many new features c99 c compiler microsoft visual c++ however implements c89 standard parts c99 required compatibility c++11 2007 work began another revision c standard informally called c1x official publication 2011-12-08 c standards committee adopted guidelines limit adoption new features tested existing implementations c11 standard adds numerous new features c library including type generic macros anonymous structures improved unicode support atomic operations multi-threading bounds-checked functions also makes portions existing c99 library optional improves compatibility c++ standard macro codice_43 defined codice_46 indicate c11 support available published june 2018 c18 current standard c programming language introduces new language features technical corrections clarifications defects c11 standard macro codice_43 defined codice_48 historically embedded c programming requires nonstandard extensions c language order support exotic features fixed-point arithmetic multiple distinct memory banks basic i/o operations 2008 c standards committee published technical report extending c language address issues providing common standard implementations adhere includes number features available normal c fixed-point arithmetic named address spaces basic i/o hardware addressing c formal grammar specified c standard line endings generally significant c however line boundaries significance preprocessing phase comments may appear either delimiters codice_49 codice_50 since c99 following codice_41 end line comments delimited codice_49 codice_50 nest sequences characters interpreted comment delimiters appear inside string character literals c source files contain declarations function definitions function definitions turn contain declarations statements declarations either define new types using keywords codice_12 codice_35 codice_14 assign types perhaps reserve storage new variables usually writing type followed variable name keywords codice_57 codice_30 specify built-in types sections code enclosed braces codice_59 codice_60 sometimes called curly brackets limit scope declarations act single statement control structures imperative language c uses statements specify actions common statement expression statement consisting expression evaluated followed semicolon side effect evaluation functions may called variables may assigned new values modify normal sequential execution statements c provides several control-flow statements identified reserved keywords structured programming supported codice_61 -codice_62 conditional execution codice_63-codice_4 codice_4 codice_2 iterative execution looping codice_2 statement separate initialization testing reinitialization expressions omitted codice_68 codice_69 used leave innermost enclosing loop statement skip reinitialization also non-structured codice_70 statement branches directly designated label within function codice_5 selects codice_72 executed based value integer expression expressions use variety built-in operators may contain function calls order arguments functions operands operators evaluated unspecified evaluations may even interleaved however side effects including storage variables occur next sequence point sequence points include end expression statement entry return function call sequence points also occur evaluation expressions containing certain operators codice_73 codice_10 codice_75 comma operator permits high degree object code optimization compiler requires c programmers take care obtain reliable results needed programming languages kernighan ritchie say introduction c programming language c like language blemishes operators wrong precedence parts syntax could better c standard attempt correct many blemishes impact changes already existing software basic c source character set includes following characters newline indicates end text line need correspond actual single character although convenience c treats one additional multi-byte encoded characters may used string literals entirely portable latest c standard c11 allows multi-national unicode characters embedded portably within c source text using codice_83 codice_84 encoding codice_85 denotes hexadecimal character although feature yet widely implemented basic c execution character set contains characters along representations alert backspace carriage return run-time support extended character sets increased revision c standard c89 32 reserved words also known keywords words used purposes predefined c99 reserved five words c11 reserved seven words recently reserved words begin underscore followed capital letter identifiers form previously reserved c standard use implementations since existing program source code using identifiers would affected c implementations started supporting extensions programming language standard headers define convenient synonyms underscored identifiers language previously included reserved word called codice_130 seldom implemented removed reserved word c supports rich set operators symbols used within expression specify manipulations performed evaluating expression c operators c uses operator codice_136 used mathematics express equality indicate assignment following precedent fortran pl/i unlike algol derivatives c uses operator codice_156 test equality similarity two operators assignment equality may result accidental use one place many cases mistake produce error message although compilers produce warnings example conditional expression codice_176 might mistakenly written codice_177 evaluated true codice_76 zero assignment c operator precedence always intuitive example operator codice_156 binds tightly executed prior operators codice_9 bitwise codice_149 bitwise expressions codice_182 must written codice_183 coder intent hello world example appeared first edition k r become model introductory program programming textbooks regardless programming language program prints hello world standard output usually terminal screen display original version main standard-conforming hello world program int main void first line program contains preprocessing directive indicated codice_184 causes compiler replace line entire text codice_185 standard header contains declarations standard input output functions codice_186 codice_187 angle brackets surrounding codice_185 indicate codice_185 located using search strategy prefers headers provided compiler headers name opposed double quotes typically include local project-specific header files next line indicates function named codice_190 defined codice_190 function serves special purpose c programs run-time environment calls codice_190 function begin program execution type specifier codice_30 indicates value returned invoker case run-time environment result evaluating codice_190 function integer keyword codice_15 parameter list indicates function takes arguments opening curly brace indicates beginning definition codice_190 function next line calls diverts execution function named codice_186 case supplied system library call codice_186 function passed provided single argument address first character string literal codice_199 string literal unnamed array elements type codice_57 set automatically compiler final 0-valued character mark end array codice_186 needs know codice_202 escape sequence c translates newline character output signifies end current line return value codice_186 function type codice_30 silently discarded since used careful program might test return value determine whether codice_186 function succeeded semicolon codice_206 terminates statement closing curly brace indicates end code codice_190 function according c99 specification newer codice_190 function unlike function implicitly return value codice_80 upon reaching codice_60 terminates function formerly explicit codice_211 statement required interpreted run-time system exit code indicating successful execution type system c static weakly typed makes similar type system algol descendants pascal built-in types integers various sizes signed unsigned floating-point numbers enumerated types codice_14 integer type codice_57 often used single-byte characters c99 added boolean datatype also derived types including arrays pointers records codice_12 unions codice_35 c often used low-level systems programming escapes type system may necessary compiler attempts ensure type correctness expressions programmer override checks various ways either using type cast explicitly convert value one type another using pointers unions reinterpret underlying bits data object way find c declaration syntax unintuitive particularly function pointers ritchie idea declare identifiers contexts resembling use declaration reflects use c usual arithmetic conversions allow efficient code generated sometimes produce unexpected results example comparison signed unsigned integers equal width requires conversion signed value unsigned generate unexpected results signed value negative c supports use pointers type reference records address location object function memory pointers dereferenced access data stored address pointed invoke pointed-to function pointers manipulated using assignment pointer arithmetic run-time representation pointer value typically raw memory address perhaps augmented offset-within-word field since pointer type includes type thing pointed expressions including pointers type-checked compile time pointer arithmetic automatically scaled size pointed-to data type pointers used many purposes c. text strings commonly manipulated using pointers arrays characters dynamic memory allocation performed using pointers many data types trees commonly implemented dynamically allocated codice_12 objects linked together using pointers pointers functions useful passing functions arguments higher-order functions qsort bsearch callbacks invoked event handlers null pointer value explicitly points valid location dereferencing null pointer value undefined often resulting segmentation fault null pointer values useful indicating special cases next pointer final node linked list error indication functions returning pointers appropriate contexts source code assigning pointer variable null pointer constant written codice_80 without explicit casting pointer type codice_218 macro defined several standard headers conditional contexts null pointer values evaluate false pointer values evaluate true void pointers codice_219 point objects unspecified type therefore used generic data pointers since size type pointed-to object known void pointers dereferenced pointer arithmetic allowed although easily many contexts implicitly converted object pointer type careless use pointers potentially dangerous typically unchecked pointer variable made point arbitrary location cause undesirable effects although properly used pointers point safe places made point unsafe places using invalid pointer arithmetic objects point may continue used deallocation dangling pointers may used without initialized wild pointers may directly assigned unsafe value using cast union another corrupt pointer general c permissive allowing manipulation conversion pointer types although compilers typically provide options various levels checking programming languages address problems using restrictive reference types array types c traditionally fixed static size specified compile time recent c99 standard also allows form variable-length arrays however also possible allocate block memory arbitrary size run-time using standard library codice_220 function treat array c unification arrays pointers means declared arrays dynamically allocated simulated arrays virtually interchangeable since arrays always accessed effect via pointers array accesses typically checked underlying array size although compilers may provide bounds checking option array bounds violations therefore possible rather common carelessly written code lead various repercussions including illegal memory accesses corruption data buffer overruns run-time exceptions bounds checking desired must done manually c special provision declaring multi-dimensional arrays rather relies recursion within type system declare arrays arrays effectively accomplishes thing index values resulting multi-dimensional array thought increasing row-major order multi-dimensional arrays commonly used numerical algorithms mainly applied linear algebra store matrices structure c array well suited particular task however since arrays passed merely pointers bounds array must known fixed values else explicitly passed subroutine requires dynamically sized arrays arrays accessed using double indexing workaround allocate array additional row vector pointers columns c99 introduced variable-length arrays address issues ordinary c arrays subscript notation codice_221 codice_222 designates pointer syntactic sugar codice_223 taking advantage compiler knowledge pointer type address codice_224 points base address pointed codice_222 incremented codice_27 bytes rather defined base address incremented codice_27 multiplied size element codice_222 points thus codice_221 designates codice_230th element array furthermore expression contexts notable exception operand codice_108 name array automatically converted pointer array first element implies array never copied whole named argument function rather address first element passed therefore although function calls c use pass-by-value semantics arrays effect passed reference size element determined applying operator codice_108 dereferenced element codice_222 codice_234 codice_235 number elements declared array codice_78 determined codice_237 latter applies array names variables declared subscripts codice_238 due semantics c possible determine entire size arrays pointers arrays created dynamic allocation codice_220 code codice_240 codice_241 designates pointer work since compiler assumes size pointer requested since array name arguments codice_108 converted pointers exhibit ambiguity however arrays created dynamic allocation accessed pointers rather true array variables suffer codice_108 issues array pointers thus despite apparent equivalence array pointer variables still distinction made even though name array expression contexts converted pointer first element pointer occupy storage array name l-value address constant unlike pointer variable consequently array points changed impossible assign new address array name array contents may copied however using codice_244 function accessing individual elements one important functions programming language provide facilities managing memory objects stored memory c provides three distinct ways allocate memory objects three approaches appropriate different situations various trade-offs example static memory allocation little allocation overhead automatic allocation may involve slightly overhead dynamic memory allocation potentially great deal overhead allocation deallocation persistent nature static objects useful maintaining state information across function calls automatic allocation easy use stack space typically much limited transient either static memory heap space dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation objects whose size known run-time c programs make extensive use three possible automatic static allocation usually simplest storage managed compiler freeing programmer potentially error-prone chore manually allocating releasing storage however many data structures change size runtime since static allocations automatic allocations c99 must fixed size compile-time many situations dynamic allocation necessary prior c99 standard variable-sized arrays common example see article codice_220 example dynamically allocated arrays unlike automatic allocation fail run time uncontrolled consequences dynamic allocation functions return indication form null pointer value required storage allocated static allocation large usually detected linker loader program even begin execution unless otherwise specified static objects contain zero null pointer values upon program startup automatically dynamically allocated objects initialized initial value explicitly specified otherwise initially indeterminate values typically whatever bit pattern happens present storage might even represent valid value type program attempts access uninitialized value results undefined many modern compilers try detect warn problem false positives false negatives occur another issue heap memory allocation synchronized actual usage program order reused much possible example pointer heap memory allocation goes scope value overwritten codice_249 called memory recovered later reuse essentially lost program phenomenon known memory leak conversely possible memory freed continue referenced leading unpredictable results typically symptoms appear portion program far removed actual error making difficult track problem issues ameliorated languages automatic garbage collection c programming language uses libraries primary method extension c library set functions contained within single archive file library typically header file contains prototypes functions contained within library may used program declarations special data types macro symbols used functions order program use library must include library header file library must linked program many cases requires compiler flags e.g. codice_250 shorthand link math library common c library c standard library specified iso ansi c standards comes every c implementation implementations target limited environments embedded systems may provide subset standard library library supports stream input output memory allocation mathematics character strings time values several separate standard headers example codice_185 specify interfaces standard library facilities another common set c library functions used applications specifically targeted unix unix-like systems especially functions provide interface kernel functions detailed various standards posix single unix specification since many programs written c wide variety libraries available libraries often written c c compilers generate efficient object code programmers create interfaces library routines used higher-level languages like java perl python file input output i/o part c language instead handled libraries c standard library associated header files e.g codice_185 file handling generally implemented high-level i/o works streams stream perspective data flow independent devices file concrete device high level i/o done association stream file c standard library buffer memory area queue temporarily used store data sent final destination reduces time spent waiting slower devices example hard drive solid state drive low-level i/o functions part standard c library generally part bare metal programming programming independent operating system embedded programming exceptions implementations include low-level i/o number tools developed help c programmers find fix statements undefined behavior possibly erroneous expressions greater rigor provided compiler tool lint first leading many others automated source code checking auditing beneficial language c many tools exist lint common practice use lint detect questionable code program first written program passes lint compiled using c compiler also many compilers optionally warn syntactically valid constructs likely actually errors misra c proprietary set guidelines avoid questionable code developed embedded systems also compilers libraries operating system level mechanisms performing actions standard part c bounds checking arrays detection buffer overflow serialization dynamic memory tracking automatic garbage collection tools purify valgrind linking libraries containing special versions memory allocation functions help uncover runtime errors memory usage c widely used systems programming implementing operating systems embedded system applications c code written portability used purposes yet needed system-specific code used access specific hardware addresses perform type punning match externally imposed interface requirements low run-time demand system resources c also used website programming using cgi gateway information web application server browser c often chosen interpreted languages speed stability near-universal availability one consequence c wide availability efficiency compilers libraries interpreters programming languages often implemented c. reference implementations python perl php example written c. layer abstraction thin overhead low c enables programmers create efficient implementations algorithms data structures useful computationally intense programs example gnu multiple precision arithmetic library gnu scientific library mathematica matlab completely partially written c. c sometimes used intermediate language implementations languages approach may used portability convenience using c intermediate language additional machine-specific code generators necessary c features line-number preprocessor directives optional superfluous commas end initializer lists support compilation generated code however c shortcomings prompted development c-based languages specifically designed use intermediate languages c -- c also widely used implement end-user applications however applications also written newer higher-level languages c directly indirectly influenced many later languages c go java javascript limbo lpc perl php python unix c shell pervasive influence syntactical languages mentioned combine statement less recognizably expression syntax c type systems data models and/or large-scale program structures differ c sometimes radically several c near-c interpreters exist including ch cint also used scripting object-oriented languages became popular c++ objective-c two different extensions c provided object-oriented capabilities languages originally implemented source-to-source compilers source code translated c compiled c compiler c++ programming language devised bjarne stroustrup approach providing object-oriented functionality c-like syntax c++ adds greater typing strength scoping tools useful object-oriented programming permits generic programming via templates nearly superset c c++ supports c exceptions objective-c originally thin layer top c remains strict superset c permits object-oriented programming using hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm objective-c derives syntax c smalltalk syntax involves preprocessing expressions function declarations function calls inherited c syntax object-oriented features originally taken smalltalk addition c++ objective-c ch cilk unified parallel c nearly supersets c 1-hop neighbor's text information: data_type.data type computer science computer programming data type simply type attribute data tells compiler interpreter programmer intends use data programming languages support common data types real integer boolean data type constrains values expression variable function might take data type defines operations done data meaning data way values type stored type value expression may take value data types used within type systems offer various ways defining implementing using different type systems ensure varying degrees type safety almost programming languages explicitly include notion data type though different languages may use different terminology common data types include example java programming language type int represents set 32-bit integers ranging value −2,147,483,648 2,147,483,647 well operations performed integers addition subtraction multiplication colors hand represented three bytes denoting amounts red green blue one string representing color name allowable operations include addition subtraction multiplication programming languages also allow programmer define additional data types usually combining multiple elements types defining valid operations new data type example programmer might create new data type named complex number would include real imaginary parts data type also represents constraint placed upon interpretation data type system describing representation interpretation structure values objects stored computer memory type system uses data type information check correctness computer programs access manipulate data data types statistics comparable types computer programming vice versa shown following table identified five definitions type used—sometimes implicitly—in literature types including behavior align closely object-oriented models whereas structured programming model would tend include code called plain old data structures five types definition terms representation often done imperative languages algol pascal definition terms value space behaviour used higher-level languages simula clu primitive data types typically types built-in basic language implementation data computers based digital electronics represented bits alternatives 0 1 lowest level smallest addressable unit data usually group bits called byte usually octet 8 bits unit processed machine code instructions called word typically 32 64 bits instructions interpret word binary number 32-bit word represent unsigned integer values 0 formula_1 signed integer values formula_2 formula_3 two complement machine language machine n't need distinguish unsigned signed data types part floating point numbers used floating point arithmetic use different interpretation bits word see https //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/floating-point_arithmetic details machine data types need exposed made available systems low-level programming languages allowing fine-grained control hardware c programming language instance supplies integer types various widths codice_1 codice_2 corresponding native type exist target platform compiler break code using types exist instance 32-bit integer requested 16 bit platform compiler tacitly treat array two 16 bit integers higher level programming machine data types often hidden abstracted implementation detail would render code less portable exposed instance generic codice_3 type might supplied instead integers specific bit-width boolean type represents values true false although two values possible rarely implemented single binary digit efficiency reasons many programming languages explicit boolean type instead interpreting instance 0 false values true boolean data refers logical structure language interpreted machine language case boolean 0 refers logic false true always non zero especially one known boolean 1 composite types derived one primitive type done number ways ways combined called data structures composing primitive type compound type generally results new type e.g array-of-integer different type integer many others possible tend variations compounds example linked list store data array provides sequential access rather random built records dynamic memory though arguably data structure rather type per se also common distinct enough including discussion composite types justified enumerated type distinct values compared assigned necessarily particular concrete representation computer memory compilers interpreters represent arbitrarily example four suits deck playing cards may four enumerators named club diamond heart spade belonging enumerated type named suit variable v declared suit data type one assign four values implementations allow programmers assign integer values enumeration values even treat type-equivalent integers character string types store sequences characters character set ascii since character sets include digits possible numeric string codice_7 however many languages treat belonging different type numeric value codice_8 character string types different subtypes according required character width original 7-bit wide ascii found limited superseded 8 16-bit sets encode wide variety non-latin alphabets hebrew chinese symbols strings may either stretch-to-fit fixed size even programming language may also subtyped maximum size note strings primitive languages instance c composed array characters types based derived basic types explained languages c functions type derived type return value main non-composite derived type pointer data type whose value refers directly points another value stored elsewhere computer memory using address primitive kind reference everyday terms page number book could considered piece data refers another one pointers often stored format similar integer however attempting dereference look pointer whose value never valid memory address would cause program crash ameliorate potential problem pointers considered separate type type data point even underlying representation type specify implementation abstract data type instance stack abstract type implemented array contiguous block memory containing multiple values linked list set non-contiguous memory blocks linked pointers abstract types handled code know care underlying types contained programming agnostic concrete data types called generic programming arrays records also contain underlying types considered concrete specify contents elements laid memory examples include convenience high-level languages may supply ready-made real world data types instance times dates monetary values memory even language allows built primitive types type system associates types computed values examining flow values type system attempts prove type errors occur type system question determines constitutes type error type system generally seeks guarantee operations expecting certain kind value used values operation make sense compiler may use static type value optimize storage needs choice algorithms operations value many c compilers data type example represented 32 bits accord ieee specification single-precision floating point numbers thus use floating-point-specific microprocessor operations values floating-point addition multiplication etc. depth type constraints manner evaluation affect typing language programming language may associate operation varying concrete algorithms type case type polymorphism type theory study type systems although concrete type systems programming languages originate practical issues computer architecture compiler implementation language design type systems may variously static dynamic strong weak typing forth 1-hop neighbor's text information: ruby_(programming_language).ruby programming language ruby interpreted high-level general-purpose programming language designed developed mid-1990s yukihiro matz matsumoto japan ruby dynamically typed uses garbage collection supports multiple programming paradigms including procedural object-oriented functional programming according creator ruby influenced perl smalltalk eiffel ada basic lisp matsumoto said ruby conceived 1993 1999 post ruby-talk mailing list describes early ideas language matsumoto describes design ruby like simple lisp language core object system like smalltalk blocks inspired higher-order functions practical utility like perl name ruby originated online chat session matsumoto keiju ishitsuka february 24 1993 code written language initially two names proposed coral ruby matsumoto chose latter later e-mail ishitsuka matsumoto later noted factor choosing name ruby – birthstone one colleagues first public release ruby 0.95 announced japanese domestic newsgroups december 21 1995 subsequently three versions ruby released two days release coincided launch japanese-language ruby-list mailing list first mailing list new language already present stage development many features familiar later releases ruby including object-oriented design classes inheritance mixins iterators closures exception handling garbage collection following release ruby 0.95 1995 several stable versions ruby released following years 1997 first article ruby published web year matsumoto hired netlab.jp work ruby full-time developer 1998 ruby application archive launched matsumoto along simple english-language homepage ruby 1999 first english language mailing list ruby-talk began signaled growing interest language outside japan year matsumoto keiju ishitsuka wrote first book ruby object-oriented scripting language ruby オブジェクト指向スクリプト言語 ruby published japan october 1999 would followed early 2000s around 20 books ruby published japanese 2000 ruby popular python japan september 2000 first english language book programming ruby printed later freely released public widening adoption ruby amongst english speakers early 2002 english-language ruby-talk mailing list receiving messages japanese-language ruby-list demonstrating ruby increasing popularity non-japanese speaking world ruby 1.8 initially released august 2003 stable long time retired june 2013 although deprecated still code based ruby 1.8 partially compatible ruby 1.9 ruby 1.8 subject several industry standards language specifications ruby developed open standards promotion center information-technology promotion agency japanese government agency submission japanese industrial standards committee jisc international organization standardization iso accepted japanese industrial standard jis x 3017 2011 international standard iso/iec 30170 2012 around 2005 interest ruby language surged tandem ruby rails web framework written ruby rails frequently credited increasing awareness ruby ruby 1.9 released christmas day 2007 effective ruby 1.9.3 released october 31 2011 ruby switched dual-licensed ruby license gpl dual-licensed ruby license two-clause bsd license adoption 1.9 slowed changes 1.8 required many popular third party gems rewritten ruby 1.9 introduces many significant changes 1.8 series examples ruby 1.9 obsolete since february 23 2015 longer receive bug security fixes users advised upgrade recent version ruby 2.0 added several new features including ruby 2.0 intended fully backward compatible ruby 1.9.3 official 2.0.0 release february 24 2013 five known minor incompatibilities obsolete since february 22 2016 longer receive bug security fixes users advised upgrade recent version ruby 2.1.0 released christmas day 2013 release includes speed-ups bugfixes library updates starting 2.1.0 ruby versioning policy like semantic versioning although similar ruby versioning policy compatible semantic versioning semantic versioning also provides additional labels pre-release build metadata available extensions major.minor.patch format available ruby ruby 2.1 obsolete since april 1 2017 longer receive bug security fixes users advised upgrade recent version ruby 2.2.0 released christmas day 2014 release includes speed-ups bugfixes library updates removes deprecated apis notably ruby 2.2.0 introduces changes memory handling incremental garbage collector support garbage collection symbols option compile directly jemalloc also contains experimental support using vfork 2 system spawn added support unicode 7.0 specification features made obsolete removed include callcc dl library digest :hmac lib/rational.rb lib/complex.rb gserver logger :application well various c api functions ruby 2.3.0 released christmas day 2015 notable changes include 2.3 branch also includes many performance improvements updates bugfixes including changes proc call socket io use exception keywords thread name handling default passive net :ftp connections rake removed stdlib ruby 2.4.0 released christmas day 2016 notable changes include 2.4 branch also includes performance improvements hash table array max array min instance variable access ruby 2.5.0 released christmas day 2017 notable changes include top come lot performance improvements like faster block passing 3 times faster faster mutexes faster erb templates improvements concatenation methods ruby 2.6.0 released christmas day 2018 notable changes include matsumoto said ruby designed programmer productivity fun following principles good user interface design google tech talk 2008 matsumoto stated hope see ruby help every programmer world productive enjoy programming happy primary purpose ruby language stresses systems design needs emphasize human rather computer needs ruby said follow principle least astonishment pola meaning language behave way minimize confusion experienced users matsumoto said primary design goal make language enjoyed using minimizing programmer work possible confusion said applied principle least astonishment design ruby nevertheless phrase come closely associated ruby programming language phrase source surprise novice users may take mean ruby behaviors try closely match behaviors familiar languages may 2005 discussion newsgroup comp.lang.ruby matsumoto attempted distance ruby pola explaining design choice surprising someone uses personal standard evaluating surprise personal standard remains consistent would surprises familiar standard matsumoto defined way interview ruby object-oriented every value object including classes instances types many languages designate primitives integers booleans null variables always hold references objects every function method methods always called object methods defined top level scope become methods object class since class ancestor every class methods called object also visible scopes effectively serving global procedures ruby supports inheritance dynamic dispatch mixins singleton methods belonging defined single instance rather defined class though ruby support multiple inheritance classes import modules mixins ruby described multi-paradigm programming language allows procedural programming defining functions/variables outside classes makes part root 'self object object orientation everything object functional programming anonymous functions closures continuations statements values functions return last evaluation support introspection reflection metaprogramming well support interpreter-based threads ruby features dynamic typing supports parametric polymorphism according ruby faq syntax similar perl semantics similar smalltalk differs greatly python syntax ruby broadly similar perl python class method definitions signaled keywords whereas code blocks defined keywords braces contrast perl variables obligatorily prefixed sigil used sigil changes semantics scope variable practical purposes distinction expressions statements line breaks significant taken end statement semicolon may equivalently used unlike python indentation significant one differences python perl ruby keeps instance variables completely private class exposes accessor methods codice_11 codice_12 etc. unlike getter setter methods languages like c++ java accessor methods ruby created single line code via metaprogramming however accessor methods also created traditional fashion c++ java invocation methods require use parentheses trivial change instance variable full function without modifying single line calling code refactoring achieving similar functionality c vb.net property members python property descriptors similar come tradeoff development process one begins python using publicly exposed instance variable later changes implementation use private instance variable exposed property descriptor code internal class may need adjusted use private variable rather public property ruby ’ design forces instance variables private also provides simple way declare codice_13 codice_14 methods keeping idea ruby one never directly accesses internal members class outside class rather one passes message class receives response see examples section samples code demonstrating ruby syntax ruby official distribution also includes codice_15 interactive command-line interpreter used test code quickly following code fragment represents sample session using codice_15 following examples run ruby shell interactive ruby shell saved file run command line typing codice_17 classic hello world example basic ruby code input conversions variety ways define strings ruby following assignments equivalent strings support variable interpolation following assignments equivalent produce raw strings constructing using array constructing using associative array ruby called hash statement two syntaxes creating code block code block passed method optional block argument many built-in methods arguments parameter-passing block closure computer science \|closure creating anonymous function returning closure computer science \|closures method yielding flow program control block provided calling time iterating enumerations arrays using blocks method codice_18 accept parameter block codice_18 method iterates member list performing function retaining aggregate analogous codice_20 function functional programming languages example first pass block receives 10 argument inject codice_21 1 first element array codice_22 returns 11 becomes codice_21 next pass added 3 get 14 added 5 third pass finally return 19 using enumeration block square numbers 1 10 using range invoke method item codice_24 synonym codice_25 following code defines class named codice_26 addition codice_27 usual constructor create new objects two methods one override codice_28 comparison operator codice_29 sort age override codice_30 method codice_31 format output codice_12 example metaprogramming ruby codice_33 defines getter setter methods instance variables codice_12 getter methods last evaluated statement method return value allowing omission explicit codice_35 statement preceding code prints three names reverse age order codice_26 constant reference codice_37 object ruby classes never closed methods always added existing class applies classes including standard built-in classes needed open class definition existing class new contents specified added existing contents simple example adding new method standard library codice_38 class adding methods previously defined classes often called monkey patch\|monkey-patching performed recklessly practice lead behavior collisions subsequent unexpected results code scalability problems since ruby 2.0 possible use refinements reduce potentially negative consequences monkey-patching limiting scope patch particular areas code base exception raised codice_39 call optional message added exception exceptions also specified programmer alternatively exception instance passed codice_39 method last construct useful raising instance custom exception class featuring constructor takes one argument exceptions handled codice_41 clause clause catch exceptions inherit codice_42 flow control keywords used handling exceptions codice_43 codice_44 common mistake attempt catch exceptions simple rescue clause catch exceptions one must write catch particular exceptions also possible specify exception object made available handler clause alternatively recent exception stored magic global codice_45 several exceptions also caught ruby code programmatically modify run time program lifecycle phase \|runtime aspects structure would fixed rigid languages class method definitions sort metaprogramming used write concise code effectively extend language example following ruby code generates new methods built-in codice_46 class based list colors methods wrap contents string html tag styled respective color generated methods could used like implement equivalent many languages programmer would write method codice_47 codice_48 codice_49 etc separately possible uses ruby metaprogramming include original ruby interpreter computer software \|interpreter often referred ruby mri\|matz ruby interpreter mri implementation written c uses ruby-specific virtual machine standardized retired ruby 1.8 ruby mri\|implementation written c programming language \|c single-pass interpreted language starting ruby 1.9 continuing ruby 2.x official ruby interpreter yarv yet another ruby vm implementation superseded slower virtual machine used previous releases mri number alternative implementations ruby including jruby rubinius mruby takes different approach jruby rubinius providing just-in-time compilation mruby also providing ahead-of-time compilation ruby three major alternate implementations ruby implementations include defunct ruby implementations maturity ruby implementations tends measured ability run ruby rails rails framework complex implement uses many ruby-specific features point particular implementation achieves goal called rails singularity reference implementation jruby rubinius able run rails unmodified production environment matsumoto originally ruby development bsd\|4.3bsd -based sony news\|sony news-os 3.x later migrated work sunos 4.x finally linux 1999 ruby known work across many different operating system including news-os sunos aix svr4 solaris operating system \|solaris nec up-ux nextstep bsd linux classic mac os\|mac os dos windows operating system \|windows beos modern ruby versions implementations available many operating systems linux bsd solaris aix macos windows windows phone windows ce symbian os beos ibm rubygems ruby package manager ruby package called gem easily installed via command line gems libraries though exist applications integrated development environment\|ides 10,000 ruby gems hosted rubygems.org many new existing ruby libraries hosted github service offers revision control\|version control repository hosting git software \|git ruby application archive hosted applications documentation libraries ruby programming maintained 2013 function transferred rubygems category ruby programming language category articles example ruby code category class-based programming languages category dynamic programming languages category dynamically typed programming languages category free software programmed c category iso standards category object-oriented programming languages category programming languages created 1995 category programming languages iso standard category scripting languages category software using bsd license category text-oriented programming languages category free compilers interpreters Target text information: cubrid.cubrid cubrid cube-rid open-source sql-based relational database management system rdbms object extensions developed naver corporation web applications name cubrid combination two words cube bridge cube standing sealed box provides security contents bridge standing data bridge cubrid separate license server engine interfaces server engine adopts gpl v2.0 later license allows distribution modification acquisition source code cubrid apis gui tools berkeley software distribution license obligation opening derivative works reason adopting two separate license systems provide complete freedom independent software vendors isv develop distribute cubrid-based applications feature distinguishes cubrid database relational database systems 3-tier client-server architecture consists database server connection broker application layer database server component cubrid database management system responsible storage operations statement execution cubrid database server instance mount use single database making inter-database queries impossible however one instance run machine unlike solutions database server compile queries executes queries precompiled custom access specification language cubrid connection broker main roles also local object pool enables parts execution deferred database server e.g tuple insertion deletion ddl statements thus lowering database server load since connection broker bound machine database server cubrid take advantage hardware resources several machines processing queries single database applications use one available apis connect cubrid connection broker cubrid high availability provides load-balanced fault-tolerant continuous service availability shared-nothing clustering fail-over fail-back automated mechanisms cubrid 3-tier architecture allows native support high-availability two-level auto failover broker failover server failover connecting broker via client api users specify connection url list alternative hosts brokers listening incoming requests case hardware network operating system software failure one hosts underlying client api automatically fails next host user provided high availability environment built 1 n master-slave server nodes slave node communicates master via cubrid heartbeat protocol master node unresponsive first slave nodes get promoted master role replication nodes achieved one three modes synchronous semi-synchronous asynchronous administrators specify list server hosts broker connect event failure master node another used cubrid provides built-in support database sharding sharding interface implemented special broker called cubrid shard communicating cubrid shard identical communicating normal broker client apis used features normal broker failover load balancing also apply cubrid shard storage implemented separate independent physical databases located separate cubrid server hosts shard fully configured high availability environment data distribution logic among shards lies cubrid shard determines shard use storage retrieval data based hash user defined algorithm cubrid supports online offline incremental backup connection broker configured four different modes read-write read-only slave-only preferred host read list alternative hosts user provided via connection url used method balance load load balancing used client api randomly choose host among specified connection url except one used connect last time chosen host available selection continue hosts determined unavailable case driver report error query execution plan cache implemented broker order skip compilation steps often used queries queries parametrized parsing two queries differ values literal constants share cache entry cubrid support b+-tree indexes single-column multi-column following types indexes created query optimizer use indexes produce faster execution plans using methods cubrid supports horizontal partitioning range hash value lists maximum 1024 partitions per table partitions accessed independently support operations valid normal table version 9.0 cubrid implements execution-time partition pruning cubrid implements large subset ansi standard extended features later sql standards custom features cubrid provides support window functions defined standard implemented functions row_number count min max sum avg stddev_pop stddev_samp var_pop var_samp rank dense_rank lead lag ntile hierarchical queries using non-standard start ... connect oracle syntax supported cubrid number specialized pseudocolumns operators provided controlling behavior query execution cubrid optimizes common scenario web applications database fields need incremented certain events e.g page views contrast usual approach using select/update statement combination cubrid increment fields within select statement execution bypassing expensive compiling execution locking overhead associated update statement stored procedure language supported cubrid java requiring java virtual machine installed system virtual machine started managed server used code execution stored procedure code requires database access must use jdbc driver either using parent transaction issuing new one addition like operator cubrid provides regexp operator regular expression pattern matching default operator case insensitive matching input string modifier binary used case sensitive scenarios optional alias regexp rlike currently cubrid support regexp unicode strings variety data types supported cubrid cubrid available microsoft windows linux distributions 32- 64-bit architectures partial support os x implemented cubrid comes built-in command-line interface named csql used execute sql statements cubrid server tool used one two modes cubrid csql also implements internal commands related schema information plan generation debugging transaction control query timing cubrid provides number language-specific application programming interfaces c driver also called cci cubrid native driver jdbc php/pdo driver odbc oledb ado.net ruby driver python driver node.js driver tcl perl driver several graphical user interface tools developed cubrid applications websites added cubrid support powered cubrid I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	11,552	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: control-flow_graph.control-flow graph computer science control-flow graph cfg representation using graph notation paths might traversed program execution control-flow graph due frances e. allen notes reese t. prosser used boolean connectivity matrices flow analysis cfg essential many compiler optimizations static-analysis tools control-flow graph node graph represents basic block i.e straight-line piece code without jumps jump targets jump targets start block jumps end block directed edges used represent jumps control flow presentations two specially designated blocks entry block control enters flow graph exit block control flow leaves construction procedure cfg every edge a→b property cfg thus obtained least conceptually starting program full flow graph—i.e graph every node represents individual instruction—and performing edge contraction every edge falsifies predicate i.e contracting every edge whose source single exit whose destination single entry contraction-based algorithm practical importance except visualization aid understanding cfg construction cfg efficiently constructed directly program scanning basic blocks consider following fragment code 4 basic blocks 0 1 b 2 3 c 4 5 particular case entry block exit block lines 4 5 jump targets graph fragment edges b c b c d. reachability graph property useful optimization subgraph connected subgraph containing entry block subgraph unreachable execution unreachable code normal conditions safely removed exit block unreachable entry block infinite loop may exist infinite loops detectable see halting problem halting order may also exist unreachable code infinite loops possible even programmer explicitly code optimizations like constant propagation constant folding followed jump threading collapse multiple basic blocks one cause edges removed cfg etc. thus possibly disconnecting parts graph block dominates block n every path entry reaches block n pass block m. entry block dominates blocks reverse direction block postdominates block n every path n exit pass block m. exit block postdominates blocks said block immediately dominates block n dominates n intervening block p dominates p p dominates n. words last dominator paths entry n. block unique immediate dominator similarly notion immediate postdominator analogous immediate dominator dominator tree ancillary data structure depicting dominator relationships arc block block n immediate dominator n. graph tree since block unique immediate dominator tree rooted entry block dominator tree calculated efficiently using lengauer–tarjan algorithm postdominator tree analogous dominator tree tree rooted exit block back edge edge points block already met depth-first dfs traversal graph back edges typical loops critical edge edge neither edge leaving source block edge entering destination block edges must split new block must created middle edge order insert computations edge without affecting edges abnormal edge edge whose destination unknown exception handling constructs produce edges tend inhibit optimization impossible edge also known fake edge edge added graph solely preserve property exit block postdominates blocks ever traversed loop header sometimes called entry point loop dominator target loop-forming back edge loop header dominates blocks loop body block may loop header one loop loop may multiple entry points case loop header suppose block dominator several incoming edges back edges loop header advantageous several optimization passes break two blocks m. contents back edges moved rest edges moved point new edge inserted immediate dominator beginning would empty passes like loop-invariant code motion could populate called loop pre-header would loop header reducible cfg one edges partitioned two disjoint sets forward edges back edges structured programming languages often designed cfgs produce reducible common structured programming statements break continue produce reducible graphs produce irreducible graphs statements goto needed irreducible graphs may also produced compiler optimizations loop connectedness cfg defined respect given depth-first search tree dfst cfg dfst rooted start node cover every node cfg edges cfg run node one dfst ancestors including called back edges loop connectedness largest number back edges found cycle-free path cfg reducible cfg loop connectedness independent dfst chosen loop connectedness used reason time complexity data-flow analysis 1-hop neighbor's text information: von_neumann_architecture.von neumann architecture von neumann architecture—also known von neumann model princeton architecture—is computer architecture based 1945 description mathematician physicist john von neumann others first draft report edvac document describes design architecture electronic digital computer components term von neumann architecture evolved mean stored-program computer instruction fetch data operation occur time share common bus referred von neumann bottleneck often limits performance system design von neumann architecture machine simpler harvard architecture machine—which also stored-program system one dedicated set address data buses reading writing memory another set address data buses fetch instructions stored-program digital computer keeps program instructions data read-write random-access memory ram stored-program computers advancement program-controlled computers 1940s colossus eniac programmed setting switches inserting patch cables route data control signals various functional units vast majority modern computers use memory data program instructions von neumann vs. harvard distinction applies cache architecture main memory split cache architecture earliest computing machines fixed programs simple computers still use design either simplicity training purposes example desk calculator principle fixed program computer basic mathematics run word processor games changing program fixed-program machine requires rewiring restructuring redesigning machine earliest computers much programmed designed particular task reprogramming —when possible all—was laborious process started flowcharts paper notes followed detailed engineering designs often-arduous process physically rewiring rebuilding machine could take three weeks set debug program eniac proposal stored-program computer changed stored-program computer includes design instruction set store memory set instructions program details computation stored-program design also allows self-modifying code one early motivation facility need program increment otherwise modify address portion instructions operators manually early designs became less important index registers indirect addressing became usual features machine architecture another use embed frequently used data instruction stream using immediate addressing self-modifying code largely fallen favor since usually hard understand debug well inefficient modern processor pipelining caching schemes large scale ability treat instructions data makes assemblers compilers linkers loaders automated programming tools possible makes programs write programs possible made sophisticated self-hosting computing ecosystem flourish around von neumann architecture machines high level languages leverage von neumann architecture providing abstract machine-independent way manipulate executable code runtime e.g. lisp using runtime information tune just-in-time compilation e.g languages hosted java virtual machine languages embedded web browsers smaller scale repetitive operations bitblt pixel vertex shaders accelerated general purpose processors just-in-time compilation techniques one use self-modifying code remained popular mathematician alan turing alerted problem mathematical logic lectures max newman university cambridge wrote paper 1936 entitled computable numbers application entscheidungsproblem published proceedings london mathematical society described hypothetical machine called universal computing machine known universal turing machine hypothetical machine infinite store memory today terminology contained instructions data john von neumann became acquainted turing visiting professor cambridge 1935 also turing phd year institute advanced study princeton new jersey 1936 – 1937 whether knew turing paper 1936 time clear 1936 konrad zuse also anticipated two patent applications machine instructions could stored storage used data independently j. presper eckert john mauchly developing eniac moore school electrical engineering university pennsylvania wrote stored-program concept december 1943 von neumann involved manhattan project los alamos national laboratory required huge amounts calculation drew eniac project summer 1944 joined ongoing discussions design stored-program computer edvac part group wrote description titled first draft report edvac based work eckert mauchly unfinished colleague herman goldstine circulated von neumann name consternation eckert mauchly paper read dozens von neumann colleagues america europe influenced next round computer designs jack copeland considers historically inappropriate refer electronic stored-program digital computers 'von neumann machines los alamos colleague stan frankel said von neumann regard turing ideas time first draft report circulated turing producing report entitled proposed electronic calculator described engineering programming detail idea machine called automatic computing engine ace presented executive committee british national physical laboratory february 19 1946 although turing knew wartime experience bletchley park proposed feasible secrecy surrounding colossus subsequently maintained several decades prevented saying various successful implementations ace design produced von neumann turing papers described stored-program computers von neumann earlier paper achieved greater circulation computer architecture outlined became known von neumann architecture 1953 publication faster thought symposium digital computing machines edited b. v. bowden section chapter computers america reads follows machine institute advanced studies princeton 1945 professor j. von neumann working moore school engineering philadelphia e.n.i.a.c built issued behalf group co-workers report logical design digital computers report contained detailed proposal design machine since become known e.d.v.a.c electronic discrete variable automatic computer machine recently completed america von neumann report inspired construction e.d.s.a.c electronic delay-storage automatic calculator cambridge see page 130 1947 burks goldstine von neumann published another report outlined design another type machine parallel machine time would exceedingly fast capable perhaps 20,000 operations per second pointed outstanding problem constructing machine development suitable memory instantaneously accessible contents first suggested using special vacuum tube—called selectron —which princeton laboratories rca invented tubes expensive difficult make von neumann subsequently decided build machine based williams memory machine—completed june 1952 princeton—has become popularly known maniac design machine inspired least half dozen machines built america known affectionately johniacs book first two paragraphs chapter ace read follows automatic computation national physical laboratory one modern digital computers embodies developments improvements technique automatic electronic computing recently demonstrated national physical laboratory teddington designed built small team mathematicians electronics research engineers staff laboratory assisted number production engineers english electric company limited equipment far erected laboratory pilot model much larger installation known automatic computing engine although comparatively small bulk containing 800 thermionic valves judged plates xii xiii xiv extremely rapid versatile calculating machine basic concepts abstract principles computation machine formulated dr. a. m. turing f.r.s. paper read london mathematical society 1936 work machines britain delayed war 1945 however examination problems made national physical laboratory mr. j. r. womersley superintendent mathematics division laboratory joined dr. turing small staff specialists 1947 preliminary planning sufficiently advanced warrant establishment special group already mentioned april 1948 latter became electronics section laboratory charge mr. f. m. colebrook first draft described design used many universities corporations construct computers among various computers illiac ordvac compatible instruction sets date information following chronology difficult put proper order dates first running test program dates first time computer demonstrated completed dates first delivery installation decades 1960s 1970s computers generally became smaller faster led evolutions architecture example memory-mapped i/o lets input output devices treated memory single system bus could used provide modular system lower cost sometimes called streamlining architecture subsequent decades simple microcontrollers would sometimes omit features model lower cost size larger computers added features higher performance shared bus program memory data memory leads von neumann bottleneck limited throughput data transfer rate central processing unit cpu memory compared amount memory single bus access one two classes memory time throughput lower rate cpu work seriously limits effective processing speed cpu required perform minimal processing large amounts data cpu continually forced wait needed data move memory since cpu speed memory size increased much faster throughput bottleneck become problem problem whose severity increases every new generation cpu von neumann bottleneck described john backus 1977 acm turing award lecture according backus surely must less primitive way making big changes store pushing vast numbers words back forth von neumann bottleneck tube literal bottleneck data traffic problem importantly intellectual bottleneck kept us tied word-at-a-time thinking instead encouraging us think terms larger conceptual units task hand thus programming basically planning detailing enormous traffic words von neumann bottleneck much traffic concerns significant data find several known methods mitigating von neumann performance bottleneck example following improve performance problem also sidestepped somewhat using parallel computing using example non-uniform memory access numa architecture—this approach commonly employed supercomputers less clear whether intellectual bottleneck backus criticized changed much since 1977 backus proposed solution major influence modern functional programming object-oriented programming much less geared towards pushing vast numbers words back forth earlier languages like fortran internally still computers spend much time even highly parallel supercomputers 1996 database benchmark study found three four cpu cycles spent waiting memory researchers expect increasing number simultaneous instruction streams multithreading single-chip multiprocessing make bottleneck even worse context multi-core processors additional overhead required maintain cache coherence processors threads aside von neumann bottleneck program modifications quite harmful either accident design simple stored-program computer designs malfunctioning program damage programs operating system possibly leading computer crash memory protection forms access control usually protect accidental malicious program modification 1-hop neighbor's text information: programming_language_theory.programming language theory programming language theory plt branch computer science deals design implementation analysis characterization classification programming languages individual features falls within discipline computer science depending affecting mathematics software engineering linguistics even cognitive science well-recognized branch computer science active research area results published numerous journals dedicated plt well general computer science engineering publications ways history programming language theory predates even development programming languages lambda calculus developed alonzo church stephen cole kleene 1930s considered world first programming language even though intended model computation rather means programmers describe algorithms computer system many modern functional programming languages described providing thin veneer lambda calculus many easily described terms first programming language invented plankalkül designed konrad zuse 1940s publicly known 1972 implemented 1998 first widely known successful high-level programming language fortran developed 1954 1957 team ibm researchers led john backus success fortran led formation committee scientists develop universal computer language result effort algol 58 separately john mccarthy mit developed lisp programming language based lambda calculus first language origins academia successful success initial efforts programming languages became active topic research 1960s beyond key events history programming language theory since several fields study either lie within programming language theory profound influence many considerable overlap addition plt makes use many branches mathematics including computability theory category theory set theory formal semantics formal specification behaviour computer programs programming languages three common approaches describe semantics meaning computer program denotational semantics operational semantics axiomatic semantics type theory study type systems tractable syntactic method proving absence certain program behaviors classifying phrases according kinds values compute many programming languages distinguished characteristics type systems program analysis general problem examining program determining key characteristics absence classes program errors program transformation process transforming program one form language another form comparative programming language analysis seeks classify programming languages different types based characteristics broad categories programming languages often known programming paradigms metaprogramming generation higher-order programs executed produce programs possibly different language subset original language result domain-specific languages languages constructed efficiently solve problems particular part domain compiler theory theory writing compilers generally translators programs translate program written one language another form actions compiler traditionally broken syntax analysis scanning parsing semantic analysis determining program optimization improving performance program indicated metric typically execution speed code generation generation output equivalent program target language often instruction set cpu runtime systems refers development programming language runtime environments components including virtual machines garbage collection foreign function interfaces conferences primary venue presenting research programming languages well known conferences include symposium principles programming languages popl programming language design implementation pldi international conference functional programming icfp international conference object oriented programming systems languages applications oopsla international conference architectural support programming languages operating systems asplos notable journals publish plt research include acm transactions programming languages systems toplas journal functional programming jfp journal functional logic programming higher-order symbolic computation Target text information: structured_program_theorem.structured program theorem structured program theorem also called böhm–jacopini theorem result programming language theory states class control flow graphs historically called charts context compute computable function combines subprograms three specific ways control structures structured chart subject constraints may however use additional variables form bits stored extra integer variable original proof order keep track information original program represents program location construction based böhm programming language p′′ theorem typically credited 1966 paper corrado böhm giuseppe jacopini david harel wrote 1980 böhm–jacopini paper enjoyed universal popularity particularly proponents structured programming harel also noted due rather technical style 1966 böhm–jacopini paper apparently often cited read detail reviewing large number papers published 1980 harel argued contents böhm–jacopini proof usually misrepresented folk theorem essentially contains simpler result result traced inception modern computing theory papers von neumann kleene harel also writes generic name proposed h.d mills structure theorem early 1970s version theorem replaces original program control flow single global codice_1 loop simulates program counter going possible labels flowchart boxes original non-structured program harel traced origin folk theorem two papers marking beginning computing one 1946 description von neumann architecture explains program counter operates terms loop harel notes single loop used folk version structured programming theorem basically provides operational semantics execution flowchart von neumann computer another even older source harel traced folk version theorem stephen kleene normal form theorem 1936 donald knuth criticized form proof results pseudocode like one pointing structure original program completely lost transformation similarly bruce ian mills wrote approach spirit block structure style language simulating von neumann machine produce behavior spaghetti code within confines block-structured language prevent spaghetti proof böhm jacopini paper proceeds induction structure flow chart employed pattern matching graphs proof böhm jacopini really practical program transformation algorithm thus opened door additional research direction böhm–jacopini proof settle question whether adopt structured programming software development partly construction likely obscure program improve contrary signalled beginning debate edsger dijkstra famous letter go statement considered harmful followed 1968 academics took purist approach böhm–jacopini result argued even instructions like codice_2 codice_3 middle loops bad practice needed böhm–jacopini proof thus advocated loops single exit point purist approach embodied pascal programming language designed 1968–1969 mid-1990s preferred tool teaching introductory programming classes academia edward yourdon notes 1970s even philosophical opposition transforming unstructured programs structured ones automated means based argument one needed think structured programming fashion get go pragmatic counterpoint transformations benefited large body existing programs among first proposals automated transformation 1971 paper edward ashcroft zohar manna direct application böhm–jacopini theorem may result additional local variables introduced structured chart may also result code duplication latter issue called loop half problem context pascal affected problems according empirical studies cited eric s. roberts student programmers difficulty formulating correct solutions pascal several simple problems including writing function searching element array 1980 study henry shapiro cited roberts found using pascal-provided control structures correct solution given 20 subjects subject wrote incorrect code problem allowed write return middle loop 1973 s. rao kosaraju proved possible avoid adding additional variables structured programming long arbitrary-depth multi-level breaks loops allowed furthermore kosaraju proved strict hierarchy programs exists nowadays called kosaraju hierarchy every integer n exists program containing multi-level break depth n rewritten program multi-level breaks depth less n without introducing additional variables kosaraju cites multi-level break construct bliss programming language multi-level breaks form codice_4 keyword actually introduced bliss-11 version language original bliss single-level breaks bliss family languages n't provide unrestricted goto java programming language would later follow approach well simpler result kosaraju paper program reducible structured program without adding variables contain loop two distinct exits reducibility defined kosaraju loosely speaking computing function using primitive actions predicates original program possibly using different control flow structures narrower notion reducibility böhm–jacopini used inspired result section vi highly-cited paper introduced notion cyclomatic complexity thomas j. mccabe described analogue kuratowski theorem control flow graphs cfg non-structured programs say minimal subgraphs make cfg program non-structured subgraphs good description natural language mccabe actually found four graphs independent appearing subgraphs meaning necessary sufficient condition program non-structured cfg subgraph one subset three four graphs also found non-structured program contains one four sub-graphs must contain another distinct one set four latter result helps explain control flow non-structured program becomes entangled popularly called spaghetti code mccabe also devised numerical measure given arbitrary program quantifies far ideal structured program mccabe called measure essential complexity mccabe characterization forbidden graphs structured programming considered incomplete least dijkstra structures considered building blocks 1990 quite proposed methods eliminating gotos existing programs preserving structure various approaches problem also proposed several notions equivalence stricter simply turing equivalence order avoid output like folk theorem discussed strictness chosen notion equivalence dictates minimal set control flow structures needed 1988 jacm paper lyle ramshaw surveys field point well proposing method ramshaw algorithm used example java decompilers java virtual machine code branch instructions targets expressed offsets high-level java language multi-level codice_2 codice_6 statements ammarguellat 1992 proposed transformation method goes back enforcing single-exit 1980s ibm researcher harlan mills oversaw development cobol structuring facility applied structuring algorithm cobol code mills transformation involved following steps procedure note construction improved converting cases selection statement subprocedures material yet covered I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	2,619	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: intelligent_database.intelligent database 1980s databases viewed computer systems stored record-oriented business data manufacturing inventories bank records sales transactions database system expected merge numeric data text images multimedia information expected automatically notice patterns data stored late 1980s concept intelligent database put forward system manages information rather data way appears natural users goes beyond simple record keeping term introduced 1989 book intelligent databases kamran parsaye mark chignell setrag khoshafian harry wong concept postulated three levels intelligence systems high level tools user interface database engine high level tools manage data quality automatically discover relevant patterns data process called data mining layer often relies use artificial intelligence techniques user interface uses hypermedia form uniformly manages text images numeric data intelligent database engine supports two layers often merging relational database techniques object orientation twenty-first century intelligent databases become widespread e.g hospital databases call patient histories consisting charts text x-ray images mouse clicks many corporate databases include decision support tools based sales pattern analysis 1-hop neighbor's text information: database_preservation.database preservation database preservation usually involves converting information stored database form likely accessible long term technology changes without losing initial characteristics context content structure appearance behaviour data version 1.0 software independent archiving relational databases siard format developed swiss federal archives 2007 designed archiving relational databases vendor-neutral form siard archive zip-based package files based xml sql:1999 siard file incorporates database content also machine-processable structural metadata records structure database tables relationships zip file contains xml file describing database structure metadata.xml well collection xml files one per table capturing table content siard archive may also contain text files binary files representing database large objects blobs clobs siard permits direct access individual tables exploring zip tools siard archive operational database supports re-integration archived database another relational database management system rdbms supports sql:1999 addition siard supports addition descriptive contextual metadata recorded database embedding documentation files archive siard version 1.0 homologized standard ech-0165 2013 version 2.0 siard preservation format designed developed swiss federal archives auspices e-ark project version 2.0 based version 1.0 defines format backwards-compatible version 1.0 new features version 2.0 include xml schema created researcher josé carlos ramalho university minho capture table information data relational database published 2007 database preservation toolkit dbptk allows conversion database formats including connection live systems purposes digitally preserving databases toolkit allows conversion live backed-up databases preservation formats siard xml-based format created purpose database preservation toolkit also allows conversion preservation formats back live systems allow full functionality databases example supports specialized export mysql optimized phpmyadmin database fully experimented using web interface toolkit originally part roda project released developed e-ark project together new version siard preservation format toolkit uses input output modules module supports read and/or write particular database format live system new modules easily added implementation new interface adding new drivers research projects regard include 1-hop neighbor's text information: database_caching.database caching database caching process included design computer applications generate web pages on-demand dynamically accessing backend databases applications deployed multi-tier environments involve browser-based clients web application servers backend databases middle-tier database caching used achieve high scalability performance three tier architecture application software tier data storage tier different hosts throughput application limited network speed limitation minimized database application tier commercial database software makes extensive use system resources always practical application database host case light-weight database application used cache data commercial database management system database caching improves scalability distributing query workload backend multiple cheap front-end systems allows flexibility processing data example data platinum customers cached ordinary customers caching improve availability data providing continued service applications depend cached tables even backend server unavailable another benefit improved data access speeds brought locality data smoothing load peaks avoiding round-trips middle-tier data-tier Target text information: database_abstraction_layer.database abstraction layer database abstraction layer dbal dal application programming interface unifies communication computer application databases sql server db2 mysql postgresql oracle sqlite traditionally database vendors provide interface tailored products leaves application programmer implement code database interfaces would like support database abstraction layers reduce amount work providing consistent api developer hide database specifics behind interface much possible exist many abstraction layers different interfaces numerous programming languages application layer built called database-agnostic lowest level connects database performs actual operations required users level conceptual instruction translated multiple instructions database understands executing instructions correct order allows dal perform conceptual instruction implementation physical layer may use database-specific apis use underlying language standard database access technology database version sql implementation data types operations database-specific level conceptual level consolidates external concepts instructions intermediate data structure devolved physical instructions layer complex spans external physical levels additionally needs span supported databases quirks apis problems level aware differences databases able construct execution path operations cases however conceptual layer defers physical layer actual implementation individual operation external level exposed users developers supplies consistent pattern performing database operations every database treated equally level apparent difference despite varying physical data types operations libraries unify access databases providing single low-level programming interface application developer advantages often speed flexibility tied specific query language subset implement thin layer reach goal sql dialects similar one another application developers use language features possibly providing configurable elements database-specific cases typically user-ids credentials thin-layer allows queries statements run variety database products negligible overhead popular use database abstraction layers among object-oriented programming languages similar api-level abstraction layers object-oriented language like c++ java database represented object whose methods members equivalent thereof programming languages represent various functionalities database also share advantages disadvantages api-level interfaces example database abstraction layer language level would odbc platform-independent implementation database abstraction layer user installs specific driver software odbc communicate database set databases user ability programs communicate odbc relays results back forth user programs database downside abstraction level increased overhead transform statements constructs understood target database alternatively thin wrappers often described lightweight abstraction layers opendbx libzdb finally large projects may develop libraries example libgda gnome software developers know database abstraction layer api instead apis databases application support databases supported bigger time saving using database abstraction layer means requirement new installations utilise specific database i.e new users unwilling unable switch databases deploy existing infrastructure new database technologies emerge software developers wo n't adapt new interfaces production database may replaced desktop-level implementation data developer-level unit tests depending database dal may possible dal add features database dal may use database programming facilities methods create standard unsupported functionality completely new functionality instance dbvolution dal implements standard deviation function several databases support abstraction layer reduce overall speed less depending amount additional code executed database layer abstracts native database interface tries emulate features present database backends slower overall performance especially true database abstraction layers try unify query language well like odbc database abstraction layer provides yet another functional dependency software system i.e given database abstraction layer like anything else may eventually become obsolete outmoded unsupported database abstraction layers may limit number available database operations subset supported supported database backends particular database abstraction layers may fully support database backend-specific optimizations debugging features problems magnify significantly database size scale complexity I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	9,481	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: hewlett_packard_enterprise.hewlett packard enterprise hewlett packard enterprise company commonly referred hpe american multinational enterprise information technology company based san jose california founded 1 november 2015 part splitting hewlett-packard company hpe business-focused organization two divisions enterprise group works servers storage networking consulting support financial services 4 december hpe reported fy2018 net revenue 30.9 billion 7 prior year period split structured former hewlett-packard company would change name hp inc. spin hewlett packard enterprise newly created company hp inc. retained old hp personal computer printing business well stock-price history original nyse ticker symbol hewlett-packard enterprise trades ticker symbol hpe according notes 2015 hpe revenue slightly less hp inc 2017 spun enterprise services business merged computer sciences corporation become dxc technology also spun software business merged micro focus hpe ranked 107 2018 fortune 500 list largest united states corporations total revenue full name company hewlett packard enterprise company drops hyphen previously existed hewlett packard former hewlett-packard company since separation many media outlets incorrectly named new organization using hp enterprises hp enterprise may 2016 company announced would sell enterprise services division one competitors computer sciences corporation deal valued merger hpe enterprise services csc form new company dxc technology completed 10 march 2017 approximately 100,000 current hpe employees affected 30,000 services employees areas hpe business remain hpe including technology services support consulting well software professional services august 2016 company announced plans acquire silicon graphics international sgi known capabilities high performance computing 1 november 2016 hpe announced completed acquisition per share cash transaction valued approximately net cash debt 7 september 2016 hpe announced spin-merge micro focus micro focus would acquire non-core software hpe shareholders would 50.1 percent merged company would retain current name merger concluded 1 september 2017 november 2016 pc world wrote hpe hewlett-packard failed develop middleware tools really make dent software market companies like ibm sap oracle excelling without major software product lines hpe ’ integrated offerings ’ strong competitors like dell software hardware assets adding hpe point focusing largely hardware ask end game september 2016 hewlett packard enterprise transferred two patents texas-based wholly owned shell company plectrum llc two patents originated 3com corporation bought hp 2010 along 1,400 patents us patent entitled quality service control mechanism apparatus us patent describes use high speed cache management unit replaces software-based systems hardware order reduce latency time 11 april 2017 reported synack raised round funding included hewlett packard enterprise january 2017 company acquired data management platform simplivity developer omnicube hyper-converged infrastructure appliance us 650m april 2017 hewlett packard enterprise completed acquisition hybrid flash flash manufacturer nimble storage inc per share october reuters reported company allowed russian defense agency examine cyber-defense system used pentagon report noted six former u.s. intelligence officials well former arcsight hewlett packard enterprise employees independent security experts said source code review could help moscow discover weaknesses software potentially helping attackers blind u.s. military cyber attack november 2017 meg whitman announced stepping ceo six years helm hp hpe noted 1 february 2018 antonio neri officially became hpe ’ president chief executive officer announcement created controversy leading 6 drop stock price quickly recovered next days june 2018 hewlett packard enterprise launched hybrid cloud service called greenlake hybrid cloud built top hpe onesphere cloud management saas offering greenlake hybrid cloud designed provide cloud management cost control compliance control capabilities run aws microsoft azure february 2019 meg whitman announced seeking re-election board directors ending professional involvement hpe may 2019 hewlett packard enterprise announced plans acquire cray nearly per share soon cray landed us department energy contract supply frontier supercomputer oak ridge national laboratory 2021 1-hop neighbor's text information: qualcomm.qualcomm qualcomm incorporated american multinational semiconductor telecommunications equipment company designs markets wireless telecommunications products services derives revenue chipmaking bulk profit patent licensing businesses company headquarter located san diego california united states 224 worldwide locations parent company qualcomm incorporated qualcomm number wholly owned subsidiaries qualcomm cdma technologies qct sells qualcomm ’ products services including chipsets qualcomm technology licensing qtl responsible patent licensing business qualcomm technologies inc. qti operates nearly qualcomm r activities qualcomm created july 1 1985 seven former linkabit employees led dr. irwin jacobs company named qualcomm “ quality communications. ” started contract research development center largely government defense projects qualcomm merged omninet 1988 raised 3.5 million funding order produce omnitracs satellite communications system trucking companies qualcomm grew eight employees 1986 620 employees 1991 due demand omnitracs 1989 qualcomm 32 million revenues 50 percent omnitracs contract schneider national omnitracs profits helped fund qualcomm research development code-division multiple access cdma technologies cell phone networks qualcomm operating loss 1990s due investment cdma research obtain funding company filed initial public offering september 1991 raising 68 million additional 486 million raised 1995 sale 11.5 million shares second funding round done raise money mass manufacturing cdma-based phones base-stations equipment us-based cellular networks announced would adopt cdma standard company 383 million annual revenue 1995 814 million 1996 1991 qualcomm acquired eudora email client software pc could used omnitracs system acquisition associated widely used email client company little-known time 1998 qualcomm restructured leading 700-employee layoff cell-phone manufacturing business also spun-off order focus higher-margin patents business following year qualcomm fastest growing stock market 2,621 percent growth one year 2000 qualcomm grown 6,300 employees 3.2 billion revenues 670 million profit 39 percent sales cdma technology followed licensing 22 wireless 22 products 17 around time qualcomm established offices europe asia pacific latin america 2001 65 percent qualcomm revenues originated outside united states 35 percent coming south korea 2005 paul e. jacobs son qualcomm founder dr. irwin jacobs appointed qualcomm new ceo whereas irwin jacobs focused cdma patents paul jacobs refocused much qualcomm new research development projects related internet things qualcomm announced steven mollenkopf would succeed paul jacobs ceo december 2013 mollenkopf said would expand qualcomm focus wireless technology cars wearable devices new markets european commission fined qualcomm €997 million abuse dominant market position january 24 2018 march 16 2018 qualcomm removed executive chairman paul jacobs broached long-shot bid buyout earlier week 2018 qualcomm filed lawsuit intel several meet-and-confers exchanges written correspondence may 18 intel appeared willing cooperate offering 'limited supplemental production technical materials relating relevant components designed 2018 iphone models exchange qualcomm agreement limited production would satisfy certain requests document subpoena us federal court filing states court us march 15 2019 ruled apple must indemnify qualcomm infringing three patents related mobile technologies jury ruled apple pay 31 million chip maker 1.41 per iphone used company ’ technology without authorization fiscal year 2018 qualcomm reported loss us 4.86 billion annual revenue us 22.7 billion increase 2 previous fiscal cycle qualcomm shares traded 51 75 per share market capitalization end fiscal 2018 valued us 105 billion company ranked 133rd fortune 500 list largest united states corporations revenue qualcomm pioneered commercialization cdmaone is-95 standard wireless cellular communications following cdma2000 early standard third-generation 3g mobile today company leading patent holder advanced 3g mobile technologies including cdma2000 1xev-do evolutions wcdma higher-speed variant known hspa evolutions td-scdma well patents 4g license streams patents inventions related products major component qualcomm business june 2011 qualcomm announced would release set application programming interfaces geared give web-based applications deeper links hardware beginning 1991 qualcomm participated development globalstar satellite system along loral space communications uses low earth orbit leo satellite constellation consisting 44 active satellites system used voice telephony via hand-held satellite phones asset tracking data transfer using mobile satellite modems system designed normal is-95 system used satellite bent pipe repeater transfer cellular signals handset terrestrial base station unlike iridium system routes phone calls satellites globalstar satellite must always able see handset base station establish connection therefore coverage earth poles satellite orbits also coverage locations large globalstar base stations view locations south atlantic example globalstar hardware manufactured qualcomm like satellite phone networks globalstar went bankrupt 1999 bought group investors currently running system january 2017 apple announced 1 billion lawsuit qualcomm overcharging chips failing pay 1 billion rebates qualcomm however rejected accusations calling claims baseless week apple lawsuit qualcomm shares dropped federal trade commission accused company demanding excessive royalties technologies essential industry standards qualcomm sued group shareholders wake aforementioned ftc ruling apple lawsuit january 4 2019 ftc trial began judge lucy koh united states district court northern district california january 24 2018 european commission announced €997 million fine 1.2 billion 4.9 2017 turnover qualcomm violating antitrust laws means deals apple january 14 2019 apple coo jeff williams said apple wanted use qualcomm modems iphone xs xr qualcomm refused sell apple sued licensing practices leading apple using intel modems instead april 16 2019 opening arguments begun suit two companies settled apple pay unspecified amount enter six-year patent licensing agreement multi-year agreement qualcomm provide hardware company intel concurrently announced would longer develop 5g modems mobile devices later announced july 2019 would sell majority smartphone modem business apple 1 billion april 2006 dispute reliance communications qualcomm royalty fees cost qualcomm approximately 11.7b market capitalization july 2007 reliance qualcomm decided settle matter agreed expand use cdma technology india june 2007 u.s. international trade commission blocked import new cell phone models based particular qualcomm microchips found qualcomm microchips infringe patents owned broadcom broadcom also initiated patent litigation u.s. courts issue issue software designed extend battery life chips users make out-of-network calls october itc administrative judge made initial ruling qualcomm violated broadcom patent covering feature commission later affirmed decision sprint nextel corp. using software patch qualcomm get around u.s. government agency ban new phones qualcomm chips august 2007 judge rudi brewster held qualcomm engaged litigation misconduct withholding relevant documents lawsuit brought broadcom qualcomm employees lied involvement july 2009 south korea antitrust watchdog fined qualcomm record won260bn 207m unfair business practices related chipset sales sparking strong protests company fair trade commission accused qualcomm abusing dominant position korean market cdma mobile phone chips charging higher royalties handset makers bought modem chips competitors offering rebates customers bought products mainly us group regulator said statement 2009 qualcomm broadcom entered settlement multi-year patent agreement ending litigation companies 2012 federal probe launched company ’ compliance foreign corrupt practices act bars companies well individuals bribing foreign officials gain business 2014 china anti-monopoly regulator announced qualcomm suspected overcharging abusing market position february 2015 china moved fine qualcomm record 975 million tactics government claimed hurt consumers july 16 2015 european commission announced opened two antitrust investigations qualcomm behavior field baseband chipsets consumer devices july 2016 group women filed class-action gender discrimination lawsuit qualcomm alleging firm discriminated women science technology engineering mathematics areas class 3,400 employees suit settled august 2017 firm agreed pay 19.5 million plaintiff law firm said company also institute significant changes policies practices help eliminate gender disparities foster equal employment opportunity going forward march 2017 south korea found qualcomm prevented samsung selling chips phone makers current umts air interfaces part based qualcomm patents royalties patents represent significant part qualcomm revenue followed series patent-related lawsuits antitrust complaints spearheaded broadcom us 2006 broadcom started series patent-related lawsuits antitrust complaints qualcomm get broadcom regarded fair terms access w-cdma technologies broadcom soon joined nokia others complaints also filed european commission 2007 european commission launched inquiry qualcomm possible abusing dominant position market third-generation phones complaints first lodged 2005 leading handset manufacturers ericsson nokia nec panasonic texas instruments october 2008 nokia announced make one-time payment 2.29 billion us qualcomm part patent agreement company chinese tdscdma 3g technology developed primarily avoid qualcomm licensing fees although qualcomm claims chinese technology still infringes many qualcomm patents qchat push-to-talk ptt technology qchat software application developed qualcomm internet services qis division qualcomm part qualcomm wireless internet group qis offers set software products content enablement services support accelerate growth wireless data market qualcomm developed qchat provide reliable method instant connection two-way communication users different locations operating within type network architecture prior existence cellular personal communications services networks type communication limited private land mobile radio system lmr technology used public safety utility service agencies lmr limitations specifically usage restricted geographic coverage area use disparate frequency bands qchat application developed brew platform ptt communication technology 3g networks qchat handsets server software allow users connect instantaneously qchat users anywhere world push button addition qchat enables one-to-one private one-to-many group calls 3g networks qchat uses standard voice internet protocol voip technologies voip voice delivery mechanism uses internet protocol manage delivery voice information voice information sent digital form ip-based data networks including cdma discrete packets rather traditional circuit-switched protocols used public switched telephone network pstn qchat users 3g wireless devices connect worldwide either private group calls push button qchat uses voice internet protocol voip technologies allow subscribers communicate using ptt button handset instead making standard cellular call qchat calls created combining separate point-to-point connections ip endpoint process managed qchat applications server deployed carrier ip-based wide area network wan initiate call user presses ptt button receives immediate indication whether call recipient available caller begin speaking immediately recipient unavailable caller simply hear negative response tone instead busy signal voicemail october 16 2006 sprint nextel announced agreement qualcomm use qchat provide high performance push-to-talk services customers nationwide sprint pcs network using cdma2000 1xev-do revision technology qchat able inter-operate iden push-to-talk handsets nextel national network sprint phones supporting qchat technology released starting april 2008 trial business customers kansas colorado sprint announced nextel direct connect devices powered qchat available 40 markets june 2008 ending production new qchat devices november 2009 supported models included august 2016 computer security company check point found several serious security problems qualcomm chips bug called quadrooter ability let hackers read information android phones even worse hackers full access affected user installs app exploits one vulnerabilities according check point affects 900 million android users affected phones include recent android phones check point published scan tool android users blackberry developing repair tool qualcomm released fixes four issues three included android updates top google phones time publication bug 1-hop neighbor's text information: mbed.mbed mbed platform operating system internet-connected devices based 32-bit arm cortex-m microcontrollers devices also known internet things devices project collaboratively developed arm technology partners applications mbed platform developed using mbed online ide free online code editor compiler web browser needs installed local pc since project compiled cloud i.e remote server using armcc c/c++ compiler mbed ide provides private workspaces ability import export share code distributed mercurial version control used also code documentation generation applications developed also development environments keil µvision iar embedded workbench eclipse gcc arm embedded tools mbed os provides mbed c/c++ software platform tools creating microcontroller firmware runs iot devices consists core libraries provide microcontroller peripheral drivers networking rtos runtime environment build tools test debug scripts connections secured compatible ssl/tls librairies wolfssl supports mbed-rtos components database provides driver libraries components services connected microcontrollers build final product various hardware demo-boards mbed platform first original mbed microcontroller board mbed microcontroller board marketed mbed nxp lpc1768 demo-board based nxp microcontroller arm cortex m3 core running 96 mhz 512 kb flash 64 kb ram well several interfaces including ethernet usb device spi i2c i/o mbed microcontroller received first prize annual edn innovation awards software/embedded tools category 2010 various versions board released nxp lpc2368 arm7tdmi-s nxp lpc1768 cortex-m3 nxp lpc11u24 cortex-m0 microcontrollers mbed hardware development kit hdk designed oems provides information build custom hardware support mbed os consists interface firmware schematics used easily create development boards oem modules re-programmable products suitable production project developed arm conjunction major technology companies mbed developer community development contributions happen different levels Target text information: lg_electronics.lg electronics lg electronics inc. south korean multinational electronics company headquartered yeouido-dong seoul south korea lg electronics part fourth-largest chaebol south korea lg corporation 2014 global sales reached 55.91 billion ₩ 59.04 trillion lg comprises four business units home entertainment mobile communications home appliances air solutions vehicle components starion india main production vendor refrigeration washing machines indian sub-continent lg electronics owns zenith controls 37.9 percent lg display since 2008 lg electronics remains world second-largest lcd television manufacturer company 128 operations worldwide employing 83,000 people 1958 lg electronics founded goldstar hangul 금성 established aftermath korean war provide rebuilding nation domestically-produced consumer electronics home appliances lg electronics produced south korea first radios tvs refrigerators washing machines air conditioners goldstar one lg groups brethren company lak-hui pronounced lucky chemical industrial corp. lg chem lg households goldstar merged lucky chemical ls cable 28 february 1995 changing corporate name lucky-goldstar finally lg electronics lg electronics earned us 100 million revenue exports first time history rapid growth globalization saw company establish first overseas production based united states 1982 1994 goldstar officially adopted lg electronics brand new corporate logo 1995 lg electronics acquired us-based tv manufacturer zenith also year lg electronics made world first cdma digital mobile handsets supplied ameritech gte us company also awarded ul certification us 1998 lg developed world first 60-inch plasma tv 1999 established joint venture philips lg.philips lcd goes name lg display order create holding company former lg electronics split 2002 new lg electronics spun old lg electronics changing name lg ei merged lg ci 2003 legal successor former lg chem company started goldstar currently exist lg electronics plays large role global consumer electronics industry second-largest lcd tv manufacturer worldwide 2013 2005 lg top 100 global brand 2006 lg recorded brand growth 14 display manufacturing affiliate lg display 2009 world largest lcd panel manufacturer 2010 lg electronics entered smartphone industry since lg electronics continued develop various electronic products releasing world first 84-inch ultra-hd tv retail sale 5 december 2012 antitrust regulators european union fined lg electronics five major companies samsung thomson since 2010 known technicolor matsushita today panasonic corp philips toshiba fixing prices tv cathode-ray tubes two cartels lasting nearly decade 11 june 2015 lg electronics found midst human rights controversy guardian published article rosa moreno former employee lg television assembly factory end 2016 lg electronics merged german branch situated ratingen european headquarter situated london together eschborn suburb frankfurt main march 2017 lg electronics sued handling hardware failures recent smartphones lg g4 july 2018 koo bon-joon ceo vice chairman replaced nephew implementing first son-only succession rule also involved rule present ceo lg corporation parent company koo kwang-mo succeeding father koo bon-moo died brain tumor may 20 2018 november 2018 lg announced hwang jeong-hwan took job president lg mobile communications october 2017 replaced brian kwon head lg hugely profitable home entertainment business 1 december 2018 lg electronics four business units lg electronics products include televisions home theater systems refrigerators washing machines computer monitors wearable devices smart appliances smartphones lg sl9000 one several new borderless hdtv advertised release ifa berlin 2009 lg electronics launched oled tv 2013 65-inch 77-inch sizes 2014 lg electronics introduced first internet tv 2007 originally branded netcast entertainment access devices later renamed 2011 internet televisions lg smart tv interactive television features added enable audience receive information internet watching conventional tv programming november 2013 blogger discovered lg smart tvs silently collect filenames attached usb storage devices program viewing data transmit information lg servers lg-affiliated servers shortly blog entry went live lg disabled playback site video explaining viewer analytics work closed brightcove account video hosted lg manufactures remote control models use hillcrest labs freespace technology allow users change channels using gestures dragon naturallyspeaking technology voice recognition 2014 lg using webos ribbon interface smart tvs lg reported first eight months release sold 5 million webos tvs 2016 exclusively india indian arm south korea lg electronics inc started selling tv would repel mosquitoes uses ultrasonic waves silent humans cause mosquitoes fly away released 16 june 2016 technology also used air conditioners washing machines tv aimed lower-income consumers living conditions would make susceptible mosquitoes 2018 reported lg planning sell big-screen televisions could rolled retract automatically push button come 2019 lg electronics manufactures smartphones tablet devices g3 lg officially unveiled curved smartphone g flex 27 october 2013 lg released south korea november 2013 later announced releases europe rest asia north america consumer electronics show january 2014 lg announced u.s. release g2 across several major carriers 2015 lg released lg g4 globally late may early june 7 september 2016 lg unveiled v20 v30 announced 31 august 2017 lg g6 officially announced mwc 2017 26 february 2017 introduction g7 thinq model scheduled 2 may 2018 media briefing 2014 lg announced three new additions g series tablets lg knock code feature allowing users unlock devices series taps tablets also feature q pair allows tablets sync smartphone phone calls text messages passed tablet real time lg google announced android wear-based smartwatch lg g watch june 2014 august 2014 lg g watch r circular face similar moto 360 released lg watch urbane lg third android wear-based smart watch released april 2015 first device support newer smartwatch features wi-fi new parts android wear software interface like ability draw emoji friends 2015 lg announced bluetooth keyboard folds along four rows keys portability rolly keyboard made solid plastic two tiny plastic arms fold end keyboard support tablet smartphone toggle two different bluetooth-connected devices time battery life expected three months single aaa battery lg manufactures home appliances including refrigerators washing machines tumble dryers vacuum cleaners air conditioners microwave ovens june 2014 lg electronics announced launch smart appliances homechat messaging service south korea homechat employs line mobile messenger app korean company 'naver let homeowners communicate control monitor share content lg smart appliances users send simple messages start washing cycle order control washing machines lg sports limited subsidiary lg corporation owns korean baseball organisation kbo lg twins lg 트윈스 thru acquisition 1990 mbc blue dragons one six original founding members kbo 1982 became lg twins team two korean series 1990 1994 lg attracts large attendance fans much enjoyment took 3rd place league august 2013 lg electronics announced would sponsor german bundesliga club bayer 04 leverkusen next three years option extend one year lg sponsors international cricket council world governing body cricket also sponsors icc awards 2009 2013 lg electronics sponsored formula one global partner technology partner lg also official supplier virgin racing lotus racing team plus engine manufacturer cosworth 2010 2012 lg also sponsors london fashion week lg arena birmingham period 2001–2003 lg sponsored snooker grand prix years tournament known lg cup 2008 lg became sponsors extreme sport 'fso4 freeze festival lg electronics company australia dissolved sponsorship former australian vice-captain david warner 27 march 2018 dropped brand ambassador company ball tampering scandal shook australian cricket 3rd test 2017–18 tempestuous test series south africa david warner agreement lg electronics company 2014 contract planned renewal choice magazine independent tests popular lg fridge models 2010 found energy consumption two models higher claimed lg lg aware problem offered compensation affected customers 2004 lg made 4a-rated water efficiency claims numerous washing machines certified lg gave undertakings australian competition consumer commission accc provide appropriate corrective notices upgrade maintain trade practices compliance program 2006 lg overstated energy efficiency five air conditioner models required offer consumers rebates cover extra energy costs march 2018 announced one lg steam clothing care system earned asthma allergy friendly certification lg electronics usa proposed build new headquarters borough englewood cliffs bergen county new jersey including tall building would stand taller tree line hudson palisades us national natural landmark company proposed build environmentally friendly facility englewood cliffs incidental bergen county per-capita leading korean american population received initially favorable legal decision concerning building height issues plan approved local government met resistance segments general public well government officials new jersey adjacent new york initial court decision upholding local government approval overturned new jersey appellate court 2015 lg subsequently submitted revised scaled-down 64-foot building approval borough englewood cliffs 2016 lg broke ground new us 300 million englewood cliffs headquarters 7 february 2017 completed late 2019 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	424	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: information_exchange_gateway.information exchange gateway nato defined concept information exchange gateway ieg facilitate secure communication different security management domains ieg designed provide standard secure method communication nato nato nations non-nato nations coalition forces non government organisations ngos international organisations ios information exchange gateway provides information exchange services ies facilitate exchange information networks including data protocol translation necessary information protection services ips ensure intended information exchanged addition node protection services nps ensure information exchanged safe secure way intended information validated ips exchanged nato defined five main ieg scenarios scenario variants transferring classified information scenarios take account security classifications domains connect well security policy owners administrators domains scenarios ieg must include guard provide ips nps functions used guard ieg dmz split two 1-hop neighbor's text information: lightweight_directory_access_protocol.lightweight directory access protocol lightweight directory access protocol ldap open vendor-neutral industry standard application protocol accessing maintaining distributed directory information services internet protocol ip network directory services play important role developing intranet internet applications allowing sharing information users systems networks services applications throughout network examples directory services may provide organized set records often hierarchical structure corporate email directory similarly telephone directory list subscribers address phone number ldap specified series internet engineering task force ietf standard track publications called request comments rfcs using description language asn.1 latest specification version 3 published rfc 4511 road map technical specifications provided rfc4510 common use ldap provide central place store usernames passwords allows many different applications services connect ldap server validate users ldap based simpler subset standards contained within x.500 standard relationship ldap sometimes called x.500-lite telecommunication companies understanding directory requirements well developed 70 years producing managing telephone directories companies introduced concept directory services information technology computer networking input culminating comprehensive x.500 specification suite protocols produced international telecommunication union itu 1980s x.500 directory services traditionally accessed via x.500 directory access protocol dap required open systems interconnection osi protocol stack ldap originally intended lightweight alternative protocol accessing x.500 directory services simpler widespread tcp/ip protocol stack model directory access borrowed dixie directory assistance service protocols protocol originally created tim howes university michigan steve kille isode limited colin robbins nexor wengyik yeong performance systems international circa 1993 successor dixie das mark wahl critical angle inc. tim howes steve kille started work 1996 new version ldap ldapv3 aegis internet engineering task force ietf ldapv3 first published 1997 superseded ldapv2 added support extensibility integrated simple authentication security layer better aligned protocol 1993 edition x.500 development ldapv3 specifications numerous extensions adding features ldapv3 come ietf early engineering stages ldap known lightweight directory browsing protocol ldbp renamed expansion scope protocol beyond directory browsing searching include directory update functions given lightweight name network intensive dap predecessor thus easily implemented internet due relatively modest bandwidth usage ldap influenced subsequent internet protocols including later versions x.500 xml enabled directory xed directory service markup language dsml service provisioning markup language spml service location protocol slp also used basis microsoft active directory client starts ldap session connecting ldap server called directory system agent dsa default tcp udp port 389 port 636 ldaps ldap ssl see client sends operation request server server sends responses return exceptions client need wait response sending next request server may send responses order information transmitted using basic encoding rules ber client may request following operations addition server may send unsolicited notifications responses request e.g connection timed common alternative method securing ldap communication using ssl tunnel default port ldap ssl 636 use ldap ssl common ldap version 2 ldapv2 never standardized formal specification usage deprecated along ldapv2 officially retired 2003 global catalog available default ports 3268 3269 ldaps protocol provides interface directories follow 1993 edition x.500 model dn may change lifetime entry instance entries moved within tree reliably unambiguously identify entries uuid might provided set entry operational attributes entry look like represented ldap data interchange format ldif ldap binary protocol codice_3 distinguished name entry neither attribute part entry codice_4 entry rdn relative distinguished name codice_5 dn parent entry codice_6 denotes 'domain component lines show attributes entry attribute names typically mnemonic strings like codice_7 common name codice_6 domain component codice_9 e-mail address codice_10 surname server holds subtree starting specific entry e.g codice_5 children servers may also hold references servers attempt access codice_12 could return referral continuation reference server holds part directory tree client contact server servers also support chaining means server contacts server returns results client ldap rarely defines ordering server may return values attribute attributes entry entries found search operation order follows formal definitions entry defined set attributes attribute set values sets need ordered add operation inserts new entry directory-server database distinguished name add request already exists directory server add duplicate entry set result code add result decimal 68 entryalreadyexists example codice_13 must exist codice_14 must exist ldap session created ldap client connects server authentication state session set anonymous bind operation establishes authentication state session simple bind sasl plain send user dn password plaintext connections utilizing either simple sasl plain encrypted using transport layer security tls server typically checks password codice_15 attribute named entry anonymous bind empty dn password resets connection anonymous state sasl simple authentication security layer bind provides authentication services wide range mechanisms e.g kerberos client certificate sent tls bind also sets ldap protocol version sending version number form integer client requests version server support server must set result code bind response code protocol error normally clients use ldapv3 default protocol always ldap libraries bind first operation session ldapv2 required ldapv3 ldapv3 successful bind request changes authentication state session unsuccessful bind request resets authentication state session delete entry ldap client transmits properly formed delete request server search operation used search read entries parameters server returns matching entries potentially continuation references may returned order final result include result code compare operation takes dn attribute name attribute value checks named entry contains attribute value modify operation used ldap clients request ldap server make changes existing entries attempts modify entries exist fail modify requests subject access controls implemented server modify operation requires distinguished name dn entry specified sequence changes change sequence must one ldif example adding value attribute replace value existing attribute use replace keyword attribute multi-valued client must specify value attribute update delete attribute entry use keyword delete changetype designator modify attribute multi-valued client must specify value attribute delete also modify-increment extension allows incrementable attribute value incremented specified amount following example using ldif increments employeenumber 5 ldap servers replicated topology ldap clients consider using post-read control verify updates instead search update post-read control designed applications need issue search request update – bad form retrieve entry sole purpose checking update worked replication eventual consistency model ldap client assume connects directory server request architects may placed load-balancers ldap proxies ldap clients servers modify dn move/rename entry takes new rdn relative distinguished name optionally new parent dn flag indicates whether delete value entry match old rdn server may support renaming entire directory subtrees update operation atomic operations see either new entry old one hand ldap define transactions multiple operations read entry modify another client may updated entry meantime servers may implement extensions support though extended operation generic ldap operation define new operations part original protocol specification starttls one significant extensions examples include cancel password modify starttls operation establishes transport layer security descendant ssl connection provide data confidentiality protect data observed third parties and/or data integrity protection protects data tampering tls negotiation server sends x.509 certificate prove identity client may also send certificate prove identity client may use sasl/external using sasl/external client requests server derive identity credentials provided lower level tls though technically server may use identity information established lower level typically server use identity information established tls servers also often support non-standard ldaps secure ldap commonly known ldap ssl protocol separate port default 636 ldaps differs ldap two ways 1 upon connect client server establish tls ldap messages transferred without starttls operation 2 ldaps connection must closed upon tls closure ldaps client libraries encrypt communication check host name name supplied certificate abandon operation requests server abort operation named message id server need honor request neither abandon successfully abandoned operation send response similar cancel extended operation send responses implementations support unbind operation abandons outstanding operations closes connection response name historical origin opposite bind operation clients abort session simply closing connection use unbind unbind allows server gracefully close connection free resources would otherwise keep time discovering client abandoned connection also instructs server cancel operations canceled send responses operations canceled ldap uniform resource identifier uri scheme exists clients support varying degrees servers return referrals continuation references see rfc 4516 components described optional example codice_28 refers user attributes john doe entry codice_29 codice_30 searches entry default server note triple slash omitting host double question mark omitting attributes urls special characters must percent-encoded similar non-standard codice_31 uri scheme ldap ssl confused ldap tls achieved using starttls operation using standard codice_32 scheme contents entries subtree governed directory schema set definitions constraints concerning structure directory information tree dit schema directory server defines set rules govern kinds information server hold number elements including attributes elements responsible storing information directory schema defines rules attributes may used entry kinds values attributes may clients may interact values clients may learn schema elements server supports retrieving appropriate subschema subentry schema defines object classes entry must objectclass attribute containing named classes defined schema schema definition classes entry defines kind object entry may represent e.g person organization domain object class definitions also define list attributes must contain values list attributes may contain values example entry representing person might belong classes top person membership person class would require entry contain sn cn attributes allow entry also contain userpassword telephonenumber attributes since entries may multiple objectclasses values entry complex optional mandatory attribute sets formed union object classes represents objectclasses inherited single entry multiple objectclasses values define available required attributes entry parallel schema objectclass class definition instance object-oriented programming representing ldap objectclass ldap entry respectively directory servers may publish directory schema controlling entry base dn given entry subschemasubentry operational attribute operational attribute describes operation directory rather user information returned search explicitly requested server administrators add additional schema entries addition provided schema elements schema representing individual people within organizations termed white pages schema lot server operation left implementor administrator decide accordingly servers may set support wide variety scenarios example data storage server specified server may use flat files databases gateway server access control standardized though work commonly used models users passwords may stored entries elsewhere server may refuse perform operations wishes impose various limits parts ldap extensible examples one define new operations controls may modify requests responses e.g request sorted search results new search scopes bind methods defined attributes options may modify semantics ldap gained momentum vendors provided access protocol services implementation recasts data mimic ldap/x.500 model closely model followed varies example software access sql databases ldap even though ldap readily lend x.500 servers may support ldap well similarly data previously held types data stores sometimes moved ldap directories example unix user group information stored ldap accessed via pam nss modules ldap often used services authentication and/or authorization actions given already-authenticated user service example active directory kerberos used authentication step ldap used authorization step example data model glue schema used distributed information system based ldap enable users applications services discover services exist grid infrastructure information structure state ldap server may return referrals servers requests fulfill requires naming structure ldap entries one find server holding given distinguished name dn concept defined x.500 directory also used ldap another way locating ldap servers organization dns server record srv organization domain example.org may use top level ldap dn codice_33 dc means domain component ldap server also named ldap.example.org organization top level ldap url becomes codice_34 primarily two common styles naming used x.500 2008 ldapv3 documented itu specifications ietf rfcs original form takes top level object country object codice_35 codice_36 domain component model uses model described example country based naming could codice_37 us codice_38 1-hop neighbor's text information: uk_cyber_security_community.uk cyber security community cyber security information assurance community united kingdom diverse many stakeholders groups contributing support uk cyber security strategy following list stakeholders according parliamentary committee uk government enough protect nation cyber attack cyber aware cross-government awareness behaviour campaign provides advice simple measures individuals take protect cyber crime department digital culture media sport one lead government departments cyber security policy responsible supporting promoting uk cyber security sector promoting cyber security research innovation working national cyber security centre help ensure uk organisations secure online resilient cyber threats get safe online united kingdom-based campaign national initiative teach citizens basic computer security internet privacy national crime agency nca hosts law enforcement cyber crime unit incorporating child exploitation online protection centre national cyber security centre uk ’ authority cyber security parent organisation gchq absorbed replaced cesg information security arm gchq well centre cyber assessment cca computer emergency response team uk cert uk cyber-related responsibilities centre protection national infrastructure cpni ncsc provides advice support public private sector avoid cyber threats cesg originally communications-electronics security group branch gchq worked secure communications information systems government critical parts uk national infrastructure centre protection national infrastructure cpni provided protective security advice businesses organisations across national infrastructure national security council cabinet committee tasked overseeing issues related national security intelligence coordination defence strategy office cyber security information assurance ocsia supports minister cabinet office rt hon francis maude mp national security council determining priorities relation securing cyberspace unit provides strategic direction coordinates action relating enhancing cyber security information assurance uk ocsia headed james quinault trustworthy software initiative tsi uk public good activity sponsored uk government centre protection national infrastructure aimed 'making software better warning advice reporting points warps provide trusted environment members community share problems solutions uk cyber security forum social enterprise representing cyber sme small medium enterprise uk forum composed 20 regional cyber clusters around uk cluster run subsidiary uk cyber security forum operated groups volunteers provide events around uk engage public cyber security provide continued professional development cyber professionals official clusters ads trade organisation companies operating uk aerospace defence security space industries business continuity institute bci established 1994 enable individual members obtain guidance support fellow business continuity practitioners profit accreditation certification organisation cdf promotes global interests uk crypto development industry information assurance advisory council iaac works across industry government academia towards ensuring uk ’ information society robust resilient secure foundation iaac set baroness neville-jones chaired organisation 2007 handing current chairman sir edmund burton affiliates include bt group northrop grumman qinetiq raytheon pwc o2 uk ultra electronics glaxosmithkline 2012/13 work programme focused consumerisation effects information assurance iacg formed following uk national ia conference 2006 iacg encourages greater collaboration commercial supply base information assurance products services operating within uk public sector stakeholders include cesg bis office cyber security information assurance ocsia cyber security operations centre csoc cpni group maintains uk information assurance community map hosted cesg web site two co-chairs colin robbins nexor ross parsell thales iacg ceased operation 2014 information systems security association issa not-for-profit international professional organization information security professionals practitioners uk chapter institute information security professionals iisp independent non-profit body governed members principal objective advancing professionalism information security practitioners thereby professionalism industry whole isaca international professional association deals governance previously known information systems audit control association isc ² international information systems security certification consortium non-profit organization specializes information security education certifications ndi former government-funded organisation building supply chains mod manufacturers using smes united kingdom techuk formerly known intellect uk trade association technology industry cyber security group focused “ high threat ” areas – including defence national security resilience protection critical national infrastructure intelligence organised crime chaired dr andrew rogoyski roke manor research security resilience group works build strong relationships technology industry policymakers customers end users chaired stephen kingan nexor tigerscheme commercial certification scheme technical security specialists backed university standards covering wide range expertise tigerscheme cesg certified uk candidates subject independent rigorous academic assessment authority tigerscheme founded 2007 principle commercial certification scheme run independent lines would give buyers security testing services confidence hiring recognised reputable company june 2014 operational authority tigerscheme transferred usw commercial services ltd. ukceb not-for-profit membership organisation whose mission transform secure information sharing life collaboration defence acquisition support british computer society bcs professional body learned society represents working information technology united kingdom internationally security data privacy group cyber scheme profit professional examination body contract national cyber security centre provide technical exams support governments assured penetration testing company scheme check exams independent rigorous conducted practitioner team member level team leader levels gchq accredited several academic centres excellence cyber security research accreditations expire july 2017 results re-accreditation process expected mid february 2017 information security research group isrg university south wales multidisciplinary team academics industrial experts focusing upon cyber security particular group focusing upon cyber security centre csc de montfort university multidisciplinary group academics focus wide variety cyber security digital forensics issues centre mission provide full benefits safe secure resilient cyberspace Target text information: nexor.nexor nexor limited privately held company based nottingham providing product services safeguard government defence critical national infrastructure computer systems originally known x-tel services limited nexor limited founded 1989 x-tel services limited university nottingham ucl following research x.400 x.500 systems isode project 1992 stephen kingan joined business ceo 1993 x-tel services limited renamed nexor limited 1996 3i invested business launch nexor inc 2004 kingan nigel fasey acquired business 2008 colin robbins appointed board cto 2012 kingan acquired 100 ownership nexor october 2013 company moved headquarters nottingham science park ng2 business park nexor customers include nato european defence agency uk mod us dod canadian dnd foreign commonwealth office met office nexor designed deployed first public internet search engine aliweb associated robots exclusion standard nexor contributor internet engineering task force worked internet rfcs 1086 1165 1488 1606 1778 nexor developed microsoft exchange client unix nexor first organisation awarded intellect best practice certificate nexor run regular demonstrations coalition warrior interoperability demonstration nexor first organisation achieve tickitplus quality-management certification program software development nexor strategic partnerships boldon james qinetiq nexor data diode product supplied via oem relationship fox-it nexor supplier uk government g-cloud cloudstore official cyber security supplier uk government nexor 2013 dsei innovation challenge nexor contributor cyber champions community initiative promote best practices digital literacy online safety awareness schools youth organisations interest groups across uk nexor sponsor cyber security challenge designed promote careers cyber security nexor first batch companies achieve uk ’ cyber essential standard contributor industry launch partner pas754 software development standard led trustworthy software initiative 2015 nexor launched consulting arm qonex nexor primarily focused secure information exchange defence governments critical infrastructure products services include several nexor products evaluated common criteria scheme obtain independent verification claimed functionality including nexor contributor following collaborative research development projects paradise 1989-2002 piloting research directory osi environment part esprit cosine project establish pan-european computer-based network infrastructure enabled research workers communicate using osi later prefixed nameflow-paradise paradise implemented distributed x.500 systems across 700 dsas 30 countries project documented nameflow archive quipu major x.500 implementation used paradise implementations also came inria led christian huitema siemens dirx originating thorn project implementing ecma tr32 standard david goodman project manager maits multilingual application interface telematic services developed multilingual interfaces x.400 x.500 top paradise password 1993-1995 piloting secure service within osi r european community-sponsored value program comprising consortia france germany gmd darmstadt uk ucl nexor establish pilot security infrastructure network applications european research community consortium developed secured applications based x.509 including osisec pki primary application pem forerunner s/mime seeoti goodman ucl project manager joerg reichelt nexor lead engineer eurocoop 1991-1992 esprit iii project 5303 follow project eurocode 1992-1995 esprit iii project 6155 aimed develop powerful effective systems supporting distributed collaborative work partners included aarhus university gmd darmstadt rank xerox icl approach adopted integrate components number existing systems develop new collaborative tools based study large-scale technical application encompasses many collaboration problems single components tools developed integrated existing tools able interoperate icw closely related dti funded project pippa hennessy nexor project manager regis 1995–1998 collaborative project diamond cable communications university sheffield investigate problems inherent providing regional business communities low-cost high-speed access local information services robbins nexor project manager eu acts project renaissance 1995–97 led fretwell downing develop virtual vocational training environment university sheffield diamond cable communications yorkshire cable delivered uk national centre popular music harold combs nexor project manager igrc project 2010-2012 collaborative project hp assuria infogov cranfield university loughborough university birkbeck university london automate threat level control status changes real-time management complexity risk resilience secure information infrastructure cloudfilter 2012–13 epsrc collaborative project imperial college explore novel methods exercising control sensitive data propagation across multiple cloud providers project led 2ic deliver proof-of-concept demonstration cross domain tactical service bus. winning dsei innovation award 2013 project de montfort university research develop implement use hardware robust alternative software high assurance network security devices defence science technology laboratory dstl behalf uk ministry defence established programme realise potential benefits novel technology front line forces consortium led qinetiq called sirius comprising 40 organisations provides experience research capability csiis september 2014 nexor best research poster annual symposium uk information assurance advisory council iaac based csiis work many nexor employees current former made contributions internet business community including I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	6,110	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: flag_of_convenience.flag convenience flag convenience foc business practice whereby ship owners register merchant ship ship register country ship owners ship flies civil ensign country called flag state term often used pejoratively practice regarded contentious merchant ship required international law registered registry created country ship subject laws country used also ship involved case admiralty law ship owners may elect register ship foreign country enables avoid regulations owners ’ country may example stricter safety standards may also select jurisdiction reduce operating costs bypassing laws protect wages working conditions mariners term flag convenience used since 1950s registry nationality residency requirement ship registration often described open registry panama example offers advantages easier registration often online ability employ cheaper foreign labour furthermore foreign owners pay income taxes modern practice ships registered foreign country began 1920s united states shipowners seeking serve alcohol passengers prohibition registered ships panama owners soon began perceive advantages terms avoiding increased regulations rising labor costs continued register ships panama even prohibition ended use open registries steadily increased 1968 liberia grew surpass united kingdom world largest ship register half world merchant ships registered open registries almost 40 entire world fleet terms deadweight tonnage registered panama liberia marshall islands 2006 20 high-seas fishing vessels registered states connected according ihs markit march 2017 panama 8,052 ships registry singapore 3,574 ships liberia 3,277 ships marshall islands 3,244 ships hong kong 2,594 ships open registries criticised mainly trade union organisations based developed countries especially europe one criticism shipowners want hide ownership may select flag-of-convenience jurisdiction enables legally anonymous ships flags convenience found engaging crime offer substandard working conditions negatively impact environment primarily illegal unreported unregulated fishing shipowners may select jurisdiction measurement rules reduce certified grt size ship reduce subsequent port call dock dues consideration carnival cruise line changed flag rms empress canada 1972 panama 2011 cunard cruise line registered ships bermuda besides considerations enabled ship captains marry couples sea weddings sea described lucrative market thirteen flag states found international shipping organisations substandard regulations hand maritime industry practitioners seafarers countries contend natural product globalisation supporters practice however point economic regulatory advantages increased freedom choosing employees international labour pool ship owners developed countries use practice competitive global environment ships thirteen flags convenience targeted special enforcement countries visit ports countries called port state control international law requires every merchant ship registered country country ship registered flag state flag state gives ship right fly civil ensign ship operates laws flag state laws used ship involved admiralty case ship flag state exercises regulatory control vessel required inspect regularly certify ship equipment crew issue safety pollution prevention documents organization actually registers ship known registry registries may governmental private agencies reasons choosing open register varied include tax avoidance ability avoid national labor environmental regulations ability hire crews lower-wage countries national closed registries typically require ship owned constructed national interests least partially crewed citizens conversely open registries frequently offer on-line registration questions asked use flags convenience lowers registration maintenance costs turn reduces overall transportation costs accumulated advantages significant example 1999 28 american company sealand fleet 63 ships foreign-flagged saving company us 3.5 million per ship every year environmental disaster caused 1978 sinking flew liberian flag spurred creation new type maritime enforcement resulting strong political public outcry amoco cadiz sinking fourteen european nations signed 1982 paris memorandum understanding port state control paris mou port state control ships international trade became subject inspection states visit addition shipboard living working conditions inspections cover items concerning safety life sea prevention pollution ships cases port state inspection uncovers problems ship port state may take actions including detaining ship 2015 member states paris mou conducted 17,858 inspections deficiencies resulted 595 detained vessels 11 banned member states tokyo memorandum understanding conducted 17,269 ship inspections 2015 recording 83,606 deficiencies resulted 1,153 detentions principle genuine link ship owners flag state dates back 1958 article 5 1 geneva convention high seas also required state must effectively exercise jurisdiction control administrative technical social matters ships flying flag principle repeated article 91 1982 treaty called united nations convention law sea often referred unclos 1986 united nations conference trade development attempted solidify genuine link concept united nations convention conditions registration ships convention registration ships would require flag state linked ships either economic stake ownership ships providing mariners crew ships come force 1986 treaty requires 40 signatories whose combined tonnage exceeds 25 world total 14 countries signed treaty merchant ships used false flags tactic evade enemy warships since antiquity examples found early roman era middle ages following american revolutionary war merchantmen flying flag fledgling united states quickly found offered little protection attack barbary pirates – many responded seeking transfer registry back great britain use false flags frequently used british napoleonic wars united states war 1812 mid-19th century slave ships flew various flags avoid searched british anti-slavery fleets belen quezada august 1919 first foreign ship re-registered panamanian registry employed running illegal alcohol canada united states prohibition modern practice registering ships foreign countries gain economic advantage originated united states era world war though term flag convenience come use 1950s 1915 1922 several laws passed united states strengthen united states merchant marine provide safeguards mariners period u.s.-flagged ships became subject regular inspections undertaken american bureau shipping also time robert lafollette seamen act 1915 described magna carta sailors rights seamen act regulated mariners working hours payment established baseline requirements shipboard food also reduced penalties disobedience abolished practice imprisoning sailors offense desertion another aspect seamen act enforcement safety standards requirements lifeboats number qualified able seamen board officers seamen able speak language laws put u.s.-flagged vessels economic disadvantage countries lacking safeguards ships started re-registered panama open registry 1919 addition sidestepping seamen act panamanian-flagged ships early period paid sailors japanese wage scale much lower western merchant powers early phase world war ii transfer american-owned ships panama registry sanctioned united states government could used deliver materials britain without dragging united states neutral unintentionally war liberian open registry founded 1948 brainchild edward stettinius franklin d. roosevelt secretary state world war ii stettinius created corporate structure included liberia corporation joint-venture government liberia corporation structured one-fourth revenue would go liberian government another 10 went fund social programs liberia remainder returned stettinius corporation liberian registry created time panama registry becoming less attractive several reasons including unpopularity u.s. labor movement european shipping concerns political unrest panama increases fees regulations 11 march 1949 greek shipping magnate stavros niarchos registered first ship liberian flag world peace stettinius died 1949 ownership registry passed international bank washington led general george olmsted within 18 years liberia grew surpass united kingdom world largest register due liberia 1989 1999 civil wars registry eventually fell second panama flag convenience maritime funds continued supply 70 total government revenue civil war 1990 liberia joined republic marshall islands develop new maritime corporate program resulting company international registries formed parent company 1993 bought management taking liberian government americo-liberian warlord charles taylor signed new registry contract liberian international ship corporate registry commonly known liscr liscr one legal sources income taylor regime liberia registry operated virginia united states open registries panama liberia marshall islands accounted almost 40 entire world fleet terms deadweight tonnage year top ten flags convenience registered 55 world deadweight tonnage including 61 bulk carriers 56 oil tankers counteract class hopping 2009 iacs established transfer class agreement toca international transport workers federation itf maintains list registries considers flags convenience foc registries developing list itf considers ability willingness flag state enforce international minimum social standards vessels degree ratification enforcement ilo conventions recommendations safety environmental record list includes 35 countries panama liberia marshall islands world three largest registries terms deadweight tonnage dwt three organizations registered 11,636 ships total 39 world shipborne carrying capacity panama dominates scene 8,065 ships accounting almost 23 world dwt three marshall islands 1,265 registered ships greatest rate dwt increase 2009 increasing tonnage almost 15 bahamian flag ranks sixth worldwide behind hong kong greek registries similar size marshallese flag convenience 200 ships carrying capacity lower malta ninth position worldwide 100 ships bahamas capacity representing 4 world fleet 12 growth year eleventh position cyprus registered 1,016 ships 2009 2.6 world tonnage remaining top 11 flags convenience antigua barbuda 20 bermuda 22 saint vincent grenadines 26 french international ship register fis number 27 bermuda fis fewer 200 ships apiece large average bermudan ship average fis ship way reference average capacity ships u.s. u.k. registers respectively registries antigua barbuda saint vincent grenadines 1,000 ships average capacity respectively remaining flags convenience listed itf account less 1 world dwt half world merchant ships measured tonnage registered flags convenience number common threads found criticisms flag convenience system one flag states insufficient regulations regulations poorly enforced another many cases flag state identify shipowner much less hold owner civilly criminally responsible ship actions result lack flag state control flags convenience criticized grounds enabling tax avoidance providing environment conducting criminal activities supporting terrorism providing poor working conditions seafarers adverse effect environment david cockroft former general secretary itf says panama largest maritime register followed liberia landlocked bolivia also major registry mongolia also registers based countries example panama consulates manage documentation collect registration fees liberia registry managed company virginia bahamas city london ship beneficial owner legally financially responsible ship activities number reasons justifiable suspicious shipowners wish conceal ownership may use number strategies achieve goal jurisidictions permit actual owners may establish shell corporations legal owners ships making difficult impossible track beneficial owner ship 2004 report un secretary general consultative group flag state implementation reported easy comparatively inexpensive establish complex web corporate entities provide effective cover identities beneficial owners want known according 2003 report organisation economic co-operation development oecd report entitled ownership control ships corporate structures often multi-layered spread across numerous jurisdictions make beneficial owner almost impenetrable law enforcement officials taxation report concludes regardless reasons cloak anonymity made available provided also assist may wish remain hidden engage illegal criminal activities including terrorists oecd report concludes use bearer shares perhaps single important perhaps widely used mechanism protect anonymity ship beneficial owner physically possessing bearer share accords ownership corporation requirement reporting transfer bearer shares every jurisdiction requires serial numbers even recorded two similar techniques provide anonymity ship beneficial owner nominee shareholders nominee directors jurisdictions require shareholder identities reported loophole may exist beneficial owner may appoint nominee shareholder nominee legally compelled reveal identity beneficial owner corporations required least one director however many jurisdictions allow nominee director nominee director name would appear corporate paperwork place beneficial owners like nominee shareholders jurisdictions compel nominee director divulge identity beneficial owners hurdle jurisdictions allow corporation named director flag convenience ships long linked crime high seas example 1982 honduras shut open registry operations enabled illegal traffic kinds given honduras bad name ships registered cambodia shipping corporation csc found smuggling drugs cigarettes europe breaking iraq oil embargo engaging human trafficking prostitution europe asia response activities 2000 ahamd yahya cambodian ministry public works transport told industry publication fairplay n't know care owns ships whether 're 'white 'black business ... concern less two years later french forces seized cambodian-flagged greek-owned mv winner cocaine smuggling shortly seizure cambodian prime minister hun sen closed registry foreign ships cambodia canceled contract csc shortly thereafter north korean flag convenience also garnered significant scrutiny 2003 north korean freighter pong su reflagged tuvalu middle voyage shortly seized australian authorities smuggling heroin country year thirteen nations began monitoring vessels north korean flag illicit cargos like drugs missiles nuclear weapon fuel accompanying material ilo maritime labour convention 2006 international labour organization estimated time approximately 1,200,000 working seafarers across world document goes say working aboard ships flagged states exercise effective jurisdiction control ships seafarers often work unacceptable conditions detriment well-being health safety safety ships work international transport workers federation goes stating flags convenience provide means avoiding labor regulation country ownership become vehicle paying low wages forcing long hours work unsafe working conditions since foc ships real nationality beyond reach single national seafarers trade union also say ships low safety standards construction requirements enforce safety standards minimum social standards trade union rights seafarers frequently fail pay crews poor safety records engage practices abandoning crewmen distant ports flag convenience ships involved highest-profile oil spills history maltese-flagged bahamian-flagged marshallese-flagged deepwater horizon liberian-flagged ss torrey canyon common environmental criticism face regards illegal fishing critics flag convenience system argue many foc flag states lack resources properly monitor control vessels environmental justice foundation ejf contends illegal unreported unregulated fishing iuu vessels use flags convenience avoid fisheries regulations controls flags convenience help reduce operating costs associated illegal fishing methods help illegal operators avoid prosecution hide beneficial ownership result flags convenience perpetuate iuu fishing extensive environmental social economic impacts particularly developing countries ejf campaigning end granting flags convenience fishing vessels effective measure combat iuu fishing according franz fischler european union fisheries commissioner international regulations maritime industry promulgated agencies united nations particularly international maritime organization international labour organization flag states adopt regulations ships ratifying individual treaties one common criticism flag convenience countries allow shipowners avoid regulations ratifying important treaties failing enforce international chamber shipping ics issues annual report entitled shipping industry flag state performance table identifying six core conventions representing minimum level maritime regulation viewpoint shipowners solas marpol 66 stcw mlc clc/fund92 35 flag convenience countries listed itf ratified stcw convention concerning standards training certification watchkeeping seafarers 19 ratified six however least fourteen listed countries ratified remaining five conventions put context 60 flag states ratified six conventions including china united states america safety life sea solas load line 66 conventions focus shipboard safety issues originally developed response sinking rms titanic solas sets regulations lifeboats emergency equipment safety procedures including continuous radio watches updated include regulations ship construction fire protection systems life-saving appliances radio communications safety navigation management safe operation ships safety security concerns 66 sets standards minimum buoyancy hull stress ship fittings well establishing navigational zones extra precautions must taken international labour organization maritime labour convention 2006 provides comprehensive rights protection work seafarers including requirements minimum age qualifications hours work rest medical care complaint procedures wage payments onboard living arrangements mlc replaced number earlier ilo conventions including ilo147 marpol clc/fund92 relate pollution international convention prevention pollution ships 1973 marpol modified protocol 1978 including annexes i–vi regulates pollution ships including oil air pollution shipboard sewage garbage civil liability oil pollution damage clc international fund compensation oil pollution damage fund92 together provide mechanisms ensure compensation victims oil spills 1978 number european countries agreed hague audit labour conditions board vessels vis-a-vis rules international labour organization end 1982 paris memorandum understanding port state control paris mou established setting port state control standards twenty-six european countries canada several regional memoranda understanding established based paris model including memorandum understanding port state control asia-pacific region typically referred tokyo mou organizations black sea caribbean indian ocean mediterranean latin america tokyo paris organizations generate based deficiencies detentions black- white- grey-lists flag states us coast guard handles port state control inspections us maintains similar target list underperforming flag states least thirteen thirty-five flags convenience listed itf targeted special enforcement countries paris tokyo mous u.s. coast guard united nations conference trade development 2009 report maritime trade states shipowners often register ships foreign flag order employ seafarers developing countries lower wages philippines china supply large percentage maritime labor general major flags convenience particular 2009 flag-states employing highest number expatriate-filipino seafarers panama bahamas liberia marshall islands year 150,000 filipino sailors employed four flags convenience 2006 study united states maritime administration marad sailors people republic china comprised 40 crews surveyed ships flying panamanian flag around 10 flying liberian flag marad report referred china philippines low cost crewing sources seafaring industry often divided two employment groups licensed mariners including deck officers marine engineers mariners required licenses able seamen cooks required certified latter group collectively known unlicensed mariners ratings differences wages seen groups high cost crewing sources united states low cost sources china philippines however salaries flag convenience ships still far higher median salaries non-seafarers countries addition income tax exemption seamen particularly philippines unlicensed mariners 2009 statistics american bureau labor statistics give median earnings able ordinary seamen us 35,810 varying 21,640 10th percentile 55,360 90th percentile compared 2006 statistics international labour organization giving average yearly earnings filipino chinese able seamen around 2,000 3,000 per year php9,900 per month cny3,071 per year among licensed mariners american chief engineers earned median 63,630 varying 35,030 109,310 filipino counterparts averaged 5,500 per year php21,342 per month 1-hop neighbor's text information: flag_state.flag state flag state merchant vessel jurisdiction whose laws vessel registered licensed deemed nationality vessel merchant vessel must registered registered one jurisdiction may change register registered flag state authority responsibility enforce regulations vessels registered flag including relating inspection certification issuance safety pollution prevention documents ship operates laws flag state laws applicable ship involved admiralty case term flag convenience describes business practice registering merchant ship state ship owners flying state civil ensign ship ships may registered flags convenience reduce operating costs avoid regulations avoid inspection scrutiny owner country normally nationality i.e. flag ship determines taxing jurisdiction since flag right declaration 1921 recognised states—including land-locked countries—have right maintain ship register ship ’ flag state failure flag states comply survey certification responsibilities especially flag-of-convenience states delegated task classification societies number states since 1982 established port state controls foreign-registered ships entering jurisdiction january 2010 panama world largest flag state almost quarter world ocean-going tonnage registered united states united kingdom 1 world war ii nations able maintain dominance cases even improve position maritime trade offering vessels exclusive protection flying flags would turn give nation exclusive control vessels shipowners time needed protection pirates privateers provided naval vessels flag state cases states offered subsidies shipbuilding industries addition incentives states might impose restrictions based flag state closing ports ships one well known example applied case england restricted import asian goods american british vessels england opened ports maneuvered position strength like gain access continental ports similarly france imposed trade monopoly colonies remained place 1869 ships must registered ship register jurisdiction whose flag flying flag registers many countries open ships foreign owners normally flag state one ship register several countries one register flag state set flag state control system 1-hop neighbor's text information: norwegian_ship_registers.norwegian ship registers norwegian ship registers sometimes called nis-nor norwegian government agency responsible operating norwegian international ship register norwegian ship register norwegian shipbuilding register register subordinate norwegian ministry trade industry ministry transport based bergen Target text information: norwegian_international_ship_register.norwegian international ship register norwegian international ship register nis separate norwegian ship register norwegian vessels aimed competing flags convenience registers panama liberia originally proposed erling dekke næss 1984 established bergen 1987 managed norwegian ship registers 2010 12th ship register gross tonnage representing 1 global tonnage years register established norwegian register lost could compete lower-cost registers main objectives establishing register register highly successful 2002 880 vessels register total around criticism countries opened second registers norway nis germany gis denmark dis fewer restrictions nationality crew allegedly lower safety standards main national register I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	5,147	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: unix.unix unix trademarked unix family multitasking multiuser computer operating systems derive original unix development starting 1970s bell labs research center ken thompson dennis ritchie others initially intended use inside bell system licensed unix outside parties late 1970s leading variety academic commercial unix variants vendors including university california berkeley bsd microsoft xenix ibm aix sun microsystems solaris early 1990s sold rights unix novell sold unix business santa cruz operation sco 1995 unix trademark passed open group neutral industry consortium allows use mark certified operating systems comply single unix specification sus 2014 unix version largest installed base apple macos unix systems characterized modular design sometimes called unix philosophy concept entails operating system provides set simple tools performs limited well-defined function unified filesystem unix filesystem main means communication shell scripting command language unix shell combine tools perform complex workflows unix distinguishes predecessors first portable operating system almost entire operating system written c programming language thus allowing unix reach numerous platforms unix originally meant convenient platform programmers developing software run systems rather non-programmers system grew larger operating system started spreading academic circles users added tools system shared colleagues first unix designed portable multi-tasking later unix gradually gained portability multi-tasking multi-user capabilities time-sharing configuration unix systems characterized various concepts use plain text storing data hierarchical file system treating devices certain types inter-process communication ipc files use large number software tools small programs strung together command-line interpreter using pipes opposed using single monolithic program includes functionality concepts collectively known unix philosophy brian kernighan rob pike summarize unix programming environment idea power system comes relationships among programs programs era standard computer consisted hard disk storage data terminal input output i/o unix file model worked quite well i/o generally linear 1980s non-blocking i/o set inter-process communication mechanisms augmented unix domain sockets shared memory message queues semaphores well network sockets support communication hosts graphical user interfaces developed file model proved inadequate task handling asynchronous events generated mouse early 1980s users began seeing unix potential universal operating system suitable computers sizes unix environment client–server program model essential elements development internet reshaping computing centered networks rather individual computers unix c programming language developed distributed government academic institutions led ported wider variety machine families operating system unix operating system consists many libraries utilities along master control program kernel kernel provides services start stop programs handles file system common low-level tasks programs share schedules access avoid conflicts programs try access resource device simultaneously mediate access kernel special rights reflected division user space kernel space — although microkernel implementations like minix redox functions network protocols may also run user space origins unix date back mid-1960s massachusetts institute technology bell labs general electric developing multics time-sharing operating system ge-645 mainframe computer multics featured several innovations also presented severe problems frustrated size complexity multics goals individual researchers bell labs started withdrawing project last leave ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna decided reimplement experiences new project smaller scale new operating system initially without organizational backing also without name new operating system single-tasking system 1970 group coined name unics uniplexed information computing service pronounced eunuchs pun multics stood multiplexed information computer services brian kernighan takes credit idea adds one remember origin final spelling unix dennis ritchie doug mcilroy peter g. neumann also credit kernighan operating system originally written assembly language 1973 version 4 unix rewritten c. version 4 unix however still many pdp-11 dependent codes suitable porting first port platform made five years later 1978 interdata 8/32 bell labs produced several versions unix collectively referred research unix 1975 first source license unix sold donald b. gillies university illinois department computer science uiuc graduate student greg chesson worked unix kernel bell labs instrumental negotiating terms license late 1970s early 1980s influence unix academic circles led large-scale adoption unix bsd system v commercial startups including sequent hp-ux solaris aix xenix late 1980s unix system laboratories sun microsystems developed system v release 4 svr4 subsequently adopted many commercial unix vendors 1990s unix unix-like systems grew popularity bsd linux distributions developed collaboration worldwide network programmers 2000 apple released darwin also unix system became core mac os x operating system later renamed macos unix operating systems widely used modern servers workstations mobile devices late 1980s open operating system standardization effort known posix provided common baseline operating systems ieee based posix around common structure major competing variants unix system publishing first posix standard 1988 early 1990s separate similar effort started industry consortium common open software environment cose initiative eventually became single unix specification sus administered open group starting 1998 open group ieee started austin group provide common definition posix single unix specification 2008 become open group base specification 1999 effort towards compatibility several unix system vendors agreed svr4 executable linkable format elf standard binary object code files common format allows substantial binary compatibility among different unix systems operating cpu architecture filesystem hierarchy standard created provide reference directory layout unix-like operating systems mainly used linux unix system composed several components originally packaged together including development environment libraries documents portable modifiable source code components addition kernel operating system unix self-contained software system one key reasons emerged important teaching learning tool broad influence inclusion components make system large original v7 unix distribution consisting copies compiled binaries plus source code documentation occupied less 10 mb arrived single nine-track magnetic tape printed documentation typeset online sources contained two volumes names filesystem locations unix components changed substantially across history system nonetheless v7 implementation considered many canonical early structure unix system significant impact operating systems achieved reputation interactivity providing software nominal fee educational use running inexpensive hardware easy adapt move different machines unix originally written assembly language soon rewritten c high-level programming language although followed lead multics burroughs unix popularized idea unix drastically simplified file model compared many contemporary operating systems treating kinds files simple byte arrays file system hierarchy contained machine services devices printers terminals disk drives providing uniform interface expense occasionally requiring additional mechanisms ioctl mode flags access features hardware fit simple stream bytes model plan 9 operating system pushed model even eliminated need additional mechanisms unix also popularized hierarchical file system arbitrarily nested subdirectories originally introduced multics common operating systems era ways divide storage device multiple directories sections fixed number levels often one level several major proprietary operating systems eventually added recursive subdirectory capabilities also patterned multics dec rsx-11m group user hierarchy evolved vms directories cp/m volumes evolved ms-dos 2.0+ subdirectories hp mpe group.account hierarchy ibm ssp os/400 library systems folded broader posix file systems making command interpreter ordinary user-level program additional commands provided separate programs another multics innovation popularized unix unix shell used language interactive commands scripting shell scripts – separate job control language like ibm jcl since shell os commands another program user could choose even write shell new commands could added without changing shell unix innovative command-line syntax creating modular chains producer-consumer processes pipelines made powerful programming paradigm coroutines widely available many later command-line interpreters inspired unix shell fundamental simplifying assumption unix focus newline-delimited text nearly file formats binary editors original version unix – entire system configured using textual shell command scripts common denominator i/o system byte – unlike record-based file systems focus text representing nearly everything made unix pipes especially useful encouraged development simple general tools could easily combined perform complicated ad hoc tasks focus text bytes made system far scalable portable systems time text-based applications also proven popular application areas printing languages postscript odf application layer internet protocols e.g. ftp smtp http soap sip unix popularized syntax regular expressions found widespread use unix programming interface became basis widely implemented operating system interface standard posix see c programming language soon spread beyond unix ubiquitous systems applications programming early unix developers important bringing concepts modularity reusability software engineering practice spawning software tools movement time leading developers unix programs ran established set cultural norms developing software norms became important influential technology unix termed unix philosophy tcp/ip networking protocols quickly implemented unix versions widely used relatively inexpensive computers contributed internet explosion worldwide real-time connectivity formed basis implementations many platforms unix policy extensive on-line documentation many years ready access system source code raised programmer expectations contributed launch free software movement 1983 1983 richard stallman announced gnu short gnu unix project ambitious effort create free software unix-like system free sense everyone received copy would free use study modify redistribute gnu project kernel development project gnu hurd yet produced working kernel 1991 linus torvalds released linux kernel free software gnu general public license addition use linux operating system many gnu packages – gnu compiler collection rest gnu toolchain gnu c library gnu core utilities – gone play central roles free unix systems well linux distributions consisting linux kernel large collections compatible software become popular individual users business popular distributions include red hat enterprise linux fedora suse linux enterprise opensuse debian gnu/linux ubuntu linux mint mandriva linux slackware linux arch linux gentoo free derivative bsd unix 386bsd released 1992 led netbsd freebsd projects 1994 settlement lawsuit brought university california berkeley software design inc. usl v. bsdi unix systems laboratories clarified berkeley right distribute bsd unix free desired since bsd unix developed several different product branches including openbsd dragonfly bsd linux bsd increasingly filling market needs traditionally served proprietary unix operating systems well expanding new markets consumer desktop mobile embedded devices modular design unix model sharing components relatively common consequently unix unix-like systems include least bsd code systems also include gnu utilities distributions 1999 interview dennis ritchie voiced opinion linux bsd operating systems continuation basis unix design derivatives unix interview states views unix linux continuation ideas started ken many others many years ago opensolaris open-source counterpart solaris developed sun microsystems included cddl-licensed kernel primarily gnu userland however oracle discontinued project upon acquisition sun prompted group former sun employees members opensolaris community fork opensolaris illumos kernel 2014 illumos remains active open-source system v derivative may 1975 rfc 681 described development network unix center advanced computation university illinois system said present several interesting capabilities arpanet mini-host time unix required license bell laboratories 20,000 us expensive non-university users educational license cost 150 noted bell open suggestions arpanet-wide license specific features found beneficial local processing facilities compilers editors document preparation system efficient file system access control mountable unmountable volumes unified treatment peripherals special files integration network control program ncp within unix file system treatment network connections special files accessed standard unix i/o calls closing files program exit decision desirable minimize amount code added basic unix kernel october 1993 novell company owned rights unix system v source time transferred trademarks unix x/open company open group 1995 sold related business operations santa cruz operation sco whether novell also sold copyrights actual software subject federal lawsuit 2006 sco v. novell novell case appealed august 30 2011 united states court appeals tenth circuit affirmed trial decisions closing case unix vendor sco group inc. accused novell slander title present owner trademark unix open group industry standards consortium systems fully compliant certified single unix specification qualify unix others called unix-like decree open group term unix refers class operating systems specific implementation operating system operating systems meet open group single unix specification able bear unix 98 unix 03 trademarks today operating system vendor pays substantial certification fee annual trademark royalties open group systems licensed use unix trademark include aix hp-ux inspur k-ux irix solaris tru64 unix formerly digital unix osf/1 macos part z/os notably inspur k-ux linux distribution certified unix 03 compliant sometimes representation like unx nix *n x used indicate operating systems similar unix comes use asterisk question mark characters wildcard indicators many utilities notation also used describe unix-like systems met requirements unix branding open group open group requests unix always used adjective followed generic term system help avoid creation genericized trademark unix original formatting usage unix remains widespread typeset small caps unix according dennis ritchie presenting original unix paper third operating systems symposium american association computing machinery acm new typesetter troff invented intoxicated able produce small caps many operating system predecessors contemporaries used all-uppercase lettering many people wrote name upper case due force habit acronym trademark names registered different entities different countries trademark laws countries allow trademark name controlled two different entities entity uses trademark easily distinguishable categories result unix used brand name various products including book shelves ink pens bottled glue diapers hair driers food containers several plural forms unix used casually refer multiple brands unix unix-like systems common conventional unixes unices treating unix latin noun third declension also popular pseudo-anglo-saxon plural form unixen common although occasionally seen sun microsystems developer solaris variant asserted term unix plural referencing many implementations 1-hop neighbor's text information: pdf.pdf portable document format pdf redundantly pdf format file format developed adobe 1990s present documents including text formatting images manner independent application software hardware operating systems based postscript language pdf file encapsulates complete description fixed-layout flat document including text fonts vector graphics raster images information needed display pdf standardized iso 32000 2008 longer requires royalties implementation today pdf files may contain variety content besides flat text graphics including logical structuring elements interactive elements annotations form-fields layers rich media including video content three dimensional objects using u3d prc various data formats pdf specification also provides encryption digital signatures file attachments metadata enable workflows requiring features adobe systems made pdf specification available free charge 1993 early years pdf popular mainly desktop publishing workflows competed variety formats djvu envoy common ground digital paper farallon replica even adobe postscript format pdf proprietary format controlled adobe released open standard july 1 2008 published international organization standardization iso 32000-1:2008 time control specification passed iso committee volunteer industry experts 2008 adobe published public patent license iso 32000-1 granting royalty-free rights patents owned adobe necessary make use sell distribute pdf compliant implementations pdf 1.7 sixth edition pdf specification became iso 32000-1 includes proprietary technologies defined adobe adobe xml forms architecture xfa javascript extension acrobat referenced iso 32000-1 normative indispensable full implementation iso 32000-1 specification proprietary technologies standardized specification published adobe ’ website many also supported popular third-party implementations pdf july 28 2017 iso 32000-2:2017 pdf 2.0 published iso 32000-2 include proprietary technologies normative references pdf combines three technologies postscript page description language run interpreter generate image process requiring many resources handle graphics standard features programming languages codice_1 codice_2 commands pdf largely based postscript simplified remove flow control features like graphics commands codice_3 remain often postscript-like pdf code generated source postscript file graphics commands output postscript code collected tokenized files graphics fonts document refers also collected everything compressed single file therefore entire postscript world fonts layout measurements remains intact document format pdf several advantages postscript pdf file 7-bit ascii file except certain elements may binary content pdf file starts header containing magic number version format codice_4 format subset cos carousel object structure format cos tree file consists primarily objects eight types furthermore may comments introduced percent sign codice_9 comments may contain 8-bit characters objects may either direct embedded another object indirect indirect objects numbered object number generation number defined codice_10 codice_11 keywords index table also called cross-reference table marked codice_12 keyword follows main body gives byte offset indirect object start file design allows efficient random access objects file also allows small changes made without rewriting entire file incremental update beginning pdf version 1.5 indirect objects may also located special streams known object streams technique reduces size files large numbers small indirect objects especially useful tagged pdf end pdf file trailer introduced codice_13 keyword contains dictionary contains two layouts pdf files non-linear optimized linear optimized non-linear pdf files consume less disk space linear counterparts though slower access portions data required assemble pages document scattered throughout pdf file linear pdf files also called optimized web optimized pdf files constructed manner enables read web browser plugin without waiting entire file download since written disk linear page order fashion pdf files may optimized using adobe acrobat software qpdf basic design graphics represented pdf similar postscript except use transparency added pdf 1.4 pdf graphics use device-independent cartesian coordinate system describe surface page pdf page description use matrix scale rotate skew graphical elements key concept pdf graphics state collection graphical parameters may changed saved restored page description pdf version 1.6 24 graphics state properties important postscript vector graphics pdf constructed paths paths usually composed lines cubic bézier curves also constructed outlines text unlike postscript pdf allow single path mix text outlines lines curves paths stroked filled clipping strokes fills use color set graphics state including patterns pdf supports several types patterns simplest tiling pattern piece artwork specified drawn repeatedly may colored tiling pattern colors specified pattern object uncolored tiling pattern defers color specification time pattern drawn beginning pdf 1.3 also shading pattern draws continuously varying colors seven types shading pattern simplest axial shade type 2 radial shade type 3 raster images pdf called image xobjects represented dictionaries associated stream dictionary describes properties image stream contains image data less commonly raster image may embedded directly page description inline image images typically filtered compression purposes image filters supported pdf include general purpose filters normally image content pdf embedded file pdf allows image data stored external files use external streams alternate images standardized subsets pdf including pdf/a pdf/x prohibit features text pdf represented text elements page content streams text element specifies characters drawn certain positions characters specified using encoding selected font resource font object pdf description digital typeface may either describe characteristics typeface may include embedded font file latter case called embedded font former called unembedded font font files may embedded based widely used standard digital font formats type 1 compressed variant cff truetype beginning pdf 1.6 opentype additionally pdf supports type 3 variant components font described pdf graphic operators fourteen typefaces known standard 14 fonts special significance pdf documents fonts sometimes called base fourteen fonts fonts suitable substitute fonts metrics available pdf readers guaranteed available reader may display correctly system installed fonts may substituted embedded pdf within text strings characters shown using character codes integers map glyphs current font using encoding number predefined encodings including winansi macroman large number encodings east asian languages font built-in encoding although winansi macroman encodings derived historical properties windows macintosh operating systems fonts using encodings work equally well platform pdf specify predefined encoding use font built-in encoding provide lookup table differences predefined built-in encoding recommended truetype fonts encoding mechanisms pdf designed type 1 fonts rules applying truetype fonts complex large fonts fonts non-standard glyphs special encodings identity-h horizontal writing identity-v vertical used fonts necessary provide tounicode table semantic information characters preserved original imaging model pdf like postscript opaque object drawn page completely replaced anything previously marked location pdf 1.4 imaging model extended allow transparency transparency used new objects interact previously marked objects produce blending effects addition transparency pdf done means new extensions designed ignored products written pdf 1.3 earlier specifications result files use small amount transparency might view acceptably older viewers files making extensive use transparency could viewed incorrectly older viewer without warning transparency extensions based key concepts transparency groups blending modes shape alpha model closely aligned features adobe illustrator version 9 blend modes based used adobe photoshop time pdf 1.4 specification published formulas calculating blend modes kept secret adobe since published concept transparency group pdf specification independent existing notions group layer applications adobe illustrator groupings reflect logical relationships among objects meaningful editing objects part imaging model pdf files may contain interactive elements annotations form fields video 3d rich media rich media pdf pdf file including interactive content embedded linked within file interactive forms mechanism add forms pdf file format pdf currently supports two different methods integrating data pdf forms formats today coexist pdf specification acroforms introduced pdf 1.2 format acroforms permit using objects e.g text boxes radio buttons etc code e.g javascript alongside standard pdf action types interactive forms acroforms support submitting resetting importing data submit action transmits names values selected interactive form fields specified uniform resource locator url interactive form field names values may submitted following formats depending settings action ’ exportformat submitpdf xfdf flags acroforms keep form field values external stand-alone files containing key value pairs external files may use forms data format fdf xml forms data format xfdf files usage rights ur signatures define rights import form data files fdf xfdf text csv/tsv formats export form data files fdf xfdf formats forms data format fdf based pdf uses syntax essentially file structure much simpler pdf since body fdf document consists one required object forms data format defined pdf specification since pdf 1.2 forms data format used submitting form data server receiving response incorporating interactive form also used export form data stand-alone files imported back corresponding pdf interactive form xml forms data format xfdf xml version forms data format xfdf implements subset fdf containing forms annotations xfdf equivalents entries fdf dictionary – status encoding javascript pages keys embeddedfdfs differences target addition xfdf allow spawning addition new pages based given data done using fdf file xfdf specification referenced included pdf 1.5 specification later versions described separately xml forms data format specification pdf 1.4 specification allowed form submissions xml format replaced submissions xfdf format pdf 1.5 specification xfdf conforms xml standard december 2016 xfdf 3.0 iso/iec standard formal name iso 19444-1:2016 – document management – xml forms data format – part 1 use iso 32000-2 xfdf 3.0 standard normative reference iso 32000-2 xfdf used way fdf e.g. form data submitted server modifications made sent back new form data imported interactive form also used export form data stand-alone files imported back corresponding pdf interactive form pdf 1.5 adobe systems introduced proprietary format forms adobe xml forms architecture xfa adobe xfa forms compatible iso 32000 acroforms feature pdf processors handle xfa content xfa specification referenced iso 32000-1 pdf 1.7 external proprietary specification entirely deprecated pdf iso 32000-2 pdf 2.0 tagged pdf see clause 14.8 iso 32000 includes document structure semantics information enable reliable text extraction accessibility technically speaking tagged pdf stylized use format builds logical structure framework introduced pdf 1.3 tagged pdf defines set standard structure types attributes allow page content text graphics images extracted reused purposes tagged pdf required situations pdf file intended print since feature optional since rules tagged pdf relatively vague iso 32000-1 support tagged pdf amongst consuming devices including assistive technology uneven time iso 32000-2 however includes improved discussion tagged pdf anticipated facilitate iso-standardized subset pdf specifically targeted accessibility pdf/ua first published 2012 introduction pdf version 1.5 2003 came concept layers layers formally known optional content groups ocgs refer sections content pdf document selectively viewed hidden document authors consumers capability useful cad drawings layered artwork maps multi-language documents etc basically consists optional content properties dictionary added document root dictionary contains array optional content groups ocgs describing set information may individually displayed suppressed plus set optional content configuration dictionaries give status displayed suppressed given ocgs pdf file may encrypted security digitally signed authentication however since sha-1 collision discovered making use pdf format digital signatures using sha-1 shown insecure standard security provided acrobat pdf consists two different methods two different passwords user password encrypts file prevents opening owner password specifies operations restricted even document decrypted include modifying printing copying text graphics document adding modifying text notes acroform fields user password encrypts file owner password instead relying client software respect restrictions owner password easily removed software including free online services thus use restrictions document author places pdf document secure assured file distributed warning displayed applying restrictions using adobe acrobat software create edit pdf files even without removing password freeware open source pdf readers ignore permission protections allow user print make copy excerpts text document limited password protection number commercial solutions offer robust means information rights management restrict document access also reliably enforce permissions ways standard security handler beginning pdf 1.5 usage rights ur signatures used enable additional interactive features available default particular pdf viewer application signature used validate permissions granted bona fide granting authority example used allow user example adobe systems grants permissions enable additional features adobe reader using public-key cryptography adobe reader verifies signature uses certificate adobe-authorized certificate authority pdf application use mechanism purposes pdf files file attachments processors may access open save local filesystem pdf files contain two types metadata first document information dictionary set key/value fields author title subject creation update dates stored optional info trailer file small set fields defined extended additional text values required method deprecated pdf 2.0 pdf 1.4 support added metadata streams using extensible metadata platform xmp add xml standards-based extensible metadata used file formats allows metadata attached stream document information embedded illustrations well whole document attaching document catalog using extensible schema pdfs may encrypted password needed view edit contents pdf 2.0 defines 256-bit aes encryption standard pdf 2.0 files pdf reference also defines ways third parties define encryption systems pdf pdf files may digitally signed complete details implementing digital signatures pdf provided iso 32000-2 pdf files may also contain embedded drm restrictions provide controls limit copying editing printing restrictions depend reader software obey security provide limited pdf documents contain display settings including page display layout zoom level adobe reader uses settings override user default settings opening document free adobe reader remove settings anyone may create applications read write pdf files without pay royalties adobe systems adobe holds patents pdf licenses royalty-free use developing software complying pdf specification pdf files created specifically accessible disabled people pdf file formats use include tags text equivalents captions audio descriptions software automatically produce tagged pdfs feature always enabled default leading screen readers including jaws window-eyes hal kurzweil 1000 3000 read tagged pdf moreover tagged pdfs re-flowed magnified readers visual impairments adding tags older pdfs generated scanned documents present challenges one significant challenges pdf accessibility pdf documents three distinct views depending document creation inconsistent three views physical view ii tags view iii content view physical view displayed printed people consider pdf document tags view screen readers assistive technologies use deliver high-quality navigation reading experience users disabilities content view based physical order objects within pdf content stream may displayed software fully support tags view reflow feature adobe reader pdf/ua international standard accessible pdf based iso 32000-1 first published iso 14289-1 2012 establishes normative language accessible pdf technology pdf attachments carrying viruses first discovered 2001 virus named outlook.pdfworm peachy uses microsoft outlook send attachment adobe pdf file activated adobe acrobat acrobat reader time time new vulnerabilities discovered various versions adobe reader prompting company issue security fixes pdf readers also susceptible one aggravating factor pdf reader configured start automatically web page embedded pdf file providing vector attack malicious web page contains infected pdf file takes advantage vulnerability pdf reader system may compromised even browser secure vulnerabilities result pdf standard allowing pdf documents scripted javascript disabling javascript execution pdf reader help mitigate future exploits although protect exploits parts pdf viewing software security experts say javascript essential pdf reader security benefit comes disabling javascript outweighs compatibility issues caused one way avoiding pdf file exploits local web service convert files another format viewing march 30 2010 security researcher didier stevens reported adobe reader foxit reader exploit runs malicious executable user allows launch asked pdf file often combination vector graphics text bitmap graphics basic types content pdf later pdf revisions pdf document also support links inside document web page forms javascript initially available plugin acrobat 3.0 types embedded contents handled using plug-ins pdf 1.6 supports interactive 3d documents embedded pdf – 3d drawings embedded using u3d prc various data formats two pdf files look similar computer screen may different sizes example high resolution raster image takes space low resolution one typically higher resolution needed printing documents displaying screen things may increase size file embedding full fonts especially asiatic scripts storing text graphics pdf viewers generally provided free charge many versions available variety sources many software options creating pdfs including pdf printing capabilities built macos ios linux distributions libreoffice microsoft office 2007 updated sp2 later wordperfect 9 scribus numerous pdf print drivers microsoft windows pdftex typesetting system docbook pdf tools applications developed around ghostscript adobe acrobat well adobe indesign adobe framemaker adobe illustrator adobe photoshop google online office suite google docs also allows uploading saving pdf raster image processors rips used convert pdf files raster format suitable imaging onto paper media printers digital production presses prepress process known rasterisation rips capable processing pdf directly include adobe pdf print engine adobe systems jaws harlequin rip global graphics documents saved pdf portable document format portable document format archiving forms data format printable document could converted back forth many formats etc companies adobe acrobat provide sdk libraries developers add create pdf features software besides adobe pdf library companies pdftron systems apache pdfbox foxit software provide similar sdks adobe acrobat one example proprietary software allows user annotate highlight add notes already created pdf files one unix application available free software gnu general public license pdfedit freeware foxit reader available microsoft windows macos linux allows annotating documents tracker software pdf-xchange viewer allows annotations markups without restrictions freeware alternative apple macos integrated pdf viewer preview also enable annotations open source software skim latter supporting interaction latex synctex pdfsync integration bibdesk reference management software freeware qiqqa create annotation report summarizes annotations notes one made across library pdfs also web annotation systems support annotation pdf documents formats cases pdfs expected functionality paper documents ink annotation required examples pdf software online services including scribd viewing storing pdfvue online editing thinkfree zamzar conversion 1993 jaws raster image processor global graphics became first shipping prepress rip interpreted pdf natively without conversion another format company released upgrade harlequin rip capability 1997 agfa-gevaert introduced shipped apogee first prepress workflow system based pdf 1997 many commercial offset printers accepted submission press-ready pdf files print source specifically pdf/x-1a subset variations submission press-ready pdf files replacement problematic need receiving collected native working files pdf selected native metafile format mac os x replacing pict format earlier classic mac os imaging model quartz graphics layer based model common display postscript pdf leading nickname display pdf preview application display pdf files version 2.0 later safari web browser system-level support pdf allows mac os x applications create pdf documents automatically provided support os-standard printing architecture files exported pdf 1.3 format according file header taking screenshot mac os x versions 10.0 10.3 image also captured pdf later versions save screen captures png file though behaviour set back pdf desired 2006 pdf widely accepted standard print job format open source development labs printing summit supported print job format common unix printing system desktop application projects gnome kde firefox thunderbird libreoffice openoffice switched emit print jobs pdf desktop printers also support direct pdf printing interpret pdf data without external help currently pdf capable printers also support postscript postscript printers support direct pdf printing free software foundation thought one high priority projects developing free high-quality fully functional set libraries programs implement pdf file format associated technologies iso 32000 standard 2011 however gnu pdf project removed list high priority projects due maturation poppler library enjoyed wider use applications evince gnome desktop environment poppler based xpdf code base also commercial development libraries available listed list pdf software apache pdfbox project apache software foundation open source java library working pdf documents pdfbox licensed apache license 1-hop neighbor's text information: hp-gl.hp-gl hp-gl short hewlett-packard graphics language often written hpgl printer control language created hewlett-packard hp hp-gl primary printer control language used hp plotters introduced plotter hp-8972 1977 became standard almost plotters hewlett-packard printers also usually support hp-gl/2 addition pcl language formed series two letter codes mnemonics followed optional parameters instance arc drawn page sending string codice_1 means arc absolute parameters place center arc absolute coordinates 100,100 page starting angle 50 degrees measured counter-clockwise fourth optional parameter used specifies far arc continues defaults 5 degrees first introduced hp-gl contained following commands formats typical hp-gl files start setup commands followed long string graphics commands file ascii text file format instance coordinate system based smallest units one hp plotters could support set 25 µm i.e 40 units per millimeter 1016 per inch coordinate space positive negative floating point numbers specifically ±2 original hp-gl language support definition line width parameter determined pens loaded plotter advent first inkjet plotters line width pens specified within hp-gl files set printer would know line width print pen cumbersome error-prone process hewlett-packard graphics language/2 aka hp-gl/2 definition line width introduced language allowed elimination step also among improvements binary file format defined allowed smaller files shorter file transfer times minimal resolution reduced.. hp-gl related agl graphics language extension basic programming language agl implemented hewlett-packard minicomputers simplify controlling plotter agl commands describe desired graphics plotting function computer relays several hp-gl instructions plotter Target text information: harlequin_rip.harlequin rip harlequin rip raster image processor first released 1990 name scriptworks running command-line application render postscript language files unix developed harlequin software company based cambridge england harlequin rip started life 1986 final year university project software developer andy cave project build subset postscript interpreter could preview result converting tex/latex files postscript phd students would n't waste much paper new laserwriter although subset required cave ended creating quite complete implementation 1987 cave joined harlequin limited founding rip division bringing work 'd done bath university early 1990s harlequin commissioned xenotron develop raster image processor rip run macintosh computers drive ultre-based image setters exposing onto film resin-coated rc paper macintosh version proved successful harlequin signed number original equipment manufacturer oem partners sell including pongrass ecrm autologic xitron koronix purup graphic enterprises compose 1992 dos variation core rip developed also sold oem partners replaced version running microsoft windows 1993 1999 harlequin group went receivership bought global graphics harlequin group including staff assets renamed global graphics software limited unix-based command-line version rip phased years later rip finally renamed scriptworks harlequin rip 2004 onwards global graphics expanded reach harlequin rip producing number variants different market sectors harlequin rip sold oem partners builds prepress system digital front end dfe controller therefore sold variety names always easy identify whether system uses harlequin rip current versions harlequin rip interpret harlequin embedded sdk also supports printer command language 5e pcl 5c pcl xl including hpgl printer job language pjl file formats interpreted natively without conversion intermediate format pdf converted postscript vice versa example global graphics claims processing without conversion allows higher speeds avoids artifacts arising conversion native processing live transparency pdfs recognized several awards publishing essential impact award rip year 1997 1998 silver award pre-press news publishing awards 1997 rip/server product year harlequin rip also explicitly supports pdf/x-1a:2001 pdf/x-1a:2003 pdf/x-3:2002 pdf/x-3:2003 pdf/x-4 pdf/x-4p pdf/x-5g pdf/x-5pg set reject files comply standards include conformance information control strip proof harlequin oem partners built dfes full support additional formats personalized print markup language ppml around harlequin rip number extra components available variants harlequin rip leading descriptions harlequin server rip prepress workflow box included additional options include harlequin host renderer launched 2005 version 1.3 released late 2009 core rip functionality hhr tracked harlequin server rip except hhr currently following additional features comparison hsr 8.3 hhr supported linux windows harlequin embedded sdk ebd optimized use within home office printers end supports several versions printer control language pcl well printer job language pjl hewlett-packard graphics language hpgl ebd version 3 released 2009 supported variety real-time near-real-time operating systems including embedded windows xp linux vxworks threadx variety hardware architectures including intel freescale arm without system-on-a-chip soc around cpu global graphics announced partnership conexant provide combination hardware page description language pdl software home small office printers I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	11,074	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_windows.microsoft windows microsoft windows group several graphical operating system families developed marketed sold microsoft family caters certain sector computing industry active microsoft windows families include windows nt windows iot may encompass subfamilies e.g windows server windows embedded compact windows ce defunct microsoft windows families include windows 9x windows mobile windows phone microsoft introduced operating environment named windows november 20 1985 graphical operating system shell ms-dos response growing interest graphical user interfaces guis microsoft windows came dominate world personal computer pc market 90 market share overtaking mac os introduced 1984 apple came see windows unfair encroachment innovation gui development implemented products lisa macintosh eventually settled court microsoft favor 1993 pcs windows still popular operating system however 2014 microsoft admitted losing majority overall operating system market android massive growth sales android smartphones 2014 number windows devices sold less 25 android devices sold comparison however may fully relevant two operating systems traditionally target different platforms still numbers server use windows comparable competitors show one third market share similar end user use recent version windows pcs tablets smartphones embedded devices windows 10 recent version server computers windows server version 1903 specialized version windows also runs xbox one video game console microsoft developer windows registered several trademarks denote family windows operating systems target specific sector computing industry 2014 following windows families actively developed following windows families longer developed term windows collectively describes several generations microsoft operating system products products generally categorized follows history windows dates back 1981 microsoft started work program called interface manager announced november 1983 apple lisa macintosh name windows windows 1.0 released november 1985 windows 1.0 compete apple operating system achieved little popularity windows 1.0 complete operating system rather extends ms-dos shell windows 1.0 program known ms-dos executive components included calculator calendar cardfile clipboard viewer clock control panel notepad paint reversi terminal write windows 1.0 allow overlapping windows instead windows tiled modal dialog boxes may appear windows microsoft sold included windows development libraries c development environment included numerous windows samples windows 2.0 released december 1987 popular predecessor features several improvements user interface memory management windows 2.03 changed os tiled windows overlapping windows result change led apple computer filing suit microsoft alleging infringement apple copyrights windows 2.0 also introduced sophisticated keyboard shortcuts could make use expanded memory windows 2.1 released two different versions windows/286 windows/386 windows/386 uses virtual 8086 mode intel 80386 multitask several dos programs paged memory model emulate expanded memory using available extended memory windows/286 spite name runs intel 8086 intel 80286 processors runs real mode make use high memory area addition full windows-packages runtime-only versions shipped early windows software third parties made possible run windows software ms-dos without full windows feature set early versions windows often thought graphical shells mostly ran top ms-dos use file system services however even earliest windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions notably executable file format providing device drivers timer graphics printer mouse keyboard sound unlike ms-dos windows allowed users execute multiple graphical applications time cooperative multitasking windows implemented elaborate segment-based software virtual memory scheme allows run applications larger available memory code segments resources swapped thrown away memory became scarce data segments moved memory given application relinquished processor control windows 3.0 released 1990 improved design mostly virtual memory loadable virtual device drivers vxds allow windows share arbitrary devices multi-tasked dos applications windows 3.0 applications run protected mode gives access several megabytes memory without obligation participate software virtual memory scheme run inside address space segmented memory provides degree protection windows 3.0 also featured improvements user interface microsoft rewrote critical operations c assembly windows 3.0 first microsoft windows version achieve broad commercial success selling 2 million copies first six months windows 3.1 made generally available march 1 1992 featured facelift august 1993 windows workgroups special version integrated peer-to-peer networking features version number 3.11 released sold along windows 3.1 support windows 3.1 ended december 31 2001 windows 3.2 released 1994 updated version chinese version windows 3.1 update limited language version fixed issues related complex writing system chinese language windows 3.2 generally sold computer manufacturers ten-disk version ms-dos also simplified chinese characters basic output translated utilities next major consumer-oriented release windows windows 95 released august 24 1995 still remaining ms-dos-based windows 95 introduced support native 32-bit applications plug play hardware preemptive multitasking long file names 255 characters provided increased stability predecessors windows 95 also introduced redesigned object oriented user interface replacing previous program manager start menu taskbar windows explorer shell windows 95 major commercial success microsoft ina fried cnet remarked time windows 95 finally ushered market 2001 become fixture computer desktops around world microsoft published four oem service releases osr windows 95 roughly equivalent service pack first osr windows 95 also first version windows bundled microsoft web browser internet explorer mainstream support windows 95 ended december 31 2000 extended support windows 95 ended december 31 2001 windows 95 followed release windows 98 june 25 1998 introduced windows driver model support usb composite devices support acpi hibernation support multi-monitor configurations windows 98 also included integration internet explorer 4 active desktop aspects windows desktop update series enhancements explorer shell also made available windows 95 may 1999 microsoft released windows 98 second edition updated version windows 98 windows 98 se added internet explorer 5.0 windows media player 6.2 amongst upgrades mainstream support windows 98 ended june 30 2002 extended support windows 98 ended july 11 2006 september 14 2000 microsoft released windows millennium edition last dos-based version windows windows incorporated visual interface enhancements windows nt-based counterpart windows 2000 faster boot times previous versions however required removal ability access real mode dos environment removing compatibility older programs expanded multimedia functionality including windows media player 7 windows movie maker windows image acquisition framework retrieving images scanners digital cameras additional system utilities system file protection system restore updated home networking tools however windows faced criticism speed instability along hardware compatibility issues removal real mode dos support pc world considered windows one worst operating systems microsoft ever released 4th worst tech product time november 1988 new development team within microsoft included former digital equipment corporation developers dave cutler mark lucovsky began work revamped version ibm microsoft os/2 operating system known nt os/2 nt os/2 intended secure multi-user operating system posix compatibility modular portable kernel preemptive multitasking support multiple processor architectures however following successful release windows 3.0 nt development team decided rework project use extended 32-bit port windows api known win32 instead os/2 win32 maintained similar structure windows apis allowing existing windows applications easily ported platform also supported capabilities existing nt kernel following approval microsoft staff development continued windows nt first 32-bit version windows however ibm objected changes ultimately continued os/2 development first release resulting operating system windows nt 3.1 named associate windows 3.1 released july 1993 versions desktop workstations servers windows nt 3.5 released september 1994 focusing performance improvements support novell netware followed windows nt 3.51 may 1995 included additional improvements support powerpc architecture windows nt 4.0 released june 1996 introducing redesigned interface windows 95 nt series february 17 2000 microsoft released windows 2000 successor nt 4.0 windows nt name dropped point order put greater focus windows brand next major version windows nt windows xp released october 25 2001 introduction windows xp aimed unify consumer-oriented windows 9x series architecture introduced windows nt change microsoft promised would provide better performance dos-based predecessors windows xp would also introduce redesigned user interface including updated start menu task-oriented windows explorer streamlined multimedia networking features internet explorer 6 integration microsoft .net passport services modes help provide compatibility software designed previous versions windows remote assistance functionality retail windows xp marketed two main editions home edition targeted towards consumers professional edition targeted towards business environments power users included additional security networking features home professional later accompanied media center edition designed home theater pcs emphasis support dvd playback tv tuner cards dvr functionality remote controls tablet pc edition designed mobile devices meeting specifications tablet computer support stylus pen input additional pen-enabled applications mainstream support windows xp ended april 14 2009 extended support ended april 8 2014 windows 2000 microsoft also changed release schedules server operating systems server counterpart windows xp windows server 2003 released april 2003 followed december 2005 windows server 2003 r2 lengthy development process windows vista released november 30 2006 volume licensing january 30 2007 consumers contained number new features redesigned shell user interface significant technical changes particular focus security features available number different editions subject criticism drop performance longer boot time criticism new uac stricter license agreement vista server counterpart windows server 2008 released early 2008 july 22 2009 windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 released rtm release manufacturing former released public 3 months later october 22 2009 unlike predecessor windows vista introduced large number new features windows 7 intended focused incremental upgrade windows line goal compatible applications hardware windows vista already compatible windows 7 multi-touch support redesigned windows shell updated taskbar home networking system called homegroup performance improvements windows 8 successor windows 7 released generally october 26 2012 number significant changes made windows 8 including introduction user interface based around microsoft metro design language optimizations touch-based devices tablets all-in-one pcs changes include start screen uses large tiles convenient touch interactions allow display continually updated information new class apps designed primarily use touch-based devices changes include increased integration cloud services online platforms social networks microsoft onedrive formerly skydrive xbox live services windows store service software distribution new variant known windows rt use devices utilize arm architecture update windows 8 called windows 8.1 released october 17 2013 includes features new live tile sizes deeper onedrive integration many revisions windows 8 windows 8.1 subject criticism removal start menu september 30 2014 microsoft announced windows 10 successor windows 8.1 released july 29 2015 addresses shortcomings user interface first introduced windows 8 changes pc include return start menu virtual desktop system ability run windows store apps within windows desktop rather full-screen mode windows 10 said available update qualified windows 7 sp1 windows 8.1 windows phone 8.1 devices get windows 10 application windows 7 windows 8.1 windows update windows 7 february 2017 microsoft announced migration windows source code repository perforce git migration involved 3.5 million separate files 300 gigabyte repository may 2017 90 percent engineering team uses git 8500 commits 1760 windows builds per day multilingual support built windows since windows 3 language keyboard interface changed region language control panel components supported input languages input method editors automatically installed windows installation windows xp earlier files east asian languages chinese right-to-left scripts arabic may need installed separately also said control panel third-party imes may also installed user feels provided one insufficient needs interface languages operating system free download languages limited certain editions windows language interface packs lips redistributable may downloaded microsoft download center installed edition windows xp later translate windows interface require certain base language language windows originally shipped used languages emerging markets full language packs translates complete operating system available specific editions windows ultimate enterprise editions windows vista 7 editions windows 8 8.1 rt except single language require specific base language commonly used popular languages french chinese languages downloaded download center available optional updates windows update service except windows 8 interface language installed applications affected changes windows interface language availability languages depends application developers windows 8 windows server 2012 introduces new language control panel interface input languages simultaneously changed language packs regardless type downloaded central location pc settings app windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 also includes counterpart settings page changing interface language also changes language preinstalled windows store apps mail maps news certain microsoft-developed apps remote desktop limitations language packs however still effect except full language packs installed edition except single language caters emerging markets windows nt included support several different platforms x86-based personal computer became dominant professional world windows nt 4.0 predecessors supported powerpc dec alpha mips r4000 although platforms implement 64-bit computing operating system treated 32-bit however windows 2000 successor windows nt 4.0 dropped support platforms except third generation x86 known ia-32 newer 32-bit mode client line windows nt family still runs ia-32 although windows server line ceased supporting platform release windows server 2008 r2 introduction intel itanium architecture ia-64 microsoft released new versions windows support itanium versions windows xp windows server 2003 released time mainstream x86 counterparts windows xp 64-bit edition released 2005 last windows client operating systems support itanium windows server line continues support platform windows server 2012 windows server 2008 r2 last windows operating system support itanium architecture april 25 2005 microsoft released windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 editions support x86-64 simply x64 eighth generation x86 architecture windows vista first client version windows nt released simultaneously ia-32 x64 editions x64 still supported edition windows 8 known windows rt specifically created computers arm architecture arm still used windows smartphones windows 10 tablets windows rt updated starting windows 10 fall creators update later includes support pcs arm architecture windows ce officially known windows embedded compact edition windows runs minimalistic computers like satellite navigation systems mobile phones windows embedded compact based dedicated kernel dubbed windows ce kernel microsoft licenses windows ce oems device makers oems device makers modify create user interfaces experiences windows ce provides technical foundation windows ce used dreamcast along sega proprietary os console windows ce core windows mobile derived successor windows phone 7 based components windows ce 6.0 r3 windows ce 7.0 windows phone 8 however based nt-kernel windows 8 windows embedded compact confused windows xp embedded windows nt 4.0 embedded modular editions windows based windows nt kernel xbox os unofficial name given version windows runs xbox one specific implementation emphasis virtualization using hyper-v three operating systems running consisting core operating system second implemented games windows-like environment applications microsoft updates xbox one os every month updates downloaded xbox live service xbox subsequently installed using offline recovery images downloaded via pc windows 10-based core replaced windows 8-based one update new system sometimes referred windows 10 xbox one onecore xbox one system also allows backward compatibility xbox 360 xbox 360 system backwards compatible original xbox 2017 microsoft announced would start using git open source version control system created linus torvalds microsoft previously used proprietary version control system called source depot microsoft began integrate git team foundation server 2013 windows continued rely source depot however decision came complexity windows codebase especially well suited decentralized nature linux development git originally created manage git repository contains complete history files proved unworkable windows developers cloning repository takes several hours microsoft working new project called virtual file system git vfsforgit address challenges according net applications tracks use operating systems devices active web windows used operating-system family personal computers july 2017 close 90 usage share including personal computers kinds e.g. desktops laptops mobile devices windows oses accounted 35.24 usage share july 2017 compared android highest 41.24 ios 13.22 macos 4.64 according statcounter tracks use operating systems use devices active web windows used less half market developing countries also developed ones—such united states use windows desktops plurality operating system fallen 46.18 united kingdom ireland numbers easiest monthly numbers find track real use may mirror installed base sales numbers recent years devices consistent server numbers next section terms number devices shipped operating system installed smartphones windows phone third-most-shipped os 2.6 android 82.8 ios 13.9 second quarter 2015 according idc across pcs mobile devices 2014 windows oses second-most-shipped 333 million devices 14 android 1.2 billion 49 ahead ios macos combined 263 million 11 use latest version windows 10 exceeded windows 7 globally since early 2018 developed countries japan australia us windows 10 already popular version since early 2017 usage share windows serversthose running web servers also kinds servers 33.6 consumer versions windows originally designed ease-of-use single-user pc without network connection security features built outset however windows nt successors designed security including network multi-user pcs initially designed internet security mind much since first developed early 1990s internet use less prevalent design issues combined programming errors e.g buffer overflows popularity windows means frequent target computer worm virus writers june 2005 bruce schneier counterpane internet security reported seen 1,000 new viruses worms previous six months 2005 kaspersky lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses trojans back-doors exploits written windows microsoft releases security patches windows update service approximately month usually second tuesday month although critical updates made available shorter intervals necessary versions windows including windows 2000 sp3 windows xp updates automatically downloaded installed user selects result service pack 2 windows xp well service pack 1 windows server 2003 installed users quickly otherwise might windows 9x series offered option profiles multiple users concept access privileges allow concurrent access true multi-user operating systems addition implemented partial memory protection accordingly widely criticised lack security windows nt series operating systems contrast true multi-user implement absolute memory protection however lot advantages true multi-user operating system nullified fact prior windows vista first user account created setup process administrator account also default new accounts though windows xp limited accounts majority home users change account type fewer rights – partially due number programs unnecessarily required administrator rights – home users ran administrator time windows vista changes introducing privilege elevation system called user account control logging standard user logon session created token containing basic privileges assigned way new logon session incapable making changes would affect entire system logging user administrators group two separate tokens assigned first token contains privileges typically awarded administrator second restricted token similar standard user would receive user applications including windows shell started restricted token resulting reduced privilege environment even administrator account application requests higher privileges run administrator clicked uac prompt confirmation consent given including administrator credentials account requesting elevation member administrators group start process using unrestricted token leaked documents published wikileaks codenamed vault 7 dated 2013–2016 detail capabilities cia perform electronic surveillance cyber warfare ability compromise operating systems microsoft windows august 2019 computer experts reported bluekeep security vulnerability potentially affects older unpatched microsoft windows versions via program remote desktop protocol allowing possibility remote code execution may include related flaws collectively named dejablue affecting newer windows versions i.e. windows 7 recent versions well addition experts reported microsoft security vulnerability based legacy code involving microsoft ctf ctfmon ctfmon.exe affects windows versions older windows xp version recent windows 10 versions patch correct flaw currently available windows versions windows nt 3 based file system permission system referred agdlp accounts global local permissions file permissions applied file/folder form 'local group 'global groups members global groups hold groups users depending different windows versions used system varies vendor products linux netware due 'static allocation permission applied directory file folder however using process aglp/agdlp/agudlp allows small number static permissions applied allows easy changes account groups without reapplying file permissions files folders january 6 2005 microsoft released beta version microsoft antispyware based upon previously released giant antispyware february 14 2006 microsoft antispyware became windows defender release beta 2 windows defender freeware program designed protect spyware unwanted software windows xp windows server 2003 users genuine copies microsoft windows freely download program microsoft web site windows defender ships part windows vista 7 windows 8 windows defender microsoft security essentials combined single program named windows defender based microsoft security essentials borrowing features user interface although enabled default turned use another anti-virus solution windows malicious software removal tool optional microsoft safety scanner two free security products offered microsoft windows 10 anniversary update microsoft introduced limited periodic scanning feature allows windows defender scan detect remove threats third-party anti-virus software missed advanced threat protection service introduced enterprise users new service uses cloud service detect take actions advanced network attacks article based report symantec internetnews.com described microsoft windows fewest number patches shortest average patch development time five operating systems monitored last six months 2006 study conducted kevin mitnick marketing communications firm avantgarde 2004 found unprotected unpatched windows xp system service pack 1 lasted four minutes internet compromised unprotected also unpatched windows server 2003 system compromised connected internet 8 hours computer running windows xp service pack 2 compromised aol national cyber security alliance online safety study october 2004 determined 80 windows users infected least one spyware/adware product much documentation available describing increase security microsoft windows products typical suggestions include deploying microsoft windows behind hardware software firewall running anti-virus anti-spyware software installing patches become available windows update owing operating system popularity number applications released aim provide compatibility windows applications either compatibility layer another operating system standalone system run software written windows box include 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_features_removed_in_windows_vista.list features removed windows vista windows vista contains many new features number capabilities certain programs part previous windows versions windows xp removed changed – later re-introduced windows 7 following list features present windows xp removed windows vista 1-hop neighbor's text information: features_new_to_windows_xp.features new windows xp windows xp introduced many features found previous versions windows introduction windows xp c++ based software-only gdi+ subsystem introduced replace certain gdi functions gdi+ adds anti-aliased 2d graphics textures floating point coordinates gradient shading complex path management bicubic filtering intrinsic support modern graphics-file formats like jpeg png support composition affine transformations 2d view pipeline gdi+ uses argb values represent color use features apparent windows xp user interface transparent desktop icon labels drop shadows icon labels desktop shadows menus translucent blue selection rectangle windows explorer sliding task panes taskbar buttons several applications microsoft paint windows picture fax viewer photo printing wizard pictures slideshow screensaver presence basic graphics layer greatly simplifies implementations vector-graphics systems flash svg gdi+ dynamic library shipped application used older versions windows total number gdi handles per session also raised windows xp 16384 65536 configurable registry windows xp shipped directx 8.1 brings major new features directx graphics besides directx audio directsound directmusic directplay directinput directshow direct3d introduced programmability form vertex pixel shaders enabling developers write code without worrying superfluous hardware state fog bump mapping texture mapping directx 9 released 2003 also sees major revisions direct3d directsound directmusic directshow direct3d 9 added new version high level shader language support floating-point texture formats multiple render targets texture lookups vertex shader windows xp upgraded directx 9.0c shader model 3.0 later included windows xp sp2 windows xp sp3 added windows imaging component windows xp includes cleartype subpixel rendering makes onscreen fonts smoother readable liquid crystal display lcd screens although cleartype effect crt monitors primary use lcd/tft-based laptop notebook modern 'flatscreen displays cleartype windows xp currently supports rgb bgr sub pixel structures parameters contrast set via cleartype tuner powertoy microsoft makes available free download typography website windows xp start button updated support fitts law help user access wider range common destinations easily single location start menu expanded two columns left column focuses user installed applications right column provides access user documents system links previously located desktop links documents pictures special folders brought fore computer network places network neighborhood windows 95 98 icons also moved desktop start menu making easier access icons number applications open desktop remains clean moreover links configured expand cascading menu frequently used programs automatically displayed left column newly installed programs highlighted user may opt pin programs start menu always accessible without navigate programs folders default internet browser default email program pinned start menu start menu fully customizable links added removed number frequently used programs display set programs menu expands like classic start menu utilize entire screen set scroll programs user name user account picture also shown start menu taskbar buttons running applications quick launch also updated fitt law locking taskbar prevents accidentally resized moved elements quick launch deskbands also locked accidentally moved taskbar grouping feature combines multiple buttons application single button clicked pops menu listing grouped windows number advanced taskbar grouping options configured registry user choose always show always hide hide notification area icons inactive time button allows user reveal icons taskbar set thicker height also displays day date notification area significant changes made windows explorer windows xp visually functionally microsoft focused especially making windows explorer discoverable task-based well adding number features reflect growing use computer “ digital hub ” task pane displayed left side window instead traditional folder tree view navigation pane turned presents user list common actions destinations relevant current directory file selected instance directory containing mostly pictures set “ picture tasks ” shown offering options display pictures slide show print go online order prints conversely folder containing music files would offer options play files media player go online purchase music every folder also “ file folder tasks ” offering options create new folders share folder local network publish files folders web site using web publishing wizard common tasks like copying renaming moving deleting files folders file types identified printable also option listed print file underneath “ file folder tasks ” “ places ” always lists parent folder folder viewed includes additional links common locations “ computer ” “ control panel ” “ documents ” previously navigated locations change depending folder user underneath “ places ” “ details ” area gives additional information file folder selected – typically file type file size date modified depending file type author image dimensions attributes details file type thumbnail image handler installed preview also appears details task pane music files might show artist album title length song information also shown horizontally status bar “ folders ” button windows explorer toolbar toggles traditional navigation pane containing tree view folders task pane users also close navigation pane clicking close button right corner well turn task pane folder options navigation pane enhanced windows xp support simple folder view turned hides dotted lines connect folders subfolders makes folders browsable single click still keeping double clicking right pane single clicking simple folder view auto expands folder clicking another folder automatically expands folder collapses previous one windows xp introduced large number metadata properties shown columns details view explorer new tiles view explorer summary tab file properties file tooltip explorer status bar single file selected users also gain ability sort property turned details view developers write column handler shell extensions define properties files sorted column items sorted highlighted sorting files folders ascending order descending order views details view reverse order user simply perform sort property sort order also made intuitive compared one windows 2000 file names containing numbers windows explorer tries sort based numerical value rather comparing number digit digit every character position file name instance files containing 1 2 .. 10 intuitively sorted 10 appearing 9 instead appearing 1 2 right pane windows explorer show groups feature allows explorer separate contents headings based field used sort items items thus grouped detail turned show groups available thumbnails tiles icons details views microsoft introduced animated search companions attempt make searching engaging friendly default character puppy named rover three characters merlin magician earl surfer courtney also available search companions powered microsoft agent technology bear great deal similarity microsoft office ’ office assistants even incorporating “ tricks ” sound effects user wishes also turn animated character entirely search capability fairly similar windows windows 2000 important additions indexing service extract exif properties well metadata asf wmv mp3 files windows xp via ipropertystorage interface using built-in null filter search also instructed search files categorically “ documents ” “ pictures music video searching perceived type feature noteworthy largely windows determines types files classified categories another important addition look field accepts expands environment variables abbreviated entry long paths also users configure whether windows xp searches system and/or hidden files folders using tweak ui search user interface restored one used windows 2000 windows xp improves image preview offering filmstrip view shows images single horizontal row large preview currently selected image “ back ” “ previous ” buttons facilitate navigation pictures pair “ rotate ” buttons offer 90-degree clockwise counter-clockwise rotation images filmstrip view like view turned per folder view available new common tasks folder view selected windows classic folder view aside filmstrip view mode 'thumbnails view displays thumbnail-sized images folder also displays images subfolder may containing 4 default overlaid large folder icon folder thumbnail view customized customize tab accessible properties users also change folder icon specify template type pictures music videos documents folder optionally subfolders size quality thumbnails thumbnails view adjusted using tweak ui registry exif metadata stored image also shown file properties summary tab details view view status bar windows xp optionally caches thumbnails thumbs.db file folder pictures thumbnails generated faster next time thumbnails forced regenerate right-clicking image thumbnail filmstrip views selecting refresh thumbnail autoplay examines newly discovered removable media devices based content pictures music video files launches appropriate application play display content autoplay confused autorun created order simplify use peripheral devices – mp3 players memory cards usb storage devices others – automatically starting software needed access view content devices autoplay enhanced autoplay-compatible software hardware configured user associate favourite applications autoplay events actions actions called autoplay handlers sets handlers associated various types content new autoplay handlers get added system additional software installed user edit delete create autoplay handlers using tweakui autoplay settings configured per-device windows xp device properties user inserts optical disc drive attaches usb camera windows detects arrival starts process examining device searching medium looking properties device content medium autoplay present set meaningful options user user makes particular choice also option make selection automatic next time windows sees content device content types available vary type drive selected windows xp includes windows picture fax viewer based gdi+ capable viewing image formats supported gdi+ namely jpeg bmp png gif including animated gifs ico wmf emf tiff format files supersedes part functions imaging windows previous versions windows windows picture fax viewer integrated windows explorer functions like slideshow email printing etc quickly starts image double clicked windows explorer supports full file management within viewer right clicking image shows context menu one shown image right clicked windows explorer images set desktop wallpaper context menu supports successive viewing images current folder looping images viewing last image directory shows first image vice versa default images smaller user display resolution shown actual size image larger display resolution scaled fit screen best fit images zoomed depending viewing area done scroll bars allow viewing areas image standard toolbar buttons delete print copy open copy button converts image different format supported gdi+ jpeg bmp gif tiff png print button starts photo printing wizard allows printing images picture titles using various page layouts full page prints wallet prints contact/index sheets certain fixed dimensions images cropped rotated fit page wizard shows preview printed page look like currently specified options windows picture fax viewer also rotate images clockwise anti-clockwise start slideshow selected images folder e-mail selecting send mail recipient option options allow image mailed full size pixel dimensions 640 x 480 800 x 600 1024 x 768 using tweak ui time images slideshow adjusted windows picture fax viewer recognizes embedded icc v2 color profiles jpg tiff files gif files shown full animation even zoomed tiff files annotated using annotation toolbar appears bottom screen lines drawn tiff image text added areas image selected concealed windows picture fax viewer also capable viewing multi-page tiff files however tiff images jpeg compression fully supported last button standard toolbar opens image editing default microsoft paint however editing application registered button viewer windows picture fax viewer saves remembers window position size supports keyboard shortcuts operations raw image formats preferred formats professional photography supported however microsoft released later update called raw image thumbnailer viewer windows xp viewing certain raw image files text services framework tsf com framework api introduced windows xp supports advanced text input text processing text services framework designed offer advanced language word processing features applications supports features multilingual support keyboard drivers handwriting recognition speech recognition well spell checking text natural language processing functions also downloadable older windows operating systems language bar core user interface text services framework language bar enables text services add ui elements toolbar enables elements application focus language bar users select input language control keyboard input handwriting recognition speech recognition language bar also provides direct means switch installed languages even non-tsf-enabled application focus windows xp kernel completely different kernel windows 9x/me line operating systems although upgrade windows 2000 kernel major scalability stability performance improvements albeit transparent end user windows xp includes simultaneous multithreading hyperthreading support simultaneous multithreading processor ability process one data thread time windows xp supports larger system virtual address space –— 1.3 gb contiguous virtual address space used device drivers 960 mb windows xp memory manager redesigned consume less paged pool allowing caching greater availability paged pool component needs total size memory-mapped files windows 2000 limited memory manager allocated prototype page table entries pptes pages required map entire file even application created mapped views parts file windows xp prototype ptes allocated active views allowing larger mapped files benefit example case making backups large files low memory systems paged pool limit 470 mb lifted memory manager windows xp unmapped views dynamically reusable memory manager depending pool usage memory pages working sets trimmed efficiently multiprocessor systems depending recently accessed lock contention reduced number unnecessary locks used resource synchronizations ram allocation mapping address windowing extensions system page table entries charging non-paged/paged pool quotas charging commitment pages removed dispatcher lock contention reduced page frame number pfn lock optimized increased parallelism granularity windows xp uses push locks event synchronization object contention support shared exclusive acquisition push locks used protect handle table entries executive object manager protect data structures security descriptors memory manager protect awe-related locks windows xp uses sysenter/sysexit mechanisms require fewer clock cycles transition user mode kernel mode speed system calls kernel page write protection limit windows xp enabled systems 256 mb ram beyond large pages enabled increased address translation performance windows xp introduces creatememoryresourcenotification function notify user mode processes high low memory availability applications allocate memory free memory necessary previous versions windows registry size limited 80 paged pool size windows xp registry reimplemented outside paged pool registry hives memory mapped cache manager system cache eliminating registry size limit registry size limited available disk space system hive still maximum size raised 12 mb 200 mb eliminating issue previous windows versions faced unable boot large fragmented system hive configuration manager updated minimize registry memory footprint lock contention reduce fragmentation thus page faults accessing registry improved algorithms speed registry query processing in-memory security cache eliminates redundant security descriptors windows xp supports cross user session debugging attaching debugger non-crashing user-mode program dumping process memory space using dump command detaching debugger without terminating debugging done firewire port local system debug heap disabled standard heap used debugging windows xp introduces support vectored exception handling vectored exception handling made available windows programmers using languages c++ visual basic veh replace structured exception handling seh rather veh seh coexist veh handlers priority seh handlers compared seh veh works like traditional notification callback scheme applications intercept exception calling addvectoredexceptionhandler api watch handle exceptions vectored handlers chained order linked list n't tied stack frame added anywhere call stack unlike seh try/catch blocks heap leak detection enabled processes exit debugger extension used investigate leaks also introduced new heap performance-monitoring counter windows xp introduces new low fragmentation heap policy disabled default allocates memory distinct sizes blocks less 16kb reduce heap fragmentation low fragmentation heap enabled default heaps using lfh heap enabler utility new apis irp cancellation registering file system filter callbacks intercept os fast i/o functions low memory conditions must succeed calls denied causing slowdown preventing bug check i/o throttled fetch one memory page time increasing overall scalability windows xp includes ntfs 3.1 expands master file table mft entries redundant mft record number useful recovering damaged mft files ntfs conversion utility convert.exe supports new /cvtarea switch ntfs metadata files written contiguous placeholder file resulting less fragmented file system conversion ntfs 3.1 also supports symbolic links although tools drivers shipped windows xp create symbolic links windows xp introduces ability mount ntfs read-only volumes new apis preserve original short file names retrieve list mount points drive letters mounted folder paths specified volume enable applications create large files quickly setting valid data length files without force-writing data zeroes vdl setfilevaliddata function instance function used quickly create fixed size virtual machine hard disk default access control lists newly created files read-only users group write permissions given administrators group system account owner ability boot 30 seconds design goal windows xp microsoft developers made efforts streamline system much possible logical prefetcher significant part monitors files loaded boot optimizes locations files disk less time spent waiting hard drive heads move issues large asynchronous i/o requests overlapped device detection initialization occurs boot prefetcher works tracing frequently accessed paged data used task scheduler create prefetch-instructions file windir \prefetch system boots application started data code specified trace already memory prefetched disk previous prefetching results determine scenario benefited prefetched next boot launch prefetcher also uses algorithms reduce application startup times reduce disk seeking even disk defragmenter called idle time optimize layout specific files metadata contiguous area boot resume operations traced analyzed using bootvis.exe windows xp includes fast logon optimization feature performs logon asynchronously without waiting network fully initialized roaming user profiles set use cached credentials avoids delays logging domain group policy applied background startup logon scripts execute asynchronously default windows xp reconciles local roaming user profiles using copy contents registry user longer made wait windows 2000 profile unloaded windows xp saves locked registry hives open keys 60 seconds roaming profile changes saved back server problem left computer recover memory profile uses unloaded make sure user profiles completely reconciled correctly logoff microsoft released user profile hive cleanup service windows xp later included windows vista windows xp offers enhancements usability resilience corruption performance roaming user profiles new group policies prevent propagation roaming user profile changes server give administrators control users profile folders preventing use roaming user profiles specific computers accommodate scenario older profile would overwrite newer server profile due windows xp fast logon feature windows xp ensures situation user registry hive copied server local profile deletion profiles marked deletion next logoff fail locked profiles workgroup computers windows xp longer deletes profiles users belonging guests group windows xp includes changes behavior offline files offline files client-side cache encrypted encrypting file system shared folders dfs namespaces made available offline also roaming user profiles synchronized server even offline files marked server unavailable windows xp service pack 2 kb811660 introduce additional functionality offline files editing registry users suppress error messages file types offline files cache excluded synchronization offline files user primary computer determined matching current user sid specified sid registry set purge logoff administratively assigned offline files also prevented cached non-primary users beginning windows xp folders redirected network automatically made available offline using offline files although optionally disabled group policy older windows nt 4.0 earlier systems legacy directory structure windows xp allows redirecting documents folder home directory windows xp improvements made system restore compared windows system restore uses copy-on-write file system filter driver taking snapshots windows xp system restore configurable per volume data stores also stored per volume ntfs volumes restore points stored using ntfs compression protected using acls disk cleanup handler allows deleting recent restore point besides registry hives system files com+ wmi databases iis metabase also restored system restore supports group policy system restore windows xp also works without issues efs-encrypted files automated system recovery feature provides ability save restore windows installed applications system state critical boot system files special backup instead plain reinstall asr consists two components backup restore backup portion located ntbackup backs system state windows registry com+ class registration database active directory sysvol directory share volumes associated operating system components required start windows restore well configuration basic dynamic restore portion asr accessed pressing f2 windows xp text mode setup automated system recovery even restore programs device drivers added asr setup information disk asr restore data files common issue previous versions windows users frequently suffered dll hell one version dynamically linked library dll installed computer software relies dlls using wrong version could result non-functional applications worse windows 98 second edition windows 2000 partially solved problem native code introducing side-by-side component sharing dll/com redirection operating systems allowed loading private version dll placed application folder developer instead system directory must registered properly system windows xp improves upon introducing side-by-side assemblies com+ 2.0 .net com classic win32 components c runtime gdi+ common controls technology keeps multiple digitally signed versions shared dll centralized winsxs folder runs demand appropriate application keeping applications isolated using common dependencies manifests assembly version number used os loader determine correct binding assembly versions applications instead globally registering components achieve windows xp introduces new mode com object registration called registration-free com regfree com allows component object model com components store activation metadata clsid codice_1 component without using registry instead metadata clsids classes implemented component declared assembly manifest described using xml stored either resource executable separate file installed component allows multiple versions component installed different directories described manifests well xcopy deployment application loading windows loader searches manifest present loader adds information activation context com class factory tries instantiate class activation context first checked see implementation clsid found lookup fails registry scanned windows error reporting collects offers send post-error debug information memory dump using internet developer application crashes stops responding user desktop data sent without user consent dump error signature information reaches microsoft server analyzed solution sent back user one available windows error reporting runs windows service optionally entirely disabled software hardware manufacturers may access error reports using microsoft winqual program software hardware manufacturers also close loop customers linking error signatures windows error reporting responses allows distributing solutions well collecting extra information customers reproducing steps took crash providing support links old versions windows users upgrade device driver chance new driver less stable efficient functional original reinstalling old driver major hassle avoid quandary windows xp keeps copy old driver new version installed new driver problems user return previous version feature work printer drivers windows xp merged consumer enterprise versions windows needed support applications developed popular consumer-oriented windows 9x platform windows nt kernel microsoft addressed improving compatibility application-specific tweaks shims providing tools application compatibility toolkit appcompat act allow users apply automate tweaks shims applications users script compatibility layer using batch files windows xp setup also includes compatibility checker warns users setup begins incompatible applications device drivers applications may need reinstallation windows xp rtm includes windows media player version 8 officially called windows media player windows xp windows media 8 codecs windows media player windows xp introduced id3 support mp3s editing media information within library adding lyrics mp3 wma tracks file name customization ripping new visualizations support hdcds ability lockdown player corporate environment dvd playback support appropriate codecs installed separately windows xp sp2 includes windows media player 9 series windows media format runtime 9.0 upgradeable version 11 player format runtime windows media player also incorporates newer hardware support portable devices means media transfer protocol user-mode driver framework-based windows portable devices api original rtm release windows xp included windows movie maker 1.1 added non-compressed dv avi recording digital video sources windows movie maker 2 free download released 2002 later incorporated windows xp sp2 windows movie maker 2 introduced numerous new transitions effects titles credits task pane resizable preview window dimensions improved capture export options automovie feature saving final video back tape custom wmv export profiles windows xp media center edition 2005 includes windows movie maker 2.5 includes dvd burning windows xp includes advances broadcast driver architecture receiving capturing analog digital tv broadcasts complete signal demodulation tuning software de-multiplexing electronic program guide store ip data broadcasting etc addition windows xp media center edition introduced windows media center application pvr-like recording playback features tv content windows xp includes improved firewire ieee 1394 support dvcpro25 525-60 625-50 digital video cameras audio video devices introduces mstape wdm driver d-vhs mpeg camcorder devices windows xp sp2 adds support dvcpro50 dvcpro100 directshow 8 introduces video mixing renderer-7 vmr-7 filter uses directdraw 7 video rendering replacing overlay mixer vmr-7 mix multiple streams graphics alpha blending allowing applications draw text closed captions graphics channel logos ui buttons video without flickering support compositing implement custom effects transitions vmr-7 also supports source color keying overlay surface management frame-stepping improved multiple-monitor support vmr-7 features windowless mode applications easily host video playback within window renderless playback mode applications access composited image rendered directx 9 introduced vmr-9 uses direct3d 9 instead directdraw allowing developers transform video images using direct3d pixel shaders windows xp sp2 introduced yuv mixing mode vmr-7 vmr-9 renderers performs mixing yuv color space save memory bandwidth directshow 8 includes avstream multimedia class driver video-only audio-video kernel streaming windows xp provides new and/or improved drivers user interfaces devices compared windows 98 beginning windows xp service pack 1 generic usb 2.0 enhanced host controller interface drivers included windows xp also adds support usb device classes bluetooth usb video device class imaging still image capture device class media transfer protocol windows media player 10 mass storage devices windows xp introduces hardware descriptors distinguish various storage types operating system set appropriate default write caching policy example usb devices disables write caching default surprise removal devices cause data loss device manager provides configuration setting whether optimize devices quick removal performance windows xp supports twain well windows image acquisition-based scanners windows image acquisition windows xp adds support automatic document feeder scanners scroll-fed scanners without preview capabilities multi-page tiff generation wia video snapshot filter driver introduced allows still frames captured video stream windows xp sp1 later support downloadable wia library v2.0 provides access wia functionality programming languages scripting environments support ole automation scanner camera wizard based windows image acquisition common dialogs wia devices improved windows xp show media information metadata rotate images necessary categorize subfolders capture images video case still video camera crop scan images single multi-page tiff case scanner picture transfer protocol ptp implementation updated support mandatory optional commands ptp standard object tree support allows secondary files associated parent file grouped transferred concurrently windows media player 10 also adds media transfer protocol transferring media content portable devices thus digital cameras windows xp supports acquiring photos using either wia ptp usb mass storage class mtp protocols depending camera manufacturer supports windows xp includes technology roxio allows users directly burn files compact disc windows explorer previously end users install cd burning software windows xp cd dvd-ram fat32 dvd-ram burning directly integrated windows interface data discs created using joliet iso 9660 file systems audio cds using redbook standard prevent buffer underrun errors windows xp premasters complete image files burnt streams disc burner users burn files cd way write files floppy disk hard drive via standard copy-paste drag drop methods burning functionality also exposed api called image mastering api windows xp cd burning support disk-to-disk copying disk images although api used programmatically tasks creation audio cds integrated windows media player audio cds burnt using track-at-once mode cd-rw discs quick erased api support added windows xp burning dvds blu-ray discs mastered-style burning udf write-once rewritable dvd blu-ray media installing windows feature pack storage upgrades imapi version 2 note add dvd blu-ray burning features windows explorer third party applications use apis support dvd blu-ray burning windows xp includes firewire 800 support 1394b beginning service pack 1 mentioned section windows xp includes improved support firewire cameras audio video devices s/pdif audio mpeg-2 video streams supported across firewire audio video receivers set-top boxes dvd d-vhs speakers tv transmissions windows xp supports av/c iec 61883 protocol isochronous real-time data transfer audio-video applications windows xp also allows non-firewire devices exposed virtual firewire devices direct memory access 1394 bus host target allows kernel debugging firewire finally support tcp/ip networking internet connection sharing ieee 1394 bus windows xp includes windows script host 5.6 major update wsh environment includes improved object model reduce boilerplate code stronger security several improvements new xml-based file format windows script file format .wsf introduced besides .vbs .js store xml node file extra information besides script code digital signature blocks runtime directives instructions import external code wsf schema include jobs wrapped unique job tag outer package tag tags wsf file allow including external files importing constants tlb storing usage syntax runtime element displaying using new showusage method invoked switch wsf format also supports hosting multiple wsh scripting languages including cross function-calls wshshell object supports 'currentdirectory read-write method scripts digitally signed well verified programmatically using scripting.signer object script provided valid certificate present system alternatively signcode tool platform sdk extended support wsh filetypes may used command line verifyfile method used authenticate embedded signature validity check script modifications signing wsh thus decide whether execute script verification code stored in-memory string also signed using sign method signature block stored commented section script file backward compatibility older wsh versions using software restriction policies supported windows xp later system may also configured execute scripts digitally signed thus preventing execution untrusted scripts local scripts also run remote machine new wscript.wshcontroller object powered dcom remote wsh enabled group policy administrative template registry remote scripts always run wscript loaded remote machine server process run non-interactively default configured using dcomcnfg run security context allows display user interface wsh automation server loads instance wshremote object created script runs calling execute method external files called remote script must located remote machine directory path specified exec method remote script monitored using status property wsh 5.6 introduces exec method wshshell object execute command-line console applications access standard i/o streams stdin stdout stderr spawned process earlier versions windows script use arguments one access wsharguments collection object could created externally required person running script know order arguments syntax values wsh 5.6 introduces named arguments command line follow /string value boolean convention defined 'runtime tag recognized irrespective order command line named arguments grouped named collection object usual methods like item count length well exists method 'showusage method wsharguments object mentioned earlier shows argument information message box windows xp includes scriptpw.password com automation object implemented scriptpw.dll file used mask sensitive information like passwords command line scripts users log windows xp professional remotely remote desktop service built terminal services technology rdp similar remote assistance allows remote users access local resources printers terminal services client special remote desktop connection client web-based client using activex control may used connect remote desktop remote desktop clients earlier versions windows windows 95 windows 98 98 second edition windows windows nt 4.0 windows 2000 made available microsoft permits earlier versions windows connect windows xp system running remote desktop vice versa several resources users redirect remote server machine local client depending upon capabilities client software used instance file system redirection allows users use local files remote desktop within terminal session printer redirection allows users use local printer within terminal session would locally network shared printer port redirection allows applications running within terminal session access local serial parallel ports directly audio allows users run audio program remote desktop sound redirected local computer clipboard also shared remote computer local computer rdp client windows xp upgraded 7.0 remote desktop web connection component internet information services 5.1 also allows remote desktop functionality web activex control internet explorer remote assistance allows windows xp user temporarily take remote windows xp computer network internet resolve issues hassle system administrators personally visit affected computer remote assistance allows diagnose possibly even repair problems computer without ever personally visiting remote assistance allows sending invitations support person email windows messenger saving invitation file computer controlled support person connecting remotely well one sending invitation chat audio-video conversations file transfer available windows xp introduces fast user switching end user friendly welcome screen user account picture replaces classic logon prompt fast user switching allows another user log use system without log previous user quit applications previously windows windows 2000 one user time could logged except terminal services serious drawback multi-user activity fast user switching like terminal services requires system resources single user logged time although one user logged one user actively using account time feature available welcome screen turned joined windows server domain novell client installed even welcome screen enabled users switch classic logon pressing ctrl+alt+del twice welcome screen windows xp introduced windows installer msi 2.0 windows installer 2.0 brought major improvements installation management side-by-side clr assemblies sandboxing msi custom actions improved event logging hiding sensitive information log files per-user program isolation digital signatures improved patching robust patch conflict resolution reduced unnecessary unversioned file copying source prompts terminal server support integration system restore software restriction policies windows xp service pack 2 includes windows installer 3.0 also adds numerous improvements patching patch uninstallation support add remove programs binary delta patches patch sequencing install patches correct order installing multiple patches different products one transaction eliminating source media requests delta compression patches patch elevation limited user accounts msi source location list inventory management apis fixing numerous bugs windows xp sp3 includes msi 3.1v2 windows xp updated windows installer 4.5 windows disk defragmenter updated alleviate several restrictions longer relies windows nt cache manager prevented defragmenter moving pieces file cross 256kb boundary within file parts stream including cluster boundary non-compressed files reparse points bitmaps attribute_lists ntfs metadata files efs-encrypted files ntfs master file table defragmented defragmenter supports ntfs volumes cluster sizes larger 4 kilobytes command-line tool defrag.exe included providing access defragmenter cmd.exe task scheduler users members power users group schedule defragmentation windows task manager incorporates number improvements windows xp updated display process names longer 15 characters length processes tab used truncated windows 2000 session id user name columns added processes tab delete key also used terminate processes processes tab new networking tab shows statistics relating network adapters present computer default adapter name percentage network utilization link speed state network adapter shown along chart recent activity options shown choosing select columns ... view menu users tab shows users currently session computer server computers may several users connected computer using terminal services may also multiple users logged onto computer one time using fast user switching users disconnected logged tab shutdown menu introduced allows access standby hibernate turn restart log switch user holding codice_2 clicking new task opens command prompt windows xp includes new command-line tools wmi-based scripts windows 2000 ntlm hash user password requirement technically allowed potential malefactor decrypt master key ntlm hash directly security accounts manager database windows xp improves dpapi security encrypting master key using sha1 hash password also improves security data encrypted encrypting file system windows xp pki supports cross-certification bridge ca scenarios user -type certificates auto-enrolled renewed certificate requests issuing new certificates renewing expired ones pending administrator approval issued certificate authority approved install automatically root ca certificates also auto-update via microsoft update windows xp also supports delta crls crls whose status changed since last full base compiled crl base64-encoded crls revocation checking use default windows xp enroll version 2 certificate templates many configurable attributes smart cards used log terminal server sessions connecting windows server 2003 higher terminal server capicom system tools net.exe runas.exe also numerous improvements certificate status checking chain building revocation checking path validation discovery windows xp service pack 3 adds sha-2 hashing algorithms sha256 sha384 sha512 cryptoapi validating x.509 certificates windows xp includes several encrypting file system improvements notable improvement multiple user accounts share access encrypted files file-by-file basis details button advanced file attributes dialog file properties allows adding removing additional users access efs-encrypted file viewing certificate thumbprint data recovery agent account efs certificates autoenrolled ca support revocation checking certificates used sharing encrypted files unlike windows 2000 default local data recovery agent requirement one although self-signed certificate recovery agent generated using cipher.exe dpapi master key protected using domain-wide public key stronger fips 140-1 compliant algorithm 3des used windows xp service pack 1 adds support default use aes-256 symmetric encryption algorithm efs-encrypted files kb912761 windows xp sp2 windows xp sp3 users configure whether efs generates self-signed certificate certificate authority unavailable windows xp also warns user efs encrypted files copied file system fat unsupported location support efs thus file going get decrypted windows xp also encrypt files remote server ntfs server trusted delegation active directory user certificate private key loaded local profile server roaming user profile used copied locally webdav server mapped drive letter windows xp encrypt file locally transport raw encrypted file webdav server using http put command similarly efs encrypted files downloaded raw webdav decrypted locally command line utilities cipher copy xcopy updated windows xp efs also completely disabled windows xp group policy domain registry non-domain computer faster cache validation time long user session key certificate chain cached adjusted starting windows xp password reset disk created using forgotten password wizard disk used reset password using password reset wizard logon screen user rsa private key backed using offline public key whose matching private key stored one two places password reset disk computer member domain active directory member domain attacker authenticate windows xp localsystem still access decryption key stored pc hard drive password reset dpapi master key deleted windows xp blocks access efs encrypted files prevent offline rogue attacks protect encrypted files user changes password back original password efs encrypted files recovered windows xp prompts credentials upon authentication errors allows saving use integrated windows authentication secure roaming keyring store protected data protection api saved credentials managed stored user names passwords item user accounts control panel certificate authority present users select x.509 certificate prompted credentials resource accessed saved credentials used remote access/vpn connections also create temporary credentials keyring make experience seamless credential manager also exposes api single sign windows xp introduces software restriction policies safer api use software restriction policies system may configured execute install applications scripts digitally signed certain trust level thus preventing execution untrusted programs scripts administrators define default rule using local security policy snap-in exceptions rule types rules include hash rule path rule certificate rule zone rule identify file hash path software publisher certificate internet explorer-zone respectively example activex control restricted run particular domain specifying certificate rule-based software restriction policy windows xp service pack 2 introduced data execution prevention feature present nx evp amd amd64 processors xd edb intel processors flag certain parts memory containing data instead executable code prevents overflow errors resulting arbitrary code execution intended prevent application service executing code non-executable memory region helps prevent certain exploits store code via buffer overflow example dep runs two modes hardware-enforced dep cpus mark memory pages nonexecutable software-enforced dep limited prevention cpus hardware support software-enforced dep protect execution code data pages instead another type attack seh overwrite hardware-enforced dep enables nx bit compatible cpus automatic use pae kernel 32-bit windows native support 64-bit kernels software dep unrelated nx bit microsoft calls enforcement safe structured exception handling software dep/safeseh simply checks exception thrown make sure exception registered function table application requires program built dep enabled applications users gain additional resistance zero-day exploits applications dep-compliant generate dep exceptions therefore dep enforced applications default 32-bit versions windows turned critical system components however windows xp service pack 3 introduces additional nx apis allow software developers enable nx hardware protection code independent system-wide compatibility enforcement settings developers mark applications nx-compliant built allows protection enforced application installed runs enables higher percentage nx-protected code software ecosystem 32-bit platforms default system compatibility policy nx configured protect operating system components windows xp rtm introduced internet connection firewall later upgraded windows firewall windows xp service pack 2 support filtering ipv6 traffic well default windows firewall performs stateful packet filtering inbound solicited unsolicited traffic types network interfaces lan/wlan pppoe vpn dial-up connections like internet connection sharing firewall location-aware policy meaning disabled corporate domain enabled private home network option disallow exceptions may useful connecting public network firewall also used edge firewall ics clients firewall blocks program displays notification excepted traffic specified tcp/udp port application filename scope part network excepted traffic originates supports port mapping icmp security log capabilities included record ip addresses data relating connections originating home office network internet record dropped packets successful connections used instance track every time computer network connects website windows firewall also supports configuration group policy applications use windows firewall apis automatically add exceptions windows security center introduced windows xp service pack 2 provides users ability view status computer security settings services windows security center also continually monitors security settings informs user via pop-up notification balloon problem windows security center consists three major components control panel windows service application programming interface provided windows management instrumentation control panel divides monitored security settings categories headings displayed color-coded backgrounds current state settings determined windows service starts automatically computer starts takes responsibility continually monitoring system changes settings made available system wmi provider anti-malware firewall software vendors register security center wmi provider windows update settings status also monitored reported windows 2000 wireless support support seamless roaming auto-configuration windows xp wireless zero configuration service supports automatic wireless network configuration re-authentication necessary thus providing seamless roaming capability setting preferred order connections absence wireless access point windows xp set ad hoc wireless network native support wpa wpa2 authentication infrastructure networks latest service packs and/or updates applied windows xp includes wireless network setup wizard supports windows connect usb flash drive wcn-ufd method ease setting wireless network inexperienced users kb918997 windows xp sp2 windows xp sp3 add wireless lan api developers create wireless client programs manage profiles connections ieee 802.1x support wireless wired connections case pki available issue certificates vpn connection support preshared key ike authentication windows xp connect hotspots created using wireless provisioning services windows xp service pack 2 added native bluetooth support windows xp bluetooth stack supports external integrated bluetooth dongles attached usb windows xp sp2 sp3 support bluetooth 1.1 1.0 bluetooth 2.0 bluetooth 2.0+edr bluetooth stack supports following bluetooth profiles natively pan spp dun hid hcrp third-party stacks may replace windows xp stack may support profiles newer versions bluetooth windows xp internet connection sharing integrated upnp allowing remote discovery control ics host quality service packet scheduler component ics client relatively fast network ics host connected internet slow link windows may incorrectly calculate optimal tcp receive window size based speed link client ics host potentially affecting traffic sender adversely ics qos component sets tcp receive window size would receiver directly connected slow link internet connection sharing also includes local dns resolver windows xp provide name resolution network clients home network including non-windows-based network devices ics also location-aware connected domain computer group policy restrict use ics home ics enabled multiple applications accessing internet simultaneously without qos connection n't fast enough tcp receive window size set full window data transit first application uses connection steady state reached subsequent connections made applications take much longer reach optimal window size transmission rate second third application always lower application established connection first slow links qos component windows xp automatically enables deficit round robin scheduling scheme creates separate queue application services queues round-robin fashion basic production quality support windows xp ipv6 teredo tunneling advanced networking pack later incorporated windows xp sp2 ipv6 installed configured command line using netsh interface ipv6 context gui support network interface link-local address assigned stateless autoconfiguration local global addresses performed windows xp static ipv6 addresses assigned ipv6 router local link transition mechanisms manually configured tunnels 6to4 set windows firewall beginning windows xp sp2 also supports ipv6 stateful filtering applications tools telnet client ftp client ping nslookup tracert dns resolver file print sharing internet explorer iis updated support ipv6 privacy extensions enabled used default 6to4 automatically activated public ipv4 addresses without global ipv6 address types tunnels set include 6over4 teredo isatap portproxy teredo also helps traverse cone restricted nats teredo host-specific relay enabled global ipv6 address assigned otherwise teredo client functionality enabled windows xp dns resolver make dns queries using ipv4 use ipv6 transport make query however dns query sends back ipv4 ipv6 resource records ipv6 addresses preferred windows xp support dhcpv6 pppv6/ipv6cp open source dhcpv6 implementation called dibbler available although stateless autoconfiguration largely makes unnecessary windows xp includes background intelligent transfer service windows service facilitates prioritized throttled asynchronous transfer files machines using idle network bandwidth bits transfer data whenever bandwidth used applications example applications use 80 available bandwidth bits use remaining 20 bits constantly monitors network traffic increase decrease network traffic throttles transfers ensure foreground applications web browser get bandwidth need bits also supports resuming transfers case disruptions bits version 1.0 supports downloads version 1.5 bits supports downloads uploads uploads require iis web server bits server extension receiving side bits 2.0 part windows xp sp2 added support performing concurrent foreground downloads using server message block paths remote names downloading portions file changing prefix complete name remote name limiting client bandwidth usage bits upgradeable version 2.5 windows xp bits 2.5 part windows xp sp3 adds support ipv6 certificate-based client authentication secure http transports custom http headers windows xp components windows update use bits download updates idle bandwidth used download updates downloading resumed case network connectivity interrupted bits uses queue manage file transfers downloads files behalf requesting applications asynchronously i.e. application requests bits service transfer free job even terminate transfer continue background long network connection job owner logged bits supports transfers http https network application begins consume bandwidth bits decreases transfer rate preserve user interactive experience except foreground priority downloads bits exposed component object model com making possible use virtually programming language windows xp fax console manage incoming outgoing archived faxes settings fax monitor appears notification area fax transmission reception progress manual reception faxes enabled appears upon incoming fax call archived faxes open windows picture fax viewer tiff format upon installing microsoft outlook fax service automatically switches windows address book using outlook address book windows xp introduces fax service extended com api application developers incorporate fax functionality advanced networking pack later made part sp2 introduced peer-to-peer networking peer name resolution protocol pnrp windows xp operates ipv6 p2p architecture windows xp consists following components pnrp provides dynamic name publication resolution names endpoints pnrp distributed name resolution protocol allowing internet hosts publish peer names corresponding ipv6 addresses optionally information hosts resolve peer name retrieve corresponding addresses information establish peer-to-peer connections pnrp peer names composed authority qualifier authority identified secure hash associated public key place-holder number zero peer name unsecured qualifier string allowing authority different peer names different services peer name secure pnrp name records signed publishing authority verified using public key unsecured peer names published anybody without possible verification multiple entities publish peer name example peer name associated group group member publish addresses peer name peer names published resolved within specified scope scope local link site e.g campus whole internet graphing pnrp also allows creating overlay network called graph peer overlay network corresponds node graph nodes resolved addresses using pnrp nodes graph share book-keeping information responsible functioning network whole example distributed resource management network node resource needs shared information shared records flooded peers graph peer stores record local database record consists header body body contains data specific application using api header contains metadata describe data body name-value pairs serialized using xml addition author version information also contain index body data fast searching node connect nodes directly well communication need shared entire graph grouping peer-to-peer api also allows creation secure overlay network called group consisting subset nodes graph group shared multiple applications unlike graph peers group must identifiable unique named registered using pnrp digital signature certificate termed group member certificate gmc records exchanged digitally signed peers must invited group invitation contains gmc enables join group windows xp introduces simplified form sharing files local users multi-user environment network called simple file sharing simple file sharing enabled default non-domain joined computers disables separate security tab used set advanced acls/permissions enables common interface permissions file system folders sharing simple file sharing enabled documents folder subfolders read written owner local administrators shared network checking make folder private option properties local administrators also denied permissions documents folder sharing files user accounts computer simple file sharing enabled windows xp includes shared documents folder simple file sharing disables granular local network sharing permissions shares item everyone group network read write access without asking password forcing guest user permissions windows xp webdav mini-redirector added preferred old web folders client default newer client works system service network-redirector level immediately file-system allowing webdav shares assigned drive letter used software even firewalls nats applications open remote files http servers edit file save changes back file server allows redirector also allows webdav shares addressed via unc paths e.g codice_5 converted codice_6 compatibility windows filesystem apis webdav mini-redirector known limitations authentication support although windows xp ship following major windows features out-of-the-box new features added windows xp downloading components incorporated later versions windows Target text information: desktop_cleanup_wizard.desktop cleanup wizard desktop cleanup wizard component included microsoft windows xp operating system aims reduce clutter user desktop environment moving unused shortcuts separate directory called unused desktop shortcuts run shows list shortcuts user select shortcuts move unused desktop shortcuts directory desktop cleanup wizard works scheduled task runs day wizard run 60 days wizard displayed user desktop cleanup wizard also accessible desktop context menu arrange icons sub-menu desktop cleanup wizard scheduled task enabled disabled desktop items configuration screen available desktop tab display properties dialog box windows xp successor windows vista include desktop cleanup wizard windows 7 function integrated system maintenance wizard troubleshooting control panel I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	4,162	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: active_directory.active directory active directory ad directory service developed microsoft windows domain networks included windows server operating systems set processes services initially active directory charge centralized domain management starting windows server 2008 however active directory became umbrella title broad range directory-based identity-related services server running active directory domain service ad ds called domain controller authenticates authorizes users computers windows domain type network—assigning enforcing security policies computers installing updating software example user logs computer part windows domain active directory checks submitted password determines whether user system administrator normal user also allows management storage information provides authentication authorization mechanisms establishes framework deploy related services certificate services active directory federation services lightweight directory services rights management services active directory uses lightweight directory access protocol ldap versions 2 3 microsoft version kerberos dns active directory like many information-technology efforts originated democratization design using request comments rfcs internet engineering task force ietf oversees rfc process accepted numerous rfcs initiated widespread participants active directory incorporates decades communication technologies overarching active directory concept makes improvements upon example ldap underpins active directory also x.500 directories organizational unit preceded active directory concept makes use methods ldap concept began emerge even founding microsoft april 1975 rfcs early 1971 rfcs contributing ldap include rfc 1823 ldap api august 1995 rfc 2307 rfc 3062 rfc 4533 microsoft previewed active directory 1999 released first windows 2000 server edition revised extend functionality improve administration windows server 2003 additional improvements came subsequent versions windows server windows server 2008 additional services added active directory active directory federation services part directory charge management domains previously core part operating system renamed active directory domain services adds became server role like others active directory became umbrella title broader range directory-based services according bryon hynes everything related identity brought active directory banner active directory services consist multiple directory services best known active directory domain services commonly abbreviated ad ds simply ad active directory domain services ad ds cornerstone every windows domain network stores information members domain including devices users verifies credentials defines access rights server running service called domain controller domain controller contacted user logs device accesses another device across network runs line-of-business metro-style app sideloaded device active directory services excluding lds described well microsoft server technologies rely use domain services examples include group policy encrypting file system bitlocker domain name services remote desktop services exchange server sharepoint server active directory lightweight directory services ad lds formerly known active directory application mode adam light-weight implementation ad ds ad lds runs service windows server ad lds shares code base ad ds provides functionality including identical api require creation domains domain controllers provides data store storage directory data directory service ldap directory service interface unlike ad ds however multiple ad lds instances run server active directory certificate services ad cs establishes on-premises public key infrastructure create validate revoke public key certificates internal uses organization certificates used encrypt files used encrypting file system emails per s/mime standard network traffic used virtual private networks transport layer security protocol ipsec protocol ad cs predates windows server 2008 name simply certificate services ad cs requires ad ds infrastructure active directory federation services ad fs single sign-on service ad fs infrastructure place users may use several web-based services e.g internet forum blog online shopping webmail network resources using one set credentials stored central location opposed granted dedicated set credentials service ad fs purpose extension ad ds latter enables users authenticate use devices part network using one set credentials former enables use set credentials different network name suggests ad fs works based concept federated identity ad fs requires ad ds infrastructure although federation partner may active directory rights management services ad rms known rights management services rms windows server 2008 server software information rights management shipped windows server uses encryption form selective functionality denial limiting access documents corporate e-mails microsoft word documents web pages operations authorized users perform directory service active directory instance consists database corresponding executable code responsible servicing requests maintaining database executable part known directory system agent collection windows services processes run windows 2000 later objects active directory databases accessed via ldap adsi component object model interface messaging api security accounts manager services active directory structures arrangements information objects objects fall two broad categories resources e.g. printers security principals user computer accounts groups security principals assigned unique security identifiers sids object represents single entity—whether user computer printer group—and attributes certain objects contain objects object uniquely identified name set attributes—the characteristics information object represents— defined schema also determines kinds objects stored active directory schema object lets administrators extend modify schema necessary however schema object integral definition active directory objects deactivating changing objects fundamentally change disrupt deployment schema changes automatically propagate throughout system created object deactivated—not deleted changing schema usually requires planning active directory framework holds objects viewed number levels forest tree domain logical divisions active directory network within deployment objects grouped domains objects single domain stored single database replicated domains identified dns name structure namespace domain defined logical group network objects computers users devices share active directory database tree collection one domains domain trees contiguous namespace linked transitive trust hierarchy top structure forest forest collection trees share common global catalog directory schema logical structure directory configuration forest represents security boundary within users computers groups objects accessible objects held within domain grouped organizational units ous ous provide hierarchy domain ease administration resemble organization structure managerial geographical terms ous contain ous—domains containers sense microsoft recommends using ous rather domains structure simplify implementation policies administration ou recommended level apply group policies active directory objects formally named group policy objects gpos although policies also applied domains sites see ou level administrative powers commonly delegated delegation performed individual objects attributes well organizational units separate namespace consequence compatibility legacy netbios implementations user accounts identical samaccountname allowed within domain even accounts objects separate ous samaccountname user object attribute must unique within domain.. however two users different ous common name cn name stored directory fred.staff-ou.domain fred.student-ou.domain staff-ou student-ou ous general reason lack allowance duplicate names hierarchical directory placement microsoft primarily relies principles netbios flat-file method network object management microsoft software goes way back windows nt 3.1 ms-dos lan manager allowing duplication object names directory completely removing use netbios names would prevent backward compatibility legacy software equipment however disallowing duplicate object names way violation ldap rfcs active directory supposedly based number users domain increases conventions first initial middle initial last name western order reverse eastern order fail common family names like li 李 smith garcia workarounds include adding digit end username alternatives include creating separate id system unique employee/student id numbers use account names place actual user names allowing users nominate preferred word sequence within acceptable use policy duplicate usernames exist within domain account name generation poses significant challenge large organizations easily subdivided separate domains students public school system university must able use computer across network microsoft active directory ous confer access permissions objects placed within ous automatically assigned access privileges based containing ou design limitation specific active directory competing directories novell nds able assign access privileges object placement within ou active directory requires separate step administrator assign object ou member group also within ou relying ou location alone determine access permissions unreliable object may assigned group object ou common workaround active directory administrator write custom powershell visual basic script automatically create maintain user group ou directory scripts run periodically update group match ou account membership unable instantly update security groups anytime directory changes occurs competing directories security directly implemented directory groups known shadow groups created shadow groups selectable place ou administrative tools microsoft refers shadow groups server 2008 reference documentation explain create built-in server methods console snap-ins managing shadow groups division organization information infrastructure hierarchy one domains top-level ous key decision common models business unit geographical location service object type hybrids ous structured primarily facilitate administrative delegation secondarily facilitate group policy application although ous form administrative boundary true security boundary forest administrator domain forest must trusted across domains forest active directory database organized partitions holding specific object types following specific replication pattern microsoft often refers partitions 'naming contexts 'schema partition contains definition object classes attributes within forest 'configuration partition contains information physical structure configuration forest site topology replicate domains forest 'domain partition holds objects created domain replicates within domain sites physical rather logical groupings defined one ip subnets ad also holds definitions connections distinguishing low-speed e.g. wan vpn high-speed e.g. lan links site definitions independent domain ou structure common across forest sites used control network traffic generated replication also refer clients nearest domain controllers dcs microsoft exchange server 2007 uses site topology mail routing policies also defined site level physically active directory information held one peer domain controllers replacing nt pdc/bdc model dc copy active directory servers joined active directory domain controllers called member servers subset objects domain partition replicate domain controllers configured global catalogs global catalog gc servers provide global listing objects forest global catalog servers replicate objects domains hence provide global listing objects forest however minimize replication traffic keep gc database small selected attributes object replicated called partial attribute set pas pas modified modifying schema marking attributes replication gc earlier versions windows used netbios communicate active directory fully integrated dns requires tcp/ip—dns fully functional dns server must support srv resource records also known service records active directory synchronizes changes using multi-master replication replication default 'pull rather 'push meaning replicas pull changes server change effected knowledge consistency checker kcc creates replication topology site links using defined sites manage traffic intrasite replication frequent automatic result change notification triggers peers begin pull replication cycle intersite replication intervals typically less frequent use change notification default although configurable made identical intrasite replication link 'cost e.g. ds3 t1 isdn etc kcc alters site link topology accordingly replication may occur transitively several site links same-protocol site link bridges cost low although kcc automatically costs direct site-to-site link lower transitive connections site-to-site replication configured occur bridgehead server site replicates changes dcs within site replication active directory zones automatically configured dns activated domain based site replication active directory uses remote procedure calls rpc ip rpc/ip sites smtp used replication changes schema configuration partial attribute set global catalog gcs smtp used replicating default domain partition general network utilizing active directory one licensed windows server computer backup restore active directory possible network single domain controller microsoft recommends one domain controller provide automatic failover protection directory domain controllers also ideally single-purpose directory operations run software role certain microsoft products sql server exchange interfere operation domain controller necessitating isolation products additional windows servers combining make configuration troubleshooting either domain controller installed software difficult business intending implement active directory therefore recommended purchase number windows server licenses provide least two separate domain controllers optionally additional domain controllers performance redundancy separate file server separate exchange server separate sql server forth support various server roles physical hardware costs many separate servers reduced use virtualization although proper failover protection microsoft recommends running multiple virtualized domain controllers physical hardware active-directory database directory store windows 2000 server uses jet blue-based extensible storage engine ese98 limited 16 terabytes 2 billion objects 1 billion security principals domain controller database microsoft created ntds databases 2 billion objects nt4 security account manager could support 40,000 objects called ntds.dit two main tables data table link table windows server 2003 added third main table security descriptor single instancing programs may access features active directory via com interfaces provided active directory service interfaces allow users one domain access resources another active directory uses trusts trusts inside forest automatically created domains created forest sets default boundaries trust implicit transitive trust automatic domains within forest microsoft active directory management tools include management tools may provide enough functionality efficient workflow large environments third-party solutions extend administration management capabilities provide essential features convenient administration processes automation reports integration services etc varying levels interoperability active directory achieved unix-like operating systems including unix linux mac os x java unix-based programs standards-compliant ldap clients systems usually interpret many attributes associated windows components group policy support one-way trusts third parties offer active directory integration unix-like platforms including schema additions shipped windows server 2003 r2 include attributes map closely enough rfc 2307 generally usable reference implementation rfc 2307 nss_ldap pam_ldap provided padl.com support attributes directly default schema group membership complies rfc 2307bis proposed windows server 2003 r2 includes microsoft management console snap-in creates edits attributes alternative option use another directory service non-windows clients authenticate windows clients authenticate ad non-windows clients include 389 directory server formerly fedora directory server fds viewds identity solutions viewds v7.2 xml enabled directory sun microsystems sun java system directory server latter two able perform two-way synchronization ad thus provide deflected integration another option use openldap translucent overlay extend entries remote ldap server additional attributes stored local database clients pointed local database see entries containing remote local attributes remote database remains completely untouched administration querying modifying monitoring active directory achieved via many scripting languages including powershell vbscript jscript/javascript perl python ruby free non-free ad administration tools help simplify possibly automate ad management tasks since october 2017 amazon aws offers integration microsoft active directory 1-hop neighbor's text information: replication_(computing).replication computing replication computing involves sharing information ensure consistency redundant resources software hardware components improve reliability fault-tolerance accessibility replication computing refer replication space time often linked scheduling algorithms access replicated entity typically uniform access single non-replicated entity replication transparent external user failure scenario failover replicas hidden much possible respect quality service qos computer scientists describe replication either one master replica designated process requests system using primary-backup master-slave scheme predominant high-availability clusters comparison replica process request distribute new state system using multi-primary multi-master scheme latter case form distributed concurrency control must used distributed lock manager load balancing differs task replication since distributes load different computations across machines allows single computation dropped case failure load balancing however sometimes uses data replication especially multi-master replication internally distribute data among machines backup differs replication saved copy data remains unchanged long period time replicas hand undergo frequent updates quickly lose historical state replication one oldest important topics overall area distributed systems data replication computation replication require processes handle incoming events processes data replication passive operate maintain stored data reply read requests apply updates computation replication usually performed provide fault-tolerance take operation one component fails cases underlying needs ensure replicas see events equivalent orders stay consistent states replica respond queries three widely cited models exist data replication properties performance database replication used many database management systems dbms usually master-slave relationship original copies master logs updates ripple slaves slave outputs message stating received update successfully thus allowing sending subsequent updates multi-master replication updates submitted database node ripple servers often desired introduces substantially increased costs complexity may make impractical situations common challenge exists multi-master replication transactional conflict prevention resolution synchronous eager replication solutions perform conflict prevention asynchronous lazy solutions perform conflict resolution instance record changed two nodes simultaneously eager replication system would detect conflict confirming commit abort one transactions lazy replication system would allow transactions commit run conflict resolution resynchronization resolution conflict may based timestamp transaction hierarchy origin nodes much complex logic decides consistently across nodes database replication becomes complex scales usually described two dimensions horizontal vertical horizontal scale-up data replicas vertical scale-up data replicas located greater physical distances problems raised horizontal scale-up alleviated multi-layer multi-view access protocol early problems vertical scale-up largely addressed improving internet reliability performance data replicated database servers information remains consistent throughout database system users tell even know server dbms using system said exhibit replication transparency active real-time storage replication usually implemented distributing updates block device several physical hard disks way file system supported operating system replicated without modification file system code works level block device driver layer implemented either hardware disk array controller software device driver basic method disk mirroring typical locally connected disks storage industry narrows definitions mirroring local short-distance operation replication extendable across computer network disks located physically distant locations master-slave database replication model usually applied purpose replication prevent damage failures disasters may occur one location – case events occur improve ability recover data replication latency key factor determines either far apart sites type replication employed main characteristic cross-site replication write operations handled either synchronous asynchronous replication main difference synchronous replication needs wait destination server write operation synchronous replication guarantees zero data loss means atomic write operations write operation considered complete acknowledged local remote storage applications wait write transaction complete proceeding work hence overall performance decreases considerably inherently performance drops proportionally distance minimum latency dictated speed light 10 km distance fastest possible roundtrip takes 67 μs whereas entire local cached write completes 10–20 μs asynchronous replication write operation considered complete soon local storage acknowledges remote storage updated small lag performance greatly increased case local storage failure remote storage guaranteed current copy data recent data may lost semi-synchronous replication typically considers write operation complete acknowledged local storage received logged remote server actual remote write performed asynchronously resulting better performance remote storage lag behind local storage guarantee durability i.e seamless transparency case local storage failure point-in-time replication produces periodic snapshots replicated instead primary storage intended replicate changed data instead entire volume less information replicated using method replication occur less-expensive bandwidth links iscsi t1 instead fiber optic lines many distributed filesystems use replication ensure fault tolerance avoid single point failure many commercial synchronous replication systems freeze remote replica fails loses connection – behaviour guarantees zero data loss – proceed operate locally losing desired zero recovery point objective techniques wide-area network wan optimization applied address limits imposed latency file-based replication conducts data replication logical level i.e individual data files rather storage block level many different ways performing almost exclusively rely software kernel driver specifically filter driver used intercept calls filesystem functions capturing activity occurs utilises type technology real-time active virus checkers employ level logical file operations captured like file open write delete etc kernel driver transmits commands another process generally network different machine mimic operations source machine like block-level storage replication file-level replication allows synchronous asynchronous modes synchronous mode write operations source machine held allowed occur destination machine acknowledged successful replication synchronous mode less common file replication products although solutions exist file-level replication solutions allow informed decisions replication based location type file example temporary files parts filesystem hold business value could excluded data transmitted also granular application writes 100 bytes 100 bytes transmitted instead complete disk block generally 4096 bytes substantially reduces amount data sent source machine storage burden destination machine drawbacks software-only solution include requirement implementation maintenance operating system level increased burden machine processing power similarly database transaction logs many file systems ability journal activity journal sent another machine either periodically real time streaming replica side journal used play back file system modifications one notable implementations microsoft system center data protection manager dpm released 2005 performs periodic updates offer real-time replication process comparing source destination file systems ensuring destination matches source key benefit solutions generally free inexpensive downside process synchronizing quite system-intensive consequently process generally runs infrequently one notable implementations rsync another example using replication appears distributed shared memory systems many nodes system share page memory usually means node separate copy replica page many classical approaches replication based primary-backup model one device process unilateral control one processes devices example primary might perform computation streaming log updates backup standby process take primary fails approach common replicating databases despite risk portion log lost failure backup might state identical primary transactions could lost weakness primary-backup schemes one actually performing operations fault-tolerance gained identical backup system doubles costs reason starting distributed systems research community began explore alternative methods replicating data outgrowth work emergence schemes group replicas could cooperate process acting backup also handling share workload computer scientist jim gray analyzed multi-primary replication schemes transactional model published widely cited paper skeptical approach dangers replication solution argued unless data splits natural way database treated n disjoint sub-databases concurrency control conflicts result seriously degraded performance group replicas probably slow function n gray suggested common approaches likely result degradation scales n³ solution partition data viable situations data actually natural partitioning key 1985–1987 virtual synchrony model proposed emerged widely adopted standard used isis toolkit horus transis ensemble totem spread c-ensemble phoenix quicksilver systems basis corba fault-tolerant computing standard virtual synchrony permits multi-primary approach group processes cooperates parallelize aspects request processing scheme used forms in-memory data provide linear speedups size group number modern products support similar schemes example spread toolkit supports virtual synchrony model used implement multi-primary replication scheme would also possible use c-ensemble quicksilver manner wandisco permits active replication every node network exact copy replica hence every node network active one time scheme optimized use wide area network wan 1-hop neighbor's text information: mariadb.mariadb mariadb community-developed commercially supported fork mysql relational database management system rdbms intended remain free open-source software gnu general public license development led original developers mysql forked due concerns acquisition oracle corporation mariadb intends maintain high compatibility mysql ensuring drop-in replacement capability library binary parity exact matching mysql apis commands includes new storage engine aria alternative myisam intends default transactional non-transactional engine initially used xtradb default storage engine switched back innodb since version 10.2 lead developer michael monty widenius one founders mysql ab founder monty program ab 16 january 2008 mysql ab announced agreed acquired sun microsystems approximately 1 billion acquisition completed 26 february 2008 mariadb named monty younger daughter maria similar mysql named daughter mariadb version numbers follow mysql numbering scheme version 5.5 thus mariadb 5.5 offers mysql 5.5 features exists gap mysql versions 5.1 5.5 mariadb issued 5.2 5.3 point releases since specific new features developed mariadb developers decided major version number change necessary mariadb supported amazon rds service since october 2015 mariadb supported database microsoft azure mariadb api protocol compatible used mysql plus features support native non-blocking operations progress reporting means connectors libraries applications work mysql also work mariadb—whether support native features basis fedora developers replaced mysql mariadb fedora 19 concerns oracle making mysql closed software project openbsd likewise april 2013 dropped mysql mariadb 5.5 december 2012 michael widenius david axmark allan larsson announced formation foundation would oversee development mariadb april 2013 foundation announced appointed simon phipps secretary interim chief executive officer rasmus johansson chairman board andrew katz jeremy zawodny michael widenius board members noting wished create governance model similar used eclipse foundation board appointed eclipse foundation executive director mike milinkovich advisor lead transition skysql corporation ab company formed ex-mysql executives investors oracle bought mysql announced april 2013 merging company monty program ab joining mariadb foundation mariadb foundation appointed widenius cto simon phipps quit 2014 sale mariadb trademark skysql later said quit soon obvious company going allow independent foundation 1 october 2014 skysql corporation ab changed name mariadb corporation ab reflect role main driving force behind development mariadb server biggest support-provider mariadb registered trademark mariadb corporation ab used license mariadb foundation january 2015 september 2018 otto kekäläinen ceo mariadb foundation stepped effectively 1 october year arjen lentz appointed ceo foundation october 2018 resigned december 2018 kaj arnö joined ceo 1 february 2019 eric herman current chairman board mariadb used servicenow dbs bank google mozilla since 2013 wikimedia foundation several linux bsd distributions include mariadb like ubuntu 14.04 lts default mariadb arch linux manjaro debian debian 9 fedora fedora 19 red hat enterprise linux rhel 7 june 2014 centos centos 7 mageia mageia 2 opensuse opensuse 12.3 dartmouth suse linux enterprise server sles 12 openbsd 5.7 freebsd 2013 google tasked one engineers work mariadb foundation group investment companies led intel invested 20 million skysql european investment bank funded mariadb €25 million 2017 Target text information: multi-master_replication.multi-master replication multi-master replication method database replication allows data stored group computers updated member group members responsive client data queries multi-master replication system responsible propagating data modifications made member rest group resolving conflicts might arise concurrent changes made different members multi-master replication contrasted master-slave replication single member group designated master given piece data node allowed modify data item members wishing modify data item must first contact master node allowing single master makes easier achieve consistency among members group less flexible multi-master replication multi-master replication also contrasted failover clustering passive slave servers replicating master data order prepare takeover event master stops functioning master server active client interaction primary purposes multi-master replication increased availability faster server response time many directory servers based ldap implement multi-master replication one prevalent multi-master replication implementations directory servers microsoft active directory within active directory objects updated one domain controller replicated domain controllers multi-master replication required domain controllers replicate would cause excessive network traffic large active directory deployments instead domain controllers complex update pattern ensures servers updated timely fashion without excessive replication traffic active directory needs however better served flexible single master operation ca directory supports multi-master replication opends successor product opendj implemented multi-master since version 1.0 opends/opendj multi-master replication asynchronous uses log publish-subscribe mechanism allows scaling large number nodes opends/opendj replication conflict resolution entry attribute level opends/opendj replication used wide area network widely used open source ldap server implements multi-master replication since version 2.4 october 2007 apache couchdb uses simple http-based multi-master replication system built use append data-store use multiversion concurrency control mvcc document contains revision id every record stores evolutionary timeline previous revision ids leading itself—which provides foundation couchdb mvcc system additionally keeps by-sequence index entire database replication process copies last revision document previous revisions source database copied destination database couchdb replicator acts simple http client acting source target database compares current sequence ids database calculates revision differences makes necessary changes target based found history source database bi-directional replication result merely another replication source target values swapped arangodb native multi-model database system using multi-master replication clusters arangodb use cp master/master model single point failure cluster encounters network partition arangodb prefers maintain internal consistency availability clients experience view database regardless node connect cluster continues serve requests even one machine fails cloudant distributed database system uses largely http api apache couchdb exposes ability replicate using multiversion concurrency control mvcc cloudant databases replicate internally nodes within cloudant clusters use multi-master replication stay sync provide high availability api consumers extremedb cluster clustering sub-system mcobject extremedb embedded database product family maintains database consistency across multiple hardware nodes replicating transactions synchronous manner two-phase commit important characteristic extremedb cluster transaction replication contrast log file-based sql statement-based replication schemes may may guarantee success failure entire transactions accordingly extremedb cluster acid compliant system base eventual consistency query executed cluster node return result executed cluster node database clusters implement multi-master replication using one two methods asynchronous multi-master replication commits data changes deferred transaction queue periodically processed databases cluster synchronous multi-master replication uses oracle two phase commit functionality ensure databases cluster consistent dataset microsoft sql provides multi-master replication peer-to-peer replication provides scale-out high-availability solution maintaining copies data across multiple nodes built foundation transactional replication peer-to-peer replication propagates transactionally consistent changes near real-time basic level possible achieve multi-master replication scheme beginning since mysql version 3.23 circular replication departing mariadb mysql ship replication support different nuances terms direct support mariadb natively supports multi-master replication since version 10.0 conflict resolution supported master must contain different databases mysql named multi-source available since version 5.7.6 mysql mysql group replication plugin virtual synchronous multi master conflict handling distributed recovery released 5.7.17 cluster projects mysql cluster supports conflict detection resolution multiple masters since version 6.3 true multi-master capability mysql server also external project galera cluster created codership provides true multi-master capability based fork innodb storage engine custom replication plug-ins replication synchronous conflict possible percona xtradb cluster also combination galera replication library mysql supporting multi master various options synchronous multi-master replication exist postgres-xl available mozilla public license postgresxc known postgres-x2 available license postgresql examples note pgcluster project abandoned 2007 replication documentation postgresql categorises different types replication available various options exist distributed multi-master including bucardo rubyrep bdr bi-directional replication bdr aimed eventual inclusion postgresql core benchmarked demonstrating significantly enhanced performance earlier options bdr includes replication data writes dml well changes data definition ddl global sequences bdr nodes may upgraded online version 0.9 onwards 2ndquadrant developed bdr continuously since 2012 system used production since 2014 latest version bdr 3.6 provides column-level conflict detection crdts eager replication multi-node query consistency many features within ingres replicator objects updated one ingres server replicated servers whether local remote multi-master replication one server fails client connections re-directed another server required ingres servers environment replicate could cause excessive network traffic large implementations instead ingres replicator allows appropriate data replicated appropriate servers without excessive replication traffic means servers environment serve failover candidates servers meet requirements managing subset columns tables departmental solution subset rows geographical region one-way replication reporting server event source target network failure data integrity enforced two-phase commit protocol ensuring either whole transaction replicated none addition ingres replicator operate rdbms ’ multiple vendors connect I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	3,784	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: simple_mail_transfer_protocol.simple mail transfer protocol simple mail transfer protocol smtp communication protocol electronic mail transmission internet standard smtp first defined 1982 updated 2008 extended smtp additions protocol variety widespread use today mail servers message transfer agents use smtp send receive mail messages proprietary systems microsoft exchange ibm notes webmail systems outlook.com gmail yahoo mail may use non-standard protocols internally use smtp sending receiving email outside systems smtp servers commonly use transmission control protocol port number 25 user-level email clients typically use smtp sending messages mail server relaying typically submit outgoing email mail server port 587 465 per rfc 8314 retrieving messages imap pop3 standard proprietary servers also often implement proprietary protocols e.g. exchange activesync various forms one-to-one electronic messaging used 1960s users communicated using systems developed specific mainframe computers computers interconnected especially u.s. government arpanet standards developed permit exchange messages different operating systems smtp grew standards developed 1970s smtp traces roots two implementations described 1971 mail box protocol whose implementation disputed discussed rfcs sndmsg program according ray tomlinson bbn invented tenex computers send mail messages across arpanet fewer 50 hosts connected arpanet time implementations include ftp mail mail protocol 1973 development work continued throughout 1970s arpanet transitioned modern internet around 1980 jon postel proposed mail transfer protocol 1980 began remove mail reliance ftp smtp published november 1981 also postel smtp standard developed around time usenet one-to-many communication network similarities smtp became widely used early 1980s time complement unix unix copy program uucp mail better suited handling email transfers machines intermittently connected smtp hand works best sending receiving machines connected network time use store forward mechanism examples push technology though usenet newsgroups still propagated uucp servers uucp mail transport virtually disappeared along bang paths used message routing headers sendmail released 4.1cbsd right one first mail transfer agents implement smtp time bsd unix became popular operating system internet sendmail became common mta mail transfer agent popular smtp server programs include postfix qmail novell groupwise exim novell netmail microsoft exchange server oracle communications messaging server message submission smtp-auth introduced 1998 1999 describing new trends email delivery originally smtp servers typically internal organization receiving mail organization outside relaying messages organization outside time went smtp servers mail transfer agents practice expanding roles become message submission agents mail user agents relaying mail outside organization e.g company executive wishes send email trip using corporate smtp server issue consequence rapid expansion popularity world wide web meant smtp include specific rules methods relaying mail authenticating users prevent abuses relaying unsolicited email spam work message submission originally started popular mail servers would often rewrite mail attempt fix problems example adding domain name unqualified address behavior helpful message fixed initial submission dangerous harmful message originated elsewhere relayed cleanly separating mail submission relay seen way permit encourage rewriting submissions prohibiting rewriting relay spam became prevalent also seen way provide authorization mail sent organization well traceability separation relay submission quickly became foundation modern email security practices protocol started purely ascii text-based deal well binary files characters many non-english languages standards multipurpose internet mail extensions mime developed encode binary files transfer smtp mail transfer agents mtas developed sendmail also tended implemented 8-bit-clean alternate send eight strategy could used transmit arbitrary text data 8-bit ascii-like character encoding via smtp mojibake still problem due differing character set mappings vendors although email addresses still allowed ascii 8-bit-clean mtas today tend support 8bitmime extension permitting binary files transmitted almost easily plain text recently smtputf8 extension created support utf-8 text allowing international content addresses non-latin scripts like cyrillic chinese many people contributed core smtp specifications among jon postel eric allman dave crocker ned freed randall gellens john klensin keith moore email submitted mail client mail user agent mua mail server mail submission agent msa using smtp tcp port 587 mailbox providers still allow submission traditional port 25 msa delivers mail mail transfer agent mail transfer agent mta often two agents instances software launched different options machine local processing done either single machine split among multiple machines mail agent processes one machine share files processing multiple machines transfer messages using smtp machine configured use next machine smart host process mta smtp server right boundary mta uses domain name system dns look mail exchanger record mx record recipient domain part email address right mx record contains name target host based target host factors mta selects exchange server see article mx record mta connects exchange server smtp client message transfer occur single connection two mtas series hops intermediary systems receiving smtp server may ultimate destination intermediate relay stores forwards message gateway may forward message using protocol smtp hop formal handoff responsibility message whereby receiving server must either deliver message properly report failure final hop accepts incoming message hands mail delivery agent mda local delivery mda saves messages relevant mailbox format sending reception done using one multiple computers diagram mda depicted one box near mail exchanger box mda may deliver messages directly storage forward network using smtp protocol local mail transfer protocol lmtp derivative smtp designed purpose delivered local mail server mail stored batch retrieval authenticated mail clients muas mail retrieved end-user applications called email clients using internet message access protocol imap protocol facilitates access mail manages stored mail post office protocol pop typically uses traditional mbox mail file format proprietary system microsoft exchange/outlook lotus notes/domino webmail clients may use either method retrieval protocol often formal standard smtp defines message transport message content thus defines mail envelope parameters envelope sender header except trace information body message std 10 define smtp envelope std 11 define message header body formally referred internet message format smtp connection-oriented text-based protocol mail sender communicates mail receiver issuing command strings supplying necessary data reliable ordered data stream channel typically transmission control protocol tcp connection smtp session consists commands originated smtp client initiating agent sender transmitter corresponding responses smtp server listening agent receiver session opened session parameters exchanged session may include zero smtp transactions smtp transaction consists three command/reply sequences besides intermediate reply data server reply either positive 2xx reply codes negative negative replies permanent 5xx codes transient 4xx codes reject permanent failure client send bounce message server received drop positive response followed message discard rather delivery initiating host smtp client either end-user email client functionally identified mail user agent mua relay server mail transfer agent mta smtp server acting smtp client relevant session order relay mail fully capable smtp servers maintain queues messages retrying message transmissions resulted transient failures mua knows outgoing mail smtp server configuration relay server typically determines server connect looking mx mail exchange dns resource record recipient domain name mx record found conformant relaying server instead looks record relay servers also configured use smart host relay server initiates tcp connection server well-known port smtp port 25 connecting msa port 587 main difference mta msa connecting msa requires smtp authentication smtp delivery protocol normal use mail pushed destination mail server next-hop mail server arrives mail routed based destination server individual user addressed protocols post office protocol pop internet message access protocol imap specifically designed use individual users retrieving messages managing mail boxes permit intermittently-connected mail server pull messages remote server demand smtp feature initiate mail queue processing remote server see remote message queue starting pop imap unsuitable protocols relaying mail intermittently-connected machines designed operate final delivery information critical correct operation mail relay mail envelope removed remote message queue starting feature smtp permits remote host start processing mail queue server may receive messages destined sending turn command feature however deemed insecure extended etrn command operates securely using authentication method based domain name system information email client needs know ip address initial smtp server given part configuration usually given dns name server deliver outgoing messages behalf user server administrators need impose control clients use server enables deal abuse example spam two solutions common use system isp smtp server allow access users outside isp network precisely server may allow access users ip address provided isp equivalent requiring connected internet using isp mobile user may often network normal isp find sending email fails configured smtp server choice longer accessible system several variations example organisation smtp server may provide service users network enforcing firewalling block access users wider internet server may perform range checks client ip address methods typically used corporations institutions universities provided smtp server outbound mail use internally within organisation however bodies use client authentication methods described user mobile may use different isps connect internet kind usage restriction onerous altering configured outbound email smtp server address impractical highly desirable able use email client configuration information need change modern smtp servers typically require authentication clients credentials allowing access rather restricting access location described earlier flexible system friendly mobile users allows fixed choice configured outbound smtp server smtp authentication often abbreviated smtp auth extension smtp order log using authentication mechanism server accessible wider internet enforce kinds access restrictions known open relay generally considered bad practice worthy blacklisting communication mail servers generally uses standard tcp port 25 designated smtp mail clients however generally n't use instead using specific submission ports mail services generally accept email submission clients one port 2525 others may used individual providers never officially supported internet service providers block outgoing port 25 traffic customers anti-spam measure reason businesses typically configure firewall allow outgoing port 25 traffic designated mail servers typical example sending message via smtp two mailboxes alice theboss located mail domain example.com localhost.com reproduced following session exchange example conversation parts prefixed c server client respectively labels part exchange message sender smtp client establishes reliable communications channel message receiver smtp server session opened greeting server usually containing fully qualified domain name fqdn case smtp.example.com client initiates dialog responding codice_1 command identifying command parameter fqdn address literal none available client notifies receiver originating email address message codice_2 command also return bounce address case message delivered example email message sent two mailboxes smtp server one recipient listed cc header fields corresponding smtp command codice_3 successful reception execution command acknowledged server result code response message e.g. 250 ok transmission body mail message initiated codice_4 command transmitted verbatim line line terminated end-of-data sequence sequence consists new-line cr lf single full stop period followed another new-line since message body contain line period part text client sends two periods every time line starts period correspondingly server replaces every sequence two periods beginning line single one escaping method called dot-stuffing server positive reply end-of-data exemplified implies server taken responsibility delivering message message doubled communication failure time e.g due power shortage sender received 250 reply must assume message delivered hand receiver decided accept message must assume message delivered thus time span agents active copies message try deliver probability communication failure occurs exactly step directly proportional amount filtering server performs message body often anti-spam purposes limiting timeout specified 10 minutes codice_5 command ends session email recipients located elsewhere client would codice_5 connect appropriate smtp server subsequent recipients current destination queued information client sends codice_1 codice_2 commands added seen example code additional header fields message receiving server adds codice_9 codice_10 header field respectively clients implemented close connection message accepted codice_11 last two lines may actually omitted causes error server trying send codice_12 reply original smtp protocol supported unauthenticated unencrypted ascii text communications susceptible man middle attacks spoofing spamming requiring encode binary data transmission number optional extensions specify various mechanisms address problems clients learn server supported options using codice_13 greeting exemplified instead original codice_1 example clients fall back codice_1 server support smtp extensions modern clients may use esmtp extension keyword codice_16 query server maximum message size accepted older clients servers may try transfer excessively sized messages rejected consuming network resources including connect time network links paid minute users manually determine advance maximum size accepted esmtp servers client replaces codice_1 command codice_13 command thus smtp2.example.com declares accept fixed maximum message size larger 14,680,064 octets 8-bit bytes simplest case esmtp server declares maximum codice_16 immediately receiving codice_13 according however numeric parameter codice_16 extension codice_13 response optional clients may instead issuing codice_2 command include numeric estimate size message transferring server refuse receipt overly-large messages original smtp supports transport textual data therefore binary data needs encoded text transfer decoded leading increased size transit 8bitmime command developed alleviate limitation standardized 1994 obsoleted 2011 corresponding new std 71 facilitates transparent exchange e-mail messages containing octets outside seven-bit ascii character set prior availability 8bitmime implementations mail user agents employed several techniques cope seven-bit limitation binary-to-text encodings including ones provided mime utf-7 however workarounds inflates required amount data transmission non-ascii text non-esmtp servers allowed sending 8-bit characters risky send data server whose 8-bit capabilities unknown on-demand mail relay odmr smtp extension standardized allows intermittently-connected smtp server receive email queued connected original smtp supports email addresses composed ascii characters inconvenient users whose native script latin based use diacritic ascii character set limitation alleviated via extensions enabling utf-8 address names introduced experimental codice_24 command later superseded introduced codice_25 command extensions provide support multi-byte non-ascii characters email addresses diacritics language characters greek chinese current support limited strong interest broad adoption related rfcs countries like china large user base latin ascii foreign script mail delivery occur plain text encrypted connections however communicating parties might know advance party ability use secure channel smtp authentication often abbreviated smtp auth describes mechanism client log using authentication mechanism supported server mainly used submission servers authentication mandatory multiple rfcs exist provide different variations mechanism update smtp extensions describe starttls command enables server tell client supports encrypted communications client request upgrade secure channel starttls effective passive observation attacks since starttls negotiation happens plain text active attacker trivially remove starttls command attack sometimes called striptls client would think server send starttls header support starttls server would think client respond starttls header thus support starttls note starttls also defined imap pop3 rfcs protocols serve different purposes smtp used communication message transfer agents imap pop3 end clients message transfer agents electronic frontier foundation maintains starttls everywhere list similarly https everywhere list allows relying parties discover others supporting secure communication without prior communication newer 2018 called smtp mta strict transport security mta-sts aims addresses problem active adversary defining protocol mail servers declare ability use secure channels specific files server specific dns txt records relying party would regularly check existence record cache amount time specified record never communicate insecure channels record expires note mta-sts records apply smtp traffic mail servers communications end client mail server protected http strict transport security https april 2019 google mail announced support mta-sts number protocols allows secure delivery messages fail due misconfigurations deliberate active interference leading undelivered messages delivery unencrypted unauthenticated channels smtp tls reporting describes reporting mechanism format sharing statistics specific information potential failures recipient domains recipient domains use information detect potential attacks diagnose unintentional misconfigurations april 2019 google mail announced support smtp tls reporting original design smtp facility authenticate senders check servers authorized send behalf result email spoofing possible commonly used email spam phishing occasional proposals made modify smtp extensively replace completely one example internet mail 2000 neither made much headway face network effect huge installed base classic smtp instead mail servers use range techniques including domainkeys identified mail sender policy framework dmarc dnsbls greylisting reject quarantine suspicious emails 1-hop neighbor's text information: anti-spam_techniques.anti-spam techniques various anti-spam techniques used prevent email spam unsolicited bulk email technique complete solution spam problem trade-offs incorrectly rejecting legitimate email false positives opposed rejecting spam false negatives – associated costs time effort cost wrongfully obstructing good mail anti-spam techniques broken four broad categories require actions individuals automated email administrators automated email senders employed researchers law enforcement officials number techniques individuals use restrict availability email addresses goal reducing chance receiving spam sharing email address among limited group correspondents one way limit chance address harvested targeted spam similarly forwarding messages number recipients n't know one another recipient addresses put bcc field recipient get list recipients email addresses email addresses posted webpages usenet chat rooms vulnerable e-mail address harvesting address munging practice disguising e-mail address prevent automatically collected way still allow human reader reconstruct original email address nowiki no-one example.com /nowiki might written no-one example dot com instance related technique display part email address image jumbled text order characters restored using css common piece advice reply spam messages spammers may simply regard responses confirmation email address valid similarly many spam messages contain web links addresses user directed follow removed spammer mailing list – treated dangerous case sender addresses often forged spam messages responding spam may result failed deliveries – may reach completely innocent third parties businesses individuals sometimes avoid publicising email address asking contact come via contact form webpage – typically forwards information via email forms however sometimes inconvenient users able use preferred email client risk entering faulty reply address typically notified delivery problems contact forms drawback require website appropriate technology many modern mail programs incorporate web browser functionality display html urls images avoiding disabling feature help avoid spam may however useful avoid problems user opens spam message offensive images tracked web bugs targeted javascript attacks upon security vulnerabilities html renderer mail clients automatically download display html images attachments fewer risks clients configured display default email user may sometimes need give address site without complete assurance site owner use sending spam one way mitigate risk provide disposable email address — address user disable abandon forwards email real account number services provide disposable address forwarding addresses manually disabled expire given time interval expire certain number messages forwarded disposable email addresses used users track whether site owner disclosed address security breach systems use ham passwords ask unrecognised senders include email password demonstrates email message ham spam message typically email address ham password would described web page ham password would included subject line email message appended username part email address using plus addressing technique ham passwords often combined filtering systems let messages identified ham tracking spammer isp reporting offense lead spammer service terminated criminal prosecution unfortunately difficult track spammer online tools spamcop network abuse clearinghouse assist always accurate historically reporting spam way played large part abating spam since spammers simply move operation another url isp network ip addresses many countries consumers may also forward unwanted deceptive commercial email authorities e.g us email address spam uce.gov maintained us federal trade commission ftc similar agencies countries large number applications appliances services software systems email administrators use reduce load spam systems mailboxes general attempt reject block majority spam email outright smtp connection stage accept message typically analyze content – may decide quarantine categorised spam number systems developed allow domain name owners identify email authorized many systems use dns list sites authorized send email behalf many proposals spf dkim dmarc widely supported growing adoption directly attacking spam systems make much harder spoof addresses common technique spammers also used phishing types fraud via email method may used internet service providers specialized services enterprises combat spam require unknown senders pass various tests messages delivered strategies termed challenge/response systems checksum-based filter exploits fact messages sent bulk identical small variations checksum-based filters strip everything might vary messages reduce remains checksum look checksum database distributed checksum clearinghouse collects checksums messages email recipients consider spam people button email client click nominate message spam checksum database message likely spam avoid detected way spammers sometimes insert unique invisible gibberish known hashbusters middle messages make message unique checksum email servers expect never communicate particular countries receive great deal spam therefore use country-based filtering – technique blocks email certain countries technique based country origin determined sender ip address rather trait sender large number free commercial dns-based blacklists dnsbls allow mail server quickly look ip incoming mail connection reject listed administrators choose scores dnsbls reflects different policies list sites known emit spam others list open mail relays proxies others list isps known support spam spam/phishing messages contain url entice victims clicking thus popular technique since early 2000s consists extracting urls messages looking databases spamhaus domain block list dbl surbl uribl many spammers use poorly written software unable comply standards legitimate control computer using send spam zombie computer setting tighter limits deviation rfc standards mta accept mail administrator reduce spam significantly also runs risk rejecting mail older poorly written configured servers greeting delay – sending server required wait received smtp greeting banner sends data deliberate pause introduced receiving servers allow detect deny spam-sending applications wait receive banner temporary rejection – greylisting technique built fact smtp protocol allows temporary rejection incoming messages greylisting temporarily rejects messages unknown senders mail servers – using standard 4xx error codes compliant mtas proceed retry delivery later many spammers spambots downside legitimate messages first-time senders experience delay delivery helo/ehlo checking – says smtp server may verify domain name argument ehlo command actually corresponds ip address client however verification fails server must refuse accept message basis systems however configured invalid pipelining – several smtp commands allowed placed one network packet pipelined example email sent cc header several smtp rcpt commands might placed single packet instead one packet per rcpt command smtp protocol however requires errors checked everything synchronized certain points many spammers send everything single packet since care errors efficient mtas detect invalid pipelining reject email sent way nolisting – email servers given domain specified prioritized list via mx records nolisting technique simply adding mx record pointing non-existent server primary i.e lowest preference value – means initial mail contact always fail many spam sources retry failure spammer move next victim legitimate email servers retry next higher numbered mx normal email delivered brief delay quit detection – smtp connection always closed quit command many spammers skip step spam already sent taking time properly close connection takes time bandwidth mtas capable detecting whether connection closed correctly use measure trustworthy system another approach simply imitation mta gives appearance open mail relay imitation tcp/ip proxy server gives appearance open proxy spammers probe systems open relays/proxies find host attempt send mail wasting time resources potentially revealing information origin spam sending entity operates honeypot system may simply discard spam attempts submit dnsbls store analysis spamassassin policyd-weight others use various tests spam assigns numerical score test message scanned patterns applicable scores tallied total fixed value message rejected flagged spam ensuring single spam test flag message spam false positive rate greatly reduced outbound spam protection involves scanning email traffic exits network identifying spam messages taking action blocking message shutting source traffic primary impact spam spam recipients sending networks also experience financial costs wasted bandwidth risk ip addresses blocked receiving networks outbound spam protection stops spam also lets system administrators track spam sources network remediate – example clearing malware machines become infected virus participating botnet ptr dns records reverse dns used number things including content filtering techniques rely specification lists words regular expressions disallowed mail messages thus site receives spam advertising herbal viagra administrator might place phrase filter configuration mail server would reject message containing phrase header filtering looks header email contains information origin destination content message although spammers often spoof fields header order hide identity try make email look legitimate many spoofing methods detected violation rfc 5322 standard header formed also serve basis rejecting message since large percentage spam forged invalid sender addresses spam detected checking address valid mail server try verify sender address making smtp connection back mail exchanger address creating bounce stopping email sent callback verification various drawbacks 1 since nearly spam forged return addresses nearly callbacks innocent third party mail servers unrelated spam 2 spammer uses trap address sender address receiving mta tries make callback using trap address mail command receiving mta ip address blacklisted 3 finally standard vrfy expn commands used verify address exploited spammers mail administrators enable leaving receiving smtp server effective way validate sender email address smtp proxies allow combating spam real time combining sender behavior controls providing legitimate users immediate feedback eliminating need quarantine spamtrapping seeding email address spammers find normal users email address used sender must spammer black listed example email address spamtrap example.org placed source html web site way n't displayed web page human visitors website would see spammers hand use web page scrapers bots harvest email addresses html source code would find address spammer later sends address spamtrap knows highly likely spammer take appropriate action statistical bayesian filtering set requires administrative maintenance per se instead users mark messages spam nonspam filtering software learns judgements thus matched end user needs long users consistently mark/tag emails respond quickly changes spam content statistical filters typically also look message headers considering content also peculiarities transport mechanism email software programs implement statistical filtering include bogofilter dspam spambayes assp crm114 email programs mozilla mozilla thunderbird mailwasher later revisions spamassassin tarpit server software intentionally responds extremely slowly client commands running tarpit treats acceptable mail normally known spam slowly appears open mail relay site slow rate spammers inject messages mail facility depending server internet speed tarpit slow attack factor around 500 many systems simply disconnect server n't respond quickly eliminate spam however legitimate email systems also deal correctly delays fundamental idea slow attack perpetrator waste time without significant success organization successfully deploy tarpit able define range addresses protocols ports deception process involves router passing supported traffic appropriate server sent contacts sent tarpit examples tarpits include labrea tarpit honeyd smtp tarpits ip-level tarpits variety techniques email senders use try make sure send spam failure control amount spam sent judged email receivers often cause even legitimate email blocked sender put dnsbls since spammer accounts frequently disabled due violations abuse policies constantly trying create new accounts due damage done isp reputation source spam many isps web email providers use captchas new accounts verify real human registering account automated spamming system also verify credit cards stolen accepting new customers check spamhaus project rokso list background checks malicious person easily attempt subscribe another user mailing list — harass make company organisation appear spamming prevent modern mailing list management programs gnu mailman listserv majordomo qmail ezmlm support confirmed opt-in default whenever email address presented subscription list software send confirmation message address confirmation message contains advertising content construed spam address added live mail list unless recipient responds confirmation message email senders typically type anti-spam checks email coming users customers inward email coming rest internet protects reputation could otherwise harmed case infection spam-sending malware receiving server initially fully accepts email later determines message spam non-existent recipient generate bounce message back supposed sender however often case spam sender information incoming email forged unrelated third party bounce message backscatter spam reason generally preferable rejection incoming email happen smtp connection stage 5xx error code sending server still connected case sending server report problem real sender cleanly firewalls routers programmed allow smtp traffic tcp port 25 machines network supposed run mail transfer agents send email practice somewhat controversial isps block home users especially isps allow blocking turned upon request email still sent computers designated smart hosts via port 25 smart hosts via email submission port 587 network address translation used intercept port 25 smtp traffic direct mail server enforces rate limiting egress spam filtering commonly done hotels cause email privacy problems well making impossible use starttls smtp-auth port 587 submission port n't used machines suddenly start sending lots email may well become zombie computers limiting rate email sent around typical computer question legitimate email still sent large spam runs slowed manual investigation done monitoring spam reports places spamcop aol feedback loop network abuse clearinghouse domain abuse mailbox etc. isps often learn problems seriously damage isp reputation mail servers blacklisted malicious software human spam senders often use forged addresses sending spam messages control may enforced smtp servers ensure senders use correct email address field outgoing messages email users database user record email address smtp server must check email address field outgoing message address belongs user credentials supplied smtp authentication field forged smtp error returned email client e.g email address trying send isps webmail providers either acceptable use policy aup terms service tos agreement discourages spammers using system allows spammer terminated quickly violations 2000 onwards many countries enacted specific legislation criminalize spamming appropriate legislation enforcement significant impact spamming activity legislation provides specific text bulk emailers must include also makes legitimate bulk email easier identify increasingly anti-spam efforts led co-ordination law enforcement researchers major consumer financial service companies internet service providers monitoring tracking email spam identity theft phishing activities gathering evidence criminal cases analysis sites spamvertised given piece spam often followed domain registrars good results several approaches proposed improve email system since spamming facilitated fact large volumes email inexpensive send one proposed set solutions would require senders pay cost order send email making prohibitively expensive spammers anti-spam activist daniel balsam attempts make spamming less profitable bringing lawsuits spammers artificial intelligence techniques deployed filtering spam emails artificial neural networks algorithms bayesian filters methods use probabilistic methods train networks examination concentration frequency words seen spam versus legitimate email contents channel email new proposal sending email attempts distribute anti-spam activities forcing verification probably using bounce messages back-scatter occur first email sent new contacts spam subject several research conferences including 1-hop neighbor's text information: greylisting.greylisting greylisting method defending e-mail users spam mail transfer agent mta using greylisting temporarily reject email sender recognize mail legitimate originating server try delay sufficient time elapsed email accepted server employing greylisting temporarily rejects email unknown suspicious sources sending 4xx reply codes please call back later defined simple mail transfer protocol smtp fully capable smtp implementations expected maintain queues retrying message transmissions cases legitimate mail may delayed still get temporary rejection issued different stages smtp dialogue allowing implementation store less data incoming message trade-off work bandwidth exact matching retries original messages rejecting message content received allows server store choice headers and/or hash message body addition whitelisting good senders greylister provide exceptions greylisting generally overridden fully validated tls connection matching certificate large senders often pool machines send resend email ip addresses most-significant 24 bits /24 treated equivalent cases spf records used determine sending pool similarly e-mail systems use unique per-message return-paths example variable envelope return path verp mailing lists sender rewriting scheme forwarded e-mail bounce address tag validation backscatter protection etc exact match sender address required every e-mail systems delayed greylisting systems try avoid delay eliminating variable parts verp using sender domain beginning local-part sender address greylisting effective mass email tools used spammers queue reattempt mail delivery normal regular mail transport agent delaying delivery also gives real-time blackhole lists similar lists time identify flag spam source thus subsequent attempts likely detected spam mechanisms greylisting delay main advantage user point view greylisting requires additional user configuration server utilizing greylisting configured appropriately end user notice delay first message given sender long sending email server identified belonging whitelisted group earlier messages mail sender repeatedly greylisted may worth contacting mail system administrator detailed headers delayed mail mail administrator point view benefit twofold greylisting takes minimal configuration get running occasional modifications local whitelists second benefit rejecting email temporary 451 error actual error code implementation dependent cheap system resources spam filtering tools intensive users cpu memory stopping spam hits filtering processes far fewer system resources used biggest disadvantage greylisting unrecognized servers destroys near-instantaneous nature email users come expect mail unrecognized servers typically delayed 15 minutes could delayed days poorly configured sending systems explaining users become accustomed immediate email delivery probably convince mail server uses greylisting behaving correctly particular problem websites require account created email address confirmed used – user greylisting mailserver attempts reset credentials website uses email confirmation password resets sending mta site poorly configured greylisting may delay initial email link extreme cases delivery delay imposed greylister exceed expiry time password reset token delivered email cases manual intervention may required whitelist website mailserver email containing reset token used expires mail server greylisted duration time initial delay re-transmission variable – something greylisting server control visibility smtp says retry interval least 30 minutes give-up time needs least 4–5 days actual values vary widely different mail server software modern greylisting applications postgrey unix-like operating systems automatically whitelist senders prove capable recovering temporary errors note irrespective reputed spamminess sender implementation also generally include ability manually whitelist mailservers one 2007 analysis greylisting considers totally undesirable due delay mail unreliable greylisting becomes widespread junkmailers adapt systems get around conclusion purpose greylisting reduce amount spam server spam-filtering software needs analyze resource-intensively save money servers reduce spam reaching users conclusion greylisting annoying much annoying spam current smtp specification rfc 5321 clearly states smtp client retains responsibility delivery message section 4.2.5 mail transmitted immediately must queued periodically retried sender section 4.5.4.1 mtas therefore queue retry messages small number typically handled whitelisting exception lists also legitimate mail might get delivered retry comes different ip address original attempt source email server farm goes kind relay service likely server original one make next attempt network fault tolerance ips belong completely unrelated address blocks thereby defying simple technique identifying significant part address since ip addresses different recipient server fail recognize series attempts related refuse turn continue message ages queue number servers large enough problem partially bypassed proactively identifying exceptions server farms likewise exception configured multihomed hosts hosts using dhcp extreme case sender could legitimately use different ipv6 address outbound smtp connection sender server subjected greylisting might also reattempt delivery another receiving mailserver receiving domain one mx record may cause problems hosts implement greylisting policy share database Target text information: nolisting.nolisting nolisting name given technique defend electronic mail domain names e-mail spam domain name internet series one mx records specifying mail servers responsible accepting email messages behalf domain preference nolisting simply adding mx record pointing non-existent server primary i.e lowest preference value means initial mail contact always fail many spam sources n't retry failure spammer move next victim legitimate email servers retry next higher numbered mx normal email delivered small delay simple example mx records demonstrate technique defeats spam programs connect highest priority lowest numbered mx follow standard error-handling retrying next priority mx alternate techniques suggest sandwiching valid mx records non-responsive ones variants also suggest configuring highest-numbered hosts always return 4xx errors i.e retry later simple example mx records demonstrate technique greylisting also relies fact spammers often use custom software persevere deliver message correct rfc-compliant way I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	10,184	none
[''] Target text information: gamebike.gamebike game bike interactive fitness bike requires user exercise order play video games user must pedal bike order character accelerate must turn handlebars steer game bike allows users control character game getting exercise game bike name interactive fitness device first invented patented edward h. ted parks m.d 2000 dr parks sold rights patent cateye co ltd japanese company expertise electronic bicycle accessories bike lights speedometers cateye initial embodiment parks design used traditional bicycle attached referred gb100 system front tire placed turn style platform used read direction sensors placed rear wheel mounted bicycle trainer measure speed cateye co ltd. first started production game bike gb100 form project handled group new jersey redesigned product single package incorporated stand-alone indoor exercise bike gb200 born immediate need commercial version soon covered introduction popular gb-300 game bike late 2008 cateye co ltd. stopped international distribution fitness line game bike production done source distributors inc. dallas texas source distributors produced bike made modifications unit improve controller serviceability game bike popular product within school ymca markets thousands bikes sold since start 2003 game bike owned hudson fitness llc game bike currently available hudson fitness llc continues supporting game bike service compatible titles include speed-based video game ps2/ps3/game cube/xbox I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	5,042	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: sophos.sophos sophos group plc british security software hardware company sophos develops products communication endpoint encryption network security email security mobile security unified threat management sophos primarily focused providing security software mid market pragmatic enterprise 100- 5,000-seat organizations whilst primary focus sophos also protects home users free antivirus software sophos home intended demonstrate product functionality listed london stock exchange constituent ftse 250 index sophos founded jan hruska peter lammer began producing first antivirus encryption products 1985 late 1980s 1990s sophos primarily developed sold range security technologies uk including encryption tools available users private business late 1990s sophos concentrated efforts development sale antivirus technology embarked program international expansion 2003 sophos acquired activestate north american software company developed anti-spam software time viruses spread primarily email spam allowed sophos produce combined anti-spam antivirus solution 2006 peter gyenes steve munford named chairman ceo sophos respectively jan hruska peter lammer remain members board directors 2010 majority interest sophos sold apax 2010 nick bray formerly group cfo micro focus international named cfo sophos 2011 utimaco safeware ag acquired sophos 2008-9 accused supplying data monitoring tracking software partners sold governments syria sophos issued statement apology confirmed suspended relationship partners question launched investigation 2012 kris hagerman formerly ceo corel corporation named ceo sophos joined company board former ceo steve munford became non-executive chairman board february 2014 sophos announced acquired cyberoam technologies provider network security products june 2015 sophos announced plans raise us100 million london stock exchange september 2003 february 2006 sophos served parent company activestate developer programming tools dynamic programming languages february 2006 activestate became independent company sold vancouver-based venture capitalist firm pender financial 2007 sophos acquired endforce company based ohio united states developed sold security policy compliance network access control nac software july 2008 sophos announced intention acquire utimaco safeware ag july 2009 sophos completed integration utimaco safeware ag may 2010 sophos reached definitive agreement sell majority interest company apax partners global private equity group may 2011 sophos announced entered agreement acquire astaro privately held provider network security solutions headquartered wilmington massachusetts united states karlsruhe germany 2012 sophos acquired remained virusbuster – hungarian antivirus firm – company closed april 2012 sophos acquired dialogs privately held provider mobile management solutions headquartered germany february 2014 sophos announced acquired cyberoam technologies leading global provider network security products october 2014 sophos acquired mojave networks leading cloud-based security startup december 14 2015 sophos acquired surfright small dutch company behind hitmanpro strengthen endpoint protection products november 2016 sophos acquired barricade pioneering start-up powerful behavior-based analytics engine built machine learning techniques strengthen synchronized security capabilities next-generation network endpoint protection february 2017 sophos acquired invincea software company provides malware threat detection prevention pre-breach forensic intelligence 1-hop neighbor's text information: avast.avast avast software s.r.o czech multinational cybersecurity software company headquartered prague czech republic researches develops computer security software machine learning artificial intelligence avast 435 million monthly active users largest market share among anti-malware application vendors worldwide january 2018 company approximately 1,700 employees across 25 offices worldwide avast founded pavel baudiš eduard kučera 1988 cooperative private company since 2010 ipo may 2018 july 2016 avast acquired competitor avg technologies 1.3 billion time avg third-ranked antivirus product dual-listed prague stock exchange london stock exchange constituent ftse 250 index avast founded eduard kučera pavel baudiš 1988 founders met research institute mathematical machines czechoslovakia studied math computer science communist party czechoslovakia would require join communist party study physics institute pavel baudiš discovered vienna virus floppy disk developed first program remove afterwards asked eduard kucera join cofounding avast cooperative cooperative originally called alwil software named avast cooperative changed joint partnership 1991 two years velvet revolution caused regime change czechoslovakia new regime severed ties soviet union reverted country economic system market economy 1995 avast employee ondřej vlček wrote first antivirus program windows 95 operating system 1990s security researchers virus bulletin security testing organization gave avast award every category tested increasing popularity software however late 1990s company struggling financially alwil rebuffed acquisition offers mcafee licensing avast antivirus engine 2001 alwil experiencing financial difficulties converted freemium model offering base avast software product cost result freemium model number users software grew one million 2004 20 million 2006 former symantec executive vince steckler appointed ceo avast 2009 2010 alwil changed name avast adopting name software raised 100 million venture capital investments following december avast filed initial public offering withdrew application following july citing changes market conditions 2012 avast fired outsourced tech support service iyogi discovered iyogi using misleading sales tactics persuade customers buy unnecessary services 2013 avast 200 million users 38 countries translated 43 languages time company 350 employees 2014 cvc capital bought interest avast undisclosed sum purchase valued avast 1 billion later year avast acquired mobile app developer inmite order build avast mobile apps additionally 2014 avast online support forum compromised exposing 400,000 names passwords email addresses 2015 avast largest share market antivirus software july 2016 avast reached agreement buy avg 1.3 billion avg large security company sold software desktops mobile devices july 2017 avast acquired uk-based piriform undisclosed sum piriform developer ccleaner shortly afterwards disclosed someone may created malicious version ccleaner backdoor hackers avast ipo london stock exchange may 2018 valued £2.4bn one uk ’ biggest technology listings ondrej vlcek assumed role ceo co-owner avast plc july 2019 day later changed annual pay 1 pledged board director compensation 100,000 charity avast develops markets business consumer security products servers desktops mobile devices company sells avast product line acquired avg-branded products late 2017 company merged avg avast business product lines working integrate corporate departments companies additionally avast developed utility software products improve battery life mobile devices cleanup unnecessary files hard drive find secure wireless networks create vpn connection internet avast avg consumer security software sold freemium model basic security features free advanced features require purchasing premium version free version also supported ads additionally avast users provide data pc mobile device avast used identify new security threats antivirus scanning browser cleanup secure browser password management network security features provided free firewall anti-spam online banking features purchased according pc pro software nag users upgrading 3 avast users pay premium version 10 us avast business product family includes features endpoint protection wi-fi security antivirus identity protection password management data protection example desktop product look vulnerabilities wi-fi network run applications suspect malicious hardware isolated sandbox avast business managed workplace monitors manages desktops assesses on-site security protocols company also sells management software administrators deploy manage avast installations pc magazine gave avast free antivirus software overall score 8.8 10 gave avg score 8.4 review said avast gets good lab test results overall many features password manager bit limited tests av-test institute avast 2017 received six six points protection usability 3.5 points performance review tom guide said free avast antivirus product good malware protection small footprint system review said avast competitive set features free antivirus product scans slow pushes users install google chrome browser avast antivirus product business users received 4 5 techradar 2017 review said software good features protection configuration excellent interface took much hard drive space n't cover mobile devices according tom guide mobile version inexpensive feature-laden features unreliable work expected pc magazine said mobile version every security feature could want difficult use avg purchased avast 2016 also generally performed well lab tests av-test institute gave avg six six points usability 5.5 points protection 5.5 points performance however avg scored 81.05 virus bulletin lab tests slightly average software good detecting malware disappointing antiphishing screening review tom hardware gave avg software seven ten stars review highlighted software small system footprint good malware protection quick scan option lacks many additional features Target text information: fdm_group.fdm group fdm group international professional services company headquartered london united kingdom offices leeds glasgow brighton new york city toronto reston frankfurt hong kong singapore australia china composed mostly university graduates returners work ex-military personnel 'trained fdm group academies working consultants one fdm group ’ clients primarily financial institutions banks around world listed london stock exchange constituent ftse 250 index company founded brighton rod flavell julian jacqueline divett 1991 company focused recruitment acquiring mountfield software 1995 1998 name changed fdm group reflect acquisition company began hiring training placing consultants on-site clients april 2005 fdm group floated alternative investment market raising £3m net company 2010 company completed management buyout bring company private june 2014 fdm flotation time valued £308m london stock exchange fdm group remains publicly traded london stock exchange today 2015 company opened new offices city centres leeds glasgow fdm group ’ model involves recruiting recent university graduates returners work ex-forces turn consultants clients individuals go 6–14 weeks paid training one fdm group ’ academy facilities signing two-year contract company work consultant consultants employees work site clients include mostly banking finance industry fdm group women initiative focused hiring inspiring women pursue jobs stem fields part efforts sponsored 2013 2014 2015 2016 everywoman technology awards london fdm group also ex-forces initiative began new york academy veterans initiative partnered british forces resettlement services signed ministry defence armed forces corporate covenant well us army memorandum agreement army pays programme new york fdm group sponsored wall street rocks charity concert marched veterans day parade support cause helping veterans find jobs fdm group two academies located united states one academy new york opened 2011 located 14 wall street new york new york 10005 2016 fdm group opened training center virginia located 1805 library street reston va 20190 february 2016 class action lawsuit filed united states district court southern new york grace park fdm group holdings plc fdm group inc. alleging state wage violations us fair labor standards act flsa march 2017 united states district court southern new york found favor fdm group motion dismissal finding fdm group correctly classified academy trainees non-employees therefore entitled compensation court also found termination fee stipulated training agreement signed park 30,000 constitute kickback park failed provide sufficient details regarding unpaid work april 2017 park filed appeal 2nd circuit court appeals park v. fdm group inc. case number 17-1030 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	10,384	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: eicaslab.eicaslab eicaslab software suite providing laboratory automatic control design time-series forecasting developed final output european acoduasis project ips-2001-42068 funded european community within innovation programme project lifetime aimed delivering robotic field scientific breakthrough new methodology automatic control design facilitate knowledge transfer eicaslab equipped “ automated algorithm code generation ” software engine allows obtain control algorithm algorithm even without deep knowledge theory methodology otherwise normally required traditional control design methodologies eicaslab actually adopted european research projects dealing robotics arflex ist-nmp2-016880 pisa project nmp2-ct-2006-026697 automotive hi-ceps project tip5-ct-2006-031373 ersec project fp7 247955 eicaslab used european industries research institutes academia design control systems time series forecasting documented scientific technical literature eicaslab includes tools modelling plants designing testing embedded control systems assisting phases design process control strategy system concept generation control software code final target eicaslab software suite composed main program called master able assist manage control design steps means set tools respectively eicaslab includes following features support system concept hardware architectures including multi-processors software architectures including multi-level hierarchical control considered control software subdivided functions allocated designer different processors control function sampling frequency time window execution scheduled designer means eicaslab scheduler data exchanged among control functions allocated processor among different processors belonging plant control system delay time data transmission considered final “ application software ” generated c subdivided files one related specific processor eicaslab includes specific working areas developing optimizing testing algorithms software related “ plant controller ” including “ automatic control ” “ trajectory generation ” disturbances acting plant perform task three different working areas available follows eicaslab includes following tools features support control algorithm design automatic algorithm generation tool starting “ plant simplified model ” control required performance generates control algorithm basis plant design data applied control design methodology allows design controllers guaranteed performance without requiring tuning field spite unavoidable uncertainty always exists mathematical model built basis plant design data plant actual performance fundamentals control presence uncertainty see designer choose among three control basic schemes one option selecting control algorithms different level complexity synthesis automatically generated control performed resultant three actions plant state observer task may extended estimate predict disturbance acting plant plant disturbance prediction compensation original control feature allows significant reduction control error model parameter identification tool allows identification appropriate values simplified model parameters recorded experimental data simulated trials performed using “ plant fine model ” parameter true value exist model approximated description plant parameter best value depends cost function adopted evaluate difference model plant identification method estimates best values simplified model parameters point view closed loop control design control parameter optimization tool performs control parameter tuning simulated environment optimization performed numerically predefined simulated trial given mission host command sequence disturbance acting plant potential event related plant performance given functional cost associated plant control performance eicaslab automatic code generation tool provides ansi c source code related control algorithm developed final result designer work “ application software ” ansi c debugged tested ready compiled linked plant control processors “ application software ” includes software related “ automatic control ” “ trajectory generation ” functions simulated control functions strictly one designer transfer field actual plant controller eicaslab includes following tools support control tuning slow motion view tool used phase setting plant control providing variable variable analysis control software performance experimental trials performed means actual plant plant input output host commands sent controller recorded experimental trials processed eicaslab follows recorded plant input output variables used plant area inside input output variables obtained plant simulation recorded host commands used control mission area inside host command generated control mission function simulated trial performed control function receives recorded outputs actual plant related recorded host commands inside simulated ones control function running eicaslab strictly one running actual plant controller commands resulting simulated control function sent simulated control simulated plant strictly recorded plant inputs unless numerical errors depending differences processor eicaslab running one used actual plant controller experience shown effects differences negligible recorded experimental trial performed actual plant controller completely repeated eicaslab difference process performed slow-motion useful step step using debugger program automatic code generation tool used insert controller code linux real-time operating system rtos two available versions namely linux rtai linux rt kernel preemption order test control algorithm pc environment instead final target hardware performing rapid control prototyping rcp tests eicaslab rcp includes real-time scheduler based multithreading programming techniques able run multi-core processor automatic code generation tool used insert controller code final hardware target performed operation hardware loop hil tests may performed consisting piloting – instead actual plant plant simulated eicaslab running pc suitable configured connected necessary hardware interfaces final hardware target 1-hop neighbor's text information: monolithic_kernel.monolithic kernel monolithic kernel operating system architecture entire operating system working kernel space monolithic model differs operating system architectures microkernel architecture alone defines high-level virtual interface computer hardware set primitives system calls implement operating system services process management concurrency memory management device drivers added kernel modules modular operating systems os-9 modern monolithic operating systems openvms linux bsd sunos aix multics dynamically load unload executable modules runtime modularity operating system binary image level architecture level modular monolithic operating systems confused architectural level modularity inherent server-client operating systems derivatives sometimes marketed hybrid kernel use microkernels servers mistaken modules daemons practically speaking dynamically loading modules simply flexible way handling operating system image runtime—as opposed rebooting different operating system image modules allow easy extension operating systems capabilities required dynamically loadable modules incur small overhead compared building module operating system image however cases loading modules dynamically as-needed helps keep amount code running kernel space minimum example minimize operating system footprint embedded devices limited hardware resources namely unloaded module need stored scarce random access memory Target text information: kernel_preemption.kernel preemption kernel preemption method used mainly monolithic hybrid kernels device drivers run kernel space whereby scheduler permitted forcibly perform context switch i.e preemptively schedule behalf runnable higher priority process driver part kernel execution rather co-operatively waiting driver kernel function system call complete execution return control processor scheduler two main benefits method monolithic hybrid kernels answer one main criticisms monolithic kernels microkernel advocates I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	7,814	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: s_(programming_language).programming language statistical programming language developed primarily john chambers earlier versions rick becker allan wilks bell laboratories aim language expressed john chambers turn ideas software quickly faithfully modern implementation r part gnu free software project s-plus commercial product formerly sold tibco software one several statistical computing languages designed bell laboratories first took form 1975–1976 time much statistical computing done directly calling fortran subroutines however designed offer alternate interactive approach early design decisions hold even today include interactive graphics devices printers character terminals time providing easily accessible documentation functions first working version built 1976 operated gcos operating system time unnamed suggestions included interactive scs iscs statistical computing system statistical analysis system already taken see sas system name used single quotation marks 1979 chosen common letter used statistical computing consistent programming languages designed institution time namely c programming language unix/32v ported new 32-bit dec vax computing unix platform became feasible s. late 1979 ported gcos unix would become new primary platform 1980 first version distributed outside bell laboratories 1981 source versions made available 1984 two books published research team bell laboratories interactive environment data analysis graphics 1984 brown book extending system also 1984 source code became licensed software sales education commercial purposes 1988 many changes made syntax language new language 1988 blue book published introduce new features transition macros functions functions passed functions codice_1 many changes language extend concept objects make syntax consistent strict however many users found transition new difficult since macros needed rewritten many changes took hold use x11 postscript graphics devices rewriting many internal functions fortran c use double precision arithmetic new language similar used modern versions s-plus r. 1991 statistical models 1991 white book published introduced use formula-notation use '~ operator data frame objects modifications use object methods classes latest version standard s4 released 1998 provides advanced object-oriented features s4 classes differ markedly s3 classes 1-hop neighbor's text information: compiled_language.compiled language compiled language programming language whose implementations typically compilers translators generate machine code source code interpreters step-by-step executors source code pre-runtime translation takes place term somewhat vague principle language implemented compiler interpreter combination solutions also common compiler translate source code intermediate form often called p-code bytecode passed interpreter executes programs compiled native code compile time tend faster translated run time due overhead translation process newer technologies just-in-time compilation general improvements translation process starting narrow gap though mixed solutions using bytecode tend toward intermediate efficiency low-level programming languages typically compiled especially efficiency main concern rather cross-platform support languages one-to-one correspondences programmed code hardware operations performed machine code making easier programmers control use central processing unit cpu memory fine detail effort always possible write compilers even traditionally interpreted languages example common lisp compiled java bytecode interpreted java virtual machine c code compiled native machine code directly native code programming languages support multiple compiling targets give control developers choose either execution speed cross-platform compatibility languages commonly considered compiled 1-hop neighbor's text information: interactive_ruby_shell.interactive ruby shell interactive ruby shell irb irb repl programming object-oriented scripting language ruby abbreviation irb comes fact filename extension ruby .rb although interactive ruby files extension .irb program launched command line allows execution ruby commands immediate response experimenting real-time features command history line editing capabilities job control able communicate directly shell script internet interact live server developed keiju ishitsuka syntax example Target text information: programming_language_implementation.programming language implementation programming language implementation system executing computer programs two general approaches programming language implementation notice compiler directly execute program ultimately order execute program via compilation must translated form serve input interpreter directly hardware piece computer hardware interpret programming language directly language called machine code so-called native code compiler one compiles program machine code actual compilation often separated multiple passes like code generation often assembler language translator generating native code linking loading execution compiler given high level language produces another high level language called translator source source translation often useful add extensions existing languages exploit good portable implementation language example c simplifying development many combinations interpretation compilation possible many modern programming language implementations include elements example smalltalk programming language conventionally implemented compilation bytecode either interpreted compiled virtual machine popular ways use jit aot compiler compilation implementation strategy copied many languages since smalltalk pioneered every programming language requires abstract machines bridge gap high level language low level real machine I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	11,625	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: f-secure.f-secure f-secure corporation formerly data fellows finnish cyber security privacy company based helsinki finland company 20 country offices presence 100 countries security lab operations helsinki finland kuala lumpur malaysia company develops sells antivirus password management endpoint security cyber security products services radar managed services vulnerability scanning rapid detection service flagship products company continues expand corporate market f-secure first established name data fellows petri allas risto siilasmaa 1988 data fellows trained computer users built customized databases three years later company launched first major software project developed first heuristic scanner antivirus products f-secure ’ first antivirus product windows pcs launched 1994 data fellows became f-secure 1999 f-secure first company developed anti-rootkit technology called blacklight 2005 june 2015 f-secure expanded enterprise market acquiring nsense danish company specializes security consultation vulnerability assessment purchase inverse path privately owned security italian consultancy experience avionics automative industrial control sectors february 2017 continues expansion cyber security services f-secure client security received av-test best protection award fifth time 2016 june 2018 f-secure acquired security company mwr infosecurity co-operation aalto university school science technology f-secure runs one semester course future virus analysts material available on-line media coverage magic lantern claims av vendors purposely leave backdoor products f-secure announced policy detecting spying programs f-secure corporation would like make known leave backdoors f-secure anti-virus products regardless source tools draw line every sample get regarding whether detect decision-making influenced technical factors nothing else within applicable laws regulations case meaning eu laws also adding detection program see might used terrorist activity benefit organized crime would like state record received queries regarding whether would guts detect something obviously made known violent mafia terrorist organization yes would 1-hop neighbor's text information: comodo_internet_security.comodo internet security comodo internet security cis developed distributed comodo group freemium internet security suite includes antivirus program personal firewall sandbox host-based intrusion prevention system hips cis 5.0 cloud antivirus protection spyware scanning capabilities added could clean malware found effectively comodo cleaning essentials developed supplement cis host-based intrusion prevention system comodo host-based intrusion prevention system hips named defense+ designed provide protection unknown malware designed restrict actions unknown applications restrict access important files folders settings windows registry defense+ default refuses unknown program install execute except specifically allowed user file appears comodo whitelist cis 4.0 sandbox added defense+ isolate run unknown applications cis v6 released february 2013 provided major revision user interface significant new features fully sandboxed desktop environment 6 march 2014 comodo announced completion beta testing cis v7 release 7 became official april 2014 release includes new virus monitoring tool called virusscope web filtering features provide control user access web content release 8 became official 3 november 2014 includes enhanced auto-sandboxing features release 10 became official 22 december 2016 includes secure shopping prevention malware intercepting online transactions release 11 became official 26 june 2018 includes many stability performance changes comodo endpoint security manager cesm server product centrally managing security settings security components network endpoint computers cesm manages distribution updates antivirus firewall software antivirus firewall software managed cesm versions software used consumer versions comodo internet security pc magazine lead security analyst neil j. rubenking reviewed comodo firewall pro 3.0 comodo internet security 3.5 3 november 2008 giving 4.5 5 first 2.5 second praised suite firewall capabilities criticized antimalware capabilities 28 may 2009 roboert vamosi pc world reviewed comodo internet security 3.8 gave score 1 5 criticizing disappointing malware detection based av-test result limited feature set three years three version later comodo antivirus results became significantly better 30 january 2012 rubenking reviewed comodo internet security 2012 pro v5.0 giving 4 stars 5 praised support service antimalware features panned effectively default firewall defense+ popups lack parental control antispam antiphishing privacy protection features finally low ratings independent labs 9 january 2013 review techworld awarded comodo internet security pro 2013 4 5 stars concluded cloud-based scanning behaviour analysis joins suite top-notch security tools designed keep pc secure recommended also date mike williams betanews.com reviewed comodo internet security pro 2013 concluded program remains complex total pc beginners suspect average user appreciate largely automatic operation though experts enjoy powerful tools extreme configurability 7 february 2013 comodo internet security complete v6 earned pc magazine editor choice award reviewing software neil j. reubenking gave score 4.5 5 stars commended support service vpn solution comodo secure dns service value price criticized behavior blocker poor anti-phishing capabilities reubenking concluded biggest win comodo internet security complete 2013 n't features support geekbuddy service fixes problem security otherwise using remote assistance virus-free guarantee reimburses damage malware gets past comodo also get reimbursed expenses related identity theft add geekbuddy-powered tuneup tool unusually powerful backup utility 've got winner av-test anti-virus test lab based germany tested comodo products surpass industry standard measured mean score participating products awarded certificate comodo internet security participated tests since 2010 first time february 2013 comodo internet security premium version 6.0 obtained av-test certificate field home products 18 january 2013 matousec independent tester security software analyzed 38 security products proactive defense capabilities ranked comodo internet security 2013 premium v6 number one comodo internet security 2013 tested windows 7 sp1 internet explorer 9 passed 101 110 tests 92 also ranked number 1 2012 1-hop neighbor's text information: intego.intego intego mac security software company company founded 1997 company creates internet security software exclusively mac os x macos including antivirus firewall anti-spam backup software data protection software intego currently offices u.s. seattle washington austin texas also offices paris france nagano japan intego products universal binaries supported several languages english french japanese german spanish italian founded former ceo laurent marteau based paris france intego released first antivirus product 1997 rival antivirus mac os 8 two years later july 1999 intego released netbarrier first personal security software suite mac os 8 october 2000 intego released legacy antivirus software virusbarrier 1.0 mac os 8 mac os 9 intego launched mac security blog mid-2007 blog covers mac security news apple security updates mac malware alerts well news opinion pieces related apple products company launched podcast october 2017 called intego mac podcast intego released current x9 version antivirus security software june 2016 Target text information: nano_antivirus.nano antivirus nano antivirus russian antivirus software developed nano security ltd software free paid nano antivirus pro versions nano security russian company founded 2009 team developed implemented antivirus software since 2003 nano security ltd integrated security maintenance microsoft software intended use homes small businesses 2017 nano antivirus pro included russian software registry ministry telecom mass communications russian federation nano antivirus failed pass vb100 certification first attempt since earned five consecutive vb100 awards award streak interrupted failed certification nano antivirus earned two vb100 including last certification vb100 team commended product quality nano antivirus integrated following online scanners virustotal opswat metadefender virscan.org engine supplier certified partner technologies nano security patented europe usa russia china countries I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	8,024	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: web_service.web service term web service ws either web service web technology http — originally designed human-to-machine communication — used transferring machine-readable file formats xml json practice web service commonly provides object-oriented web-based interface database server utilized example another web server mobile app provides user interface end user many organizations provide data formatted html pages also provide data server xml json often web service allow syndication example wikipedia another application offered end user may mashup web server consumes several web services different machines compiles content one user interface asynchronous javascript xml ajax dominant technology web services developing combination http servers javascript clients plain old xml distinct soap w3c web services frequently used json well instead xml representational state transfer rest architecture well-behaved web services function internet scale 2004 document w3c sets following rest key distinguishing feature web services number web services use markup languages web api development web services emphasis moving simpler representational state transfer rest based communications restful apis require xml-based web service protocols soap wsdl support interfaces relation w3c web services w3c defined web service w3c web services may use soap http protocol allowing less costly efficient interactions internet via proprietary solutions like edi/b2b besides soap http web services also implemented reliable transport mechanisms like ftp 2002 document web services architecture working group defined web services architecture requiring standardized implementation web service term web service describes standardized way integrating web-based applications using xml soap wsdl uddi open standards internet protocol backbone xml data format used contain data provide metadata around soap used transfer data wsdl used describing services available uddi lists services available web service method communication two electronic devices network software function provided network address web service always concept utility computing many organizations use multiple software systems management different software systems often need exchange data web service method communication allows two software systems exchange data internet software system requests data called service requester whereas software system would process request provide data called service provider different software may use different programming languages hence need method data exchange n't depend upon particular programming language types software however interpret xml tags thus web services use xml files data exchange rules communication different systems need defined rules communication defined file called wsdl web services description language codice_1 extension proposals autonomous web services aws seek develop flexible web services rely strict rules directory called uddi universal description discovery integration defines software system contacted type data one software system needs one particular report/data would go uddi find systems contact receiving data software system finds systems contact would contact system using special protocol called soap simple object access protocol service provider system would first validate data request referring wsdl file process request send data soap protocol automated tools aid creation web service services using wsdl possible either automatically generate wsdl existing classes bottom-up model generate class skeleton given existing wsdl top-down model critics non-restful web services often complain complex based upon large software vendors integrators rather typical open source implementations also concerns performance due web services use xml message format soap/http enveloping transporting functional non-functional testing web services done help wsdl parsing regression testing performed identifying changes made upgrade software web service regression testing needs categorized three different ways namely changes wsdl changes code selective re-testing operations capture three needs three intermediate forms subset wsdl namely difference wsdl dwsdl unit wsdl uwsdl reduced wsdl rwsdl respectively three subset wsdls combined form combined wsdl cwsdl used regression testing web service help automated web service change management awscm performing selection relevant test cases construct reduced test suite old test suite web services testing also automated using several test automation tools like soap ui oracle application testing suite oats unified functional testing selenium etc work related capture visualization changes made web service visualization computation changes done form intermediate artifacts subset wsdl insight computation change impact helpful testing top-down development reduce regression testing awscm tool identify subset operations wsdl file construct subset wsdl 1-hop neighbor's text information: simple_mail_transfer_protocol.simple mail transfer protocol simple mail transfer protocol smtp communication protocol electronic mail transmission internet standard smtp first defined 1982 updated 2008 extended smtp additions protocol variety widespread use today mail servers message transfer agents use smtp send receive mail messages proprietary systems microsoft exchange ibm notes webmail systems outlook.com gmail yahoo mail may use non-standard protocols internally use smtp sending receiving email outside systems smtp servers commonly use transmission control protocol port number 25 user-level email clients typically use smtp sending messages mail server relaying typically submit outgoing email mail server port 587 465 per rfc 8314 retrieving messages imap pop3 standard proprietary servers also often implement proprietary protocols e.g. exchange activesync various forms one-to-one electronic messaging used 1960s users communicated using systems developed specific mainframe computers computers interconnected especially u.s. government arpanet standards developed permit exchange messages different operating systems smtp grew standards developed 1970s smtp traces roots two implementations described 1971 mail box protocol whose implementation disputed discussed rfcs sndmsg program according ray tomlinson bbn invented tenex computers send mail messages across arpanet fewer 50 hosts connected arpanet time implementations include ftp mail mail protocol 1973 development work continued throughout 1970s arpanet transitioned modern internet around 1980 jon postel proposed mail transfer protocol 1980 began remove mail reliance ftp smtp published november 1981 also postel smtp standard developed around time usenet one-to-many communication network similarities smtp became widely used early 1980s time complement unix unix copy program uucp mail better suited handling email transfers machines intermittently connected smtp hand works best sending receiving machines connected network time use store forward mechanism examples push technology though usenet newsgroups still propagated uucp servers uucp mail transport virtually disappeared along bang paths used message routing headers sendmail released 4.1cbsd right one first mail transfer agents implement smtp time bsd unix became popular operating system internet sendmail became common mta mail transfer agent popular smtp server programs include postfix qmail novell groupwise exim novell netmail microsoft exchange server oracle communications messaging server message submission smtp-auth introduced 1998 1999 describing new trends email delivery originally smtp servers typically internal organization receiving mail organization outside relaying messages organization outside time went smtp servers mail transfer agents practice expanding roles become message submission agents mail user agents relaying mail outside organization e.g company executive wishes send email trip using corporate smtp server issue consequence rapid expansion popularity world wide web meant smtp include specific rules methods relaying mail authenticating users prevent abuses relaying unsolicited email spam work message submission originally started popular mail servers would often rewrite mail attempt fix problems example adding domain name unqualified address behavior helpful message fixed initial submission dangerous harmful message originated elsewhere relayed cleanly separating mail submission relay seen way permit encourage rewriting submissions prohibiting rewriting relay spam became prevalent also seen way provide authorization mail sent organization well traceability separation relay submission quickly became foundation modern email security practices protocol started purely ascii text-based deal well binary files characters many non-english languages standards multipurpose internet mail extensions mime developed encode binary files transfer smtp mail transfer agents mtas developed sendmail also tended implemented 8-bit-clean alternate send eight strategy could used transmit arbitrary text data 8-bit ascii-like character encoding via smtp mojibake still problem due differing character set mappings vendors although email addresses still allowed ascii 8-bit-clean mtas today tend support 8bitmime extension permitting binary files transmitted almost easily plain text recently smtputf8 extension created support utf-8 text allowing international content addresses non-latin scripts like cyrillic chinese many people contributed core smtp specifications among jon postel eric allman dave crocker ned freed randall gellens john klensin keith moore email submitted mail client mail user agent mua mail server mail submission agent msa using smtp tcp port 587 mailbox providers still allow submission traditional port 25 msa delivers mail mail transfer agent mail transfer agent mta often two agents instances software launched different options machine local processing done either single machine split among multiple machines mail agent processes one machine share files processing multiple machines transfer messages using smtp machine configured use next machine smart host process mta smtp server right boundary mta uses domain name system dns look mail exchanger record mx record recipient domain part email address right mx record contains name target host based target host factors mta selects exchange server see article mx record mta connects exchange server smtp client message transfer occur single connection two mtas series hops intermediary systems receiving smtp server may ultimate destination intermediate relay stores forwards message gateway may forward message using protocol smtp hop formal handoff responsibility message whereby receiving server must either deliver message properly report failure final hop accepts incoming message hands mail delivery agent mda local delivery mda saves messages relevant mailbox format sending reception done using one multiple computers diagram mda depicted one box near mail exchanger box mda may deliver messages directly storage forward network using smtp protocol local mail transfer protocol lmtp derivative smtp designed purpose delivered local mail server mail stored batch retrieval authenticated mail clients muas mail retrieved end-user applications called email clients using internet message access protocol imap protocol facilitates access mail manages stored mail post office protocol pop typically uses traditional mbox mail file format proprietary system microsoft exchange/outlook lotus notes/domino webmail clients may use either method retrieval protocol often formal standard smtp defines message transport message content thus defines mail envelope parameters envelope sender header except trace information body message std 10 define smtp envelope std 11 define message header body formally referred internet message format smtp connection-oriented text-based protocol mail sender communicates mail receiver issuing command strings supplying necessary data reliable ordered data stream channel typically transmission control protocol tcp connection smtp session consists commands originated smtp client initiating agent sender transmitter corresponding responses smtp server listening agent receiver session opened session parameters exchanged session may include zero smtp transactions smtp transaction consists three command/reply sequences besides intermediate reply data server reply either positive 2xx reply codes negative negative replies permanent 5xx codes transient 4xx codes reject permanent failure client send bounce message server received drop positive response followed message discard rather delivery initiating host smtp client either end-user email client functionally identified mail user agent mua relay server mail transfer agent mta smtp server acting smtp client relevant session order relay mail fully capable smtp servers maintain queues messages retrying message transmissions resulted transient failures mua knows outgoing mail smtp server configuration relay server typically determines server connect looking mx mail exchange dns resource record recipient domain name mx record found conformant relaying server instead looks record relay servers also configured use smart host relay server initiates tcp connection server well-known port smtp port 25 connecting msa port 587 main difference mta msa connecting msa requires smtp authentication smtp delivery protocol normal use mail pushed destination mail server next-hop mail server arrives mail routed based destination server individual user addressed protocols post office protocol pop internet message access protocol imap specifically designed use individual users retrieving messages managing mail boxes permit intermittently-connected mail server pull messages remote server demand smtp feature initiate mail queue processing remote server see remote message queue starting pop imap unsuitable protocols relaying mail intermittently-connected machines designed operate final delivery information critical correct operation mail relay mail envelope removed remote message queue starting feature smtp permits remote host start processing mail queue server may receive messages destined sending turn command feature however deemed insecure extended etrn command operates securely using authentication method based domain name system information email client needs know ip address initial smtp server given part configuration usually given dns name server deliver outgoing messages behalf user server administrators need impose control clients use server enables deal abuse example spam two solutions common use system isp smtp server allow access users outside isp network precisely server may allow access users ip address provided isp equivalent requiring connected internet using isp mobile user may often network normal isp find sending email fails configured smtp server choice longer accessible system several variations example organisation smtp server may provide service users network enforcing firewalling block access users wider internet server may perform range checks client ip address methods typically used corporations institutions universities provided smtp server outbound mail use internally within organisation however bodies use client authentication methods described user mobile may use different isps connect internet kind usage restriction onerous altering configured outbound email smtp server address impractical highly desirable able use email client configuration information need change modern smtp servers typically require authentication clients credentials allowing access rather restricting access location described earlier flexible system friendly mobile users allows fixed choice configured outbound smtp server smtp authentication often abbreviated smtp auth extension smtp order log using authentication mechanism server accessible wider internet enforce kinds access restrictions known open relay generally considered bad practice worthy blacklisting communication mail servers generally uses standard tcp port 25 designated smtp mail clients however generally n't use instead using specific submission ports mail services generally accept email submission clients one port 2525 others may used individual providers never officially supported internet service providers block outgoing port 25 traffic customers anti-spam measure reason businesses typically configure firewall allow outgoing port 25 traffic designated mail servers typical example sending message via smtp two mailboxes alice theboss located mail domain example.com localhost.com reproduced following session exchange example conversation parts prefixed c server client respectively labels part exchange message sender smtp client establishes reliable communications channel message receiver smtp server session opened greeting server usually containing fully qualified domain name fqdn case smtp.example.com client initiates dialog responding codice_1 command identifying command parameter fqdn address literal none available client notifies receiver originating email address message codice_2 command also return bounce address case message delivered example email message sent two mailboxes smtp server one recipient listed cc header fields corresponding smtp command codice_3 successful reception execution command acknowledged server result code response message e.g. 250 ok transmission body mail message initiated codice_4 command transmitted verbatim line line terminated end-of-data sequence sequence consists new-line cr lf single full stop period followed another new-line since message body contain line period part text client sends two periods every time line starts period correspondingly server replaces every sequence two periods beginning line single one escaping method called dot-stuffing server positive reply end-of-data exemplified implies server taken responsibility delivering message message doubled communication failure time e.g due power shortage sender received 250 reply must assume message delivered hand receiver decided accept message must assume message delivered thus time span agents active copies message try deliver probability communication failure occurs exactly step directly proportional amount filtering server performs message body often anti-spam purposes limiting timeout specified 10 minutes codice_5 command ends session email recipients located elsewhere client would codice_5 connect appropriate smtp server subsequent recipients current destination queued information client sends codice_1 codice_2 commands added seen example code additional header fields message receiving server adds codice_9 codice_10 header field respectively clients implemented close connection message accepted codice_11 last two lines may actually omitted causes error server trying send codice_12 reply original smtp protocol supported unauthenticated unencrypted ascii text communications susceptible man middle attacks spoofing spamming requiring encode binary data transmission number optional extensions specify various mechanisms address problems clients learn server supported options using codice_13 greeting exemplified instead original codice_1 example clients fall back codice_1 server support smtp extensions modern clients may use esmtp extension keyword codice_16 query server maximum message size accepted older clients servers may try transfer excessively sized messages rejected consuming network resources including connect time network links paid minute users manually determine advance maximum size accepted esmtp servers client replaces codice_1 command codice_13 command thus smtp2.example.com declares accept fixed maximum message size larger 14,680,064 octets 8-bit bytes simplest case esmtp server declares maximum codice_16 immediately receiving codice_13 according however numeric parameter codice_16 extension codice_13 response optional clients may instead issuing codice_2 command include numeric estimate size message transferring server refuse receipt overly-large messages original smtp supports transport textual data therefore binary data needs encoded text transfer decoded leading increased size transit 8bitmime command developed alleviate limitation standardized 1994 obsoleted 2011 corresponding new std 71 facilitates transparent exchange e-mail messages containing octets outside seven-bit ascii character set prior availability 8bitmime implementations mail user agents employed several techniques cope seven-bit limitation binary-to-text encodings including ones provided mime utf-7 however workarounds inflates required amount data transmission non-ascii text non-esmtp servers allowed sending 8-bit characters risky send data server whose 8-bit capabilities unknown on-demand mail relay odmr smtp extension standardized allows intermittently-connected smtp server receive email queued connected original smtp supports email addresses composed ascii characters inconvenient users whose native script latin based use diacritic ascii character set limitation alleviated via extensions enabling utf-8 address names introduced experimental codice_24 command later superseded introduced codice_25 command extensions provide support multi-byte non-ascii characters email addresses diacritics language characters greek chinese current support limited strong interest broad adoption related rfcs countries like china large user base latin ascii foreign script mail delivery occur plain text encrypted connections however communicating parties might know advance party ability use secure channel smtp authentication often abbreviated smtp auth describes mechanism client log using authentication mechanism supported server mainly used submission servers authentication mandatory multiple rfcs exist provide different variations mechanism update smtp extensions describe starttls command enables server tell client supports encrypted communications client request upgrade secure channel starttls effective passive observation attacks since starttls negotiation happens plain text active attacker trivially remove starttls command attack sometimes called striptls client would think server send starttls header support starttls server would think client respond starttls header thus support starttls note starttls also defined imap pop3 rfcs protocols serve different purposes smtp used communication message transfer agents imap pop3 end clients message transfer agents electronic frontier foundation maintains starttls everywhere list similarly https everywhere list allows relying parties discover others supporting secure communication without prior communication newer 2018 called smtp mta strict transport security mta-sts aims addresses problem active adversary defining protocol mail servers declare ability use secure channels specific files server specific dns txt records relying party would regularly check existence record cache amount time specified record never communicate insecure channels record expires note mta-sts records apply smtp traffic mail servers communications end client mail server protected http strict transport security https april 2019 google mail announced support mta-sts number protocols allows secure delivery messages fail due misconfigurations deliberate active interference leading undelivered messages delivery unencrypted unauthenticated channels smtp tls reporting describes reporting mechanism format sharing statistics specific information potential failures recipient domains recipient domains use information detect potential attacks diagnose unintentional misconfigurations april 2019 google mail announced support smtp tls reporting original design smtp facility authenticate senders check servers authorized send behalf result email spoofing possible commonly used email spam phishing occasional proposals made modify smtp extensively replace completely one example internet mail 2000 neither made much headway face network effect huge installed base classic smtp instead mail servers use range techniques including domainkeys identified mail sender policy framework dmarc dnsbls greylisting reject quarantine suspicious emails Target text information: microsoft_biztalk_server.microsoft biztalk server microsoft biztalk server simply biztalk inter-organizational middleware system ioms biztalk server previously positioned application server microsoft changed strategy released appfabric server became official application server research firm gartner consider microsoft offering one 'leaders application integration suites discussion product direction biztalk especially cloud software becoming common microsoft continues support update product offer coverage popular conferences worldwide partner conference azure ipaas integration platform service equivalents biztalk api management logic apps service bus event grid 2013-11-21 2018-05-31 included azure biztalk services successor biztalk 2016 product roadmap slated completion approximately 9 months following general availability windows server 2019 common scenario biztalk enables companies integrate manage automated business processes exchanging business documents purchase orders invoices disparate applications within across organizational boundaries development biztalk server done microsoft visual studio developer create transformation maps transforming one message type another example xml file transformed sap idocs messages inside biztalk implemented xml documents defined xml schemas xsd standard maps implemented xslt standard orchestrations implemented ws-bpel compatible process language xlang schemas maps pipelines orchestrations created visually using graphical tools within microsoft visual studio additional functionality delivered .net assemblies called existing modules—including instance orchestrations maps pipelines business rules starting 2000 following versions released following incomplete list technical features biztalk server human-centric processes implemented directly biztalk server need additional applications like microsoft sharepoint server biztalk server runtime built publish/subscribe architecture sometimes called content-based publish/subscribe messages published biztalk transformed desired format routed one subscribers biztalk makes processing safe serialization called dehydration biztalk terminology placing messages database waiting external events thus preventing data loss architecture binds biztalk microsoft sql server processing flow tracked administrators using administration console biztalk supports transaction flow whole line one customer another biztalk orchestrations also implement long-running transactions biztalk uses adapters communications different protocols message formats specific software products adapters edi file http sftp ftp smtp pop3 soap sql msmq mllp azure logic app azure api management microsoft sharepoint server ibm mainframe zseries cics ims midrange iseries as/400 server ibm db2 ibm websphere mq adapters wcf adapter set added 2006 r2 includes wcf-wshttp wcf-basichttp wcf-nettcp wcf-netmsmq wcf-netnamedpipe wcf-custom wcf-customisolated adapters microsoft also ships biztalk adapter pack includes wcf-based adapters lob systems currently includes adapters sap oracle database oracle e-business suite microsoft sql server mysql peoplesoft enterprise siebel systems additional adapters active directory example available third party microsoft biztalk core partners I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	3,894	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: class_(computer_programming).class computer programming object-oriented programming class extensible program-code-template creating objects providing initial values state member variables implementations behavior member functions methods many languages class name used name class template name default constructor class subroutine creates objects type objects generated instantiating class distinct concepts easily conflated object created constructor class resulting object called instance class member variables specific object called instance variables contrast class variables shared across class languages classes compile-time feature new classes declared run-time languages classes first-class citizens generally objects typically type similar languages class creates classes called metaclass casual use people often refer class object narrowly speaking objects type interface namely types member variables signatures member functions methods properties satisfy time class implementation specifically implementation methods create objects given type given implementation terms type theory class implementationa concrete data structure collection subroutineswhile type interface different concrete classes produce objects abstract type depending type system example type might implemented two classes fast small stacks scales poorly scales well high overhead small stacks similarly given class may several different constructors types generally represent nouns person place thing something nominalized class represents implementation example type might represent properties functionality bananas general classes would represent ways producing bananas say banana suppliers data structures functions represent draw bananas video game class could produce particular bananas instances class would objects type often single implementation type given case class name often identical type name classes composed structural behavioral constituents programming languages include classes programming construct offer support various class-related features syntax required use features varies greatly one programming language another class contains data field descriptions properties fields data members attributes usually field types names associated state variables program run time state variables either belong class specific instances class languages structure defined class determines layout memory used instances implementations possible example objects python use associative key-value containers programming languages support specification invariants part definition class enforce type system encapsulation state necessary able enforce invariants class behavior class instances defined using methods methods subroutines ability operate objects classes operations may alter state object simply provide ways accessing many kinds methods exist support varies across languages types methods created called programmer code special methods—such constructors destructors conversion operators—are created called compiler-generated code language may also allow programmer define call special methods every class implements realizes interface providing structure behavior structure consists data state behavior consists code specifies methods implemented distinction definition interface implementation interface however line blurred many programming languages class declarations define implement interface languages however provide features separate interface implementation example abstract class define interface without providing implementation languages support class inheritance also allow classes inherit interfaces classes derived example class inherits class b class b implements interface interface b class also inherits functionality constants methods declaration provided interface b languages support access specifiers interface class considered set public members class including methods attributes via implicit getter setter methods private members internal data structures intended depended external code thus part interface object-oriented programming methodology dictates operations interface class independent results layered design clients interface use methods declared interface interface places requirements clients invoke operations one interface particular order approach benefit client code assume operations interface available use whenever client access object buttons front television set interface electrical wiring side plastic casing press power button toggle television example particular television instance method represented button buttons together comprise interface television sets model would interface common form interface specification group related methods without associated implementation methods television set also myriad attributes size whether supports colour together comprise structure class represents full description television including attributes structure buttons interface getting total number televisions manufactured could static method television class method clearly associated class yet outside domain individual instance class static method finds particular instance set television objects another example following common set access specifiers although many object-oriented languages support access specifiers semantics may differ object-oriented design uses access specifiers conjunction careful design public method implementations enforce class invariants—constraints state objects common usage access specifiers separate internal data class interface internal structure made private public accessor methods used inspect alter private data access specifiers necessarily control visibility even private members may visible client external code languages inaccessible visible member may referred run-time example pointer returned member function attempt use referring name member client code prevented type checker various object-oriented programming languages enforce member accessibility visibility various degrees depending language type system compilation policies enforced either compile-time run-time example java language allow client code accesses private data class compile languages feature accessibility schemes addition design standalone classes programming languages may support advanced class design based upon relationships classes inter-class relationship design capabilities commonly provided compositional hierarchical classes composed classes thereby establishing compositional relationship enclosing class embedded classes compositional relationship classes also commonly known has-a relationship example class car could composed contain class engine therefore car engine one aspect composition containment enclosure component instances instance enclosing object contains component instances value components enclosing object similar lifetime components contained reference may similar lifetime example objective-c 2.0 class instance string object array object classes derived one existing classes thereby establishing hierarchical relationship derived-from classes base classes parent classes derived class child class subclass relationship derived class derived-from classes commonly known is-a relationship example class 'button could derived class 'control therefore button control structural behavioral members parent classes inherited child class derived classes define additional structural members data fields behavioral members methods addition inherit therefore specializations superclasses also derived classes override inherited methods language allows languages support multiple inheritance example java allows class implement multiple interfaces inherit one class multiple inheritance allowed hierarchy directed acyclic graph dag short otherwise tree hierarchy classes nodes inheritance relationships links classes level likely associated classes different levels levels hierarchy called layers levels abstraction example simplified objective-c 2.0 code iphone sdk example uitableview uiscrollview uiview uiresponder nsobject conceptually superclass superset subclasses example common class hierarchy would involve superclass would subclass subset relations set theory well i.e. squares rectangles rectangles squares common conceptual error mistake part relation subclass example car truck kinds vehicles would appropriate model subclasses vehicle class however would error model component parts car subclass relations example car composed engine body would appropriate model engine body subclass car object-oriented modeling kinds relations typically modeled object properties example class would property called would typed hold collection objects instances etc object modeling languages uml include capabilities model various aspects part kinds relations – data cardinality objects constraints input output values etc information utilized developer tools generate additional code beside basic data definitions objects error checking get set methods one important question modeling implementing system object classes whether class one superclasses real world actual sets would rare find sets n't intersect one set however systems flavors clos provide capability one parent run time introduces complexity many object-oriented community consider antithetical goals using object classes first place understanding class responsible handling message get complex dealing one superclass used carelessly feature introduce system complexity ambiguity classes designed avoid modern object-oriented languages smalltalk java require single inheritance run time languages multiple inheritance may useful modeling implementation however semantic web application objects multiple superclasses volatility internet requires level flexibility technology standards web ontology language owl designed support similar issue whether class hierarchy modified run time languages flavors clos smalltalk support feature part meta-object protocols since classes first-class objects possible dynamically alter structure sending appropriate messages languages focus strong typing java c++ allow class hierarchy modified run time semantic web objects capability run time changes classes rational similar justification allowing multiple superclasses internet dynamic flexible dynamic changes hierarchy required manage volatility although class-based languages commonly assumed support inheritance inheritance intrinsic aspect concept classes languages often referred object-based languages support classes yet support inheritance examples object-based languages include earlier versions visual basic object-oriented analysis uml association two classes represents collaboration classes corresponding instances associations direction example bi-directional association two classes indicates classes aware relationship associations may labeled according name purpose association role given end association describes role corresponding class example subscriber role describes way instances class person participate subscribes-to association class magazine also magazine subscribed magazine role association association role multiplicity describes many instances correspond instance class association common multiplicities 0..1 1..1 1..* 0..* specifies number instances many categories classes overlap language supports inheritance abstract class abstract base class abc class instantiated either labeled abstract simply specifies abstract methods virtual methods abstract class may provide implementations methods may also specify virtual methods via signatures implemented direct indirect descendants abstract class class derived abstract class instantiated abstract methods parent classes must implemented class derivation chain object-oriented programming languages allow programmer specify classes considered abstract allow instantiated example java c php keyword abstract used c++ abstract class class least one abstract method given appropriate syntax language pure virtual function c++ parlance class consisting virtual methods called pure abstract base class pure abc c++ also known interface users language languages notably java c support variant abstract classes called interface via keyword language languages multiple inheritance allowed class implement multiple interfaces class contain abstract publicly accessible methods concrete class class instantiated opposed abstract classes languages classes declared scopes global scope various types classes inner class class defined within another class relationship inner class containing class also treated another type class association inner class typically neither associated instances enclosing class instantiated along enclosing class depending language may may possible refer class outside enclosing class related concept inner types also known inner data type nested type generalization concept inner classes c++ example language supports inner classes inner types via typedef declarations another type local class class defined within procedure function limits references class name within scope class declared depending semantic rules language may additional restrictions local classes compared non-local ones one common restriction disallow local class methods access local variables enclosing function example c++ local class may refer static variables declared within enclosing function may access function automatic variables metaclasses classes whose instances classes metaclass describes common structure collection classes implement design pattern describe particular kinds classes metaclasses often used describe frameworks languages python ruby smalltalk class also object thus class instance unique metaclass built language common lisp object system clos non-subclassable classes allow programmers design classes hierarchies classes level hierarchy derivation prohibited stand-alone class may also designated non-subclassable preventing formation hierarchy contrast abstract classes imply encourage require derivation order used non-subclassable class implicitly concrete non-subclassable class created declaring class c java php example java class designated final non-subclassable classes may allow compiler compiled languages perform optimizations available subclassable classes open class one changed typically executable program changed customers developers often change classes typically change standard built-in ones ruby classes open python classes created runtime modified afterwards objective-c categories permit programmer add methods existing class without need recompile class even access source code languages special support mixins though language multiple inheritance mixin simply class represent is-a-type-of relationship mixins typically used add methods multiple classes example class might provide method called included classes share common parent languages supporting feature partial class class whose definition may split multiple pieces within single source-code file across multiple files pieces merged compile-time making compiler output non-partial class primary motivation introduction partial classes facilitate implementation code generators visual designers otherwise challenge compromise develop code generators manage generated code interleaved within developer-written code using partial classes code generator process separate file coarse-grained partial class within file thus alleviated intricately interjecting generated code via extensive parsing increasing compiler efficiency eliminating potential risk corrupting developer code simple implementation partial classes compiler perform phase precompilation unifies parts partial class compilation proceed usual benefits effects partial class feature include partial classes existed smalltalk name class extensions considerable time arrival .net framework 2 microsoft introduced partial classes supported c 2.0 visual basic 2005 winrt also supports partial classes simple example written visual basic .net shows parts class defined two different files compiled result two files written one like objective-c partial classes also known categories may even spread multiple libraries executables like following example key difference objective-c categories overwrite definitions another interface declaration categories n't equal original class definition first requires last instead .net partial class ca n't conflicting definitions partial definitions equal others foundation header file nsdata.h user-supplied library separate binary foundation framework header file nsdata+base64.h app yet another separate binary file source code file main.m dispatcher find methods called nsdata instance invoke correctly uninstantiable classes allow programmers group together per-class fields methods accessible runtime without instance class indeed instantiation prohibited kind class example c class marked static instantiated static members fields methods may instance constructors sealed unnamed class anonymous class class bound name identifier upon definition analogous named versus unnamed functions benefits organizing software object classes fall three categories object classes facilitate rapid development lessen semantic gap code users system analysts talk developers users using essentially vocabulary talking accounts customers bills etc object classes often facilitate rapid development object-oriented environments come powerful debugging testing tools instances classes inspected run time verify system performing expected also rather get dumps core memory object-oriented environments interpreted debugging capabilities developer analyze exactly program error occurred see methods called arguments arguments object classes facilitate ease maintenance via encapsulation developers need change behavior object localize change object component parts reduces potential unwanted side effects maintenance enhancements software re-use also major benefit using object classes classes facilitate re-use via inheritance interfaces new behavior required often achieved creating new class class inherit default behaviors data superclass tailor aspect behavior data accordingly re-use via interfaces also known methods occurs another object wants invoke rather create new kind object class method re-use removes many common errors make way software one program re-uses code another data type class usually considered compile-time construct language may also support prototype factory metaobjects represent run-time information classes even represent metadata provides access reflection facilities ability manipulate data structure formats run-time many languages distinguish kind run-time type information classes class basis information needed run-time dynamic languages make strict distinctions run-time compile-time constructs therefore may distinguish metaobjects classes example human metaobject representing class person instances class person created using facilities human metaobject 1-hop neighbor's text information: comparison_of_programming_languages_(string_functions).comparison programming languages string functions string functions used computer programming languages manipulate string query information string programming languages string datatype string functions although may low-level ways within language handle strings directly object-oriented languages string functions often implemented properties methods string objects functional list-based languages string represented list character codes therefore list-manipulation procedures could considered string functions however languages may implement subset explicit string-specific functions well function manipulate strings modern object-oriented languages like c java immutable strings return copy newly allocated dynamic memory others like c manipulate original string unless programmer copies data new string see example concatenation basic example string function codice_1 function function returns length string literal languages may string functions similar exactly syntax parameters outcomes example many languages length function usually represented len string list common functions aims help limit confusion string functions common many languages listed including different names used list common functions aims help programmers find equivalent function language note string concatenation regular expressions handled separate pages statements guillemets « … » optional var begin // example c ya hello world 2 // l' substr hello world 1 1 e' hello world .substr 1 1 e' hello world 2 l' hello world -3 r' example visual basic mid hello world ,2,1 example visual basic .net hello world .chars 2 l c example smalltalk 'hello world 2 e //example rust hello world .chars .nth 2 // l' hello cmp world returns -1 hello cmp world returns less world cmp hello returns hello cmp hello returns cmp hello world returns -1 /** example rexx / compare hello world / returns index mismatch 1 / use-modules srfi srfi-13 string-compare hello world values values values example erlang hello world returns false art gt painting returns false art lt painting returns true hello -gt world returns false string art painting returns nil string art painting returns non nil 'abc 'def // returns abcdef // example c abc def // returns abcdef example visual basic abc def returns abcdef abc def returns abcdef abc null returns abc abc null returns null // example abc def // returns abcdef concatenate 'string abc def ghi returns abc def ghi abc def returns abcdef perl 5 returns perl 5 abc def returns abcdef perl 6 returns perl 6 ¢ example algol 68 ¢ // example c hello mate .contains e // returns true word .contains z // returns false good morning .contains z returns false ¡buenos días .contains í returns true e hello mate returns true z word returns false example smalltalk 'hello mate includessubstring e returns true 'word includessubstring z returns false tests two strings equal see also compare compare note equality checks via generic compare integer result confusing programmer often significantly expensive operation especially true using c-strings // example c hello == world // returns false example visual basic hello world returns false 'hello eq 'world returns 0 'hello eq 'hello returns 1 'hello eq 'world returns false 'hello eq 'hello returns true hello -eq world returns false ⍝ example apl 'hello ≡ 'world ⍝ returns 0 search e hello mate returns 1 search z word returns nil // examples c hello mate .indexof e // returns 1 hello mate .indexof e 4 // returns 9 word .indexof z // returns -1 hello .index e returns 1 hello .index z returns nil use-modules srfi srfi-13 string-contains hello mate e returns 1 string-contains word z returns f examples visual basic instr hello mate e returns 2 instr 5 hello mate e returns 10 instr word z returns 0 examples smalltalk 'hello mate indexofsubcollection 'ate returns 8 'hello mate indexofsubcollection 'late returns 0 i'hello mate 'hello mate // examples c hello mate .indexof e // returns 1 word .indexof z // returns -1 position \e hello mate returns 1 position \z word returns nil // example c string.format 0 costs 1 c2 pen 19.99 // returns pen costs 19.99 // example object pascal delphi format 'my costs 2f 'pen 19.99 // returns pen costs 19.99 // example java string.format costs 2f pen 19.99 // returns pen costs 19.99 sprintf costs .2f pen 19.99 returns pen costs 19.99 1.fmt 04d returns 0001 costs .2f pen 19.99 returns pen costs 19.99 0 costs 1 .2f .format pen 19.99 returns pen costs 19.99 format ~a costs ~1,2f pen 19.99 returns pen costs 19.99 tests two strings equal see also equality // example c hello world // returns true example visual basic hello world returns true not= hello world ⇒ true 'hello ne 'world returns 1 'hello ne 'world returns true hello -ne world returns true see find see find see find see rfind languages languages without built-in trim function usually simple create custom function accomplishes task awk one use regular expressions trim standard trim function c c++ available string libraries c contain code implements trimming functions significantly ease efficient implementation function also often called eatwhitespace non-standard c libraries c programmers often combine ltrim rtrim implement trim void rtrim char str void ltrim char str void trim char str open source c++ library boost several trim variants including standard one trimmed boost :algorithm :trim_copy string note boost function named simply codice_3 input sequence modified in-place return result another open source c++ library qt several trim variants including standard one trimmed s.trimmed linux kernel also includes strip function codice_4 since 2.6.18-rc1 trims string place since 2.6.33-rc1 kernel uses codice_5 instead codice_4 avoid false warnings trim algorithm haskell may interpreted follows f drops preceding whitespace reverses string f applied output note type signature second line optional trim algorithm j functional description filter codice_7 non-space characters codice_8 leading codice_9 codice_10 trailing codice_11 spaces built-in trim function javascript 1.8.1 firefox 3.5 later ecmascript 5 standard earlier versions added string object prototype follows string.prototype.trim function perl 5 built-in trim function however functionality commonly achieved using regular expressions example string =~ s/^\s+// remove leading whitespace string =~ s/\s+ // remove trailing whitespace string =~ s/^\s+\|\s+ //g remove leading trailing whitespace examples modify value original variable codice_12 also available perl stripltspace codice_13 cpan however two functions commonly used strip whitespace end strings codice_14 codice_15 perl 6 upcoming major revision language strings codice_3 method example string string.trim remove leading trailing whitespace string .= trim thing tcl codice_19 command three relevant subcommands codice_3 codice_21 codice_22 commands additional argument may specified string represents set characters remove—the default whitespace space tab newline carriage return example trimming vowels set string onomatopoeia set trimmed string trim string aeiou result nomatop set r_trimmed string trimright string aeiou result onomatop set l_trimmed string trimleft string aeiou result nomatopoeia xslt includes function codice_23 strips leading trailing whitespace addition replacing whitespace sequence including line breaks single space example xsl variable name='trimmed /xsl variable xslt 2.0 includes regular expressions providing another mechanism perform string trimming another xslt technique trimming utilize xpath 2.0 codice_24 function 1-hop neighbor's text information: algol_68.algol 68 algol 68 short algorithmic language 1968 imperative computer programming language conceived successor algol 60 programming language designed goal much wider scope application rigorously defined syntax semantics complexity language definition runs several hundred pages filled non-standard terminology made compiler implementation difficult said implementations users partially true algol 68 find use number niche markets notably united kingdom popular icl machines teaching roles outside circles usage relatively limited nevertheless contributions algol 68 field computer science deep wide-ranging enduring although many contributions publicly identified reappeared subsequently developed programming languages many languages developed specifically response perceived complexity language notable pascal reimplementations specific roles like ada many languages 1970s trace design specifically algol 68 selecting particular features abandoning others considered complex out-of-scope particular roles among c programming language directly influenced algol 68 especially strong typing structures modern languages trace least syntax either c pascal thus directly indirectly algol 68 algol 68 features include expression-based syntax user-declared types structures/tagged-unions reference model variables reference parameters string array matrix slicing also concurrency algol 68 designed ifip working group 2.1 december 20 1968 language formally adopted working group 2.1 subsequently approved publication general assembly ifip algol 68 defined using two-level grammar formalism invented adriaan van wijngaarden van wijngaarden grammars use context-free grammar generate infinite set productions recognize particular algol 68 program notably able express kind requirements many programming language standards labelled semantics expressed ambiguity-prone natural language prose implemented compilers ad hoc code attached formal language parser algol 68 criticized prominently members design committee c. a. r. hoare edsger dijkstra abandoning simplicity algol 60 becoming vehicle complex overly general ideas little make compiler writer task easier contrast deliberately simple contemporaries competitors c s-algol pascal 1970 algol 68-r became first working compiler algol 68 1973 revision certain features – proceduring gommas formal bounds – omitted c.f language unrevised report though european defence agencies britain royal signals radar establishment – rsre promoted use algol 68 expected security advantages american side nato alliance decided develop different project ada programming language making use obligatory us defense contracts algol 68 also notable influence within soviet union details found andrey ershov 2014 paper algol 68 impact ussr russian programming алгол 68 и его влияние на программирование в ссср и россии steve bourne algol 68 revision committee took ideas bourne shell thereby descendant shells bash c thereby descendants c++ complete history project found c. h. lindsey history algol 68 full-length treatment language see programming algol 68 made easy dr. sian mountbatten learning algol 68 genie marcel van der veer includes revised report algol 68 name implies follow-on algol language first formalized 1960 year international federation information processing ifip formed started working group algol wg2.1 group released updated algol 60 specification rome april 1962 follow-up meeting march 1964 agreed group begin work two follow-on standards algol x would redefinition language additions algol would ability modify programs style lisp first meeting algol x group held princeton university may 1965 report meeting noted two broadly supported themes introduction strong typing interest euler concepts 'trees 'lists handling collections second meeting october france three formal proposals presented niklaus wirth algol w along comments record structures c.a.r tony hoare similar language gerhard seegmüller paper adriaan van wijngaarden orthogonal design description formal language later written almost indecipherable w-grammar proved decisive shift evolution language meeting closed agreement van wijngaarden would re-write wirth/hoare submission using w-grammar seemingly simple task ultimately proved difficult expected follow-up meeting delayed six months met april 1966 kootwijk van wijngaarden draft remained incomplete wirth hoare presented version using traditional descriptions generally agreed paper right language wrong formalism approaches explored became clear difference way parameters described would real-world effects wirth hoare protested delays might become endless committee decided wait van wijngaarden version wirth implemented current definition algol w. next meeting warsaw october 1968 initial report i/o subcommittee met oak ridge national laboratory university illinois yet made much progress two proposals previous meeting explored time new debate emerged use pointers algol w used refer records van wijngaarden version could point object add confusion john mccarthy presented new proposal operator overloading ability string together constructs klaus samelson wanted allow anonymous functions resulting confusion discussion abandoning entire effort confusion continued supposed algol meeting zandvoort may 1967 draft report finally published february 1968 met shock horror dissent mostly due hundreds pages unreadable grammar odd terminology charles h. lindsey attempted figure language hidden inside process took six man-weeks effort resulting paper algol 68 fewer tears widely circulated wider information processing meeting zurich may 1968 attendees complained language forced upon ifip true villain unreasonable situation meetings mostly closed formal feedback mechanism wirth peter naur formally resigned authorship positions wg2.1 point next wg2.1 meeting took place tirrenia june 1968 supposed discuss release compilers issues instead devolved discussion language van wijngaarden responded saying threatening would release one version report point naur hoare wirth left effort several threatening several meetings followed north berwick august 1968 munich december produced release official report january 1969 also resulted contentious minority report written finally banff alberta september 1969 project generally considered complete discussion primarily errata greatly expanded introduction report effort took five years burned many greatest names computer science several occasions became deadlocked issues definition group whole hoare released critique algol 68 almost immediately widely referenced many works wirth went develop algol w concept released pascal 1970 first implementation standard based late-1968 draft report introduced royal radar establishment uk algol 68-r july 1970 however subset full language barry mailloux final editor report joked question morality bible sinning version nevertheless became popular icl machines became widely-used language military coding especially uk among changes 68-r requirement variables declared first use significant advantage allowed compiler one-pass space variables activation record set aside used however change also side-effect demanding procs declared twice declaration types actual body code another change eliminate assumed void mode expression returns value known statement languages demanding word void added would assumed additionally 68-r eliminated explicit parallel processing commands based par first full implementation language introduced 1974 cdc netherlands control data mainframe series saw limited use mostly teaching germany netherlands version similar 68-r introduced carnegie mellon university 1976 68s one-pass compiler based various simplifications original intended use smaller machines like dec pdp-11 used mostly teaching purposes version ibm mainframes become available 1978 one released cambridge university nearly complete lindsey released version small machines including ibm pc 1984 1968 20 december 1968 final report mr 101 adopted working group subsequently approved general assembly unesco ifip publication translations standard made russian german french bulgarian later japanese chinese standard also made available braille 1984 tc97 considered algol 68 standardisation new work item tc97/n1642 west germany belgium netherlands ussr czechoslovakia willing participate preparing standard ussr czechoslovakia right kinds member right iso committees algol 68 iso standardisation stalled 1988 subsequently algol 68 became one gost standards russia standard language contains sixty reserved words typically bolded print brief symbol equivalents basic language construct unit unit may formula enclosed clause routine text one several technically needed constructs assignation jump skip nihil technical term enclosed clause unifies inherently bracketing constructs known block statement switch statement contemporary languages keywords used generally reversed character sequence introducing keyword used terminating enclosure e.g else fi case esac od syntax reused stephen bourne common unix bourne shell expression may also yield multiple value constructed values collateral clause construct looks like parameter pack procedure call basic data types called modes algol 68 parlance real int compl complex number bool char bits bytes example however declaration real x syntactic sugar ref real x loc real x really constant identifier reference newly generated local real variable furthermore instead defining codice_1 codice_2 codice_3 codice_4 codice_5 etc. algol 68 provides modifiers presently common codice_2 would written long real long long real instead example prelude constants codice_7 codice_8 provided adapt programs different implementations variables need declared declaration appear prior first use primitive-declarer int real compl complex bool char string bits bytes format file pipe channel sema complex types created simpler ones using various type constructors examples see comparison algol 68 c++ declaration symbols include flex heap loc ref long short event name mode type declared using mode declaration similar typedef c/c++ type pascal similar following c code note algol 68 newmode mode-indication appears left equals symbol notably construction made read left right without regard priorities note also lower bound algol 68 arrays one default integer max int max int mode declarations allow types recursive defined directly indirectly terms subject restrictions instance declarations illegal valid coercions produce coercee coercend according three criteria priori mode coercend application coercion posteriori mode coercee required coercions syntactic position sort coercee coercions may cascaded six possible coercions termed deproceduring dereferencing uniting widening rowing voiding coercion except uniting prescribes corresponding dynamic effect associated values hence number primitive actions programmed implicitly coercions context strength – allowed coercions algol 68 hierarchy contexts determine kind coercions available particular point program contexts details primaries secondaries tertiary quaternaries refer operator precedence pragmats directives program typically hints compiler newer languages called pragmas 't e.g comments inserted variety ways normally comments nested algol 68 restriction circumvented using different comment delimiters e.g use hash temporary code deletions algol 68 expression-oriented programming language value returned assignment statement reference destination thus following valid algol 68 code notion present c perl among others note earlier languages algol 60 fortran spaces allowed identifiers codice_9 single identifier thus avoiding underscores versus camel case versus lower-case issues another example express mathematical idea sum codice_10 i=1 n following algol 68 integer expression suffices note integer expression former block code used context integer value used block code returns value last expression evaluated idea present lisp among languages compound statements terminated distinctive closing brackets condition statements else statements fi scheme avoids dangling else problem also avoids use codice_11 codice_12 embedded statement sequences case switch statements statements ... statements esac choice clause example brief symbols choice clause example bold symbols choice clause example mixing bold brief symbols algol68 allowed switch either type int uniquely union latter allows enforcing strong typing onto union variables c.f example index first increment last condition statements od considered universal loop full syntax construct several unusual aspects int sum sq =0 subsequent extensions standard algol68 allowed syntactic element replaced upto downto achieve small optimisation compilers also incorporated examples found code examples algol 68 supports arrays number dimensions allows slicing whole partial rows columns matrices sliced either way e.g algol 68 supports multiple field structures struct united modes reference variables may point mode including array slices structure fields example traditional linked list declaration usage example union case node procedure proc declarations require type specifications parameters result void none using brief form conditional statement return value codice_13 value last expression evaluated procedure references procedures ref proc also permitted call-by-reference parameters provided specifying references codice_14 formal argument list following example defines procedure applies function specified parameter element array simplicity code unachievable algol 68 predecessor algol 60 programmer may define new operators pre-defined ones may overloaded priorities may changed coder following example defines operator codice_15 dyadic monadic versions scanning across elements array technically operators rather considered units associated names note tertiaries include names nil ○ technically operators rather considered units associated names note quaternaries include names skip alternatively tests two pointers equal /= alternatively isnt tests unequal /= needed consider trying compare two pointer values following variables declared pointers-to-integer consider decide whether two pointing location whether one pointing nil following expression dereference pointers values type int compare since operator defined int ref int legal define operands type ref int int time calls become ambiguous due implicit coercions applied operands left ref int version operator called dereferenced int version used instead therefore following expression never made legal hence need separate constructs subject normal coercion rules operands operators gotcha following expressions legal probably might expected always return false comparing actual addresses variables codice_21 codice_22 rather point achieve right effect one would write patent application 14 may 2003 software patent application 20040230959 filed codice_25 operator employees microsoft patent granted 18 november 2004 algol special characters ⊂ ≡ ␣ × ÷ ≤ ≥ ≠ ¬ ⊃ ≡ ∨ ∧ → ↓ ↑ ⌊ ⌈ ⎩ ⎧ ⊥ ⏨ ¢ ○ □ found ibm 2741 keyboard apl golf-ball print head inserted became available mid-1960s algol 68 drafted characters also part unicode standard available several popular fonts transput term used refer algol 68 input output facilities includes pre-defined procedures unformatted formatted binary transput files transput devices handled consistent machine-independent manner following example prints unformatted output standard output device note predefined procedures codice_26 codice_27 passed arguments transput considered books channels files formatted transput algol 68 transput syntax patterns functions formats embedded two characters examples algol 68 supports programming parallel processing using keyword par collateral clause converted parallel clause synchronisation actions controlled using semaphores a68g parallel actions mapped threads available hosting operating system a68s different paradigm parallel processing implemented see sample program implements sieve eratosthenes find prime numbers less 100. nil algol 68 analogue null pointer languages notation x accesses member x struct note soviet era computers эльбрус-1 elbrus-1 эльбрус-2 created using high-level language эль-76 al-76 rather traditional assembly эль-76 resembles algol-68 main difference dynamic binding types эль-76 supported hardware level эль-76 used application job control system programming algol 68c algol 68-r written algol 68 effectively making algol 68 application applications include feature algol 68 inherited algol tradition different representations representation language used describe algorithms printed work strict language rigorously defined report official reference language intended used actual compiler input examples observe bold typeface words strict language algol 68 reserved words effectively different namespace identifiers spaces allowed identifiers next fragment legal programmer actually writes code always option bold typeface underlining code may depend hardware cultural issues different methods denote identifiers devised called stropping regime example following may available programming representations implementations must recognize least point upper res inside pragmat sections point upper stropping quite common res stropping contradiction specification reserved words quote single apostrophe quoting original recommendation matched apostrophe quoting common algol 60 used much algol 68 following characters recommended portability termed worthy characters report standard hardware representation algol 68 reflected problem 1960s hardware n't support lower-case non-ascii characters indeed 1973 report written four worthy characters — — often coded differently even installations nominally use character set algol 68 allows every natural language define set keywords algol-68 result programmers able write programs using keywords native language example simple procedure calculates day following code two languages english german russian/soviet example english algol68 case statement reads case esac cyrillic reads выб в либо быв technical intricacies algol 68 needs cornucopia methods deny existence something c.f examples ℵ term nil var always evaluates true variable see correct use /= whereas known value comparison x skip evaluates integer x algol 68 leaves intentionally undefined happens case integer overflow integer bit representation degree numerical accuracy floating point contrast language java criticized over-specifying latter official reports included advanced features part standard language indicated ℵ considered effectively private examples include ≮ ≯ templates outtype/intype crude duck typing straightout straightin operators straightening nested arrays structures extract 1973 report except noted language described revised report original language per final report differs syntax mode cast feature proceduring i.e coercing value term procedure evaluates term proceduring would intended make evaluations lazy useful application could short-circuited evaluation boolean operators b evaluated true defined algol 68 work expected example code programmers naïve expectations print would executed value elaborated enclosed-clause andf procedured textual insertion commented-out proc bool makes work implementations emulate expected behaviour special case extension language revision programmer could decide arguments procedure evaluated serially instead collaterally using semicolons instead commas gomma example first argument test guaranteed evaluated second usual compiler could evaluate arguments whatever order felt like revision report extensions language proposed widen applicability far partial parametrisation implemented algol 68 genie s3 language used write icl vme operating system much system software icl 2900 series direct derivative algol 68 however omitted many complex features replaced basic modes set data types mapped directly 2900 series hardware architecture algol 68r rre first algol 68 subset implementation running icl 1900 based original language main subset restrictions definition use parallel processing compiler popular uk universities 1970s many computer science students learnt algol 68 first programming language compiler renowned good error messages algol 68rs rsre portable compiler system written algol 68rs bootstrapped algol 68r implemented variety systems including icl 2900/series 39 multics dec vax/vms language based revised report similar subset restrictions algol 68r compiler survives form algol68-to-c compiler algol 68s carnegie mellon university power parallel processing improved adding orthogonal extension eventing variable declaration containing keyword event made assignments variable eligible parallel evaluation i.e right hand side made procedure moved one processors c.mmp multiprocessor system accesses variables delayed termination assignment cambridge algol 68c portable compiler implemented subset algol 68 restricting operator definitions omitting garbage collection flexible rows formatted transput algol 68 genie m. van der veer algol 68 implementation today computers operating systems despite good intentions programmer may violate portability inadvertently employing local extension guard implementation provide portcheck pragmat option option force compiler prints message construct recognizes violating portability constraint Target text information: comparison_of_programming_languages_(object-oriented_programming).comparison programming languages object-oriented programming comparison programming languages compares object-oriented programming languages c++ java smalltalk object pascal perl python others manipulate data structures declare property named bar access members object x I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	5,961	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: web_platform_installer.web platform installer web platform installer web pi freeware closed-source package management system installs non-commercial development tools dependencies part microsoft web platform including ability install third-party software added version 2.0 released september 24 2009. web pi install 82 titles web pi 2.0 options populated dynamically runtime microsoft servers allowing installation options updated without need download newer versions web pi july 7 2010 microsoft announced web pi 3 includes webmatrix new set integrated tools web development web pi 3 installs additional tools web development including iis developer express sql server compact dotnetnuke web pi features offline mode products downloaded local cache machine internet access available use cached files different machine later however web pi still usable environments internet connectivity local administrator privileges mutually exclusive i.e given process either authenticate transparent proxy high system integrity level 1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_windows.microsoft windows microsoft windows group several graphical operating system families developed marketed sold microsoft family caters certain sector computing industry active microsoft windows families include windows nt windows iot may encompass subfamilies e.g windows server windows embedded compact windows ce defunct microsoft windows families include windows 9x windows mobile windows phone microsoft introduced operating environment named windows november 20 1985 graphical operating system shell ms-dos response growing interest graphical user interfaces guis microsoft windows came dominate world personal computer pc market 90 market share overtaking mac os introduced 1984 apple came see windows unfair encroachment innovation gui development implemented products lisa macintosh eventually settled court microsoft favor 1993 pcs windows still popular operating system however 2014 microsoft admitted losing majority overall operating system market android massive growth sales android smartphones 2014 number windows devices sold less 25 android devices sold comparison however may fully relevant two operating systems traditionally target different platforms still numbers server use windows comparable competitors show one third market share similar end user use recent version windows pcs tablets smartphones embedded devices windows 10 recent version server computers windows server version 1903 specialized version windows also runs xbox one video game console microsoft developer windows registered several trademarks denote family windows operating systems target specific sector computing industry 2014 following windows families actively developed following windows families longer developed term windows collectively describes several generations microsoft operating system products products generally categorized follows history windows dates back 1981 microsoft started work program called interface manager announced november 1983 apple lisa macintosh name windows windows 1.0 released november 1985 windows 1.0 compete apple operating system achieved little popularity windows 1.0 complete operating system rather extends ms-dos shell windows 1.0 program known ms-dos executive components included calculator calendar cardfile clipboard viewer clock control panel notepad paint reversi terminal write windows 1.0 allow overlapping windows instead windows tiled modal dialog boxes may appear windows microsoft sold included windows development libraries c development environment included numerous windows samples windows 2.0 released december 1987 popular predecessor features several improvements user interface memory management windows 2.03 changed os tiled windows overlapping windows result change led apple computer filing suit microsoft alleging infringement apple copyrights windows 2.0 also introduced sophisticated keyboard shortcuts could make use expanded memory windows 2.1 released two different versions windows/286 windows/386 windows/386 uses virtual 8086 mode intel 80386 multitask several dos programs paged memory model emulate expanded memory using available extended memory windows/286 spite name runs intel 8086 intel 80286 processors runs real mode make use high memory area addition full windows-packages runtime-only versions shipped early windows software third parties made possible run windows software ms-dos without full windows feature set early versions windows often thought graphical shells mostly ran top ms-dos use file system services however even earliest windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions notably executable file format providing device drivers timer graphics printer mouse keyboard sound unlike ms-dos windows allowed users execute multiple graphical applications time cooperative multitasking windows implemented elaborate segment-based software virtual memory scheme allows run applications larger available memory code segments resources swapped thrown away memory became scarce data segments moved memory given application relinquished processor control windows 3.0 released 1990 improved design mostly virtual memory loadable virtual device drivers vxds allow windows share arbitrary devices multi-tasked dos applications windows 3.0 applications run protected mode gives access several megabytes memory without obligation participate software virtual memory scheme run inside address space segmented memory provides degree protection windows 3.0 also featured improvements user interface microsoft rewrote critical operations c assembly windows 3.0 first microsoft windows version achieve broad commercial success selling 2 million copies first six months windows 3.1 made generally available march 1 1992 featured facelift august 1993 windows workgroups special version integrated peer-to-peer networking features version number 3.11 released sold along windows 3.1 support windows 3.1 ended december 31 2001 windows 3.2 released 1994 updated version chinese version windows 3.1 update limited language version fixed issues related complex writing system chinese language windows 3.2 generally sold computer manufacturers ten-disk version ms-dos also simplified chinese characters basic output translated utilities next major consumer-oriented release windows windows 95 released august 24 1995 still remaining ms-dos-based windows 95 introduced support native 32-bit applications plug play hardware preemptive multitasking long file names 255 characters provided increased stability predecessors windows 95 also introduced redesigned object oriented user interface replacing previous program manager start menu taskbar windows explorer shell windows 95 major commercial success microsoft ina fried cnet remarked time windows 95 finally ushered market 2001 become fixture computer desktops around world microsoft published four oem service releases osr windows 95 roughly equivalent service pack first osr windows 95 also first version windows bundled microsoft web browser internet explorer mainstream support windows 95 ended december 31 2000 extended support windows 95 ended december 31 2001 windows 95 followed release windows 98 june 25 1998 introduced windows driver model support usb composite devices support acpi hibernation support multi-monitor configurations windows 98 also included integration internet explorer 4 active desktop aspects windows desktop update series enhancements explorer shell also made available windows 95 may 1999 microsoft released windows 98 second edition updated version windows 98 windows 98 se added internet explorer 5.0 windows media player 6.2 amongst upgrades mainstream support windows 98 ended june 30 2002 extended support windows 98 ended july 11 2006 september 14 2000 microsoft released windows millennium edition last dos-based version windows windows incorporated visual interface enhancements windows nt-based counterpart windows 2000 faster boot times previous versions however required removal ability access real mode dos environment removing compatibility older programs expanded multimedia functionality including windows media player 7 windows movie maker windows image acquisition framework retrieving images scanners digital cameras additional system utilities system file protection system restore updated home networking tools however windows faced criticism speed instability along hardware compatibility issues removal real mode dos support pc world considered windows one worst operating systems microsoft ever released 4th worst tech product time november 1988 new development team within microsoft included former digital equipment corporation developers dave cutler mark lucovsky began work revamped version ibm microsoft os/2 operating system known nt os/2 nt os/2 intended secure multi-user operating system posix compatibility modular portable kernel preemptive multitasking support multiple processor architectures however following successful release windows 3.0 nt development team decided rework project use extended 32-bit port windows api known win32 instead os/2 win32 maintained similar structure windows apis allowing existing windows applications easily ported platform also supported capabilities existing nt kernel following approval microsoft staff development continued windows nt first 32-bit version windows however ibm objected changes ultimately continued os/2 development first release resulting operating system windows nt 3.1 named associate windows 3.1 released july 1993 versions desktop workstations servers windows nt 3.5 released september 1994 focusing performance improvements support novell netware followed windows nt 3.51 may 1995 included additional improvements support powerpc architecture windows nt 4.0 released june 1996 introducing redesigned interface windows 95 nt series february 17 2000 microsoft released windows 2000 successor nt 4.0 windows nt name dropped point order put greater focus windows brand next major version windows nt windows xp released october 25 2001 introduction windows xp aimed unify consumer-oriented windows 9x series architecture introduced windows nt change microsoft promised would provide better performance dos-based predecessors windows xp would also introduce redesigned user interface including updated start menu task-oriented windows explorer streamlined multimedia networking features internet explorer 6 integration microsoft .net passport services modes help provide compatibility software designed previous versions windows remote assistance functionality retail windows xp marketed two main editions home edition targeted towards consumers professional edition targeted towards business environments power users included additional security networking features home professional later accompanied media center edition designed home theater pcs emphasis support dvd playback tv tuner cards dvr functionality remote controls tablet pc edition designed mobile devices meeting specifications tablet computer support stylus pen input additional pen-enabled applications mainstream support windows xp ended april 14 2009 extended support ended april 8 2014 windows 2000 microsoft also changed release schedules server operating systems server counterpart windows xp windows server 2003 released april 2003 followed december 2005 windows server 2003 r2 lengthy development process windows vista released november 30 2006 volume licensing january 30 2007 consumers contained number new features redesigned shell user interface significant technical changes particular focus security features available number different editions subject criticism drop performance longer boot time criticism new uac stricter license agreement vista server counterpart windows server 2008 released early 2008 july 22 2009 windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 released rtm release manufacturing former released public 3 months later october 22 2009 unlike predecessor windows vista introduced large number new features windows 7 intended focused incremental upgrade windows line goal compatible applications hardware windows vista already compatible windows 7 multi-touch support redesigned windows shell updated taskbar home networking system called homegroup performance improvements windows 8 successor windows 7 released generally october 26 2012 number significant changes made windows 8 including introduction user interface based around microsoft metro design language optimizations touch-based devices tablets all-in-one pcs changes include start screen uses large tiles convenient touch interactions allow display continually updated information new class apps designed primarily use touch-based devices changes include increased integration cloud services online platforms social networks microsoft onedrive formerly skydrive xbox live services windows store service software distribution new variant known windows rt use devices utilize arm architecture update windows 8 called windows 8.1 released october 17 2013 includes features new live tile sizes deeper onedrive integration many revisions windows 8 windows 8.1 subject criticism removal start menu september 30 2014 microsoft announced windows 10 successor windows 8.1 released july 29 2015 addresses shortcomings user interface first introduced windows 8 changes pc include return start menu virtual desktop system ability run windows store apps within windows desktop rather full-screen mode windows 10 said available update qualified windows 7 sp1 windows 8.1 windows phone 8.1 devices get windows 10 application windows 7 windows 8.1 windows update windows 7 february 2017 microsoft announced migration windows source code repository perforce git migration involved 3.5 million separate files 300 gigabyte repository may 2017 90 percent engineering team uses git 8500 commits 1760 windows builds per day multilingual support built windows since windows 3 language keyboard interface changed region language control panel components supported input languages input method editors automatically installed windows installation windows xp earlier files east asian languages chinese right-to-left scripts arabic may need installed separately also said control panel third-party imes may also installed user feels provided one insufficient needs interface languages operating system free download languages limited certain editions windows language interface packs lips redistributable may downloaded microsoft download center installed edition windows xp later translate windows interface require certain base language language windows originally shipped used languages emerging markets full language packs translates complete operating system available specific editions windows ultimate enterprise editions windows vista 7 editions windows 8 8.1 rt except single language require specific base language commonly used popular languages french chinese languages downloaded download center available optional updates windows update service except windows 8 interface language installed applications affected changes windows interface language availability languages depends application developers windows 8 windows server 2012 introduces new language control panel interface input languages simultaneously changed language packs regardless type downloaded central location pc settings app windows 8.1 windows server 2012 r2 also includes counterpart settings page changing interface language also changes language preinstalled windows store apps mail maps news certain microsoft-developed apps remote desktop limitations language packs however still effect except full language packs installed edition except single language caters emerging markets windows nt included support several different platforms x86-based personal computer became dominant professional world windows nt 4.0 predecessors supported powerpc dec alpha mips r4000 although platforms implement 64-bit computing operating system treated 32-bit however windows 2000 successor windows nt 4.0 dropped support platforms except third generation x86 known ia-32 newer 32-bit mode client line windows nt family still runs ia-32 although windows server line ceased supporting platform release windows server 2008 r2 introduction intel itanium architecture ia-64 microsoft released new versions windows support itanium versions windows xp windows server 2003 released time mainstream x86 counterparts windows xp 64-bit edition released 2005 last windows client operating systems support itanium windows server line continues support platform windows server 2012 windows server 2008 r2 last windows operating system support itanium architecture april 25 2005 microsoft released windows xp professional x64 edition windows server 2003 x64 editions support x86-64 simply x64 eighth generation x86 architecture windows vista first client version windows nt released simultaneously ia-32 x64 editions x64 still supported edition windows 8 known windows rt specifically created computers arm architecture arm still used windows smartphones windows 10 tablets windows rt updated starting windows 10 fall creators update later includes support pcs arm architecture windows ce officially known windows embedded compact edition windows runs minimalistic computers like satellite navigation systems mobile phones windows embedded compact based dedicated kernel dubbed windows ce kernel microsoft licenses windows ce oems device makers oems device makers modify create user interfaces experiences windows ce provides technical foundation windows ce used dreamcast along sega proprietary os console windows ce core windows mobile derived successor windows phone 7 based components windows ce 6.0 r3 windows ce 7.0 windows phone 8 however based nt-kernel windows 8 windows embedded compact confused windows xp embedded windows nt 4.0 embedded modular editions windows based windows nt kernel xbox os unofficial name given version windows runs xbox one specific implementation emphasis virtualization using hyper-v three operating systems running consisting core operating system second implemented games windows-like environment applications microsoft updates xbox one os every month updates downloaded xbox live service xbox subsequently installed using offline recovery images downloaded via pc windows 10-based core replaced windows 8-based one update new system sometimes referred windows 10 xbox one onecore xbox one system also allows backward compatibility xbox 360 xbox 360 system backwards compatible original xbox 2017 microsoft announced would start using git open source version control system created linus torvalds microsoft previously used proprietary version control system called source depot microsoft began integrate git team foundation server 2013 windows continued rely source depot however decision came complexity windows codebase especially well suited decentralized nature linux development git originally created manage git repository contains complete history files proved unworkable windows developers cloning repository takes several hours microsoft working new project called virtual file system git vfsforgit address challenges according net applications tracks use operating systems devices active web windows used operating-system family personal computers july 2017 close 90 usage share including personal computers kinds e.g. desktops laptops mobile devices windows oses accounted 35.24 usage share july 2017 compared android highest 41.24 ios 13.22 macos 4.64 according statcounter tracks use operating systems use devices active web windows used less half market developing countries also developed ones—such united states use windows desktops plurality operating system fallen 46.18 united kingdom ireland numbers easiest monthly numbers find track real use may mirror installed base sales numbers recent years devices consistent server numbers next section terms number devices shipped operating system installed smartphones windows phone third-most-shipped os 2.6 android 82.8 ios 13.9 second quarter 2015 according idc across pcs mobile devices 2014 windows oses second-most-shipped 333 million devices 14 android 1.2 billion 49 ahead ios macos combined 263 million 11 use latest version windows 10 exceeded windows 7 globally since early 2018 developed countries japan australia us windows 10 already popular version since early 2017 usage share windows serversthose running web servers also kinds servers 33.6 consumer versions windows originally designed ease-of-use single-user pc without network connection security features built outset however windows nt successors designed security including network multi-user pcs initially designed internet security mind much since first developed early 1990s internet use less prevalent design issues combined programming errors e.g buffer overflows popularity windows means frequent target computer worm virus writers june 2005 bruce schneier counterpane internet security reported seen 1,000 new viruses worms previous six months 2005 kaspersky lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses trojans back-doors exploits written windows microsoft releases security patches windows update service approximately month usually second tuesday month although critical updates made available shorter intervals necessary versions windows including windows 2000 sp3 windows xp updates automatically downloaded installed user selects result service pack 2 windows xp well service pack 1 windows server 2003 installed users quickly otherwise might windows 9x series offered option profiles multiple users concept access privileges allow concurrent access true multi-user operating systems addition implemented partial memory protection accordingly widely criticised lack security windows nt series operating systems contrast true multi-user implement absolute memory protection however lot advantages true multi-user operating system nullified fact prior windows vista first user account created setup process administrator account also default new accounts though windows xp limited accounts majority home users change account type fewer rights – partially due number programs unnecessarily required administrator rights – home users ran administrator time windows vista changes introducing privilege elevation system called user account control logging standard user logon session created token containing basic privileges assigned way new logon session incapable making changes would affect entire system logging user administrators group two separate tokens assigned first token contains privileges typically awarded administrator second restricted token similar standard user would receive user applications including windows shell started restricted token resulting reduced privilege environment even administrator account application requests higher privileges run administrator clicked uac prompt confirmation consent given including administrator credentials account requesting elevation member administrators group start process using unrestricted token leaked documents published wikileaks codenamed vault 7 dated 2013–2016 detail capabilities cia perform electronic surveillance cyber warfare ability compromise operating systems microsoft windows august 2019 computer experts reported bluekeep security vulnerability potentially affects older unpatched microsoft windows versions via program remote desktop protocol allowing possibility remote code execution may include related flaws collectively named dejablue affecting newer windows versions i.e. windows 7 recent versions well addition experts reported microsoft security vulnerability based legacy code involving microsoft ctf ctfmon ctfmon.exe affects windows versions older windows xp version recent windows 10 versions patch correct flaw currently available windows versions windows nt 3 based file system permission system referred agdlp accounts global local permissions file permissions applied file/folder form 'local group 'global groups members global groups hold groups users depending different windows versions used system varies vendor products linux netware due 'static allocation permission applied directory file folder however using process aglp/agdlp/agudlp allows small number static permissions applied allows easy changes account groups without reapplying file permissions files folders january 6 2005 microsoft released beta version microsoft antispyware based upon previously released giant antispyware february 14 2006 microsoft antispyware became windows defender release beta 2 windows defender freeware program designed protect spyware unwanted software windows xp windows server 2003 users genuine copies microsoft windows freely download program microsoft web site windows defender ships part windows vista 7 windows 8 windows defender microsoft security essentials combined single program named windows defender based microsoft security essentials borrowing features user interface although enabled default turned use another anti-virus solution windows malicious software removal tool optional microsoft safety scanner two free security products offered microsoft windows 10 anniversary update microsoft introduced limited periodic scanning feature allows windows defender scan detect remove threats third-party anti-virus software missed advanced threat protection service introduced enterprise users new service uses cloud service detect take actions advanced network attacks article based report symantec internetnews.com described microsoft windows fewest number patches shortest average patch development time five operating systems monitored last six months 2006 study conducted kevin mitnick marketing communications firm avantgarde 2004 found unprotected unpatched windows xp system service pack 1 lasted four minutes internet compromised unprotected also unpatched windows server 2003 system compromised connected internet 8 hours computer running windows xp service pack 2 compromised aol national cyber security alliance online safety study october 2004 determined 80 windows users infected least one spyware/adware product much documentation available describing increase security microsoft windows products typical suggestions include deploying microsoft windows behind hardware software firewall running anti-virus anti-spyware software installing patches become available windows update owing operating system popularity number applications released aim provide compatibility windows applications either compatibility layer another operating system standalone system run software written windows box include 1-hop neighbor's text information: wampserver.wampserver wampserver refers software stack microsoft windows operating system created romain bourdon consisting apache web server openssl ssl support mysql database php programming language Target text information: wimp_(software_bundle).wimp software bundle acronym wimp solution stack software partially free open source software used run dynamic web sites servers expansion follows microsoft web platform installer tool install applications wimp-system lamp similar stack entirely free software linux replacing windows apache http server replacing iis wamp similar stack apache replacing iis I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	10,939	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: windows_preinstallation_environment.windows preinstallation environment windows preinstallation environment also known windows pe winpe lightweight version windows used deployment pcs workstations servers troubleshooting operating system offline intended replace ms-dos boot disks booted via usb flash drive pxe ipxe cd-rom hard disk traditionally used large corporations oems preinstall windows client operating systems pcs manufacturing widely available free charge via windows automated installation kit waik winpe originally intended used pre-installation platform deploying microsoft windows operating systems specifically replace dos respect winpe following uses package used developer testing recovery cd/dvd system administrators many customized winpe boot cds packaged third-party applications different uses available volunteers via internet package also used base forensics investigation either capture disk image run analysis tools without mounting available disks thus changing state version 2.0 introduced number improvements extended availability winpe customers corporate enterprise customers downloading installing microsoft windows automated installation kit waik originally designed built small team engineers microsoft windows deployment team including vijay jayaseelan ryan burkhardt richard bond following versions known exist windows recovery environment winre set tools based windows pe help diagnose recover serious errors may preventing windows booting successfully windows installed along windows vista later may booted hard disks optical media operating system installation disc pxe e.g windows deployment services copy windows included installation media aforementioned operating systems successor recovery console windows features include starting windows server 2012 following additional options added windows 10 adds following volumes encrypted bitlocker mounted recovery key available windows recovery environment also installed hard drive partition oems customized additional tools separate system recovery tool restoring computer back original state windows vista sp1 users create bootable cd containing recovery environment microsoft diagnostics recovery toolset dart sold part microsoft desktop optimization pack yet another toolset based windows pe performs diagnostic recovery offline copy windows manage files edit windows registry uninstall previously installed windows updates scan system malware restore deleted files 1-hop neighbor's text information: windows_ultimate_extras.windows ultimate extras windows ultimate extras optional features offered microsoft users ultimate edition windows vista accessible via windows update ultimate extras replaced market role microsoft plus product sold prior consumer releases microsoft windows according microsoft barry goffe company goal ultimate extras delight customers purchased ultimate edition windows vista expensive retail edition operating system windows ultimate extras discontinued windows 7 operating system also removes installed extras upgrade windows vista ultimate microsoft released total nine ultimate extras users windows vista ultimate bitlocker drive preparation tool utility secure online key backup utility among first ultimate extras made available released coincide general retail availability windows vista bitlocker drive preparation tool prepares hard drive encrypted bitlocker whereas secure online key backup enabled users create off-site backup bitlocker recovery password encrypting file system recovery certificates digital locker part windows marketplace digital distribution platform secure online key backup rendered inoperable digital locker shut august 2009 unlike previous versions windows windows vista language-independent language architecture separates language resources user interface binary code operating system support installing additional languages included enterprise ultimate editions windows vista ultimate edition functionality made available windows update ultimate extras microsoft stated 16 languages made available january 30 2007 company released remaining language packs october 23 2007 total 35 language packs additional 36th language pack version available windows vista supports traditional chinese characters hong kong encoding character set microsoft tinker puzzle game players must navigate robot mazes obstacles total 60 levels included players create levels level editor hold 'em poker card game released january 29 2007 fundamentally similar texas hold 'em hold 'em allows users play five computer players three levels difficulty also allows users customize aspects game appearance game relies directx produce hardware-accelerated 3d animations effects optimal performance hold 'em requires computer windows experience index rating 2.0 higher according paul thurrott hold 'em originally intended bundled alongside premium games— chess titans mahjong titans inkball —included default home premium ultimate editions windows vista instead made ultimate extra gambling themes total three sound schemes windows vista released ultimate extras glass ultimate extras pearl microsoft tinker first two made available april 22 2008 latter made available day microsoft tinker glass pearl sound schemes similar default sound scheme included windows vista also developed accordance design language principles windows aero graphical user interface windows dreamscene utility enables mpeg wmv videos displayed desktop backgrounds dreamscene requires windows aero graphical user interface enabled order function feature relies desktop window manager display videos desktop additional extras also proposed released including podcast creation application game performance optimization utility custom themes exclusive access online content services windows movie maker effects transitions templates windows dvd maker digital publications group shot photo manipulation application developed microsoft research shown bill gates consumer electronics show 2007 although considered ultimate extras company ultimate extras team also released two wallpapers users windows vista ultimate titled start strands wallpapers based design windows vista ultimate retail packaging made available three different display resolutions reaction windows ultimate extras mixed microsoft praised creating value proposition users purchased expensive edition windows vista company criticized delays delivery updates perceived lack quality delivered updates lack transparency regarding development early concerns features would live users expectations company announced several ultimate extras january 2007 fraction released five months later months without official update since january microsoft released apology delays stating intended ship remaining features end summer 2007 delays consecutive updates months silence led speculation development team within company responsible features quietly disbanded microsoft announced intentions release remaining ultimate extras released apology delays paul thurrott stated company dropped ball features ed bott wrote ultimate extras probably biggest mistake microsoft made vista company would downplay ultimate edition windows 7 result bott would later list among decade worth windows mistakes microsoft also criticized changing description ultimate extras within operating system offerings slated made available initially described cutting-edge programs innovative services unique publications description features within control panel applet later modified windows vista service pack 1 modest interpreted attempt made company avoid fulfilling prior expectations emil protalinski ars technica wrote ultimate edition windows vista would looked fine without joke 'ultimate extras features supposed provide incentive consumers purchase edition give critics something point laugh second part review windows 7 peter bright ars technica wrote value proposition ultimate extras nothing short piss-poor bright would later criticize microsoft decision release internet explorer 10 windows vista would go state still bad ultimate extras farce 1-hop neighbor's text information: windows_insider.windows insider windows insider open software testing program microsoft allows users valid license windows 10 windows server 2016 register pre-release builds operating system previously accessible software developers microsoft launched windows insider developers enterprise testers technically able test new developer features pre-release software builds given publicly released gather low level diagnostics feedback order identify investigate mitigate improve windows 10 os help support guidance insider program participants direct communication microsoft engineers via proprietary communication diagnostic channel announced september 30 2014 along windows 10 september 2015 7 million people took part windows insider program february 12 2015 microsoft started test previews windows 10 mobile microsoft announced windows insider program would continue beyond official release windows 10 future updates gabriel aul previous head charge windows insider program current head windows insider program dona sarkar similar windows insider program microsoft office bing xbox visual studio code teams set insider programs microsoft originally launched windows insider enterprise testers technically able test new developer features gather feedback improve features built windows 10 time official launch windows 10 pcs total 5 million volunteers registered windows 10 windows 10 mobile also among first people receive official update windows 10 release windows 10 windows insider app merged settings app made ability install windows insider preview builds optional feature could accessed directly within windows 10 may 2017 microsoft announced program would extend windows server 2016 first insider build operating system released 13 july 2017 windows 10 insider preview updates delivered testers different rings logical categories windows insiders fast ring receive updates prior windows insiders slow ring might experience bugs issues february 2016 microsoft introduced new rings windows insider preview july 17 2017 reports began come windows 10 creators update refused install pcs tablets sporting intel atom clover trail processors first appeared though might temporary block microsoft hardware partners work fix issues preventing operating system run well however microsoft later confirmed devices running clover trail intel atom processors would receiving creators update processors longer supported intel appropriate firmware properly run versions windows 10 newer anniversary update following processors longer supported remain windows 10 anniversary update pcs unsupported processors could receive new features updates microsoft agreed extend support pcs bug fixes security updates latest compatible version windows 10 versions windows 10 released microprocessor released also supported installations operating systems may actively blocked example windows 10 version 1507 ltsb install kaby lake processors microsoft initially launched windows 10 technical preview certain third-generation x30 series phones lumia family subsequently released second-generation x20 series devices throughout testing phase hacked non-lumia phones supported time download preview builds microsoft responded blocking unsupported models roll back installed technical preview back windows phone 8.1 microsoft launched windows device recovery tool removes windows 10 recovers latest officially released software firmware preview build 10080 released may 14 2015 first support non-lumia device htc one m8 windows followed xiaomi partnership microsoft released rom port windows 10 flagship mi 4 handset june 1 2015 time limited certain registered users china build 10080 follow-up build 10166 also added support fourth-generation lumia x40 series devices result compatible windows phone 8 later lumia phones support preview august 2015 microsoft stated windows phone devices including microsoft new hardware partners announced previous year would receive final version windows 10 mobile would receive preview builds insider program however company provide information time whether new devices would added preview program microsoft instead focused promoting new devices come windows 10 mobile including lumia 950 lumia 950 xl flagships low-cost lumia 550 lumia 650 since release new windows 10 devices became eligible receive future updates advance via insider program beginning build 10586 december 4 2015 windows-based lg lancet also received version upgraded since february 19 2016 microsoft released first windows 10 mobile redstone preview build 14267 starting build future preview versions became exclusively available devices already running non-insider preview os except mi4 rom version followed build 14291 released existing windows 10 devices march 17 2016 conjunction official rtm release windows 10 mobile third fourth-generation lumias following week became available newly upgraded older lumias addition several devices already windows 10 mobile time supported devices subsequently received insider preview builds far build 15063 creators update released march 20 2017 included official release build 14393 anniversary update august 2 2016 however announced april 2017 many devices including third-generation lumias would receive rtm version creators update redstone development builds following feedback users devices remain supported nearly except lumia 640 xl variant originally come windows 10 mobile instead windows phone 8.1 Target text information: windows_vista_editions.windows vista editions windows vista—a major release microsoft windows operating system—was available six different product editions starter home basic home premium business enterprise ultimate september 5 2006 microsoft announced usd pricing editions available retail channels operating system later made available retail january 30 2007 microsoft also made windows vista available purchase download windows marketplace first version windows distributed digital distribution platform editions sold retail available full upgrade versions later included service pack 1 sp1 microsoft characterized retail packaging windows vista designed user-friendly … small hard plastic container designed protect software inside life-long use packaging opens sideways reveal windows vista dvd suspended clear plastic case windows vista disc uses holographic design similar discs microsoft produced since windows 98 exception windows vista starter editions support 32-bit x86 64-bit x64 processor architectures microsoft ceased retail copies windows vista october 2010 oem distribution windows vista ended 2011 notes support 64-bit platforms intel xeon intel core 2 amd opteron amd athlon 64 microsoft released 64-bit versions every edition windows vista except starter edition editions run 32-bit programs running within wow64 subsystem 32-bit programs run natively though applications rely device drivers run unless device drivers written 64-bit windows reviewers reported 64-bit editions windows vista outperform 32-bit counterparts synthetic benchmarks passmark 32-bit editions windows vista excluding starter edition support 4 gb ram 64-bit edition home basic supports 8 gb ram home premium supports 16 gb business enterprise ultimate editions support 128 gb ram 64-bit versions microsoft operating systems currently impose 16 tb limit address space processes created 64-bit editions windows vista 8 tb virtual memory user processes 8 tb kernel processes create virtual memory 16 tb march 2004 european commission fined microsoft €497 million us 603 million ordered company provide version windows without windows media player commission concluded microsoft broke european union competition law leveraging near monopoly market pc operating systems onto markets work group server operating systems media players microsoft reached agreement commission would release court-compliant version windows xp edition n include company windows media player instead encourages users download install preferred media player similarly december 2005 korean fair trade commission ordered microsoft make available editions windows xp windows server 2003 contain windows media player windows messenger similar european commission decision based grounds microsoft abused dominant position market push products onto consumers unlike decision however microsoft also forced withdraw non-compliant versions windows south korean market decision resulted microsoft releasing k kn variants home professional editions windows xp august 2006 continuance requirements microsoft released n kn variants editions windows vista exclude windows media player well k kn editions include links third-party media player instant messaging software n editions windows vista require third-party software separate installation windows media player play audio cds media formats mpeg-4 two additional editions windows vista released use developers embedded devices microsoft lists system requirements editions desktop variants editions licensed exclusively development embedded devices notes unlike previous versions windows windows vista support compliance checking installation compliance checking previously allowed users insert disc evidence operating system upgraded previous version would allow users enter upgrade license perform clean install result upgrade versions windows vista install unless previous version windows already installed machine upgraded workaround limitation reported paul thurrott stated users able perform full installation windows vista upgrade media bypassing prompt enter license setup installed reinstall operating system previous installation—this essentially allows users purchased upgrade version perform full retail installation workaround indeed possible microsoft cautioned users perform full installation operating system method without genuine license previous version would violation windows vista end-user license agreement users upgrade windows xp windows vista upgrade one edition windows vista another however upgrading 32-bit edition 64-bit edition downgrading 64-bit edition 32-bit edition requires clean install addition potential upgrade combinations supported following chart indicates possible upgrade paths notes I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	6,462	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: comprehensive_national_cybersecurity_initiative.comprehensive national cybersecurity initiative comprehensive national cybersecurity initiative cnci established president george w. bush national security presidential directive 54/homeland security presidential directive 23 nspd-54/hspd-23 january 2008 initiative outlines u.s. cybersecurity goals spans multiple agencies including department homeland security office management budget national security agency initial signing initiative hearings initiative 2008 kept classified however march 2010 obama administration declassified limited material regarding project current goals initiative include establishing front line defense network intrusion defending u.s. full spectrum threats counterintelligence strengthening future cybersecurity environment education coordination research main actions cnci january 6 2011 national security agency nsa began building first series data centers pursuant program 1.5 billion community comprehensive national cybersecurity initiative data center also known utah data center located camp williams utah 1-hop neighbor's text information: global_surveillance_disclosures_(2013–present).global surveillance disclosures 2013–present ongoing news reports international media revealed operational details united states national security agency nsa international partners global surveillance foreign nationals u.s. citizens reports mostly emanate cache top secret documents leaked ex-nsa contractor edward snowden obtained whilst working booz allen hamilton one largest contractors defense intelligence united states addition trove u.s. federal documents snowden cache reportedly contains thousands australian british canadian intelligence files accessed via exclusive five eyes network june 2013 first snowden documents published simultaneously washington post guardian attracting considerable public attention disclosure continued throughout 2013 small portion estimated full cache documents later published media outlets worldwide notably new york times united states canadian broadcasting corporation australian broadcasting corporation der spiegel germany globo brazil le monde france l'espresso italy nrc handelsblad netherlands dagbladet norway el país spain sveriges television sweden media reports shed light implications several secret treaties signed members ukusa community efforts implement global surveillance example der spiegel revealed german foreign intelligence service bnd transfers massive amounts intercepted data nsa swedish television revealed national defence radio establishment fra provided nsa data cable collection secret treaty signed 1954 bilateral cooperation surveillance security intelligence agencies involved practice global surveillance include australia asd britain gchq canada csec denmark pet france dgse germany bnd italy aise netherlands aivd norway nis spain cni switzerland ndb singapore sid well israel isnu receives raw unfiltered data u.s. citizens shared nsa june 14 2013 united states prosecutors charged edward snowden espionage theft government property late july 2013 granted one-year temporary asylum russian government contributing deterioration russia–united states relations august 6 2013 u.s. president barack obama made public appearance national television told americans n't domestic spying program spying americans towards end october 2013 british prime minister david cameron warned guardian publish leaks receive da-notice november 2013 criminal investigation disclosure undertaken britain metropolitan police service december 2013 guardian editor alan rusbridger said published think 26 documents far 58,000 've seen extent media reports responsibly informed public disputed january 2014 obama said sensational way disclosures come often shed heat light critics sean wilentz noted many snowden documents released concern domestic surveillance us uk defense establishment weigh strategic harm period following disclosures heavily civic public benefit first assessment disclosures pentagon concluded snowden committed biggest theft u.s. secrets history united states sir david omand former director gchq described snowden disclosure catastrophic loss british intelligence ever barton gellman pulitzer prize–winning journalist led washington post coverage snowden disclosures summarized leaks follows disclosure revealed specific details nsa close cooperation u.s. federal agencies federal bureau investigation fbi central intelligence agency cia addition agency previously undisclosed financial payments numerous commercial partners telecommunications companies well previously undisclosed relationships international partners britain france germany secret treaties foreign governments recently established sharing intercepted data citizens disclosures made public course several months since june 2013 press several nations trove leaked former nsa contractor edward j. snowden obtained trove working booz allen hamilton george brandis attorney-general australia asserted snowden disclosure serious setback western intelligence since second world war global surveillance programs include nsa also getting data directly telecommunications companies codenamed artifice lithium serenade steelknight x real identities companies behind codenames included snowden document dump protected exceptionally controlled information prevents wide circulation even like snowden otherwise necessary security clearance although exact size snowden disclosure remains unknown following estimates put various government officials contractor nsa snowden granted access u.s. government documents along top secret documents several allied governments via exclusive five eyes network snowden claims currently physical possession documents surrendered copies journalists met hong kong according lawyer snowden pledged release documents russia leaving responsibility disclosures solely journalists 2014 following news outlets accessed documents provided snowden australian broadcasting corporation canadian broadcasting corporation channel 4 der spiegel el pais el mundo l'espresso le monde nbc nrc handelsblad dagbladet globo south china morning post süddeutsche zeitung sveriges television guardian new york times washington post 1970s nsa analyst perry fellwock pseudonym winslow peck revealed existence ukusa agreement forms basis echelon network whose existence revealed 1988 lockheed employee margaret newsham months september 11 attacks aftermath details global surveillance apparatus provided various individuals former mi5 official david shayler journalist james bamford followed aftermath snowden revelations pentagon concluded snowden committed biggest theft u.s. secrets history united states australia coalition government described leaks damaging blow dealt australian intelligence history sir david omand former director gchq described snowden disclosure catastrophic loss british intelligence ever april 2012 nsa contractor edward snowden began downloading documents year snowden made first contact journalist glenn greenwald employed guardian contacted documentary filmmaker laura poitras january 2013 may 2013 snowden went temporary leave position nsa citing pretext receiving treatment epilepsy towards end may traveled hong kong greenwald poitras guardian defence intelligence correspondent ewen macaskill flew hong kong meet snowden u.s.-based editor guardian janine gibson held several meetings new york city decided greenwald poitras guardian defence intelligence correspondent ewen macaskill would fly hong kong meet snowden june 5 first media report based leaked material guardian exposed top secret court order showing nsa collected phone records 120 million verizon subscribers order numbers parties call well location data unique identifiers time call duration call handed fbi turned records nsa according wall street journal verizon order part controversial data program seeks stockpile records calls made u.s. collect information directly t-mobile us verizon wireless part foreign ownership ties june 6 2013 second media disclosure revelation prism surveillance program collects e-mail voice text video chats foreigners unknown number americans microsoft google facebook yahoo apple tech giants published simultaneously guardian washington post der spiegel revealed nsa spying multiple diplomatic missions european union eu united nations headquarters new york specific episodes within four-year period nsa hacked several chinese mobile-phone companies chinese university hong kong tsinghua university beijing asian fiber-optic network operator pacnet australia canada new zealand uk explicitly exempted nsa attacks whose main target eu germany method bugging encrypted fax machines used eu embassy codenamed dropmire 2009 g-20 london summit british intelligence agency government communications headquarters gchq intercepted communications foreign diplomats addition gchq intercepting storing mass quantities fiber-optic traffic via tempora two principal components tempora called mastering internet mti global telecoms exploitation data preserved three days metadata kept thirty days data collected gchq tempora shared national security agency nsa united states 2001 2011 nsa collected vast amounts metadata records detailing email internet usage americans via stellar wind later terminated due operational resource constraints subsequently replaced newer surveillance programs shelltrumpet processed one trillionth metadata record end december 2012 nsa follows specific procedures target non-u.s. persons minimize data collection u.s. persons court-approved policies allow nsa according boundless informant 97 billion pieces intelligence collected 30-day period ending march 2013 97 billion sets information 3 billion data sets originated u.s. computer networks around 500 million metadata records collected german networks august 2013 revealed bundesnachrichtendienst bnd germany transfers massive amounts metadata records nsa der spiegel disclosed germany targeted country 27 members european union due nsa systematic monitoring storage germany telephone internet connection data according magazine nsa stores data around half billion communications connections germany month data includes telephone calls emails mobile-phone text messages chat transcripts nsa gained massive amounts information captured monitored data traffic europe example december 2013 nsa gathered average day metadata 15 million telephone connections 10 million internet datasets nsa also monitored european commission brussels monitored eu diplomatic facilities washington united nations placing bugs offices well infiltrating computer networks u.s. government made part upstream data collection program deals companies ensure access hence capability surveil undersea fiber-optic cables deliver e-mails web pages electronic communications phone calls one continent another speed light according brazilian newspaper globo nsa spied millions emails calls brazilian citizens australia new zealand involved joint operation nsa global analytical system xkeyscore among numerous allied facilities contributing xkeyscore four installations australia one new zealand globo released nsa document titled revealed specific locations codenames fornsat intercept stations 2002 according edward snowden nsa established secret intelligence partnerships many western governments foreign affairs directorate fad nsa responsible partnerships according snowden organized foreign governments insulate political leaders public outrage event global surveillance partnerships leaked interview published der spiegel snowden accused nsa bed together germans nsa granted german intelligence agencies bnd foreign intelligence bfv domestic intelligence access controversial xkeyscore system return bnd turned copies two systems named mira4 veras reported exceed nsa sigint capabilities certain areas every day massive amounts metadata records collected bnd transferred nsa via bad aibling station near munich germany december 2012 alone bnd handed 500 million metadata records nsa document dated january 2013 nsa acknowledged efforts bnd undermine privacy laws according nsa document dated april 2013 germany become nsa prolific partner section separate document leaked snowden titled success stories nsa acknowledged efforts german government expand bnd international data sharing partners addition german government well aware prism surveillance program long edward snowden made details public according angela merkel spokesman steffen seibert two separate prism programs – one used nsa used nato forces afghanistan two programs identical guardian revealed details nsa xkeyscore tool allows government analysts search vast databases containing emails online chats browsing histories millions individuals without prior authorization microsoft developed surveillance capability deal interception encrypted chats outlook.com within five months service went testing nsa access outlook.com emails prism collects data prior encryption addition microsoft worked fbi enable nsa gain access cloud storage service skydrive internal nsa document dating august 3 2012 described prism surveillance program team sport even reason suspect u.s. citizens wrongdoing cia national counterterrorism center allowed examine federal government files possible criminal behavior previously ntc barred unless person terror suspect related investigation snowden also confirmed stuxnet cooperatively developed united states israel report unrelated edward snowden french newspaper le monde revealed france dgse also undertaking mass surveillance described illegal outside serious control documents leaked edward snowden seen süddeutsche zeitung sz norddeutscher rundfunk revealed several telecom operators played key role helping british intelligence agency government communications headquarters gchq tap worldwide fiber-optic communications telecom operators assigned particular area international fiber-optic network individually responsible following networks infiltrated gchq tat-14 europe-usa atlantic crossing 1 europe-usa circe south france-uk circe north netherlands-uk flag atlantic-1 flag europa-asia sea-me-we 3 southeast asia-middle east-western europe sea-me-we 4 southeast asia-middle east-western europe solas ireland-uk uk-france 3 uk-netherlands 14 ulysses europe-uk yellow uk-usa pan european crossing telecommunication companies participated forced choice matter companies subsequently paid gchq participation infiltration cables according sz gchq access majority internet telephone communications flowing throughout europe listen phone calls read emails text messages see websites internet users around world visiting also retain analyse nearly entire european internet traffic gchq collecting data transmitted united kingdom northern europe via undersea fibre optic telecommunications cable sea-me-we 3 security intelligence division sid singapore co-operates australia accessing sharing communications carried sea-me-we-3 cable australian signals directorate asd also partnership british american singaporean intelligence agencies tap undersea fibre optic telecommunications cables link asia middle east europe carry much australia international phone internet traffic u.s. runs top-secret surveillance program known special collection service scs based 80 u.s. consulates embassies worldwide nsa hacked united nations video conferencing system summer 2012 violation un agreement nsa intercepting communications americans direct contact foreigners targeted overseas also searching contents vast amounts e-mail text communications country americans mention information foreigners surveillance also spied al jazeera gained access internal communications systems nsa built surveillance network capacity reach roughly 75 u.s. internet traffic u.s. law-enforcement agencies use tools used computer hackers gather information suspects internal nsa audit may 2012 identified 2776 incidents i.e violations rules court orders surveillance americans foreign targets u.s. period april 2011 march 2012 u.s. officials stressed mistakes intentional fisa court supposed provide critical oversight u.s. government vast spying programs limited ability must trust government report improperly spies americans legal opinion declassified august 21 2013 revealed nsa intercepted three years many 56,000 electronic communications year americans suspected links terrorism fisa court oversees surveillance found operation unconstitutional 2011 corporate partner access project major u.s. telecommunications providers receive hundreds millions dollars year nsa voluntary cooperation nsa providers global communications took 1970s cover name blarney letter drafted obama administration specifically inform congress government mass collection americans telephone communications data withheld lawmakers leaders house intelligence committee months key vote affecting future program nsa paid gchq £100 million 2009 2012 exchange funds gchq must pull weight seen pull weight documents referenced article explain weaker british laws regarding spying selling point nsa gchq also developing technology exploit mobile phone time nsa legal authority secret backdoor databases gathered large internet companies enabling search u.s. citizens email phone calls without warrant privacy civil liberties oversight board urged u.s. intelligence chiefs draft stronger us surveillance guidelines domestic spying finding several guidelines updated 30 years u.s. intelligence analysts deliberately broken rules designed prevent spying americans choosing ignore so-called minimisation procedures aimed protecting privacy used nsa agency enormous eavesdropping power spy love interests u.s. foreign secret intelligence court ruled october 2011 nsa activities unconstitutional agency paid millions dollars major internet companies cover extra costs incurred involvement prism surveillance program mastering internet mti part interception modernisation programme imp british government involves insertion thousands dpi deep packet inspection black boxes various internet service providers revealed british media 2009 2013 revealed nsa made £17.2 million financial contribution project capable vacuuming signals 200 fibre-optic cables physical points entry great britain guardian new york times reported secret documents leaked snowden showing nsa collaboration technology companies part aggressive multipronged effort weaken encryption used commercial software gchq team dedicated cracking hotmail google yahoo facebook traffic germany domestic security agency bundesverfassungsschutz bfv systematically transfers personal data german residents nsa cia seven members united states intelligence community exchange information espionage software israel sweden italy also cooperating american british intelligence agencies secret treaty codenamed lustre french intelligence agencies transferred millions metadata records nsa obama administration secretly permission foreign intelligence surveillance court 2011 reverse restrictions national security agency use intercepted phone calls e-mails permitting agency search deliberately americans communications massive databases searches take place surveillance program congress authorized 2008 section 702 foreign intelligence surveillance act law target must foreigner reasonably believed outside united states court must approve targeting procedures order good one year warrant target would thus longer required means communications americans could picked without court first determining probable cause people talking terrorists spies foreign powers fisc extended length time nsa allowed retain intercepted u.s. communications five years six years extension possible foreign intelligence counterintelligence purposes measures done without public debate specific authority congress special branch nsa called follow money ftm monitors international payments banking credit card transactions later stores collected data nsa financial databank tracfin nsa monitored communications brazil president dilma rousseff top aides agency also spied brazil oil firm petrobras well french diplomats gained access private network ministry foreign affairs france swift network united states nsa uses analysis phone call e-mail logs american citizens create sophisticated graphs social connections identify associates locations certain times traveling companions personal information nsa routinely shares raw intelligence data israel without first sifting remove information u.s. citizens effort codenamed genie computer specialists control foreign computer networks using covert implants form remotely transmitted malware tens thousands devices annually worldwide sales smartphones began exceeding feature phones nsa decided take advantage smartphone boom particularly advantageous smartphone combines myriad data would interest intelligence agency social contacts user behavior interests location photos credit card numbers passwords internal nsa report 2010 stated spread smartphone occurring extremely rapidly —developments certainly complicate traditional target analysis according document nsa set task forces assigned several smartphone manufacturers operating systems including apple inc. iphone ios operating system well google android mobile operating system similarly britain gchq assigned team study crack blackberry heading iphone capability document notes smaller nsa programs known scripts perform surveillance 38 different features ios 3 ios 4 operating systems include mapping feature voicemail photos well google earth facebook yahoo messenger september 9 2013 internal nsa presentation iphone location services published der spiegel one slide shows scenes apple 1984 -themed television commercial alongside words knew 1984 ... another shows steve jobs holding iphone text ... would big brother ... third shows happy consumers iphones completing question ... zombies would paying customers october 4 2013 washington post guardian jointly reported nsa gchq made repeated attempts spy anonymous internet users communicating secret via anonymity network tor several surveillance operations involved implantation malicious code computers tor users visit particular websites nsa gchq partly succeeded blocking access anonymous network diverting tor users insecure channels government agencies also able uncover identity anonymous internet users communications security establishment cse using program called olympia map communications brazil mines energy ministry targeting metadata phone calls emails ministry australian federal government knew prism surveillance program months edward snowden made details public nsa gathered hundreds millions contact lists personal e-mail instant messaging accounts around world agency target individuals instead collected contact lists large numbers amount sizable fraction world e-mail instant messaging accounts analysis data enables agency search hidden connections map relationships within much smaller universe foreign intelligence targets nsa monitored public email account former mexican president felipe calderón thus gaining access communications high-ranking cabinet members emails several high-ranking members mexico security forces text mobile phone communication current mexican president enrique peña nieto nsa tries gather cellular landline phone numbers—often obtained american diplomats—for many foreign officials possible contents phone calls stored computer databases regularly searched using keywords nsa monitoring telephone conversations 35 world leaders u.s. government first public acknowledgment tapped phones world leaders reported october 28 2013 wall street journal internal u.s. government review turned nsa monitoring 35 world leaders gchq tried keep mass surveillance program secret feared damaging public debate scale activities could lead legal challenges guardian revealed nsa monitoring telephone conversations 35 world leaders given numbers official another u.s. government department confidential memo revealed nsa encouraged senior officials departments white house state pentagon share rolodexes agency could add telephone numbers leading foreign politicians surveillance systems reacting news german leader angela merkel arriving brussels eu summit accused u.s. breach trust saying need trust allies partners must established repeat spying among friends acceptable anyone goes every citizen germany nsa collected 2010 data ordinary americans cellphone locations later discontinued operational value britain muscular programme nsa gchq secretly broken main communications links connect yahoo google data centers around world thereby gained ability collect metadata content hundreds millions user accounts mobile phone german chancellor angela merkel might tapped u.s. intelligence according spiegel monitoring goes back 2002 ended summer 2013 new york times reported germany evidence nsa surveillance merkel began george w. bush tenure learning der spiegel magazine nsa listening personal mobile phone merkel compared snooping practices nsa stasi reported march 2014 der spiegel merkel also placed nsa surveillance list alongside 122 world leaders october 31 2013 hans-christian ströbele member german bundestag met snowden moscow revealed former intelligence contractor readiness brief german government nsa spying highly sensitive signals intelligence collection program known stateroom involves interception radio telecommunications internet traffic operated diplomatic missions five eyes australia britain canada new zealand united states numerous locations around world program conducted u.s. diplomatic missions run concert u.s. intelligence agencies nsa cia joint venture group called special collection service scs whose members work undercover shielded areas american embassies consulates officially accredited diplomats enjoy special privileges diplomatic protection able look listen unhindered scs example used american embassy near brandenburg gate berlin monitor communications germany government district parliament seat government stateroom surveillance programme australia operates clandestine surveillance facilities intercept phone calls data across much asia france nsa targeted people belonging worlds business politics french state administration nsa monitored recorded content telephone communications history connections target i.e metadata actual surveillance operation performed french intelligence agencies behalf nsa cooperation france nsa confirmed director nsa keith b. alexander asserted foreign intelligence services collected phone records war zones areas outside borders provided nsa french newspaper le monde also disclosed new prism upstream slides see page 4 7 8 coming prism/us-984xn overview presentation spain nsa intercepted telephone conversations text messages emails millions spaniards spied members spanish government december 10 2012 january 8 2013 nsa collected metadata 60 million telephone calls spain according documents leaked snowden surveillance spanish citizens jointly conducted nsa intelligence agencies spain new york times reported nsa carries eavesdropping effort dubbed operation dreadnought iranian leader ayatollah ali khamenei 2009 visit iranian kurdistan agency collaborated gchq u.s. national geospatial-intelligence agency collecting radio transmissions aircraft airports examining khamenei convoy satellite imagery enumerating military radar stations according story objective operation communications fingerprinting ability distinguish khamenei communications people iran story revealed operation code-named ironavenger nsa intercepted e-mails sent country allied united states government adversary ally conducting spear-phishing attack e-mails contained malware nsa gathered documents login credentials belonging enemy country along knowledge ally capabilities attacking computers according british newspaper independent british intelligence agency gchq maintains listening post roof british embassy berlin capable intercepting mobile phone calls wi-fi data long-distance communications german capital including adjacent government buildings reichstag seat german parliament chancellery seat germany head government clustered around brandenburg gate operating code-name quantum insert gchq set fake website masquerading linkedin social website used professional networking part efforts install surveillance software computers telecommunications operator belgacom addition headquarters oil cartel opec infiltrated gchq well nsa bugged computers nine opec employees monitored general secretary opec three years gchq using automated monitoring system code-named royal concierge infiltrate reservation systems least 350 prestigious hotels many different parts world order target search analyze reservations detect diplomats government officials first tested 2010 aim royal concierge track travel plans diplomats often supplemented surveillance methods related human intelligence humint covert operations include wiretapping room telephones fax machines used targeted hotels well monitoring computers hooked hotel network november 2013 australian broadcasting corporation guardian revealed australian signals directorate dsd attempted listen private phone calls president indonesia wife indonesian foreign minister marty natalegawa confirmed president contacted ambassador canberra natalegawa said tapping indonesian politicians personal phones violates every single decent legal instrument think of—national indonesia national australia international well high-ranking indonesian politicians targeted dsd include carrying title 3g impact update classified presentation leaked snowden revealed attempts asd/dsd keep pace rollout 3g technology indonesia across southeast asia asd/dsd motto placed bottom page reads reveal secrets—protect secret deal approved british intelligence officials nsa storing analyzing internet email records uk citizens since 2007 nsa also proposed 2005 procedure spying citizens uk five-eyes nations alliance even partner government explicitly denied u.s. permission proposal partner countries must neither informed particular type surveillance procedure towards end november new york times released internal nsa report outlining agency efforts expand surveillance abilities five-page document asserts law united states kept needs nsa conduct mass surveillance golden age signals intelligence grounds optimism nsa words report titled sigint strategy 2012–2016 also said u.s. try influence global commercial encryption market commercial relationships emphasized need revolutionize analysis vast data collection radically increase operational impact november 23 2013 dutch newspaper nrc handelsblad reported netherlands targeted u.s. intelligence agencies immediate aftermath world war ii period surveillance lasted 1946 1968 also included interception communications european countries including belgium france west germany norway dutch newspaper also reported nsa infected 50,000 computer networks worldwide often covertly malicious spy software sometimes cooperation local authorities designed steal sensitive information according classified documents leaked snowden australian signals directorate asd formerly known defence signals directorate offered share intelligence information collected intelligence agencies ukusa agreement data shared foreign countries include bulk unselected unminimised metadata collected asd provided information condition australian citizens targeted time asd assessed unintentional collection metadata australian nationals viewed significant issue target later identified australian national asd required contacted ensure warrant could sought consideration given whether medical legal religious information would automatically treated differently types data however decision made agency would make determinations case-by-case basis leaked material specify asd collected intelligence information however section 7 intelligence services act 2001 commonwealth states asd role ... obtain intelligence capabilities intentions activities people organisations outside australia ... possible asd metadata intelligence holdings focused foreign intelligence collection within bounds australian law washington post revealed nsa tracking locations mobile phones world tapping cables connect mobile networks globally serve u.s. cellphones well foreign ones process nsa collects five billion records phone locations daily basis enables nsa analysts map cellphone owners relationships correlating patterns movement time thousands millions phone users cross paths washington post also reported gchq nsa make use location data advertising tracking files generated normal internet browsing cookies operated google known pref pinpoint targets government hacking bolster surveillance norwegian intelligence service nis cooperates nsa gained access russian targets kola peninsula civilian targets general nis provides information nsa politicians energy armament top secret memo nsa lists following years milestones norway–united states america sigint agreement norus agreement nsa considers nis one reliable partners agencies also cooperate crack encryption systems mutual targets according nsa norway made objections requests nis december 5 sveriges television reported national defence radio establishment fra conducting clandestine surveillance operation sweden targeting internal politics russia operation conducted behalf nsa receiving data handed fra swedish-american surveillance operation also targeted russian energy interests well baltic states part ukusa agreement secret treaty signed 1954 sweden united states united kingdom canada australia new zealand regarding collaboration intelligence sharing result snowden disclosures notion swedish neutrality international politics called question internal document dating year 2006 nsa acknowledged relationship sweden protected top secret level nation political neutrality specific details sweden cooperation members ukusa agreement include according documents leaked snowden special source operations nsa sharing information containing logins cookies googleprefid tailored access operations division nsa well britain gchq agency 2010 g-20 toronto summit u.s. embassy ottawa transformed security command post six-day spying operation conducted nsa closely coordinated communications security establishment canada csec goal spying operation among others obtain information international development banking reform counter trade protectionism support u.s. policy goals behalf nsa csec set covert spying posts 20 countries around world italy special collection service nsa maintains two separate surveillance posts rome milan according secret nsa memo dated september 2010 italian embassy washington d.c. targeted two spy operations nsa due concerns terrorist criminal networks may secretly communicating via computer games nsa gchq cia fbi conducting surveillance scooping data networks many online games including massively multiplayer online role-playing games mmorpgs world warcraft well virtual worlds second life xbox gaming console nsa cracked commonly used cellphone encryption technology a5/1 according classified document leaked snowden agency process encrypted a5/1 even acquired encryption key addition nsa uses various types cellphone infrastructure links carrier networks determine location cellphone user tracked visitor location registers us district court judge district columbia richard leon declared december 16 2013 mass collection metadata americans telephone records national security agency probably violates fourth amendment prohibition unreasonable searches seizures leon granted request preliminary injunction blocks collection phone data two private plaintiffs larry klayman conservative lawyer charles strange father cryptologist killed afghanistan helicopter shot 2011 ordered government destroy records gathered judge stayed action ruling pending government appeal recognizing 68-page opinion significant national security interests stake case novelty constitutional issues however federal judge william h. pauley iii new york city ruled u.s. government global telephone data-gathering system needed thwart potential terrorist attacks work everyone calls swept u.s. district judge pauley also ruled congress legally set program violate anyone constitutional rights judge also concluded telephone data swept nsa belong telephone users telephone companies ruled nsa obtains data telephone companies probes find links callers potential terrorists use data even search fourth amendment also concluded controlling precedent smith v. maryland smith bedrock holding individual legitimate expectation privacy information provided third parties judge pauley wrote american civil liberties union declared january 2 2012 appeal judge pauley ruling nsa bulk phone record collection legal government legitimate interest tracking associations suspected terrorists tracking associations require government subject every citizen permanent surveillance deputy aclu legal director jameel jaffer said statement recent years american british intelligence agencies conducted surveillance 1,100 targets including office israeli prime minister heads international aid organizations foreign energy companies european union official involved antitrust battles american technology businesses catalog high-tech gadgets software developed nsa tailored access operations tao leaked german news magazine der spiegel dating 2008 catalog revealed existence special gadgets modified capture computer screenshots usb flash drives secretly fitted radio transmitters broadcast stolen data airwaves fake base stations intended intercept mobile phone signals well many secret devices software implants listed tailored access operations tao division nsa intercepted shipping deliveries computers laptops order install spyware physical implants electronic gadgets done close cooperation fbi cia nsa officials responded spiegel reports statement said tailored access operations unique national asset front lines enabling nsa defend nation allies tao work centred computer network exploitation support foreign intelligence collection separate disclosure unrelated snowden french trésor public runs certificate authority found issued fake certificates impersonating google order facilitate spying french government employees via man-in-the-middle attacks nsa working build powerful quantum computer capable breaking types encryption effort part us 79.7 million research program known penetrating hard targets involves extensive research carried large shielded rooms known faraday cages designed prevent electromagnetic radiation entering leaving currently nsa close producing basic building blocks allow agency gain complete quantum control two semiconductor qubits quantum computer successfully built would enable nsa unlock encryption protects data held banks credit card companies retailers brokerages governments health care providers according new york times nsa monitoring approximately 100,000 computers worldwide spy software named quantum quantum enables nsa conduct surveillance computers one hand also create digital highway launching cyberattacks hand among targets chinese russian military also trade institutions within european union nyt also reported nsa access alter computers connected internet secret technology use nsa since 2008 prerequisite physical insertion radio frequency hardware spy manufacturer unwitting user technology relies covert channel radio waves transmitted tiny circuit boards usb cards inserted surreptitiously computers cases sent briefcase-size relay station intelligence agencies set miles away target technology also transmit malware back infected computer channel 4 guardian revealed existence dishfire massive database nsa collects hundreds millions text messages daily basis gchq given full access database uses obtain personal information britons exploiting legal loophole day database receives stores following amounts data database supplemented analytical tool known prefer program processes sms messages extract types information including contacts missed call alerts privacy civil liberties oversight board report mass surveillance released january 23 2014 recommends end bulk telephone metadata i.e. bulk phone records – phone numbers dialed call times durations call content collection – collection program create special advocate involved cases fisa court judge release future past fisc decisions involve novel interpretations fisa significant questions law technology compliance according joint disclosure new york times guardian propublica nsa gchq begun working together collect store data dozens smartphone application software 2007 latest 2008 gchq report leaked snowden asserts anyone using google maps smartphone working support gchq system nsa gchq traded recipes various purposes grabbing location data journey plans made target uses google maps vacuuming address books buddy lists phone logs geographic data embedded photos posted mobile versions numerous social networks facebook flickr linkedin twitter services separate 20-page report dated 2012 gchq cited popular smartphone game angry birds example application could used extract user data taken together forms data collection would allow agencies collect vital information user life including home country current location geolocation age gender zip code marital status income ethnicity sexual orientation education level number children etc gchq document dated august 2012 provided details squeaky dolphin surveillance program enables gchq conduct broad real-time monitoring various social media features social media traffic youtube video views like button facebook blogspot/blogger visits without knowledge consent companies providing social media features agency squeaky dolphin program collect analyze utilize youtube facebook blogger data specific situations real time analysis purposes program also collects addresses billions videos watched daily well user information analysis purposes 2009 united nations climate change conference copenhagen nsa five eyes partners monitored communications delegates numerous countries done give policymakers negotiating advantage communications security establishment canada csec tracking canadian air passengers via free wi-fi services major canadian airport passengers exited airport terminal continued tracked showed wi-fi locations across canada csec document dated may 2012 agency described gained access two communications systems 300,000 users order pinpoint specific imaginary target operation executed behalf nsa trial run test new technology capable tracking target makes occasional forays cities/regions technology subsequently shared canada five eyes partners – australia new zealand britain united states according research süddeutsche zeitung tv network ndr mobile phone former german chancellor gerhard schröder monitored 2002 onwards reportedly government opposition military intervention iraq source latest information document leaked edward snowden document containing information national sigint requirement list nsrl previously interpreted referring angela merkel mobile however süddeutsche zeitung ndr claim confirmation nsa insiders surveillance authorisation pertains individual political post – 2002 still held schröder according research two media outlets schröder placed number 388 list contains names persons institutions put surveillance nsa gchq launched cyber-attack activist network anonymous using denial-of-service attack dos shut chatroom frequented network members spy attack dubbed rolling thunder conducted gchq unit known joint threat research intelligence group jtrig unit successfully uncovered true identities several anonymous members nsa section 215 bulk telephony metadata program seeks stockpile records calls made u.s. collecting less 30 percent americans call records inability keep pace explosion cellphone use according washington post controversial program permits nsa warrant granted secret foreign intelligence surveillance court record numbers length location every call participating carriers intercept reported u.s. government using primarily nsa surveillance target people drone strikes overseas report intercept author detail flawed methods used locate targets lethal drone strikes resulting deaths innocent people according washington post nsa analysts collectors i.e nsa personnel controls electronic surveillance equipment use nsa sophisticated surveillance capabilities track individual targets geographically real time drones tactical units aimed weaponry targets take unnamed us law firm reported mayer brown targeted australia asd according snowden documents asd offered hand intercepted communications nsa allowed government authorities able continue cover talks providing highly useful intelligence interested us customers nsa gchq documents revealed anti-secrecy organization wikileaks activist groups targeted government surveillance criminal prosecution particular ip addresses visitors wikileaks collected real time us government urged allies file criminal charges founder wikileaks julian assange due organization publication afghanistan war logs wikileaks organization designated malicious foreign actor quoting unnamed nsa official germany bild sonntag reported whilst president obama order stop spying merkel obeyed focus shifted bugging leading government business figures including interior minister thomas de maiziere close confidant merkel caitlin hayden security adviser president obama quoted newspaper report saying us made clear gathers intelligence exactly way states intercept reveals government agencies infiltrating online communities engaging false flag operations discredit targets among people nothing terrorism national security threats two main tactics currently used injection sorts false material onto internet order destroy reputation targets use social sciences techniques manipulate online discourse activism generate outcomes considers desirable guardian reported britain surveillance agency gchq aid national security agency intercepted stored webcam images millions internet users suspected wrongdoing surveillance program codenamed optic nerve collected still images yahoo webcam chats one image every five minutes bulk saved agency databases agency discovered surprising number people use webcam conversations show intimate parts body person estimating 3 11 yahoo webcam imagery harvested gchq contains undesirable nudity nsa built infrastructure enables covertly hack computers mass scale using automated systems reduce level human oversight process nsa relies automated system codenamed turbine essence enables automated management control large network implants form remotely transmitted malware selected individual computer devices bulk tens thousands devices quoted intercept turbine designed allow current implant network scale large size millions implants creating system automated control implants groups instead individually nsa shared many files use implants counterparts so-called five eyes surveillance alliance – united kingdom canada new zealand australia among things due turbine control implants nsa capable turbine implants linked relies upon large network clandestine surveillance sensors nsa installed locations across world including agency headquarters maryland eavesdropping bases used agency misawa japan menwith hill england codenamed turmoil sensors operate sort high-tech surveillance dragnet monitoring packets data sent across internet turbine implants exfiltrate data infected computer systems turmoil sensors automatically identify data return nsa analysis targets communicating turmoil system used send alerts tips turbine enabling initiation malware attack identify surveillance targets nsa uses series data selectors flow across internet cables selectors include email addresses ip addresses unique cookies containing username identifying information sent user computer websites google facebook hotmail yahoo twitter unique google advertising cookies track browsing habits unique encryption key fingerprints traced specific user computer ids sent across internet windows computer crashes updates cia accused u.s. senate intelligence committee chairwoman dianne feinstein spying stand-alone computer network established committee investigation allegations cia abuse george w. bush-era detention interrogation program voice interception program codenamed mystic began 2009 along retro short retrospective retrieval retro voice audio recording buffer allows retrieval captured content 30 days past mystic program capable recording 100 percent foreign country telephone calls enabling nsa rewind review conversations 30 days relating metadata capability store 30 days recorded conversations mystic enables nsa pull instant history person movements associates plans march 21 le monde published slides internal presentation communications security establishment canada attributed piece malicious software french intelligence csec presentation concluded list malware victims matched french intelligence priorities found french cultural reference malware code including name babar popular french children character developer name titi french telecommunications corporation orange s.a. shares call data french intelligence agency dgse hands intercepted data gchq nsa spied chinese technology company huawei huawei leading manufacturer smartphones tablets mobile phone infrastructure wlan routers installs fiber optic cable according der spiegel kind technology … decisive nsa battle data supremacy nsa operation named shotgiant able access huawei email archive source code huawei communications products us government longstanding concerns huawei may independent people liberation army chinese government might use equipment manufactured huawei conduct cyberespionage cyberwarfare goals nsa operation assess relationship huawei pla learn chinese government plans use information huawei spy huawei customers including iran afghanistan pakistan kenya cuba former chinese president hu jintao chinese trade ministry banks well telecommunications companies also targeted nsa intercept published document nsa employee discussing build database ip addresses webmail facebook accounts associated system administrators nsa gain access networks systems administer end march 2014 der spiegel intercept published based series classified files archive provided reporters nsa whistleblower edward snowden articles related espionage efforts gchq nsa germany british gchq targeted three german internet firms information internet traffic passing internet exchange points important customers german internet providers technology suppliers well future technical trends business sector company employees nsa granted foreign intelligence surveillance court authority blanket surveillance germany people institutions regardless whether affected suspected committed offense without individualized court order specifying march 7 2013 addition germany chancellor angela merkel listed surveillance search machine database named nymrod along 121 others foreign leaders intercept wrote nsa uses nymrod system 'find information relating targets would otherwise tough track according internal nsa documents nymrod sifts secret reports based intercepted communications well full transcripts faxes phone calls communications collected computer systems 300 'cites merkel listed available intelligence reports transcripts nsa operatives read towards end april edward snowden said united states surveillance agencies spy americans anyone else world contrary anything said government point article published ars technica shows nsa tailored access operations tao employees intercepting cisco router intercept wikileaks revealed information countries communications collected part mystic surveillance program may 19 intercept reported nsa recording archiving nearly every cell phone conversation bahamas system called somalget subprogram mystic mass surveillance occurring without bahamian government permission aside bahamas intercept reported nsa interception cell phone metadata kenya philippines mexico fifth country name due credible concerns could lead increased violence wikileaks released statement may 23 claiming afghanistan unnamed nation statement responding revelations nsa said implication nsa foreign intelligence collection arbitrary unconstrained false global surveillance operations nsa exploits flood images included emails text messages social media videoconferences communications harvest millions images images used nsa sophisticated facial recognition programs track suspected terrorists intelligence targets vodafone revealed secret wires allowed government agencies direct access networks access require warrants direct access wire often equipment locked room six countries vodafone operates law requires telecommunication companies install access allows governments vodafone name countries case governments retaliated imprisoning staff shami chakrabarti liberty said governments access phone calls flick switch unprecedented terrifying snowden revealed internet already treated fair game bluster well wearing pretty thin – analogue laws need digital overhaul vodafone published first law enforcement disclosure report june 6 2014 vodafone group privacy officer stephen deadman said pipes exist direct access model exists making call end direct access means government agencies obtaining people communication data without official warrant external visibility receive demand push back agency fact government issue piece paper important constraint powers used gus hosein director privacy international said never thought telcos would complicit brave step vodafone hopefully telcos become brave disclosure need braver fighting back illegal requests laws above-top-secret documentation covert surveillance program named overseas processing centre 1 opc-1 codenamed circuit gchq published register based documents leaked edward snowden gchq taps undersea fiber optic cables via secret spy bases near strait hormuz yemen bt vodafone implicated danish newspaper dagbladet information intercept revealed june 19 2014 nsa mass surveillance program codenamed rampart-a rampart-a 'third party countries tap fiber optic cables carrying majority world electronic communications secretly allowing nsa install surveillance equipment fiber-optic cables foreign partners nsa turn massive amounts data like content phone calls faxes e-mails internet chats data virtual private networks calls made using voice ip software like skype nsa return partners receive access nsa sophisticated surveillance equipment spy mass data flows territory among partners participating nsa mass surveillance program denmark germany week july 4 31-year-old male employee germany intelligence service bnd arrested suspicion spying united states employee suspected spying german parliamentary committee investigating nsa spying scandal former nsa official whistleblower william binney spoke centre investigative journalism conference london according binney least 80 audio calls metadata recorded stored us nsa lies stores also stated majority fiber optic cables run u.s. accident allows us view communication coming washington post released review cache provided snowden containing roughly 160,000 text messages e-mails intercepted nsa 2009 2012 newspaper concluded nine ten account holders whose conversations recorded agency intended surveillance targets caught net agency cast somebody else analysis post also noted many account holders americans july 9 soldier working within germany federal ministry defence bmvg fell suspicion spying united states result july 4 case one german government expelled cia station chief germany july 17 july 18 former state department official john tye released editorial washington post highlighting concerns data collection executive order 12333 tye concerns rooted classified material access state department though publicly released classified materials intercept reported nsa secretly providing data nearly two dozen u.s. government agencies 'google-like search engine called icreach database intercept reported accessible domestic law enforcement agencies including fbi drug enforcement administration built contain 850 billion metadata records phone calls emails cellphone locations text messages based documents obtained snowden intercept reported nsa gchq broken internal computer network gemalto stolen encryption keys used sim cards later 2010. company world largest manufacturer sim cards making two billion cards year keys intelligence agencies could eavesdrop cell phones without knowledge mobile phone operators foreign governments new zealand herald partnership intercept revealed new zealand government used xkeyscore spy candidates position world trade organization director general also members solomon islands government january 2015 dea revealed collecting metadata records telephone calls made americans 116 countries linked drug trafficking dea program separate telephony metadata programs run nsa april usa today reported dea data collection program began 1992 included telephone calls united states canada mexico current former dea officials described program precursor nsa similar programs dea said program suspended september 2013 review nsa programs ultimately terminated snowden provided journalists intercept gchq documents regarding another secret program karma police calling world biggest data mining operation formed create profiles every visible internet user browsing habits 2009 stored 1.1 trillion web browsing sessions 2012 recording 50 billion sessions per day 2017 disclosures wikileaks dubbed vault7 disclosure provided impetus creation social movements mass surveillance restore fourth actions like stop watching us day fight back legal front electronic frontier foundation joined coalition diverse groups filing suit nsa several human rights organizations urged obama administration prosecute protect whistleblower snowden amnesty international human rights watch transparency international index censorship among others economic front several consumer surveys registered drop online shopping banking activity result snowden revelations domestically president barack obama claimed spying americans white house press secretary jay carney asserted surveillance programs revealed snowden authorized congress international front u.s. attorney general eric holder stated target even foreign persons overseas without valid foreign intelligence purpose prime minister david cameron warned journalists n't demonstrate social responsibility difficult government stand back act deputy prime minister nick clegg emphasized media absolutely defend principle secrecy intelligence agencies foreign secretary william hague claimed take great care balance individual privacy duty safeguard public uk national security hague defended five eyes alliance reiterated british-u.s. intelligence relationship must endangered saved many lives former prime minister tony abbott stated every australian governmental agency every australian official home abroad operates accordance law abbott criticized australian broadcasting corporation unpatriotic due reporting documents provided snowden abbott described traitor foreign minister julie bishop also denounced snowden traitor accused unprecedented treachery bishop defended five eyes alliance reiterated australian–u.s intelligence relationship must endangered saves lives july 2013 chancellor angela merkel defended surveillance practices nsa described united states truest ally throughout decades nsa surveillance merkel revealed however chancellor compared nsa stasi according guardian berlin using controversy nsa spying leverage enter exclusive five eyes alliance interior minister hans-peter friedrich stated americans take data privacy concerns seriously testifying german parliament friedrich defended nsa surveillance cited five terrorist plots german soil prevented nsa however april 2014 another german interior minister criticized united states failing provide sufficient assurances germany reined spying tactics thomas de maiziere close ally merkel told der spiegel u.s. intelligence methods may justified large extent security needs tactics excessive over-the-top minister foreign affairs carl bildt defended fra described surveillance practices national necessity minister defence karin enström said sweden intelligence exchange countries critical security intelligence operations occur within framework clear legislation strict controls parliamentary oversight interior minister ronald plasterk apologized incorrectly claiming nsa collected 1.8 million records metadata netherlands plasterk acknowledged fact dutch intelligence services collected records transferred nsa danish prime minister helle thorning-schmidt praised american intelligence agencies claiming prevented terrorist attacks denmark expressed personal belief danish people grateful americans surveillance later claimed danish authorities basis assuming american intelligence agencies performed illegal spying activities towards denmark danish interests july 2013 german government announced extensive review germany intelligence services august 2013 u.s. government announced extensive review u.s. intelligence services october 2013 british government announced extensive review british intelligence services december 2013 canadian government announced extensive review canada intelligence services january 2014 u.s. president barack obama said sensational way disclosures come often shed heat light critics sean wilentz claimed nsa acted far responsibly claims made leakers publicized press wilentz view leakers gone far beyond justifiably blowing whistle abusive programs addition alarmism u.s. domestic surveillance many snowden documents released thus far nothing whatsoever domestic surveillance edward lucas former moscow bureau chief economist agreed asserting snowden revelations neatly suspiciously fits interests one country russia citing masha gessen statement russian propaganda machine gotten much mileage us citizen since angela davis murder trial 1971 bob cesca objected new york times failing redact name nsa employee specific location al qaeda group targeted series slides paper made publicly available russian journalist andrei soldatov argued snowden revelations negative consequences internet freedom russia russian authorities increased surveillance regulation pretext protecting privacy russian users snowden name invoked russian legislators supported measures forcing platforms google facebook twitter gmail youtube locate servers russian soil install sorm black boxes servers russian authorities could control soldatov also contended result disclosures international support national governments take powers organizations involved coordinating internet global architectures grown could lead balkanization internet restricted free access information montevideo statement future internet cooperation issued october 2013 icann organizations warned internet fragmentation national level expressed strong concern undermining trust confidence internet users globally due recent revelations late 2014 freedom house said ome states using revelations widespread surveillance u.s. national security agency nsa excuse augment monitoring capabilities frequently little oversight often aimed political opposition human rights activists 1-hop neighbor's text information: national_security_agency.national security agency national security agency nsa national-level intelligence agency united states department defense authority director national intelligence nsa responsible global monitoring collection processing information data foreign domestic intelligence counterintelligence purposes specializing discipline known signals intelligence sigint nsa also tasked protection u.s. communications networks information systems nsa relies variety measures accomplish mission majority clandestine originating unit decipher coded communications world war ii officially formed nsa president harry s. truman 1952 since become largest u.s. intelligence organizations terms personnel budget nsa currently conducts worldwide mass data collection known physically bug electronic systems one method end nsa also alleged behind attack software stuxnet severely damaged iran nuclear program nsa alongside central intelligence agency cia maintains physical presence many countries across globe cia/nsa joint special collection service highly classified intelligence team inserts eavesdropping devices high value targets presidential palaces embassies scs collection tactics allegedly encompass close surveillance burglary wiretapping breaking entering unlike cia defense intelligence agency dia specialize primarily foreign human espionage nsa publicly conduct human-source intelligence gathering nsa entrusted providing assistance coordination sigint elements government organizations – prevented law engaging activities part responsibilities agency co-located organization called central security service css facilitates cooperation nsa u.s. defense cryptanalysis components ensure streamlined communication signals intelligence community divisions nsa director simultaneously serves commander united states cyber command chief central security service nsa actions matter political controversy several occasions including spying anti-vietnam-war leaders agency participation economic espionage 2013 nsa many secret surveillance programs revealed public edward snowden former nsa contractor according leaked documents nsa intercepts stores communications billion people worldwide including united states citizens documents also revealed nsa tracks hundreds millions people movements using cellphones metadata internationally research pointed nsa ability surveil domestic internet traffic foreign countries boomerang routing origins national security agency traced back april 28 1917 three weeks u.s. congress declared war germany world war code cipher decryption unit established cable telegraph section also known cipher bureau headquartered washington d.c. part war effort executive branch without direct congressional authorization course war relocated army organizational chart several times july 5 1917 herbert o. yardley assigned head unit point unit consisted yardley two civilian clerks absorbed navy cryptanalysis functions july 1918 world war ended november 11 1918 army cryptographic section military intelligence mi-8 moved new york city may 20 1919 continued intelligence activities code compilation company direction yardley disbandment u.s. army cryptographic section military intelligence known mi-8 1919 u.s. government created cipher bureau also known black chamber black chamber united states first peacetime cryptanalytic organization jointly funded army state department cipher bureau disguised new york city commercial code company actually produced sold codes business use true mission however break communications chiefly diplomatic nations notable known success washington naval conference aided american negotiators considerably providing decrypted traffic many conference delegations notably japanese black chamber successfully persuaded western union largest u.s. telegram company time well several communications companies illegally give black chamber access cable traffic foreign embassies consulates soon companies publicly discontinued collaboration despite chamber initial successes shut 1929 u.s. secretary state henry l. stimson defended decision stating gentlemen read mail world war ii signal intelligence service sis created intercept decipher communications axis powers war ended sis reorganized army security agency asa placed leadership director military intelligence may 20 1949 cryptologic activities centralized national organization called armed forces security agency afsa organization originally established within u.s. department defense command joint chiefs staff afsa tasked direct department defense communications electronic intelligence activities except u.s. military intelligence units however afsa unable centralize communications intelligence failed coordinate civilian agencies shared interests department state central intelligence agency cia federal bureau investigation fbi december 1951 president harry s. truman ordered panel investigate afsa failed achieve goals results investigation led improvements redesignation national security agency agency formally established truman memorandum october 24 1952 revised national security council intelligence directive nscid 9 since president truman memo classified document existence nsa known public time due ultra-secrecy u.s. intelligence community referred nsa agency 1960s nsa played key role expanding u.s. commitment vietnam war providing evidence north vietnamese attack american destroyer gulf tonkin incident secret operation code-named minaret set nsa monitor phone communications senators frank church howard baker well major civil rights leaders including martin luther king jr. prominent u.s. journalists athletes criticized vietnam war however project turned controversial internal review nsa concluded minaret program disreputable outright illegal nsa mounted major effort secure tactical communications among u.s. forces war mixed success nestor family compatible secure voice systems developed widely deployed vietnam war 30,000 nestor sets produced however variety technical operational problems limited use allowing north vietnamese exploit intercept u.s. communications aftermath watergate scandal congressional hearing 1975 led senator frank church revealed nsa collaboration britain sigint intelligence agency government communications headquarters gchq routinely intercepted international communications prominent anti-vietnam war leaders jane fonda dr. benjamin spock agency tracked individuals secret filing system destroyed 1974 following resignation president richard nixon several investigations suspected misuse fbi cia nsa facilities senator frank church uncovered previously unknown activity cia plot ordered administration president john f. kennedy assassinate fidel castro investigation also uncovered nsa wiretaps targeted u.s. citizens church committee hearings foreign intelligence surveillance act 1978 passed law designed limit practice mass surveillance united states 1986 nsa intercepted communications libyan government immediate aftermath berlin discotheque bombing white house asserted nsa interception provided irrefutable evidence libya behind bombing u.s. president ronald reagan cited justification 1986 united states bombing libya 1999 multi-year investigation european parliament highlighted nsa role economic espionage report entitled 'development surveillance technology risk abuse economic information year nsa founded nsa hall honor memorial national cryptologic museum fort meade maryland memorial tribute pioneers heroes made significant long-lasting contributions american cryptology nsa employees must retired fifteen years qualify memorial nsa infrastructure deteriorated 1990s defense budget cuts resulted maintenance deferrals january 24 2000 nsa headquarters suffered total network outage three days caused overloaded network incoming traffic successfully stored agency servers could directed processed agency carried emergency repairs cost 3 million get system running incoming traffic also directed instead britain gchq time director michael hayden called outage wake-up call need invest agency infrastructure 1990s defensive arm nsa – information assurance directorate iad – started working openly first public technical talk nsa scientist major cryptography conference j. solinas presentation efficient elliptic curve cryptography algorithms crypto 1997 iad cooperative approach academia industry culminated support transparent process replacing outdated data encryption standard des advanced encryption standard aes cybersecurity policy expert susan landau attributes nsa harmonious collaboration industry academia selection aes 2000 — agency support choice strong encryption algorithm designed europeans rather americans — brian snow technical director iad represented nsa cochairman technical working group aes competition michael jacobs headed iad time terrorist attacks september 11 2001 nsa believed public support dramatic expansion surveillance activities according neal koblitz alfred menezes period nsa trusted partner academia industry development cryptographic standards started come end part change nsa post-september 11 era snow replaced technical director jacobs retired iad could longer effectively oppose proposed actions offensive arm nsa aftermath september 11 attacks nsa created new systems deal flood information new technologies like internet cellphones thinthread contained advanced data mining capabilities also privacy mechanism surveillance stored encrypted decryption required warrant research done program may contributed technology used later systems thinthread cancelled michael hayden chose trailblazer include thinthread privacy system trailblazer project ramped 2002 worked science applications international corporation saic boeing computer sciences corporation ibm litton industries nsa whistleblowers complained internally major problems surrounding trailblazer led investigations congress nsa dod inspectors general project cancelled early 2004 turbulence started 2005 developed small inexpensive test pieces rather one grand plan like trailblazer also included offensive cyber-warfare capabilities like injecting malware remote computers congress criticized turbulence 2007 similar bureaucratic problems trailblazer realization information processing higher speeds cyberspace massive extent nsa spying foreign domestic revealed public series detailed disclosures internal nsa documents beginning june 2013 disclosures leaked former nsa contractor edward snowden nsa eavesdropping mission includes radio broadcasting various organizations individuals internet telephone calls intercepted forms communication secure communications mission includes military diplomatic sensitive confidential secret government communications according 2010 article washington post e day collection systems national security agency intercept store 1.7 billion e-mails phone calls types communications nsa sorts fraction 70 separate databases listening task nsa/css heavily involved cryptanalytic research continuing work predecessor agencies broken many world war ii codes ciphers see instance purple venona project jn-25 2004 nsa central security service national cyber security division department homeland security dhs agreed expand nsa centers academic excellence information assurance education program part national security presidential directive 54/homeland security presidential directive 23 nspd 54 signed january 8 2008 president bush nsa became lead agency monitor protect federal government computer networks cyber-terrorism operations national security agency divided three types echelon created incubator cold war today legacy system several nsa stations closing nsa/css combination equivalent agencies united kingdom government communications headquarters canada communications security establishment australia defence signals directorate new zealand government communications security bureau otherwise known ukusa group reported command operation so-called echelon system capabilities suspected include ability monitor large proportion world transmitted civilian telephone fax data traffic early 1970s first became eight large satellite communications dishes installed menwith hill investigative journalist duncan campbell reported 1988 echelon surveillance program extension ukusa agreement global signals intelligence sigint detailed eavesdropping operations worked november 3 1999 bbc reported confirmation australian government existence powerful global spying network code-named echelon could eavesdrop every single phone call fax e-mail anywhere planet britain united states chief protagonists confirmed menwith hill linked directly headquarters us national security agency nsa fort meade maryland nsa united states signals intelligence directive 18 ussid 18 strictly prohibited interception collection information ... u.s. persons entities corporations organizations ... without explicit written legal permission united states attorney general subject located abroad foreign intelligence surveillance court within u.s. borders alleged echelon-related activities including use motives national security including political industrial espionage received criticism countries outside ukusa alliance nsa also involved planning blackmail people sexint intelligence gained potential target sexual activity preferences targeted committed apparent crime charged one order support facial recognition program nsa intercepting millions images per day real time regional gateway data collection program introduced 2005 iraq nsa iraq war consisted gathering electronic communication storing searching otherwise analyzing effective providing information iraqi insurgents eluded less comprehensive techniques collect strategy introduced nsa director keith b. alexander believed glenn greenwald guardian model comprehensive worldwide mass archiving communications nsa engaged 2013 dedicated unit nsa locates targets cia extrajudicial assassination middle east nsa also spied extensively european union united nations numerous governments including allies trading partners europe south america asia june 2015 wikileaks published documents showing nsa spied french companies july 2015 wikileaks published documents showing nsa spied federal german ministries since 1990s even germany chancellor angela merkel cellphones phone predecessors intercepted edward snowden revealed june 2013 february 8 march 8 2013 nsa collected 124.8 billion telephone data items 97.1 billion computer data items throughout world displayed charts internal nsa tool codenamed boundless informant initially reported data reflected eavesdropping citizens countries like germany spain france later became clear data collected european agencies military missions abroad subsequently shared nsa 2013 reporters uncovered secret memo claims nsa created pushed adoption dual ec drbg encryption standard contained built-in vulnerabilities 2006 united states national institute standards technology nist international organization standardization aka iso memo appears give credence previous speculation cryptographers microsoft research edward snowden claims nsa often bypasses encryption altogether lifting information encrypted decrypted xkeyscore rules specified file xkeyscorerules100.txt sourced german tv stations ndr wdr claim excerpts source code reveal nsa tracks users privacy-enhancing software tools including tor anonymous email service provided mit computer science artificial intelligence laboratory csail cambridge massachusetts readers linux journal linus torvalds founder linux kernel joked linuxcon keynote september 18 2013 nsa founder selinux wanted backdoor kernel however later linus father member european parliament mep revealed nsa actually ibm notes first widely adopted software product use public key cryptography client–server server–server authentication encryption data us laws regulating encryption changed 2000 ibm lotus prohibited exporting versions notes supported symmetric encryption keys longer 40 bits 1997 lotus negotiated agreement nsa allowed export version supported stronger keys 64 bits 24 bits encrypted special key included message provide workload reduction factor nsa strengthened protection users notes outside us private-sector industrial espionage spying us government assumed foreign transmissions terminating u.s. non-u.s. citizen accessing u.s. website subject non-u.s. citizens nsa surveillance recent research boomerang routing raised new concerns nsa ability surveil domestic internet traffic foreign countries boomerang routing occurs internet transmission originates terminates single country transits another research university toronto suggested approximately 25 canadian domestic traffic may subject nsa surveillance activities result boomerang routing canadian internet service providers document included nsa files released glenn greenwald book place hide details agency tailored access operations tao nsa units gain access hardware intercept routers servers network hardware shipped organizations targeted surveillance install covert implant firmware onto delivered described nsa manager productive operations tao preposition access points hard target networks around world computers seized nsa due interdiction often modified physical device known cottonmouth cottonmouth device inserted usb port computer order establish remote access targeted machine according nsa tailored access operations tao group implant catalog implanting cottonmouth nsa establish network bridge allows nsa load exploit software onto modified computers well allowing nsa relay commands data hardware software implants nsa mission set forth executive order 12333 1981 collect information constitutes foreign intelligence counterintelligence acquiring information concerning domestic activities united states persons nsa declared relies fbi collect information foreign intelligence activities within borders united states confining activities within united states embassies missions foreign nations appearance 'domestic surveillance directorate nsa soon exposed hoax 2013 nsa domestic surveillance activities limited requirements imposed fourth amendment u.s. constitution foreign intelligence surveillance court example held october 2011 citing multiple supreme court precedents fourth amendment prohibitions unreasonable searches seizures applies contents communications whatever means person private communications akin personal papers however protections apply non-u.s. persons located outside u.s. borders nsa foreign surveillance efforts subject far fewer limitations u.s. law specific requirements domestic surveillance operations contained foreign intelligence surveillance act 1978 fisa extend protection non-u.s. citizens located outside u.s. territory george w. bush president 9/11 terrorist attacks approved patriot act shortly attacks take anti-terrorist security measures title 1 2 9 specifically authorized measures would taken nsa titles granted enhanced domestic security terrorism surveillance procedures improved intelligence respectively march 10 2004 debate president bush white house counsel alberto gonzales attorney general john ashcroft acting attorney general james comey attorneys general unsure nsa programs could considered constitutional threatened resign matter ultimately nsa programs continued march 11 2004 president bush signed new authorization mass surveillance internet records addition surveillance phone records allowed president able override laws foreign intelligence surveillance act protected civilians mass surveillance addition president bush also signed measures mass surveillance also retroactively place prism program started 2007 nsa gathers internet communications foreign targets nine major u.s. internet-based communication service providers microsoft yahoo google facebook paltalk aol skype youtube apple data gathered include email video voice chat videos photos voip chats skype file transfers former nsa director general keith alexander claimed september 2009 nsa prevented najibullah zazi friends carrying terrorist attack however claim debunked evidence presented demonstrating nsa ever instrumental preventing terrorist attack besides traditional ways eavesdropping order collect signals intelligence nsa also engaged hacking computers smartphones networks operations conducted tailored access operations tao division active since least circa 1998 according foreign policy magazine ... office tailored access operations tao successfully penetrated chinese computer telecommunications systems almost 15 years generating best reliable intelligence information going inside people republic china interview wired magazine edward snowden said tailored access operations division accidentally caused syria internet blackout 2012 nsa led director national security agency dirnsa also serves chief central security service chcss commander united states cyber command uscybercom highest-ranking military official organizations assisted deputy director highest-ranking civilian within nsa/css nsa also inspector general head office inspector general oig general counsel head office general counsel ogc director compliance head office director compliance odoc unlike intelligence organizations cia dia nsa always particularly reticent concerning internal organizational structure mid-1990s national security agency organized five directorates directorates consisted several groups elements designated letter example group responsible sigint operations soviet union eastern europe g group responsible sigint related non-communist countries groups divided units designated additional number like unit a5 breaking soviet codes g6 office middle east north africa cuba central south america nsa dozen directorates designated letter although publicly known directorates divided divisions units starting letter parent directorate followed number division sub-unit sub-sub-unit main elements organizational structure nsa year 2000 leadership team formed consisting director deputy director directors signals intelligence sid information assurance iad technical directorate td chiefs main nsa divisions became associate directors senior leadership team president george w. bush initiated president surveillance program psp 2001 nsa created 24-hour metadata analysis center mac followed 2004 advanced analysis division aad mission analyzing content internet metadata telephone metadata units part signals intelligence directorate 2016 proposal would combine signals intelligence directorate information assurance directorate directorate operations nsanet stands national security agency network official nsa intranet classified network information level ts/sci support use sharing intelligence data nsa signals intelligence agencies four nations five eyes partnership management nsanet delegated central security service texas csstexas nsanet highly secured computer network consisting fiber-optic satellite communication channels almost completely separated public internet network allows nsa personnel civilian military intelligence analysts anywhere world access agency systems databases access tightly controlled monitored example every keystroke logged activities audited random downloading printing documents nsanet recorded 1998 nsanet along niprnet siprnet significant problems poor search capabilities unorganized data old information 2004 network reported used twenty commercial off-the-shelf operating systems universities highly sensitive research allowed connect thousands top secret internal nsa documents taken edward snowden 2013 stored file-sharing location nsa intranet site could easily read online nsa personnel everyone ts/sci-clearance access documents system administrator snowden responsible moving accidentally misplaced highly sensitive documents safer storage locations nsa maintains least two watch centers number nsa employees officially classified several sources providing estimates 1961 nsa 59,000 military civilian employees grew 93,067 1969 19,300 worked headquarters fort meade early 1980s nsa roughly 50,000 military civilian personnel 1989 number grown 75,000 25,000 worked nsa headquarters 1990 1995 nsa budget workforce cut one third led substantial loss experience 2012 nsa said 30,000 employees worked fort meade facilities 2012 john c. inglis deputy director said total number nsa employees somewhere 37,000 one billion joke stated agency probably biggest employer introverts 2013 der spiegel stated nsa 40,000 employees widely described world largest single employer mathematicians nsa employees form part workforce national reconnaissance office nro agency provides nsa satellite signals intelligence 2013 1,000 system administrators work nsa nsa received criticism early 1960 two agents defected soviet union investigations house un-american activities committee special subcommittee united states house committee armed services revealed severe cases ignorance personnel security regulations prompting former personnel director director security step leading adoption stricter security practices nonetheless security breaches reoccurred year later issue izvestia july 23 1963 former nsa employee published several cryptologic secrets day nsa clerk-messenger committed suicide ongoing investigations disclosed sold secret information soviets regular basis reluctance congressional houses look affairs prompted journalist write similar series tragic blunders occurred ordinary agency government aroused public would insist responsible officially censured demoted fired david kahn criticized nsa tactics concealing doings smug congress blind faith agency right-doing shortsighted pointed necessity surveillance congress prevent abuse power edward snowden leaking existence prism 2013 caused nsa institute two-man rule two system administrators required present one accesses certain sensitive information snowden claims suggested rule 2009 nsa conducts polygraph tests employees new employees tests meant discover enemy spies applying nsa uncover information could make applicant pliant coercion part latter historically epqs embarrassing personal questions sexual behavior included nsa polygraph nsa also conducts five-year periodic reinvestigation polygraphs employees focusing counterintelligence programs addition nsa conducts periodic polygraph investigations order find spies leakers refuse take may receive termination employment according 1982 memorandum director nsa also special access examination polygraphs employees wish work highly sensitive areas polygraphs cover counterintelligence questions questions behavior nsa brochure states average test length two four hours 1983 report office technology assessment stated appears nsa national security agency possibly cia use polygraph determine deception truthfulness per se technique interrogation encourage admissions sometimes applicants polygraph process confess committing felonies murder rape selling illegal drugs 1974 1979 20,511 job applicants took polygraph tests 695 3.4 confessed previous felony crimes almost crimes undetected 2010 nsa produced video explaining polygraph process video ten minutes long titled truth polygraph posted web site defense security service jeff stein washington post said video portrays various applicants actors playing — clear — describing everything bad heard test implication none true antipolygraph.org argues nsa-produced video omits information polygraph process produced video responding nsa video george maschke founder web site accused nsa polygraph video orwellian edward snowden revealed identity 2013 nsa began requiring polygraphing employees per quarter number exemptions legal requirements criticized 1964 congress hearing bill giving director nsa power fire employee washington post wrote definition arbitrariness means employee could discharged disgraced basis anonymous allegations without slightest opportunity defend yet bill accepted overwhelming majority also every person hired job us 2007 private organization state federal government agency must reported new hire registry ostensibly look child support evaders except employees intelligence agency may excluded reporting director deems necessary national security reasons agency first established headquarters cryptographic center naval security station washington d.c comint functions located arlington hall northern virginia served headquarters u.s. army cryptographic operations soviet union detonated nuclear bomb facilities crowded federal government wanted move several agencies including afsa/nsa planning committee considered fort knox fort meade maryland ultimately chosen nsa headquarters far enough away washington d.c. case nuclear strike close enough employees would move families construction additional buildings began agency occupied buildings fort meade late 1950s soon outgrew 1963 new headquarters building nine stories tall opened nsa workers referred building headquarters building since nsa management occupied top floor workers used ninth floor refer leaders comsec remained washington d.c. new building completed 1968 september 1986 operations 2a 2b buildings copper-shielded prevent eavesdropping opened dedication president ronald reagan four nsa buildings became known big four nsa director moved 2b opened headquarters national security agency located fort george g. meade maryland although separate compounds agencies based within military installation fort meade southwest baltimore northeast washington d.c nsa two dedicated exits baltimore–washington parkway eastbound exit parkway heading toward baltimore open public provides employee access main campus public access national cryptology museum westbound side exit heading toward washington labeled nsa employees exit may used people proper clearances security vehicles parked along road guard entrance nsa largest employer state maryland two-thirds personnel work fort meade built fort meade site 1,300 buildings estimated 18,000 parking spaces main nsa headquarters operations building james bamford author body secrets describes modern boxy structure appears similar stylish office building building covered one-way dark glass lined copper shielding order prevent espionage trapping signals sounds contains floor space bamford said u.s. capitol could easily fit inside four times facility 100 watchposts one visitor control center two-story area serves entrance entrance white pentagonal structure visitor badges issued visitors security clearances employees checked visitor center includes painting nsa seal ops2a building tallest building nsa complex location much agency operations directorate accessible visitor center bamford described dark glass rubik cube facility red corridor houses non-security operations concessions drug store name refers red badge worn someone without security clearance nsa headquarters includes cafeteria credit union ticket counters airlines entertainment barbershop bank nsa headquarters post office fire department police force employees nsa headquarters reside various places baltimore-washington area including annapolis baltimore columbia maryland district columbia including georgetown community nsa maintains shuttle service odenton station marc visitor control center done since 2005 following major power outage 2000 2003 follow-ups 2007 baltimore sun reported nsa risk electrical overload insufficient internal electrical infrastructure fort meade support amount equipment installed problem apparently recognized 1990s made priority agency ability keep operations going threatened august 6 2006 baltimore sun reported nsa completely maxed grid baltimore gas electric bge constellation energy unable sell power bge provided nsa 65 75 megawatts fort meade 2007 expected increase 10 15 megawatts would needed later year 2011 nsa maryland largest consumer power 2007 bge largest customer nsa bought much electricity annapolis capital city maryland one estimate put potential power consumption new utah data center 40 million per year 1995 baltimore sun reported nsa owner single largest group supercomputers nsa held groundbreaking ceremony fort meade may 2013 high performance computing center 2 expected open 2016 called site center 150 megawatt power substation 14 administrative buildings 10 parking garages cost 3.2 billion covers center initially uses 60 megawatts electricity increments ii iii expected completed 2030 would quadruple space covering 60 buildings 40 parking garages defense contractors also establishing expanding cybersecurity facilities near nsa around washington metropolitan area dod computer security center founded 1981 renamed national computer security center ncsc 1985 ncsc responsible computer security throughout federal government ncsc part nsa late 1980s 1990s nsa ncsc published trusted computer system evaluation criteria six-foot high rainbow series books detailed trusted computing network platform specifications rainbow books replaced common criteria however early 2000s 2012 nsa collected intelligence four geostationary satellites satellite receivers roaring creek station catawissa pennsylvania salt creek station arbuckle california operated ten twenty taps u.s. telecom switches nsa installations several u.s. states observed intercepts europe middle east north africa latin america asia nsa facilities friendship annex fanx linthicum maryland 20 25-minute drive fort meade aerospace data facility buckley air force base aurora outside denver colorado nsa texas texas cryptology center lackland air force base san antonio texas nsa georgia fort gordon augusta georgia nsa hawaii honolulu multiprogram research facility oak ridge tennessee elsewhere january 6 2011 groundbreaking ceremony held begin construction nsa first comprehensive national cyber-security initiative cnci data center known utah data center short 1.5b data center built camp williams utah located south salt lake city help support agency national cyber-security initiative expected operational september 2013 2009 protect assets access electricity nsa sought decentralize expand existing facilities fort meade menwith hill latter expansion expected completed 2015 yakima herald-republic cited bamford saying many nsa bases echelon program legacy system using outdated 1990s technology 2004 nsa closed operations bad aibling station field station 81 bad aibling germany 2012 nsa began move operations yakima research station yakima training center washington state colorado planning leave yakima closed 2013 nsa also intended close operations sugar grove west virginia following signing 1946–1956 ukusa agreement united states united kingdom canada australia new zealand cooperated signals intelligence echelon nsa stations built gchq bude morwenstow united kingdom geraldton pine gap shoal bay australia leitrim ottawa ontario canada misawa japan waihopai tangimoana new zealand nsa operates raf menwith hill north yorkshire united kingdom according bbc news 2007 largest electronic monitoring station world planned 1954 opened 1960 base covered 1999 agency european cryptologic center ecc 240 employees 2011 headquartered us military compound griesheim near frankfurt germany 2011 nsa report indicates ecc responsible largest analysis productivity europe focuses various priorities including africa europe middle east counterterrorism operations 2013 new consolidated intelligence center also used nsa built headquarters united states army europe wiesbaden germany nsa partnership bundesnachrichtendienst bnd german foreign intelligence service confirmed bnd president gerhard schindler thailand 3rd party partner nsa along nine nations non-english-speaking countries made security agreements exchange sigint raw material end product reports thailand site least two us sigint collection stations one us embassy bangkok joint nsa-cia special collection service scs unit presumably eavesdrops foreign embassies governmental communications targets opportunity second installation fornsat foreign satellite interception station thai city khon kaen codenamed indra also referred lemonwood station approximately 40 ha 100 acres size consists large 3,700–4,600 40,000–50,000 ft operations building west side ops compound four radome-enclosed parabolic antennas possibly two radome-enclosed antennas used satcom intercept two antennas used relaying intercepted material back nsa also pusher-type circularly-disposed antenna array cdaa array north ops compound nsa activated khon kaen october 1979 mission eavesdrop radio traffic chinese army air force units southern china especially around city kunming yunnan province back late 1970s base consisted small cdaa antenna array remote-controlled via satellite nsa listening post kunia hawaii small force civilian contractors bendix field engineering corp. whose job keep antenna array satellite relay facilities running 24/7 according papers late general william odom indra facility upgraded 1986 new british-made pusher cdaa antenna part overall upgrade nsa thai sigint facilities whose objective spy neighboring communist nations vietnam laos cambodia base apparently fell disrepair 1990s china vietnam became friendly towards us 2002 archived satellite imagery showed pusher cdaa antenna torn perhaps indicating base closed point period since 9/11 khon kaen base reactivated expanded include sizeable satcom intercept mission likely nsa presence khon kaen relatively small work done civilian contractors nsa involved debates public policy indirectly behind-the-scenes adviser departments directly vice admiral bobby ray inman directorship nsa major player debates 1990s regarding export cryptography united states restrictions export reduced eliminated 1996 secure government communications work involved nsa numerous technology areas including design specialized communications hardware software production dedicated semiconductors ft. meade chip fabrication plant advanced cryptography research 50 years nsa designed built computer equipment in-house 1990s 2003 u.s. congress curtailed practice agency contracted private sector fields research equipment nsa embroiled minor controversy concerning involvement creation data encryption standard des standard public block cipher algorithm used u.s. government banking community development des ibm 1970s nsa recommended changes details design suspicion changes weakened algorithm sufficiently enable agency eavesdrop required including speculation critical component—the so-called s-boxes—had altered insert backdoor reduction key length might made feasible nsa discover des keys using massive computing power since observed s-boxes des particularly resilient differential cryptanalysis technique publicly discovered late 1980s known ibm des team involvement nsa selecting successor data encryption standard des advanced encryption standard aes limited hardware performance testing see aes competition nsa subsequently certified aes protection classified information used nsa-approved systems nsa responsible encryption-related components legacy systems nsa oversees encryption following systems use today nsa specified suite suite b cryptographic algorithm suites used u.s. government systems suite b algorithms subset previously specified nist expected serve information protection purposes suite algorithms secret intended especially high levels protection widely used sha-1 sha-2 hash functions designed nsa sha-1 slight modification weaker sha-0 algorithm also designed nsa 1993 small modification suggested nsa two years later justification fact provides additional security attack sha-0 apply revised algorithm indeed found 1998 2005 academic cryptographers weaknesses key length restrictions sha-1 nist deprecates use digital signatures approves newer sha-2 algorithms applications 2013 new hash standard sha-3 recently selected competition concluded october 2 2012 selection keccak algorithm process select sha-3 similar one held choosing aes doubts cast since fundamental modifications made keccak order turn standard changes potentially undermine cryptanalysis performed competition reduce security levels algorithm nsa promoted inclusion random number generator called dual ec drbg u.s. national institute standards technology 2007 guidelines led speculation backdoor would allow nsa access data encrypted systems using pseudo random number generator deemed plausible based fact output next iterations prng provably determined relation two internal elliptic curve points known nist rsa officially recommending use prng concerns widespread use strong cryptography would hamper government use wiretaps nsa proposed concept key escrow 1993 introduced clipper chip would offer stronger protection des would allow access encrypted data authorized law enforcement officials proposal strongly opposed key escrow requirements ultimately went nowhere however nsa fortezza hardware-based encryption cards created clipper project still used within government nsa ultimately declassified published design skipjack cipher used cards perfect citizen program perform vulnerability assessment nsa u.s. critical infrastructure originally reported program develop system sensors detect cyber attacks critical infrastructure computer networks private public sector network monitoring system named einstein funded comprehensive national cybersecurity initiative thus far raytheon received contract 100 million initial stage nsa invested many millions dollars academic research grant code prefix mda904 resulting 3,000 papers nsa/css times attempted restrict publication academic research cryptography example khufu khafre block ciphers voluntarily withheld response nsa request response foia lawsuit 2013 nsa released 643-page research paper titled untangling web guide internet research written compiled nsa employees assist nsa workers searching information interest agency public internet nsa ability file patent u.s. patent trademark office gag order unlike normal patents revealed public expire however patent office receives application identical patent third party reveal nsa patent officially grant nsa full term date one nsa published patents describes method geographically locating individual computer site internet-like network based latency multiple network connections although public patent exists nsa reported used similar locating technology called trilateralization allows real-time tracking individual location including altitude ground level using data obtained cellphone towers heraldic insignia nsa consists eagle inside circle grasping key talons eagle represents agency national mission breast features shield bands red white taken great seal united states representing congress key taken emblem saint peter represents security nsa created agency emblem used department defense agency adopted first two emblems 1963 current nsa insignia use since 1965 then-director ltg marshall s. carter usa ordered creation device represent agency nsa flag consists agency seal light blue background crews associated nsa missions involved number dangerous deadly situations uss liberty incident 1967 uss pueblo incident 1968 examples losses endured cold war national security agency/central security service cryptologic memorial honors remembers fallen personnel military civilian intelligence missions made black granite 171 names carved located nsa headquarters tradition declassifying stories fallen begun 2001 united states least since 2001 legal controversy signal intelligence used much freedom national security agency use signal intelligence 2015 government made slight changes uses collects certain types data specifically phone records government analyzing phone records early 2019 december 16 2005 new york times reported white house pressure executive order president george w. bush national security agency attempt thwart terrorism tapping phone calls made persons outside country without obtaining warrants united states foreign intelligence surveillance court secret court created purpose foreign intelligence surveillance act fisa one surveillance program authorized u.s signals intelligence directive 18 president george bush highlander project undertaken national security agency u.s. army 513th military intelligence brigade nsa relayed telephone including cell phone conversations obtained ground airborne satellite monitoring stations various u.s. army signal intelligence officers including 201st military intelligence battalion conversations citizens u.s. intercepted along nations proponents surveillance program claim president executive authority order action arguing laws fisa overridden president constitutional powers addition argued fisa implicitly overridden subsequent statute authorization use military force although supreme court ruling hamdan v. rumsfeld deprecates view august 2006 case aclu v. nsa u.s. district court judge anna diggs taylor concluded nsa warrantless surveillance program illegal unconstitutional july 6 2007 6th circuit court appeals vacated decision grounds aclu lacked standing bring suit january 17 2006 center constitutional rights filed lawsuit ccr v. bush george w. bush presidency lawsuit challenged national security agency nsa surveillance people within u.s. including interception ccr emails without securing warrant first september 2008 electronic frontier foundation eff filed class action lawsuit nsa several high-ranking officials bush administration charging illegal unconstitutional program dragnet communications surveillance based documentation provided former technician mark klein result usa freedom act passed congress june 2015 nsa shut bulk phone surveillance program november 29 year usa freedom act forbids nsa collect metadata content phone calls unless warrant terrorism investigation case agency ask telecom companies record kept six months may 2008 mark klein former employee alleged company cooperated nsa installing narus hardware replace fbi carnivore program monitor network communications including traffic u.s. citizens nsa reported 2008 use computing capability analyze transactional data regularly acquires government agencies gather jurisdictional authorities part effort nsa monitors huge volumes records domestic email data web addresses internet searches bank transfers credit-card transactions travel records telephone data according current former intelligence officials interviewed wall street journal sender recipient subject line emails included content messages phone calls 2013 advisory group obama administration seeking reform nsa spying programs following revelations documents released edward j. snowden mentioned 'recommendation 30 page 37 ... national security council staff manage interagency process review regular basis activities us government regarding attacks exploit previously unknown vulnerability computer application retired cyber security expert richard a. clarke group member stated april 11 nsa advance knowledge heartbleed august 2013 revealed 2005 irs training document showed nsa intelligence intercepts wiretaps foreign domestic supplied drug enforcement administration dea internal revenue service irs illegally used launch criminal investigations us citizens law enforcement agents directed conceal investigations began recreate apparently legal investigative trail re-obtaining evidence means months leading april 2009 nsa intercepted communications u.s. citizens including congressman although justice department believed interception unintentional justice department took action correct issues bring program compliance existing laws united states attorney general eric holder resumed program according understanding foreign intelligence surveillance act amendment 2008 without explaining occurred polls conducted june 2013 found divided results among americans regarding nsa secret data collection rasmussen reports found 59 americans disapprove gallup found 53 disapprove pew found 56 favor nsa data collection april 25 2013 nsa obtained court order requiring verizon business network services provide metadata calls system nsa ongoing daily basis three-month period reported guardian june 6 2013 information includes numbers parties call ... location data call duration unique identifiers time duration calls contents conversation order relies so-called business records provision patriot act august 2013 following snowden leaks new details nsa data mining activity revealed reportedly majority emails united states captured selected communications links automatically analyzed keywords selectors emails match deleted utility massive metadata collection preventing terrorist attacks disputed many studies reveal dragnet like system ineffective one report released new america foundation concluded analysis 225 terrorism cases nsa discernible impact preventing acts terrorism defenders program said metadata alone ca n't provide information necessary prevent attack assures ability connect dots suspect foreign numbers domestic numbers speed nsa software capable one benefit quickly able determine difference suspicious activity real threats example nsa director general keith b. alexander mentioned annual cybersecurity summit 2013 metadata analysis domestic phone call records boston marathon bombing helped determine rumors follow-up attack new york baseless addition doubts effectiveness many people argue collection metadata unconstitutional invasion privacy collection process remains legal grounded ruling smith v. maryland 1979 prominent opponent data collection legality u.s. district judge richard j. leon issued report 2013 stated imagine 'indiscriminate 'arbitrary invasion systematic high tech collection retention personal data virtually every single citizen purposes querying analyzing without prior judicial approval ... surely program infringes 'that degree privacy founders enshrined fourth amendment may 7 2015 u.s. court appeals second circuit ruled interpretation section 215 patriot act wrong nsa program collecting americans phone records bulk illegal stated section 215 clearly interpreted allow government collect national phone data result expired june 1 2015 ruling first time higher-level court regular judicial system reviewed n.s.a phone records program replacement law known usa freedom act enable nsa continue bulk access citizens metadata stipulation data stored companies change effect agency procedures outside metadata collection purportedly challenged americans fourth amendment rights including upstream collection mass techniques used agency collect store american data/communications directly internet backbone upstream program nsa paid telecommunications companies 9 95 million dollars order collect data companies google yahoo claim provide direct access servers nsa unless court order nsa access emails phone calls cellular data users new ruling telecommunications companies maintain bulk user metadata servers least 18 months provided upon request nsa ruling made mass storage specific phone records nsa datacenters illegal rule section 215 constitutionality declassified document revealed 17,835 phone lines improperly permitted alert list 2006 2009 breach compliance tagged phone lines daily monitoring eleven percent monitored phone lines met agency legal standard reasonably articulable suspicion ras nsa tracks locations hundreds millions cellphones per day allowing map people movements relationships detail nsa reported access communications made via google microsoft facebook yahoo youtube aol skype apple paltalk collects hundreds millions contact lists personal email instant messaging accounts year also managed weaken much encryption used internet collaborating coercing otherwise infiltrating numerous technology companies leave backdoors systems majority encryption inadvertently vulnerable different forms attack domestically nsa proven collect store metadata records phone calls including 120 million us verizon subscribers well intercept vast amounts communications via internet upstream government legal standing rely secret interpretation patriot act whereby entirety us communications may considered relevant terrorism investigation expected even tiny minority may relate terrorism nsa also supplies foreign intercepts dea irs law enforcement agencies use initiate criminal investigations federal agents instructed recreate investigative trail via parallel construction nsa also spies influential muslims obtain information could used discredit use pornography targets domestic abroad suspected crime hold religious political views deemed radical nsa according report washington post july 2014 relying information provided snowden 90 placed surveillance u.s. ordinary americans intended targets newspaper said examined documents including emails text messages online accounts support claim despite white house claims programs congressional oversight many members congress unaware existence nsa programs secret interpretation patriot act consistently denied access basic information united states foreign intelligence surveillance court secret court charged regulating nsa activities according chief judge incapable investigating verifying often nsa breaks even secret rules since reported nsa violated rules data access thousands times year many violations involving large-scale data interceptions nsa officers even used data intercepts spy love interests nsa violations self-reported instance resulted administrative action termination nsa generally disregarded special rules disseminating united states person information illegally sharing intercepts law enforcement agencies march 2009 fisa court opinion court released states protocols restricting data queries frequently systemically violated fairly said critical element overall ... regime never functioned effectively 2011 court noted volume nature nsa bulk foreign internet intercepts fundamentally different court led believe email contact lists including us citizens collected numerous foreign locations work around illegality us soil legal opinions nsa bulk collection program differed mid-december 2013 u.s. district judge richard leon ruled almost-orwellian program likely violates constitution wrote imagine 'indiscriminate 'arbitrary invasion systematic high-tech collection retention personal data virtually every single citizen purposes querying analyzing without prior judicial approval surely program infringes 'that degree privacy founders enshrined fourth amendment indeed little doubt author constitution james madison cautioned us beware 'the abridgement freedom people gradual silent encroachments power would aghast later month u.s. district judge william pauley ruled nsa collection telephone records legal valuable fight terrorism opinion wrote bulk telephony metadata collection program wide net could find isolate gossamer contacts among suspected terrorists ocean seemingly disconnected data noted similar collection data prior 9/11 might prevented attack march 2013 senate intelligence committee hearing senator ron wyden asked director national intelligence james clapper nsa collect type data millions hundreds millions americans clapper replied sir ... wittingly cases could inadvertently perhaps collect wittingly statement came scrutiny months later june 2013 details prism surveillance program published showing nsa apparently gain access servers nine internet companies wide range digital data wyden said clapper failed give straight answer testimony clapper response criticism said responded thought truthful least untruthful manner clapper added honest differences semantics -- someone says ‘ collection ’ specific meaning may different meaning nsa whistler-blower edward snowden additionally revealed existence xkeyscore top secret nsa program allows agency search vast databases metadata well content emails internet activity browser history capability search name telephone number ip address keywords language internet activity conducted type browser used xkeyscore provides technological capability legal authority target even us persons extensive electronic surveillance without warrant provided identifying information email ip address known analyst regarding necessity nsa programs alexander stated june 27 nsa bulk phone internet intercepts instrumental preventing 54 terrorist events including 13 us one cases provided initial tip unravel threat stream july 31 nsa deputy director john inglis conceded senate intercepts vital stopping terrorist attacks close vital identifying convicting four san diego men sending us 8,930 al-shabaab militia conducts terrorism somalia u.s. government aggressively sought dismiss challenge fourth amendment cases raised granted retroactive immunity isps telecoms participating domestic surveillance u.s. military acknowledged blocking access parts guardian website thousands defense personnel across country blocking entire guardian website personnel stationed throughout afghanistan middle east south asia october 2014 united nations report condemned mass surveillance united states countries violating multiple international treaties conventions guarantee core privacy rights exploit eternalblue believed created nsa used unprecedented worldwide wannacry ransomware attack may 2017 exploit leaked online hacking group shadow brokers nearly month prior attack number experts pointed finger nsa non-disclosure underlying vulnerability loss control eternalblue attack tool exploited edward snowden said nsa privately disclosed flaw used attack hospitals found lost attack might happened wikipedia co-founder jimmy wales stated joined microsoft leaders industry saying huge screw-up government ... moment nsa found notified microsoft could quietly issue patch really chivvy people along long became huge problem Target text information: presidential_policy_directive_20.presidential policy directive 20 presidential policy directive 20 ppd-20 provides framework u.s. cybersecurity establishing principles processes signed president barack obama october 2012 directive supersedes national security presidential directive nspd-38 integrating cyber tools national security directive complements nspd-54/homeland security presidential directive hspd-23 classified unreleased national security agency nsa nspd-54 authorized george w. bush gives u.s. government power conduct surveillance monitoring existence made public june 2013 former intelligence nsa infrastructure analyst edward snowden private industry issues surrounding international domestic law public-private-partnership became cornerstone america cybersecurity strategy suggestions private sector detailed declassified 2003 national strategy secure cyberspace companion document national security presidential directive nspd-38 signed secret george w. bush following year although contents nspd 38 still undisclosed u.s. military recognize cyberspace theater operations u.s. national defense strategy 2005 report declared ability operate global commons-space international waters airspace cyberspace important ... project power anywhere world secure bases operation three years later george w. bush formed classified comprehensive national cybersecurity initiative cnci citing economic national security obama administration prioritized cybersecurity upon taking office in-depth review communications information infrastructure cnci partially declassified expanded president obama outlines key elements broader updated national u.s. cybersecurity strategy 2011 pentagon announced capability run cyber attacks u.s. senate failed pass cybersecurity act 2012 august presidential policy directive 20 ppd-20 signed secret electronic privacy information center epic filed freedom information request see nsa would comply details reported november 2012 washington post wrote ppd-20 extensive white house effort date wrestle constitutes 'offensive 'defensive action rapidly evolving world cyberwar cyberterrorism following january obama administration released ten-point factsheet june 7 2013 ppd-20 became public released edward snowden posted guardian part 2013 mass surveillance disclosures u.s. factsheet claims ppd-20 acts within law consistent values promote domestically internationally previously articulated international strategy cyberspace n't reveal cyber operations directive snowden disclosure called attention passages noting cyberwarfare policy possible consequences directive calls defensive offensive measures defensive cyber effects operations dceo offensive cyber effects operations oceo respectively I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	10,859	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: huawei_emui.huawei emui huawei emui formerly known emotion ui custom mobile operating system based android huawei uses huawei honor-branded smartphone devices 30 december 2012 huawei introduced emotion ui 1.0 based android 4.0 features voice assistant app chinese customizable homescreens theme-switching company rolled installation files ascend p1 website company claims “ probably world ’ emotional system ” 4 september 2014 company announced emui 3.0 along ascend mate 7 pre-ifa event berlin user interface ever since called emui instead emotion ui features new app store china markets late 2015 huawei launched emui 4.0 redesigned interface based android 6.0 along huawei mate 8 2016 emui 5.0 introduced huawei mate 9 2017 rom images removed official website huawei says provide convenient satisfactory update service since users must rely over-the-air ota updates late 2017 emui 8.0 launched skipping emui 6.0 7.0 combine android versions along huawei mate 10 release emphasises different ai-capabilities huawei unveiled emui 9.0 german consumer electronics exhibition ifa 2018 version emui based android pie new features improvements include new gesture navigation system moving many features bottom screen easier one-handed use reorganized settings page digital balance dashboard gpu turbo 2.0 performance improvements etc update version named emui 9.1 released june 2019 new features improvements include gpu turbo 3.0 new file system called extendable read-only file system erofs file sharing feature onehop huawei vlog improvements new ar features etc emui 10 based android q announced 9 august 2019 huawei developer conference 2019 beta version emui 10 set released 8 september 2019 first coming huawei p30 p30 pro flagship smartphones new features improvements include system-wide dark mode redesigned camera app new emui logo new system font permission control changes introduced android q tweaks animations etc 1-hop neighbor's text information: android_gingerbread.android gingerbread android gingerbread seventh version android codename android mobile operating system developed google released december 2010 versions longer supported gingerbread release introduced support near field communication nfc —used mobile payment solutions—and session initiation protocol sip —used voip internet telephony gingerbread user interface refined many ways making easier master faster use power-efficient simplified color scheme black background gave vividness contrast notification bar menus user interface components improvements menus settings resulted easier navigation system control nexus smartphone released december 2010 first phone google nexus line ran gingerbread also first one line built-in nfc functionality statistics issued google indicate 0.3 android devices accessing google play run gingerbread new features introduced gingerbread include following 1-hop neighbor's text information: μclinux.μclinux μclinux variation linux kernel previously maintained fork targets microcontrollers without memory management unit mmu integrated mainline development 2.5.46 project continues develop patches tools microcontrollers homepage lists linux kernel releases 2.0 2.4 2.6 end-of-life mainline letters μc microcontroller name pronounced you-see-linux rather pronouncing letter mu greek μclinux originally created d. jeff dionne kenneth albanowski 1998 initially targeted motorola dragonball family embedded 68k processors specifically 68ez328 series used motorola palmpilot 2.0.33 linux kernel releasing initial work developer community quickly sprang extending work newer kernels microprocessor architectures early 1999 support added motorola freescale coldfire family embedded microprocessors arm processor support added later although originally targeting 2.0 series linux kernels ports based linux 2.4 linux 2.6 linux 2.4 ports forward ported 2.0.36 linux kernel michael leslie evan stawnyczy work rt-control never μclinux extensions applied 2.2 series kernels since version 2.5.46 linux kernel major parts μclinux integrated mainline kernel number processor architectures greg ungerer originally ported μclinux motorola coldfire family processors continues maintain actively push core μclinux support 2.6 series linux kernels regard μclinux essentially longer separate fork linux project continues develop patches supporting tools using linux microcontrollers μclinux support many architectures forms basis many products like network routers security cameras dvd mp3 players voip phone gateways scanners card readers current list includes Target text information: open_automotive_alliance.open automotive alliance open automotive alliance oaa alliance automotive manufacturers technology companies aimed using android automobiles announced ces january 6 2014 members open automotive alliance I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	5,620	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: simple_network_management_protocol.simple network management protocol simple network management protocol snmp internet standard protocol collecting organizing information managed devices ip networks modifying information change device behavior devices typically support snmp include cable modems routers switches servers workstations printers snmp widely used network management network monitoring snmp exposes management data form variables managed systems organized management information base mib describe system status configuration variables remotely queried circumstances manipulated managing applications three significant versions snmp developed deployed snmpv1 original version protocol recent versions snmpv2c snmpv3 feature improvements performance flexibility security snmp component internet protocol suite defined internet engineering task force ietf consists set standards network management including application layer protocol database schema set data objects typical uses snmp one administrative computers called managers task monitoring managing group hosts devices computer network managed system executes software component called agent reports information via snmp manager snmp-managed network consists three key components managed device network node implements snmp interface allows unidirectional read-only bidirectional read write access node-specific information managed devices exchange node-specific information nmss sometimes called network elements managed devices type device including limited routers access servers switches cable modems bridges hubs ip telephones ip video cameras computer hosts printers agent network-management software module resides managed device agent local knowledge management information translates information snmp-specific form network management station executes applications monitor control managed devices nmss provide bulk processing memory resources required network management one nmss may exist managed network snmp agents expose management data managed systems variables protocol also permits active management tasks configuration changes remote modification variables variables accessible via snmp organized hierarchies snmp define variables managed system offer rather snmp uses extensible design allows applications define hierarchies hierarchies described management information base mib mibs describe structure management data device subsystem use hierarchical namespace containing object identifiers oid oid identifies variable read set via snmp mibs use notation defined structure management information version 2.0 smiv2 subset asn.1 snmp operates application layer internet protocol suite snmp messages transported via user datagram protocol udp snmp agent receives requests udp port 161 manager may send requests available source port port 161 agent agent response sent back source port manager manager receives notifications traps informrequests port 162 agent may generate notifications available port used transport layer security datagram transport layer security requests received port 10161 notifications sent port 10162 snmpv1 specifies five core protocol data units pdus two pdus getbulkrequest informrequest added snmpv2 report pdu added snmpv3 snmp pdus constructed follows seven snmp pdu types identified pdu-type field follows snmpv1 snmpv2 use communities establish trust managers agents agents support three community names one read-only read-write trap three community strings control different types activities read-only community applies get requests read-write community string applies set requests trap community string applies receipt traps snmpv3 also uses community strings allows secure authentication communication snmp manager agent practice snmp implementations often support multiple versions typically snmpv1 snmpv2c snmpv3 snmp version 1 snmpv1 initial implementation snmp protocol design snmpv1 done 1980s group collaborators viewed officially sponsored osi/ietf/nsf national science foundation effort hems/cmis/cmip unimplementable computing platforms time well potentially unworkable snmp approved based belief interim protocol needed taking steps towards large scale deployment internet commercialization first request comments rfcs snmp known snmpv1 appeared 1988 1990 documents superseded 1991 mib-1 replaced often used snmpv1 widely used de facto network management protocol internet community snmpv1 may carried transport layer protocols user datagram protocol udp internet protocol ip osi connectionless-mode network service clns appletalk datagram delivery protocol ddp novell internetwork packet exchange ipx version 1 criticized poor security specification fact allow room custom authentication used widely used implementations support trivial authentication service identifies snmp messages authentic snmp messages. security messages therefore becomes dependent security channels messages sent example organization may consider internal network sufficiently secure encryption necessary snmp messages cases community name transmitted cleartext tends viewed de facto password spite original specification snmpv2 defined revises version 1 includes improvements areas performance security manager-to-manager communications introduced getbulkrequest alternative iterative getnextrequests retrieving large amounts management data single request new party-based security system introduced snmpv2 viewed many overly complex widely adopted version snmp reached proposed standard level maturity deemed obsolete later versions community-based simple network management protocol version 2 snmpv2c defined – snmpv2c comprises snmpv2 without controversial new snmp v2 security model using instead simple community-based security scheme snmpv1 version one relatively standards meet ietf draft standard maturity level widely considered de facto snmpv2 standard later restated part snmpv3 user-based simple network management protocol version 2 snmpv2u defined – compromise attempts offer greater security snmpv1 without incurring high complexity snmpv2 variant commercialized snmp v2* mechanism eventually adopted one two security frameworks snmp v3 snmpv2c incompatible snmpv1 two key areas message formats protocol operations snmpv2c messages use different header protocol data unit pdu formats snmpv1 messages snmpv2c also uses two protocol operations specified snmpv1 overcome incompatibility defines two snmpv1/v2c coexistence strategies proxy agents bilingual network-management systems snmpv2 agent act proxy agent behalf snmpv1 managed devices follows proxy agent maps snmpv1 trap messages snmpv2 trap messages forwards nms bilingual snmpv2 network-management systems support snmpv1 snmpv2 support dual-management environment management application bilingual nms must contact agent nms examines information stored local database determine whether agent supports snmpv1 snmpv2 based information database nms communicates agent using appropriate version snmp although snmpv3 makes changes protocol aside addition cryptographic security looks much different due new textual conventions concepts terminology visible change define secure version snmp adding security remote configuration enhancements snmp due lack security earlier versions network administrators often used means telnet ssh configuration accounting fault management snmpv3 focuses two main aspects namely security administration security aspect addressed offering strong authentication data encryption privacy administration aspect snmpv3 focuses two parts namely notification originators proxy forwarders changes also facilitated remote configuration administration snmp entities well addressing issues related large-scale deployment accounting fault management features enhancements included security one biggest weakness snmp v3 authentication snmp versions 1 2 amounts nothing password community string sent clear text manager agent snmpv3 message contains security parameters encoded octet string meaning security parameters depends security model used security approach v3 targets v3 also defines usm vacm later followed transport security model provided support snmpv3 ssh snmpv3 tls dtls snmp implementations vary across platform vendors cases snmp added feature taken seriously enough element core design major equipment vendors tend over-extend proprietary command line interface cli centric configuration control systems february 2002 carnegie mellon software engineering institute cm-sei computer emergency response team coordination center cert-cc issued advisory snmpv1 ca-2002-03 oulu university secure programming group conducted thorough analysis snmp message handling snmp implementations regardless version protocol use program code decoding protocol data units pdu thus many vendors issue patches snmp implementations among others problems found decoding snmp trap messages received snmp management station requests received snmp agent network device snmp powerful write capabilities would allow configuration network devices fully utilized many vendors partly lack security snmp versions snmpv3 partly many devices simply capable configured via individual mib object changes requirements snmp set operation easy implement correctly many vendors chose omit support set – probably lower development cost reduce code size among reasons snmp seemingly simple tree structure linear indexing may always understood well enough within internal data structures elements platform basic design consequently processing snmp queries certain data sets may result higher cpu utilization necessary one example would large routing tables bgp igp snmp values especially tabular values require specific knowledge table indexing schemes index values necessarily consistent across platforms cause correlation issues fetching information multiple devices may employ table indexing scheme example fetching disk utilization metrics specific disk identifier different across platforms modular devices may dynamically increase decrease snmp indices a.k.a instances whenever slotted hardware added removed although common hardware virtual interfaces effect index values typically assigned boot time remain fixed next reboot hardware virtual entities added device 'live may indices assigned end existing range possibly reassigned next reboot network inventory monitoring tools need device update capability properly reacting cold start trap device reboot order avoid corruption mismatch polled data index assignments snmp device instance may change poll poll mostly result changes initiated system administrator information needed particular interface imperative determine snmp index retrieving data needed generally description table like ifdescr map user friendly name like serial 0/1 blade 0 port 1 snmp index however necessarily case specific snmp value arbitrary snmp implementation snmp designed allow administrators monitor configure network devices remotely also used penetrate local area network lan snmp used network turned aside creating vulnerability consume available network bandwidth needlessly use cpu cycles significant number software tools scan entire network snmp therefore mistakes configuration read-write mode make network susceptible attacks 2001 cisco released information even read mode snmp implementation cisco ios 11.0 12.0 operating system used switches routers vulnerable certain denial service attacks security issues fixed ios upgrade configuring snmp read-only mode close attention paid configuration access control ip addresses snmp messages accepted snmp servers identified ip snmp allowed respond ips snmp messages ip addresses would denied however ip address spoofing remains security concern snmp available different versions 1 2 3 security issues snmp v1 sends passwords clear-text network therefore passwords read packet sniffing snmp v2 allows password hashing md5 configured virtually network management software support snmp v1 necessarily snmp v2 v3 snmp v2 specifically developed provide data security authentication privacy authorization snmp version 2c gained endorsement internet engineering task force ietf versions 2u 2* failed gain ietf approval due security issues snmp v3 uses md5 secure hash algorithm sha keyed algorithms offer protection unauthorised data modification masquerade attacks higher level security needed data encryption standard des optionally used cipher block chaining mode snmp v3 implemented cisco ios since release 12.0 3 t. snmpv3 may subject brute force dictionary attacks guessing authentication keys encryption keys keys generated short weak passwords passwords found dictionary snmpv3 allows providing random uniformly distributed cryptographic keys generating cryptographic keys password supplied user risk guessing authentication strings hash values transmitted network depends hash function used length hash value snmpv3 uses hmac-sha-2 authentication protocol user-based security model usm challenge-response handshake used improve security snmpv3 like snmp protocol versions stateless protocol designed minimal amount interactions agent manager thus introducing challenge-response handshake command would impose burden agent possibly network protocol designers deemed excessive unacceptable security deficiencies snmp versions mitigated ipsec authentication confidentiality mechanisms implementation snmp datagram transport layer security dtls also available snmp based network management software send passwords repeatedly normal operations across network therefore clear-text passwords significant security risk snmp v2 used network administrator enable password encryption network devices snmp servers running done command snmp-server enable traps snmp authentication md5 many snmp implementations include type automatic discovery new network component switch router discovered pooled automatically snmpv1 v2c done community string broadcast clear-text devices default configuration community strings public read-only access private read-write snmp topped list sans institute common default configuration issues number ten sans top 10 critical internet security threats year 2000 system network administrators frequently change configurations community string sent snmp network encrypted community string known outside organisation could become target attack prevent easy discovery community snmp configured pass community-name authentication failure traps snmp management device needs configured react authentication failure trap snmpv1 v2 vulnerable ip spoofing attacks whether runs tcp udp subject bypassing device access lists might implemented restrict snmp access snmpv3 security mechanisms usm tsm prevent successful attack would pointless employ snmpv3 vacm view-based access control without securing messages usm tsm 1-hop neighbor's text information: soap.soap soap abbreviation simple object access protocol messaging protocol specification exchanging structured information implementation web services computer networks purpose provide extensibility neutrality independence uses xml information set message format relies application layer protocols often hypertext transfer protocol http simple mail transfer protocol smtp message negotiation transmission soap allows processes running disparate operating systems windows linux communicate using extensible markup language xml since web protocols like http installed running operating systems soap allows clients invoke web services receive responses independent language platforms soap provides messaging protocol layer web services protocol stack web services xml-based protocol consisting three parts soap three major characteristics example soap procedures application send soap request server web services enabled—such real-estate price database—with parameters search server returns soap response xml-formatted document resulting data e.g. prices location features since generated data comes standardized machine-parsable format requesting application integrate directly soap architecture consists several layers specifications soap evolved successor xml-rpc though borrows transport interaction neutrality web service addressing envelope/header/body elsewhere probably wddx soap designed object-access protocol 1998 dave winer box bob atkinson mohsen al-ghosein microsoft atkinson al-ghosein working specification made available submitted ietf 13 september 1999 according box due politics within microsoft microsoft hesitation dave winer shipped xml-rpc 1998 submitted internet draft reach rfc status therefore considered standard version 1.1 specification published w3c note 8 may 2000 since version 1.1 reach w3c recommendation status considered standard either version 1.2 specification however became w3c recommendation june 24 2003 soap specification maintained xml protocol working group world wide web consortium group closed 10 july 2009 soap originally stood simple object access protocol version 1.2 standard dropped acronym soap first introduced became underlying layer complex set web services based web services description language wsdl xml schema universal description discovery integration uddi different services especially uddi proved far less interest appreciation gives complete understanding expected role soap compared web services actually evolved soap specification broadly defined consisting following 3 conceptual components protocol concepts encapsulation concepts network concepts soap specification defines messaging framework consists soap message ordinary xml document containing following elements smtp http valid application layer protocols used transport soap http gained wider acceptance works well today internet infrastructure specifically http works well network firewalls soap may also used https protocol http application level uses encrypted transport protocol underneath either simple mutual authentication advocated ws-i method provide web service security stated ws-i basic profile 1.1 major advantage distributed protocols like giop/iiop dcom normally filtered firewalls soap amqp yet another possibility implementations support soap also advantage dcom unaffected security rights configured machines require knowledge transmitting receiving nodes lets soap loosely coupled way possible dcom also soap-over-udp oasis standard xml information set chosen standard message format widespread use major corporations open source development efforts typically xml information set serialized xml wide variety freely available tools significantly eases transition soap-based implementation somewhat lengthy syntax xml benefit drawback promotes readability humans facilitates error detection avoids interoperability problems byte-order endianness slow processing speed cumbersome example corba giop ice dcom use much shorter binary message formats hand hardware appliances available accelerate processing xml messages binary xml also explored means streamlining throughput requirements xml xml messages self-documenting nature usually 'overhead headers footers nested tags delimiters actual data contrast earlier protocols overhead usually relatively small percentage overall message financial messaging soap found result 2–4 times larger message previous protocols fix financial information exchange cdr common data representation xml information set serialized xml instance csv json xml-infoset representations exist also need specify generic transformation framework concept soap bindings allows specific bindings specific application drawback senders receivers support newly defined binding post /instock http/1.1 host www.example.org content-type application/soap+xml charset=utf-8 content-length 299 soapaction http //www.w3.org/2003/05/soap-envelope xml version= 1.0 soap envelope xmlns soap= http //www.w3.org/2003/05/soap-envelope xmlns m= http //www.example.org /soap envelope 1-hop neighbor's text information: syslog.syslog computing syslog standard message logging allows separation software generates messages system stores software reports analyzes message labeled facility code indicating software type generating message assigned severity level computer system designers may use syslog system management security auditing well general informational analysis debugging messages wide variety devices printers routers message receivers across many platforms use syslog standard permits consolidation logging data different types systems central repository implementations syslog exist many operating systems syslog developed 1980s eric allman part sendmail project readily adopted applications since become standard logging solution unix-like systems variety implementations also exist operating systems commonly found network devices routers syslog originally functioned de facto standard without authoritative published specification many implementations existed incompatible internet engineering task force documented status quo rfc 3164 standardized rfc 5424 various companies attempted claim patents syslog implementations little effect use standardization protocol information provided originator syslog message includes facility code severity level syslog software adds information information header passing entry syslog receiver components include originator process id timestamp hostname ip address device facility code used specify type program logging message messages different facilities may handled differently list facilities available defined standard mapping facility code keyword uniform different operating systems syslog implementations list severities also defined standard meaning severity levels emergency debug relative application example purpose system process transactions update customer account balance information error final step assigned alert level however error occurring attempt display zip code customer may assigned error even warning level server process handles display messages usually includes lower severe levels display less severe levels requested messages separated individual severity warning level entry also included filtering notice info debug messages rfc 3164 message component known msg specified fields tag name program process generated message content contains details message described rfc 5424 msg called content rfc 3164 tag part header single field tag split app-name procid msgid totally resemble usage tag provides functionality cases popular syslog tools rsyslog conform new standard content field encoded utf-8 character set octet values traditional ascii control character range avoided generated log messages may directed various destinations including console files remote syslog servers relays implementations provide command line utility often called logger well software library send messages log display monitor collected logs one needs use client application access log file directly system basic command line tools tail grep log servers configured send logs network addition local files implementations include reporting programs filtering displaying syslog messages operating network syslog uses client-server architecture server listens well-known registered port protocol requests clients historically common transport layer protocol network logging user datagram protocol udp server listening port 514 udp lacks congestion control mechanisms support transport layer security required implementations recommended general use transmission control protocol tcp port 6514 since process application operating system written independently little uniformity payload log message reason assumption made formatting contents syslog message formatted rfc 5424 gives augmented backus–naur form abnf definition msg field network protocol simplex communication means acknowledging delivery originator various groups working draft standards detailing use syslog network security event logging proposed application within healthcare environment regulations sarbanes-oxley act pci dss hipaa many others require organizations implement comprehensive security measures often include collecting analyzing logs many different sources syslog format proven effective consolidating logs many open-source proprietary tools reporting analysis logs utilities exist conversion windows event log log formats syslog managed security service providers attempt apply analytical techniques artificial intelligence algorithms detect patterns alert customers problems syslog protocol defined request comments rfc documents published internet engineering task force internet standards following list rfcs define syslog protocol Target text information: northbound_interface.northbound interface computer networking computer architecture northbound interface component interface conceptualizes lower level details e.g. data functions used component northbound interface used interface higher level layers using southbound interface higher level component architectural overviews northbound interface normally drawn top component defined hence name northbound interface southbound interface decomposes concepts technical details mostly specific single component architecture southbound interfaces drawn bottom architectural overview northbound interfaces normally talk southbound interfaces higher level components vice versa northbound interface typically output-only interface opposed one accepts user input found carrier-grade network telecommunications network elements languages protocols commonly used include snmp tl1 example device capable sending syslog messages configurable user said implement northbound interface examples include smash ipmi wsman soap etc I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	2,390	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: c_(programming_language).c programming language c letter c general-purpose procedural computer programming language supporting structured programming lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations design c provides constructs map efficiently typical machine instructions found lasting use applications previously coded assembly language applications include operating systems well various application software computers ranging supercomputers embedded systems c originally developed bell labs dennis ritchie 1972 1973 make utilities running unix later applied re-implementing kernel unix operating system 1980s c gradually gained popularity nowadays one widely used programming languages c compilers various vendors available majority existing computer architectures operating systems c standardized ansi since 1989 see ansi c subsequently international organization standardization c imperative procedural language designed compiled using relatively straightforward compiler provide low-level access memory provide language constructs map efficiently machine instructions require minimal runtime support despite low-level capabilities language designed encourage cross-platform programming standards-compliant c program written portability mind compiled wide variety computer platforms operating systems changes source code language become available various platforms embedded microcontrollers supercomputers like procedural languages algol tradition c facilities structured programming allows lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations c executable code contained within subroutines also called functions though strictly sense functional programming function parameters always passed value pass-by-reference simulated c explicitly passing pointer values c program source text free-format using semicolon statement terminator curly braces grouping blocks statements c language also exhibits following characteristics c include certain features found languages object orientation garbage collection implemented emulated often use external libraries e.g. glib object system boehm garbage collector many later languages borrowed directly indirectly c including c++ c unix c shell go java javascript limbo lpc objective-c perl php python rust swift verilog systemverilog hardware description languages languages drawn many control structures basic features c. python dramatic exception also express highly similar syntax c tend combine recognizable expression statement syntax c underlying type systems data models semantics radically different origin c closely tied development unix operating system originally implemented assembly language pdp-7 dennis ritchie ken thompson incorporating several ideas colleagues eventually decided port operating system pdp-11 original pdp-11 version unix developed assembly language thompson needed programming language make utilities first tried make fortran compiler soon gave idea made new language b thompson simplified version bcpl however utilities written b b slow b could take advantage pdp-11 features byte addressability 1972 ritchie started improve b resulted creating new language c. c compiler utilities made included version 2 unix version 4 unix released nov. 1973 unix kernel extensively re-implemented c. time c language acquired powerful features codice_12 types unix one first operating system kernels implemented language assembly earlier instances include multics system written pl/i master control program mcp burroughs b5000 written algol 1961 around 1977 ritchie stephen c. johnson made changes language facilitate portability unix operating system johnson portable c compiler served basis several implementations c new platforms 1978 brian kernighan dennis ritchie published first edition c programming language book known c programmers k r served many years informal specification language version c describes commonly referred k r c second edition book covers later ansi c standard described k r introduced several language features even publication 1989 ansi standard many years k r c still considered lowest common denominator c programmers restricted maximum portability desired since many older compilers still use carefully written k r c code legal standard c well early versions c functions return types codice_30 must declared used function definition functions used without prior declaration presumed return type codice_30 example codice_30 type specifiers commented could omitted k r c required later standards since k r function declarations include information function arguments function parameter type checks performed although compilers would issue warning message local function called wrong number arguments multiple calls external function used different numbers types arguments separate tools unix lint utility developed among things could check consistency function use across multiple source files years following publication k r c several features added language supported compilers particular pcc vendors included large number extensions lack agreement standard library together language popularity fact even unix compilers precisely implemented k r specification led necessity standardization late 1970s 1980s versions c implemented wide variety mainframe computers minicomputers microcomputers including ibm pc popularity began increase significantly 1983 american national standards institute ansi formed committee x3j11 establish standard specification c. x3j11 based c standard unix implementation however non-portable portion unix c library handed ieee working group 1003 become basis 1988 posix standard 1989 c standard ratified ansi x3.159-1989 programming language c version language often referred ansi c standard c sometimes c89 1990 ansi c standard formatting changes adopted international organization standardization iso iso/iec 9899:1990 sometimes called c90 therefore terms c89 c90 refer programming language ansi like national standards bodies longer develops c standard independently defers international c standard maintained working group iso/iec jtc1/sc22/wg14 national adoption update international standard typically occurs within year iso publication one aims c standardization process produce superset k r c incorporating many subsequently introduced unofficial features standards committee also included several additional features function prototypes borrowed c++ codice_15 pointers support international character sets locales preprocessor enhancements although syntax parameter declarations augmented include style used c++ k r interface continued permitted compatibility existing source code c89 supported current c compilers c code written today based program written standard c without hardware-dependent assumptions run correctly platform conforming c implementation within resource limits without precautions programs may compile certain platform particular compiler due example use non-standard libraries gui libraries reliance compiler- platform-specific attributes exact size data types byte endianness cases code must compilable either standard-conforming k r c-based compilers codice_38 macro used split code standard k r sections prevent use k r c-based compiler features available standard c. ansi/iso standardization process c language specification remained relatively static several years 1995 normative amendment 1 1990 c standard iso/iec 9899/amd1:1995 known informally c95 published correct details add extensive support international character sets c standard revised late 1990s leading publication iso/iec 9899:1999 1999 commonly referred c99 since amended three times technical corrigenda c99 introduced several new features including inline functions several new data types including codice_39 codice_40 type represent complex numbers variable-length arrays flexible array members improved support ieee 754 floating point support variadic macros macros variable arity support one-line comments beginning codice_41 bcpl c++ many already implemented extensions several c compilers c99 part backward compatible c90 stricter ways particular declaration lacks type specifier longer codice_30 implicitly assumed standard macro codice_43 defined value codice_44 indicate c99 support available gcc solaris studio c compilers support many new features c99 c compiler microsoft visual c++ however implements c89 standard parts c99 required compatibility c++11 2007 work began another revision c standard informally called c1x official publication 2011-12-08 c standards committee adopted guidelines limit adoption new features tested existing implementations c11 standard adds numerous new features c library including type generic macros anonymous structures improved unicode support atomic operations multi-threading bounds-checked functions also makes portions existing c99 library optional improves compatibility c++ standard macro codice_43 defined codice_46 indicate c11 support available published june 2018 c18 current standard c programming language introduces new language features technical corrections clarifications defects c11 standard macro codice_43 defined codice_48 historically embedded c programming requires nonstandard extensions c language order support exotic features fixed-point arithmetic multiple distinct memory banks basic i/o operations 2008 c standards committee published technical report extending c language address issues providing common standard implementations adhere includes number features available normal c fixed-point arithmetic named address spaces basic i/o hardware addressing c formal grammar specified c standard line endings generally significant c however line boundaries significance preprocessing phase comments may appear either delimiters codice_49 codice_50 since c99 following codice_41 end line comments delimited codice_49 codice_50 nest sequences characters interpreted comment delimiters appear inside string character literals c source files contain declarations function definitions function definitions turn contain declarations statements declarations either define new types using keywords codice_12 codice_35 codice_14 assign types perhaps reserve storage new variables usually writing type followed variable name keywords codice_57 codice_30 specify built-in types sections code enclosed braces codice_59 codice_60 sometimes called curly brackets limit scope declarations act single statement control structures imperative language c uses statements specify actions common statement expression statement consisting expression evaluated followed semicolon side effect evaluation functions may called variables may assigned new values modify normal sequential execution statements c provides several control-flow statements identified reserved keywords structured programming supported codice_61 -codice_62 conditional execution codice_63-codice_4 codice_4 codice_2 iterative execution looping codice_2 statement separate initialization testing reinitialization expressions omitted codice_68 codice_69 used leave innermost enclosing loop statement skip reinitialization also non-structured codice_70 statement branches directly designated label within function codice_5 selects codice_72 executed based value integer expression expressions use variety built-in operators may contain function calls order arguments functions operands operators evaluated unspecified evaluations may even interleaved however side effects including storage variables occur next sequence point sequence points include end expression statement entry return function call sequence points also occur evaluation expressions containing certain operators codice_73 codice_10 codice_75 comma operator permits high degree object code optimization compiler requires c programmers take care obtain reliable results needed programming languages kernighan ritchie say introduction c programming language c like language blemishes operators wrong precedence parts syntax could better c standard attempt correct many blemishes impact changes already existing software basic c source character set includes following characters newline indicates end text line need correspond actual single character although convenience c treats one additional multi-byte encoded characters may used string literals entirely portable latest c standard c11 allows multi-national unicode characters embedded portably within c source text using codice_83 codice_84 encoding codice_85 denotes hexadecimal character although feature yet widely implemented basic c execution character set contains characters along representations alert backspace carriage return run-time support extended character sets increased revision c standard c89 32 reserved words also known keywords words used purposes predefined c99 reserved five words c11 reserved seven words recently reserved words begin underscore followed capital letter identifiers form previously reserved c standard use implementations since existing program source code using identifiers would affected c implementations started supporting extensions programming language standard headers define convenient synonyms underscored identifiers language previously included reserved word called codice_130 seldom implemented removed reserved word c supports rich set operators symbols used within expression specify manipulations performed evaluating expression c operators c uses operator codice_136 used mathematics express equality indicate assignment following precedent fortran pl/i unlike algol derivatives c uses operator codice_156 test equality similarity two operators assignment equality may result accidental use one place many cases mistake produce error message although compilers produce warnings example conditional expression codice_176 might mistakenly written codice_177 evaluated true codice_76 zero assignment c operator precedence always intuitive example operator codice_156 binds tightly executed prior operators codice_9 bitwise codice_149 bitwise expressions codice_182 must written codice_183 coder intent hello world example appeared first edition k r become model introductory program programming textbooks regardless programming language program prints hello world standard output usually terminal screen display original version main standard-conforming hello world program int main void first line program contains preprocessing directive indicated codice_184 causes compiler replace line entire text codice_185 standard header contains declarations standard input output functions codice_186 codice_187 angle brackets surrounding codice_185 indicate codice_185 located using search strategy prefers headers provided compiler headers name opposed double quotes typically include local project-specific header files next line indicates function named codice_190 defined codice_190 function serves special purpose c programs run-time environment calls codice_190 function begin program execution type specifier codice_30 indicates value returned invoker case run-time environment result evaluating codice_190 function integer keyword codice_15 parameter list indicates function takes arguments opening curly brace indicates beginning definition codice_190 function next line calls diverts execution function named codice_186 case supplied system library call codice_186 function passed provided single argument address first character string literal codice_199 string literal unnamed array elements type codice_57 set automatically compiler final 0-valued character mark end array codice_186 needs know codice_202 escape sequence c translates newline character output signifies end current line return value codice_186 function type codice_30 silently discarded since used careful program might test return value determine whether codice_186 function succeeded semicolon codice_206 terminates statement closing curly brace indicates end code codice_190 function according c99 specification newer codice_190 function unlike function implicitly return value codice_80 upon reaching codice_60 terminates function formerly explicit codice_211 statement required interpreted run-time system exit code indicating successful execution type system c static weakly typed makes similar type system algol descendants pascal built-in types integers various sizes signed unsigned floating-point numbers enumerated types codice_14 integer type codice_57 often used single-byte characters c99 added boolean datatype also derived types including arrays pointers records codice_12 unions codice_35 c often used low-level systems programming escapes type system may necessary compiler attempts ensure type correctness expressions programmer override checks various ways either using type cast explicitly convert value one type another using pointers unions reinterpret underlying bits data object way find c declaration syntax unintuitive particularly function pointers ritchie idea declare identifiers contexts resembling use declaration reflects use c usual arithmetic conversions allow efficient code generated sometimes produce unexpected results example comparison signed unsigned integers equal width requires conversion signed value unsigned generate unexpected results signed value negative c supports use pointers type reference records address location object function memory pointers dereferenced access data stored address pointed invoke pointed-to function pointers manipulated using assignment pointer arithmetic run-time representation pointer value typically raw memory address perhaps augmented offset-within-word field since pointer type includes type thing pointed expressions including pointers type-checked compile time pointer arithmetic automatically scaled size pointed-to data type pointers used many purposes c. text strings commonly manipulated using pointers arrays characters dynamic memory allocation performed using pointers many data types trees commonly implemented dynamically allocated codice_12 objects linked together using pointers pointers functions useful passing functions arguments higher-order functions qsort bsearch callbacks invoked event handlers null pointer value explicitly points valid location dereferencing null pointer value undefined often resulting segmentation fault null pointer values useful indicating special cases next pointer final node linked list error indication functions returning pointers appropriate contexts source code assigning pointer variable null pointer constant written codice_80 without explicit casting pointer type codice_218 macro defined several standard headers conditional contexts null pointer values evaluate false pointer values evaluate true void pointers codice_219 point objects unspecified type therefore used generic data pointers since size type pointed-to object known void pointers dereferenced pointer arithmetic allowed although easily many contexts implicitly converted object pointer type careless use pointers potentially dangerous typically unchecked pointer variable made point arbitrary location cause undesirable effects although properly used pointers point safe places made point unsafe places using invalid pointer arithmetic objects point may continue used deallocation dangling pointers may used without initialized wild pointers may directly assigned unsafe value using cast union another corrupt pointer general c permissive allowing manipulation conversion pointer types although compilers typically provide options various levels checking programming languages address problems using restrictive reference types array types c traditionally fixed static size specified compile time recent c99 standard also allows form variable-length arrays however also possible allocate block memory arbitrary size run-time using standard library codice_220 function treat array c unification arrays pointers means declared arrays dynamically allocated simulated arrays virtually interchangeable since arrays always accessed effect via pointers array accesses typically checked underlying array size although compilers may provide bounds checking option array bounds violations therefore possible rather common carelessly written code lead various repercussions including illegal memory accesses corruption data buffer overruns run-time exceptions bounds checking desired must done manually c special provision declaring multi-dimensional arrays rather relies recursion within type system declare arrays arrays effectively accomplishes thing index values resulting multi-dimensional array thought increasing row-major order multi-dimensional arrays commonly used numerical algorithms mainly applied linear algebra store matrices structure c array well suited particular task however since arrays passed merely pointers bounds array must known fixed values else explicitly passed subroutine requires dynamically sized arrays arrays accessed using double indexing workaround allocate array additional row vector pointers columns c99 introduced variable-length arrays address issues ordinary c arrays subscript notation codice_221 codice_222 designates pointer syntactic sugar codice_223 taking advantage compiler knowledge pointer type address codice_224 points base address pointed codice_222 incremented codice_27 bytes rather defined base address incremented codice_27 multiplied size element codice_222 points thus codice_221 designates codice_230th element array furthermore expression contexts notable exception operand codice_108 name array automatically converted pointer array first element implies array never copied whole named argument function rather address first element passed therefore although function calls c use pass-by-value semantics arrays effect passed reference size element determined applying operator codice_108 dereferenced element codice_222 codice_234 codice_235 number elements declared array codice_78 determined codice_237 latter applies array names variables declared subscripts codice_238 due semantics c possible determine entire size arrays pointers arrays created dynamic allocation codice_220 code codice_240 codice_241 designates pointer work since compiler assumes size pointer requested since array name arguments codice_108 converted pointers exhibit ambiguity however arrays created dynamic allocation accessed pointers rather true array variables suffer codice_108 issues array pointers thus despite apparent equivalence array pointer variables still distinction made even though name array expression contexts converted pointer first element pointer occupy storage array name l-value address constant unlike pointer variable consequently array points changed impossible assign new address array name array contents may copied however using codice_244 function accessing individual elements one important functions programming language provide facilities managing memory objects stored memory c provides three distinct ways allocate memory objects three approaches appropriate different situations various trade-offs example static memory allocation little allocation overhead automatic allocation may involve slightly overhead dynamic memory allocation potentially great deal overhead allocation deallocation persistent nature static objects useful maintaining state information across function calls automatic allocation easy use stack space typically much limited transient either static memory heap space dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation objects whose size known run-time c programs make extensive use three possible automatic static allocation usually simplest storage managed compiler freeing programmer potentially error-prone chore manually allocating releasing storage however many data structures change size runtime since static allocations automatic allocations c99 must fixed size compile-time many situations dynamic allocation necessary prior c99 standard variable-sized arrays common example see article codice_220 example dynamically allocated arrays unlike automatic allocation fail run time uncontrolled consequences dynamic allocation functions return indication form null pointer value required storage allocated static allocation large usually detected linker loader program even begin execution unless otherwise specified static objects contain zero null pointer values upon program startup automatically dynamically allocated objects initialized initial value explicitly specified otherwise initially indeterminate values typically whatever bit pattern happens present storage might even represent valid value type program attempts access uninitialized value results undefined many modern compilers try detect warn problem false positives false negatives occur another issue heap memory allocation synchronized actual usage program order reused much possible example pointer heap memory allocation goes scope value overwritten codice_249 called memory recovered later reuse essentially lost program phenomenon known memory leak conversely possible memory freed continue referenced leading unpredictable results typically symptoms appear portion program far removed actual error making difficult track problem issues ameliorated languages automatic garbage collection c programming language uses libraries primary method extension c library set functions contained within single archive file library typically header file contains prototypes functions contained within library may used program declarations special data types macro symbols used functions order program use library must include library header file library must linked program many cases requires compiler flags e.g. codice_250 shorthand link math library common c library c standard library specified iso ansi c standards comes every c implementation implementations target limited environments embedded systems may provide subset standard library library supports stream input output memory allocation mathematics character strings time values several separate standard headers example codice_185 specify interfaces standard library facilities another common set c library functions used applications specifically targeted unix unix-like systems especially functions provide interface kernel functions detailed various standards posix single unix specification since many programs written c wide variety libraries available libraries often written c c compilers generate efficient object code programmers create interfaces library routines used higher-level languages like java perl python file input output i/o part c language instead handled libraries c standard library associated header files e.g codice_185 file handling generally implemented high-level i/o works streams stream perspective data flow independent devices file concrete device high level i/o done association stream file c standard library buffer memory area queue temporarily used store data sent final destination reduces time spent waiting slower devices example hard drive solid state drive low-level i/o functions part standard c library generally part bare metal programming programming independent operating system embedded programming exceptions implementations include low-level i/o number tools developed help c programmers find fix statements undefined behavior possibly erroneous expressions greater rigor provided compiler tool lint first leading many others automated source code checking auditing beneficial language c many tools exist lint common practice use lint detect questionable code program first written program passes lint compiled using c compiler also many compilers optionally warn syntactically valid constructs likely actually errors misra c proprietary set guidelines avoid questionable code developed embedded systems also compilers libraries operating system level mechanisms performing actions standard part c bounds checking arrays detection buffer overflow serialization dynamic memory tracking automatic garbage collection tools purify valgrind linking libraries containing special versions memory allocation functions help uncover runtime errors memory usage c widely used systems programming implementing operating systems embedded system applications c code written portability used purposes yet needed system-specific code used access specific hardware addresses perform type punning match externally imposed interface requirements low run-time demand system resources c also used website programming using cgi gateway information web application server browser c often chosen interpreted languages speed stability near-universal availability one consequence c wide availability efficiency compilers libraries interpreters programming languages often implemented c. reference implementations python perl php example written c. layer abstraction thin overhead low c enables programmers create efficient implementations algorithms data structures useful computationally intense programs example gnu multiple precision arithmetic library gnu scientific library mathematica matlab completely partially written c. c sometimes used intermediate language implementations languages approach may used portability convenience using c intermediate language additional machine-specific code generators necessary c features line-number preprocessor directives optional superfluous commas end initializer lists support compilation generated code however c shortcomings prompted development c-based languages specifically designed use intermediate languages c -- c also widely used implement end-user applications however applications also written newer higher-level languages c directly indirectly influenced many later languages c go java javascript limbo lpc perl php python unix c shell pervasive influence syntactical languages mentioned combine statement less recognizably expression syntax c type systems data models and/or large-scale program structures differ c sometimes radically several c near-c interpreters exist including ch cint also used scripting object-oriented languages became popular c++ objective-c two different extensions c provided object-oriented capabilities languages originally implemented source-to-source compilers source code translated c compiled c compiler c++ programming language devised bjarne stroustrup approach providing object-oriented functionality c-like syntax c++ adds greater typing strength scoping tools useful object-oriented programming permits generic programming via templates nearly superset c c++ supports c exceptions objective-c originally thin layer top c remains strict superset c permits object-oriented programming using hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm objective-c derives syntax c smalltalk syntax involves preprocessing expressions function declarations function calls inherited c syntax object-oriented features originally taken smalltalk addition c++ objective-c ch cilk unified parallel c nearly supersets c 1-hop neighbor's text information: library_(computing).library computing computer science library collection non-volatile resources used computer programs often software development may include configuration data documentation help data message templates pre-written code subroutines classes values type specifications ibm os/360 successors referred partitioned data sets library also collection implementations behavior written terms language well-defined interface behavior invoked instance people want write higher level program use library make system calls instead implementing system calls addition behavior provided reuse multiple independent programs program invokes library-provided behavior via mechanism language example simple imperative language c behavior library invoked using c normal function-call distinguishes call library function versus another function program way code organized system library code organized way used multiple programs connection code part program organized used within one program distinction gain hierarchical notion program grows large multi-million-line program case may internal libraries reused independent sub-portions large program distinguishing feature library organized purposes reused independent programs sub-programs user needs know interface internal details library value library lies reuse behavior program invokes library gains behavior implemented inside library without implement behavior libraries encourage sharing code modular fashion ease distribution code behavior implemented library connected invoking program different program lifecycle phases code library accessed build invoking program library called static library alternative build executable invoking program distribute independently library implementation library behavior connected executable invoked executed either part process starting execution middle execution case library called dynamic library loaded run time dynamic library loaded linked preparing program execution linker alternatively middle execution application may explicitly request module loaded compiled languages standard library although programmers also create custom libraries modern software systems provide libraries implement majority system services libraries commoditized services modern application requires code used modern applications provided system libraries earliest programming concepts analogous libraries intended separate data definitions program implementation jovial brought compool communication pool concept popular attention 1959 although adopted idea large-system sage software following computer science principles separation concerns information hiding comm pool purpose permit sharing system data among many programs providing centralized data description cobol also included primitive capabilities library system 1959 jean sammet described inadequate library facilities retrospect another major contributor modern library concept came form subprogram innovation fortran fortran subprograms compiled independently compiler lacked linker prior introduction modules fortran-90 type checking fortran subprograms impossible finally historians concept remember influential simula 67 simula first object-oriented programming language classes nearly identical modern concept used java c++ c class concept simula also progenitor package ada module modula-2 even developed originally 1965 simula classes could included library files added compile time libraries important program linking binding process resolves references known links symbols library modules linking process usually automatically done linker binder program searches set libraries modules given order usually considered error link target found multiple times given set libraries linking may done executable file created whenever program used run time references resolved may addresses jumps routine calls may main program one module depending upon another resolved fixed relocatable addresses common base allocating runtime memory memory segments module referenced programming languages may use feature called smart linking whereby linker aware integrated compiler linker knows external references used code library never actually used even though internally referenced discarded compiled application example program uses integers arithmetic arithmetic operations exclude floating-point library routines smart-linking feature lead smaller application file sizes reduced memory usage references program library module stored relative symbolic form resolved code libraries assigned final static addresses relocation process adjusting references done either linker loader general relocation done individual libraries addresses memory may vary depending program using libraries combined position-independent code avoids references absolute addresses therefore require relocation linking performed creation executable another object file known static linking early binding case linking usually done linker may also done compiler static library also known archive one intended statically linked originally static libraries existed static linking must performed modules recompiled modules required program sometimes statically linked copied executable file process resulting stand-alone file known static build program static build may need relocation virtual memory used address space layout randomization desired shared library shared object file intended shared executable files shared object files modules used program loaded individual shared objects memory load time run time rather copied linker creates single monolithic executable file program shared libraries statically linked meaning references library modules resolved modules allocated memory executable file created often linking shared libraries postponed loaded modern operating systems shared library files format executable files offers two main advantages first requires making one loader rather two single loader considered well worth added complexity secondly allows executables also used shared libraries symbol table typical combined executable shared library formats elf mach-o unix pe windows older environments 16-bit windows mpe hp 3000 stack-based data local allowed shared-library code significant restrictions placed shared-library code library code may shared memory multiple processes well disk virtual memory used processes would execute physical page ram mapped different address spaces processes advantages instance openstep system applications often hundred kilobytes size loaded quickly majority code located libraries already loaded purposes operating system programs accomplish ram sharing using position-independent code unix leads complex flexible architecture using common virtual addresses windows os/2 systems make sure various tricks like pre-mapping address space reserving slots shared library code great probability shared third alternative single-level store used ibm system/38 successors allows position-dependent code places significant restrictions code placed shared cases different versions shared libraries cause problems especially libraries different versions file name different applications installed system require specific version scenario known dll hell named windows os/2 dll file modern operating systems 2001 clean-up methods eliminate situations use application-specific private libraries dynamic linking late binding linking performed program loaded load time executed run time rather executable file created dynamically linked library dynamic-link library dll windows os/2 dynamic shared object dso unix-like systems library intended dynamic linking minimal amount work done linker executable file created records library routines program needs index names numbers routines library majority work linking done time application loaded load time execution run time usually necessary linking program called dynamic linker linking loader actually part underlying operating system however possible exceedingly difficult write program uses dynamic linking includes dynamic linker even operating system provides support dynamic linking programmers originally developed dynamic linking multics operating system starting 1964 mts michigan terminal system built late 1960s since shared libraries systems change often systems compute likely load address shared library system needed store information libraries executables every shared library loaded undergone process load predetermined address speeds process dynamic linking optimization known prebinding macos prelinking linux disadvantages technique include time required precompute addresses every time shared libraries change inability use address space layout randomization requirement sufficient virtual address space use problem alleviated adoption 64-bit architectures least time loaders shared libraries vary widely functionality depend executable storing explicit paths libraries change library naming layout file system cause systems fail commonly name library path stored executable operating system supplying method find library disk based algorithm shared library executable depends deleted moved renamed incompatible version library copied place earlier search executable would fail load called dependency hell existing many platforms infamous windows variant commonly known dll hell problem occur version library uniquely identified program references libraries full unique identifiers dll hell problems earlier windows versions arose using names libraries guaranteed unique resolve dynamic links programs avoid dll hell later versions windows rely largely options programs install private dlls—essentially partial retreat use shared libraries—along mechanisms prevent replacement shared system dlls earlier versions microsoft windows checks registry determine proper place load dlls implement com objects dlls check directories defined order first windows checks directory loaded program private dll directories set calling codice_1 function system32 system windows directories current working directory finally directories specified path environment variable applications written .net framework framework since 2002 also check global assembly cache primary store shared dll files remove issue dll hell openstep used flexible system collecting list libraries number known locations similar path concept system first starts moving libraries around causes problems although users incur time cost first starting system unix-like systems search path specifying file-system directories look dynamic libraries systems specify default path configuration file others hard-code dynamic loader executable file formats specify additional directories search libraries particular program usually overridden environment variable although disabled setuid setgid programs user ca n't force program run arbitrary code root permissions developers libraries encouraged place dynamic libraries places default search path downside make installation new libraries problematic known locations quickly become home increasing number library files making management complex dynamic loading subset dynamic linking involves dynamically linked library loading unloading run time request request may made implicitly compile time explicitly run time implicit requests made compile time linker adds library references include file paths simply file names explicit requests made applications make direct calls operating system api run time operating systems support dynamically linked libraries also support dynamically loading libraries via run-time linker api instance microsoft windows uses api functions loadlibrary loadlibraryex freelibrary getprocaddress microsoft dynamic link libraries posix-based systems including unix unix-like systems use dlopen dlclose dlsym development systems automate process although originally pioneered 1960s dynamic linking reach operating systems used consumers late 1980s generally available form operating systems early 1990s period object-oriented programming oop becoming significant part programming landscape oop runtime binding requires additional information traditional libraries n't supply addition names entry points code located within also require list objects depend side-effect one oop main advantages inheritance means parts complete definition method may different places simply listing one library requires services another true oop system libraries may known compile time vary system system time many developers worked idea multi-tier programs display running desktop computer would use services mainframe minicomputer data storage processing instance program gui-based computer would send messages minicomputer return small samples huge dataset display remote procedure calls rpc already handled tasks standard rpc system soon majority minicomputer mainframe vendors instigated projects combine two producing oop library format could used anywhere systems known object libraries distributed objects supported remote access microsoft com example system local use dcom modified version supports remote access time object libraries held status next big thing programming world number efforts create systems would run across platforms companies competed try get developers locked system examples include ibm system object model som/dsom sun microsystems distributed objects everywhere doe next portable distributed objects pdo digital objectbroker microsoft component object model com/dcom number corba-based systems inevitable cooling marketing hype object libraries continue used object-oriented programming distributed information systems class libraries rough oop equivalent older types code libraries contain classes describe characteristics define actions methods involve objects class libraries used create instances objects characteristics set specific values oop languages like java distinction clear classes often contained library files like java jar file format instantiated objects residing memory although potentially able made persistent separate files others like smalltalk class libraries merely starting point system image includes entire state environment classes instantiated objects another solution library issue comes using completely separate executables often lightweight form calling using remote procedure call rpc network another computer approach maximizes operating system re-use code needed support library code used provide application support security every program additionally systems require library exist machine forward requests network however approach means every library call requires considerable amount overhead rpc calls much expensive calling shared library already loaded machine approach commonly used distributed architecture makes heavy use remote calls notably client-server systems application servers enterprise javabeans code generation libraries high-level apis generate transform byte code java used aspect-oriented programming data access frameworks testing generate dynamic proxy objects also used intercept field access system stores codice_2 codice_3 files directories codice_4 codice_5 codice_6 filenames always start codice_7 end suffix codice_8 archive static library codice_9 shared object dynamically linked library systems might multiple names dynamically linked library names names symbolic links remaining name names might include major version library full version number example systems codice_10 would filename second major interface revision dynamically linked library codice_11 codice_12 files sometimes found library directories libtool archives usable system system inherits static library conventions bsd library stored codice_8 file use codice_9-style dynamically linked libraries codice_15 suffix instead libraries macos however consist frameworks placed inside special directories called bundles wrap library required files metadata example framework called codice_16 would implemented bundle called codice_17 codice_18 either dynamically linked library file symlink dynamically linked library file codice_19 dynamic-link libraries usually suffix codice_20 although file name extensions may identify specific-purpose dynamically linked libraries e.g codice_21 ole libraries interface revisions either encoded file names abstracted away using com-object interfaces depending compiled codice_22 files either static libraries representations dynamically linkable libraries needed compilation known import libraries unlike unix world uses different file extensions linking codice_23 file windows one must first know regular static library import library latter case codice_24 file must present run time 1-hop neighbor's text information: ibm.ibm international business machines corporation ibm american multinational information technology company headquartered armonk new york operations 170 countries company began 1911 founded endicott new york computing-tabulating-recording company ctr renamed international business machines 1924 ibm produces sells computer hardware middleware software provides hosting consulting services areas ranging mainframe computers nanotechnology ibm also major research organization holding record u.s. patents generated business 26 consecutive years inventions ibm include automated teller machine atm floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database sql programming language upc barcode dynamic random-access memory dram ibm mainframe exemplified system/360 dominant computing platform 1960s 1970s ibm continually shifted business operations focusing higher-value profitable markets includes spinning printer manufacturer lexmark 1991 sale personal computer thinkpad/thinkcentre x86-based server businesses lenovo 2005 2014 respectively acquiring companies pwc consulting 2002 spss 2009 weather company 2016 red hat 2019 also 2015 ibm announced would go fabless continuing design semiconductors offloading manufacturing globalfoundries nicknamed big blue ibm one 30 companies included dow jones industrial average one world largest employers 380,000 employees known ibmers least 70 ibmers based outside united states country largest number ibmers india ibm employees awarded five nobel prizes six turing awards ten national medals technology usa five national medals science usa 1880s technologies emerged would ultimately form core international business machines ibm julius e. pitrap patented computing scale 1885 alexander dey invented dial recorder 1888 herman hollerith 1860–1929 patented electric tabulating machine willard bundy invented time clock record worker arrival departure time paper tape 1889 june 16 1911 four companies amalgamated new york state charles ranlett flint forming fifth company computing-tabulating-recording company ctr based endicott new york five companies 1,300 employees offices plants endicott binghamton new york dayton ohio detroit michigan washington d.c. toronto manufactured machinery sale lease ranging commercial scales industrial time recorders meat cheese slicers tabulators punched cards thomas j. watson sr. fired national cash register company john henry patterson called flint 1914 offered position ctr watson joined ctr general manager 11 months later made president court cases relating time ncr resolved learned patterson pioneering business practices watson proceeded put stamp ncr onto ctr companies implemented sales conventions generous sales incentives focus customer service insistence well-groomed dark-suited salesmen evangelical fervor instilling company pride loyalty every worker favorite slogan think became mantra company employees watson first four years revenues reached 9 million company operations expanded europe south america asia australia watson never liked clumsy hyphenated name computing-tabulating-recording company february 14 1924 chose replace expansive title international business machines 1933 subsidiaries merged one company ibm 1937 ibm tabulating equipment enabled organizations process unprecedented amounts data clients including u.s. government first effort maintain employment records 26 million people pursuant social security act tracking persecuted groups hitler third reich largely german subsidiary dehomag 1949 thomas watson sr. created ibm world trade corporation subsidiary ibm focused foreign operations 1952 stepped almost 40 years company helm son thomas watson jr. named president 1956 company demonstrated first practical example artificial intelligence arthur l. samuel ibm poughkeepsie new york laboratory programmed ibm 704 merely play checkers learn experience 1957 fortran scientific programming language developed 1961 ibm developed sabre reservation system american airlines introduced highly successful selectric typewriter 1963 ibm employees computers helped nasa track orbital flights mercury astronauts year later moved corporate headquarters new york city armonk new york latter half 1960s saw ibm continue support space exploration participating 1965 gemini flights 1966 saturn flights 1969 lunar mission april 7 1964 ibm announced first computer system family ibm system/360 spanned complete range commercial scientific applications large small allowing companies first time upgrade models greater computing capability without rewrite applications followed ibm system/370 1970 together 360 370 made ibm mainframe dominant mainframe computer dominant computing platform industry throughout period early 1980s operating systems ran os/vs1 mvs middleware built top cics transaction processing monitor near-monopoly-level hold computer industry became almost synonymous ibm products due marketshare 1974 ibm engineer george j. laurer developed universal product code ibm world bank first introduced financial swaps public 1981 entered swap agreement ibm pc originally designated ibm 5150 introduced 1981 soon became industry standard 1991 ibm spun printer manufacturing new business called lexmark 1993 ibm posted us 8 billion loss – time biggest american corporate history lou gerstner hired ceo rjr nabisco turn company around 2002 ibm acquired pwc consulting 2003 initiated project redefine company values hosting three-day online discussion key business issues 50,000 employees result three values dedication every client success innovation matters—for company world trust personal responsibility relationships 2005 company sold personal computer business chinese technology company lenovo 2009 acquired software company spss inc. later 2009 ibm blue gene supercomputing program awarded national medal technology innovation u.s. president barack obama 2011 ibm gained worldwide attention artificial intelligence program watson exhibited jeopardy game-show champions ken jennings brad rutter company also celebrated 100th anniversary year june 16 2012 ibm announced agreed buy kenexa year later also acquired softlayer technologies web hosting service deal worth around 2 billion 2014 ibm announced would sell x86 server division lenovo 2.1 billion also year ibm began announcing several major partnerships companies including apple inc. twitter facebook tencent cisco underarmour box microsoft vmware csc macy sesame workshop parent company sesame street salesforce.com 2015 ibm announced three major acquisitions merge healthcare 1 billion data storage vendor cleversafe digital assets weather company including weather.com weather channel mobile app also year ibmers created film boy atom first molecule movie tell story 2016 ibm acquired video conferencing service ustream formed new cloud video unit april 2016 posted 14-year low quarterly sales following month groupon sued ibm accusing patent infringement two months ibm accused groupon patent infringement separate lawsuit 2015 ibm bought digital part weather company october 2018 ibm announced intention acquire red hat 34 billion acquisition completed july 9 2019 june 2019 ibm cut 2,000 jobs ibm headquartered armonk new york community north midtown manhattan principal building referred chq glass stone edifice parcel amid 432-acre former apple orchard company purchased mid-1950s two ibm buildings within walking distance chq north castle office previously served ibm headquarters louis v. gerstner jr. center learning formerly known ibm learning center ilc resort hotel training center 182 guest rooms 31 meeting rooms various amenities ibm operates 174 countries mobility centers smaller markets areas major campuses larger ones new york city ibm several offices besides chq including ibm watson headquarters astor place manhattan outside new york major campuses united states include austin texas research triangle park raleigh-durham north carolina rochester minnesota silicon valley california ibm real estate holdings varied globally diverse towers occupied ibm include 1250 rené-lévesque montreal canada tour descartes paris france one atlantic center atlanta georgia usa beijing china ibm occupies pangu plaza city seventh tallest building overlooking beijing national stadium bird nest home 2008 summer olympics ibm india private limited indian subsidiary ibm headquartered bengaluru karnataka facilities bengaluru ahmedabad delhi kolkata mumbai chennai pune gurugram noida bhubaneshwar coimbatore visakhapatnam hyderabad notable buildings include ibm rome software lab rome italy hursley house winchester uk 330 north wabash chicago illinois united states cambridge scientific center cambridge massachusetts united states ibm toronto software lab toronto canada ibm building johannesburg johannesburg south africa ibm building seattle seattle washington united states ibm hakozaki facility tokyo japan ibm yamato facility yamato japan ibm canada head office building ontario canada watson iot headquarters munich germany defunct ibm campuses include ibm somers office complex somers new york company contributions industrial architecture design include works eero saarinen ludwig mies van der rohe i.m pei van der rohe building chicago recognized 1990 honor award national building museum ibm recognized one top 20 best workplaces commuters united states environmental protection agency epa 2005 recognized fortune 500 companies provided employees excellent commuter benefits help reduce traffic air pollution 2004 concerns raised related ibm contribution early days pollution original location endicott new york fiscal year 2017 ibm reported earnings us 5.7 billion annual revenue us 79.1 billion decline 1.0 previous fiscal cycle ibm shares traded 125 per share market capitalization valued us 113.9 billion september 2018 ibm ranked 34 2018 fortune 500 rankings largest united states corporations total revenue ibm large diverse portfolio products services offerings fall categories cloud computing artificial intelligence commerce data analytics internet things iot infrastructure mobile security ibm cloud includes infrastructure service iaas software service saas platform service paas offered public private hybrid cloud delivery models instance ibm bluemix paas enables developers quickly create complex websites pay-as-you-go model ibm softlayer dedicated server managed hosting cloud computing provider 2011 reported hosting 81,000 servers 26,000 customers ibm also provides cloud data encryption services icdes using cryptographic splitting secure customer data ibm also hosts industry-wide cloud computing mobile technologies conference interconnect year hardware designed ibm categories include ibm power microprocessors employed inside many console gaming systems including xbox 360 playstation 3 nintendo wii u. ibm secure blue encryption hardware built microprocessors 2014 company revealed truenorth neuromorphic cmos integrated circuit announced 3 billion investment following five years design neural chip mimics human brain 10 billion neurons 100 trillion synapses uses 1 kilowatt power 2016 company launched all-flash arrays designed small midsized companies includes software data compression provisioning snapshots across various systems outsourcing also represents major service provided ibm 40 data centers worldwide alphaworks ibm source emerging software technologies spss software package used statistical analysis ibm kenexa suite provides employment retention solutions includes brassring applicant tracking system used thousands companies recruiting ibm also owns weather company provides weather forecasting includes weather.com weather underground smarter planet initiative seeks achieve economic growth near-term efficiency sustainable development societal progress targeting opportunities smart grids water management systems solutions traffic congestion greener buildings services provisions include redbooks publicly available online books best practices ibm products developerworks website software developers professionals how-to articles tutorials well software downloads code samples discussion forums podcasts blogs wikis resources developers technical professionals ibm watson technology platform uses natural language processing machine learning reveal insights large amounts unstructured data watson debuted 2011 american game-show jeopardy competed champions ken jennings brad rutter three-game tournament watson since applied business healthcare developers universities example ibm partnered memorial sloan kettering cancer center assist considering treatment options oncology patients melanoma screenings also several companies begun using watson call centers either replacing assisting customer service agents january 2019 ibm introduced first commercial quantum computer ibm q system one ibm also provides infrastructure new york city police department ibm cognos analytics perform data visualizations compstat crime data research part ibm since founding organized efforts trace roots back 1945 watson scientific computing laboratory founded columbia university new york city converting renovated fraternity house manhattan west side ibm first laboratory ibm research constitutes largest industrial research organization world 12 labs 6 continents ibm research headquartered thomas j. watson research center new york facilities include almaden lab california austin lab texas australia lab melbourne brazil lab são paulo rio de janeiro china lab beijing shanghai ireland lab dublin haifa lab israel india lab delhi bangalore tokyo lab zurich lab africa lab nairobi terms investment ibm r expenditure totals several billion dollars year 2012 expenditure approximately us 6.9 billion recent allocations included 1 billion create business unit watson 2014 3 billion create next-gen semiconductor along 4 billion towards growing company strategic imperatives cloud analytics mobile security social 2015 ibm leading proponent open source initiative began supporting linux 1998 company invests billions dollars services software based linux ibm linux technology center includes 300 linux kernel developers ibm also released code different open source licenses platform-independent software framework eclipse worth approximately us 40 million time donation three-sentence international components unicode icu license java-based relational database management system rdbms apache derby ibm open source involvement trouble-free however see sco v. ibm famous inventions developments ibm include automated teller machine atm dynamic random access memory dram electronic keypunch financial swap floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database risc sabre airline reservation system sql universal product code upc bar code virtual machine additionally 1990 company scientists used scanning tunneling microscope arrange 35 individual xenon atoms spell company acronym marking first structure assembled one atom time major part ibm research generation patents since first patent traffic signaling device ibm one world prolific patent sources 2018 company holds record patents generated business marking 25 consecutive years achievement five ibmers received nobel prize leo esaki thomas j. watson research center yorktown heights n.y. 1973 work semiconductors gerd binnig heinrich rohrer zurich research center 1986 scanning tunneling microscope georg bednorz alex müller also zurich 1987 research superconductivity several ibmers also turing award including first female recipient frances e. allen current research includes collaboration university michigan see computers act academic advisor undergraduate computer science engineering students university partnership combining cloud internet things iot platforms make interoperable provide developers easier tools company also involved research advanced algorithms machine learning decision-making processes end company recently released analysis tool algorithms make decisions scanning biases automated decision-making ibm nicknamed big blue part due blue logo color scheme also partially since ibm de facto dress code white shirts blue suits company logo undergone several changes years current 8-bar logo designed 1972 graphic designer paul rand general replacement 13-bar logo since period photocopiers render large areas well aside logo ibm used helvetica corporate typeface 50 years replaced 2017 custom-designed ibm plex ibm valuable brand result 100 years operations marketing campaigns since 1996 ibm exclusive technology partner masters tournament one four major championships professional golf ibm creating first masters.org 1996 first course cam 1998 first iphone app live streaming 2009 first-ever live 4k ultra high definition feed united states major sporting event 2016 result ibm ceo ginni rometty became third female member master governing body augusta national golf club ibm also major sponsor professional tennis engagements u.s. open wimbledon australian open french open company also sponsored olympic games 1960–2000 national football league 2003–2012 2012 ibm brand valued 75.5 billion ranked interbrand second-best brand worldwide year also ranked top company leaders fortune number two green company u.s. newsweek second-most respected company barron fifth-most admired company fortune 18th-most innovative company fast company number one technology consulting number two outsourcing vault 2015 forbes ranked ibm fifth-most valuable brand january 1969 last day johnson administration united states department justice antitrust division filed suit ibm alleging company engaged monopolistic business practices talks ibm would agree settlement consent decree two sides unable come terms case went trial 1975 legal matter justice department estimated would take 60 days three years millions pages evidence justice department decided drop suit new york times article states ibm never publicly disclosed much spent defending suit estimated tens millions dollars ibm one largest workforces world employees big blue referred ibmers company among first corporations provide group life insurance 1934 survivor benefits 1935 training women 1935 paid vacations 1937 training disabled people 1942 ibm hired first black salesperson 1946 1952 ceo thomas j. watson jr. published company first written equal opportunity policy letter one year u.s. supreme court decision brown vs. board education 11 years civil rights act 1964 human rights campaign rated ibm 100 index gay-friendliness every year since 2003 ibm providing same-sex partners employees health benefits anti-discrimination clause additionally 2005 ibm became first major company world commit formally use genetic information employment decisions 2017 ibm named working mother 100 best companies list 32nd consecutive year ibm several leadership development recognition programs recognize employee potential achievements early-career high potential employees ibm sponsors leadership development programs discipline e.g. general management gmldp human resources hrldp finance fldp year company also selects 500 ibmers ibm corporate service corps csc described corporate equivalent peace corps gives top employees month humanitarian work abroad certain interns ibm also program called extreme blue partners top business technical students develop high-value technology compete present business case company ceo internship end company also various designations exceptional individual contributors senior technical staff member stsm research staff member rsm distinguished engineer de distinguished designer dd prolific inventors also achieve patent plateaus earn designation master inventor company prestigious designation ibm fellow since 1963 company names handful fellows year based technical achievement programs recognize years service quarter century club established 1924 sellers eligible join hundred percent club composed ibm salesmen meet quotas convened atlantic city new jersey year company also selects 1,000 ibmers annually award best ibm award includes all-expenses paid trip awards ceremony exotic location ibm culture evolved significantly century operations early days dark gray suit white shirt sincere tie constituted public uniform ibm employees ibm management transformation 1990s ceo louis v. gerstner jr. relaxed codes normalizing dress behavior ibm employees company culture also given different plays company acronym ibm saying stands 've moved due relocations layoffs others saying stands 'm pursuant prevalent work-from-anywhere norm others saying stands 'm mentored due company open door policy encouragement mentoring levels terms labor relations company traditionally resisted labor union organizing although unions represent ibm workers outside united states japan ibm employees also american football team complete pro stadium cheerleaders televised games competing japanese x-league big blue 2015 ibm started giving employees option choosing either pc mac primary work device resulting ibm becoming world largest mac shop 2016 ibm eliminated forced rankings changed annual performance review system focus frequent feedback coaching skills development many ibmers also achieved notability outside work leaving ibm business former ibm employees include apple inc. ceo tim cook former eds ceo politician ross perot microsoft chairman john w. thompson sap co-founder hasso plattner gartner founder gideon gartner advanced micro devices amd ceo lisa su former citizens financial group ceo ellen alemany former yahoo chairman alfred amoroso former ceo c. michael armstrong former xerox corporation ceos david t. kearns g. richard thoman former fair isaac corporation ceo mark n. greene citrix systems co-founder ed iacobucci asos.com chairman brian mcbride former lenovo ceo steve ward former teradata ceo kenneth simonds government alumna patricia roberts harris served united states secretary housing urban development first african american woman serve united states cabinet samuel k. skinner served u.s. secretary transportation white house chief staff alumni also include u.s senators mack mattingly thom tillis wisconsin governor scott walker former u.s ambassadors vincent obsitnik slovakia arthur k. watson france thomas watson jr. soviet union former u.s representatives todd akin glenn andrews robert garcia katherine harris amo houghton jim ross lightfoot thomas j. manton donald w. riegle jr. ed zschau others nasa astronaut michael j. massimino canadian astronaut governor-general julie payette harvey mudd college president maria klawe western governors university president emeritus robert mendenhall former university kentucky president lee t. todd jr. nfl referee bill carollo former rangers f.c chairman john mcclelland recipient nobel prize literature j. m. coetzee thomas watson jr. also served 11th national president boy scouts america company 14 member board directors responsible overall corporate management includes ceos american express ford motor company boeing dow chemical johnson johnson cemex well president rensselaer polytechnic institute 2011 ibm became first technology company warren buffett holding company berkshire hathaway invested initially bought 64 million shares costing 10.5 billion dollars years increased ibm holdings however reduced 94.5 2.05 million shares end 2017 may 2018 completely ibm Target text information: babel_middleware.babel middleware babel open source middleware system serving scientific computing community language interoperability tool babel enables arbitrary mixing software libraries written c/c++ fortran python java distributed computing platform babel provides language-neutral remote method invocation rmi scheme similar java rmi allows third-party plug-ins specify custom data encodings network protocols babel requires developers use interface description language specify platform language neutral interface code babel uses custom dialect called sidl scientific interface definition language adaptations specific computational science engineering applications babel tool parses sidl specification generate source code provides glue programming languages babel works known posix unix variants including linux mac os x aix irix solaris tru64 cray xt4 ibm blue gene many commodity clusters babel require special compiler linker technology works gnu intel ibm pathscale pgi many compilers babel distributed lgpl license babel r 100 award 2006 used diverse computational applications accelerator beam dynamics cell biology chemistry climate electron effects fusion geomagnetics materials nuclear power plants radio astronomy subsurface transport well infrastructure frameworks meshing solvers sparse linear algebra sourcecode refactoring babel also redistributed customer applications cca framework debian linux babel started internal research project software components lawrence livermore national laboratory 1999 first public alpha release babel 2001 also 2001 secured funding scidac scientific discovery advanced computing along collaborators cca forum common component architecture forum babel development maintenance currently funded united states department energy relies heavily open source community contributors hail sandia national laboratories argonne national laboratory oak ridge national laboratory tech-x corp mit university utah babel development team maintain open software repositories mailing lists issue trackers I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	11,661	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: power_analysis.power analysis cryptography power analysis form side channel attack attacker studies power consumption cryptographic hardware device smart card tamper-resistant black box integrated circuit attack non-invasively extract cryptographic keys secret information device simple power analysis spa involves visually interpreting power traces graphs electrical activity time differential power analysis dpa advanced form power analysis allow attacker compute intermediate values within cryptographic computations statistical analysis data collected multiple cryptographic operations spa dpa introduced open cryptology community 1998 paul kocher joshua jaffe benjamin jun simple power analysis spa side-channel attack involves visual examination graphs current used device time variations power consumption occur device performs different operations example different instructions performed microprocessor differing power consumption profiles result power trace smart card using des encryption sixteen rounds seen clearly similarly squaring multiplication operations rsa implementations often distinguished enabling adversary compute secret key even magnitude variations power consumption small standard digital oscilloscopes easily show data-induced variations frequency filters averaging functions built oscilloscopes often used filter high-frequency components differential power analysis dpa side-channel attack involves statistically analyzing power consumption measurements cryptosystem attack exploits biases varying power consumption microprocessors hardware performing operations using secret keys dpa attacks signal processing error correction properties extract secrets measurements contain much noise analyzed using simple power analysis using dpa adversary obtain secret keys analyzing power consumption measurements multiple cryptographic operations performed vulnerable smart card device high-order differential power analysis ho-dpa advanced form dpa attack ho-dpa enables multiple data sources different time offsets incorporated analysis ho-dpa less widely practiced spa dpa analysis complex vulnerable devices broken easily spa dpa power analysis provides way see inside otherwise 'tamperproof hardware example des key schedule involves rotating 28-bit key registers many implementations check least significant bit see 1 device shifts register right prepends 1 left end bit zero register shifted right without prepending 1 power analysis distinguish processes enabling adversary determine bits secret key implementations algorithms aes triple des believed mathematically strong may trivially breakable using power analysis attacks result power analysis attacks combine elements algorithmic cryptanalysis implementation security applications devices may fall physical possession adversary protection power analysis generally major design requirement power analyses also reportedly used conditional access modules used pay television systems equipment necessary performing power analysis attacks widely available example digital storage oscilloscopes provide necessary data collection functionality data analysis typically performed using conventional pcs commercial products designed testing labs also available power analysis attacks generally detected device since adversary monitoring normally passive addition attack non-invasive result physical enclosures auditing capabilities attack detectors ineffective instead cryptosystem engineers must ensure devices power variations reveal information usable adversaries simple power analysis easily distinguish outcome conditional branches execution cryptographic software since device different things consuming different power depending whether conditional branch taken reason care taken ensure secret values affect conditional branches within cryptographic software implementations sources variation microcode differences branches introduced compilers power consumption variations multipliers also commonly lead spa vulnerabilities differential power analysis difficult prevent since even small biases power consumption lead exploitable weaknesses countermeasure strategies involve algorithmic modifications cryptographic operations occur data related actual value mathematical relationship survives cryptographic operation one approach involves blinding parameters randomize value countermeasure strategies reduce effectiveness dpa attacks involve hardware modifications varying chip internal clock frequency considered desynchronize electric signals lead return algorithmic enhancements traditional dpa many techniques prevent spa dpa attacks proposed academic literature public key systems like rsa typically protected exploiting properties underlying algebraic structures case rsa would multiplicatively homomorphic property symmetrically keyed primitives like blockciphers require different methods e.g. masking companies like rambus claim intellectual property dpa defense mechanisms 1-hop neighbor's text information: differential_equations_of_addition.differential equations addition cryptography differential equations addition dea one basic equations related differential cryptanalysis mix additions two different groups e.g addition modulo 2 addition gf 2 input output differences expressed xors differential equations addition dea following form formula_1 formula_2 formula_3 formula_4-bit unknown variables formula_5 formula_6 formula_7 known variables symbols formula_8 formula_9 denote addition modulo formula_10 bitwise exclusive-or respectively equation denoted formula_11 let set formula_12 integer less formula_13 denote system formula_14 dea formula_14 polynomial formula_4 proved satisfiability arbitrary set dea complexity class p brute force search requires exponential time 2013 properties special form dea reported chengqing li et al. formula_17 formula_3 assumed known essentially special dea represented formula_19 based found properties algorithm deriving formula_2 proposed analyzed solution arbitrary set dea either batch adaptive query model due souradyuti paul bart preneel solution techniques used attack stream cipher helix 1-hop neighbor's text information: impossible_differential_cryptanalysis.impossible differential cryptanalysis cryptography impossible differential cryptanalysis form differential cryptanalysis block ciphers ordinary differential cryptanalysis tracks differences propagate cipher greater expected probability impossible differential cryptanalysis exploits differences impossible probability 0 intermediate state cipher algorithm lars knudsen appears first use form attack 1998 paper introduced aes candidate deal first presentation attract attention cryptographic community later year rump session crypto '98 eli biham alex biryukov adi shamir introduced name impossible differential used technique break 4.5 8.5 rounds idea 31 32 rounds nsa-designed cipher skipjack development led cryptographer bruce schneier speculate nsa previous knowledge impossible differential cryptanalysis technique since applied many ciphers khufu khafre e2 variants serpent mars twofish rijndael crypton zodiac hierocrypt-3 tea xtea mini-aes aria camellia shacal-2 biham biryukov shamir also presented relatively efficient specialized method finding impossible differentials called miss-in-the-middle attack consists finding two events probability one whose conditions met together Target text information: piling-up_lemma.piling-up lemma cryptanalysis piling-up lemma principle used linear cryptanalysis construct linear approximation action block ciphers introduced mitsuru matsui 1993 analytical tool linear cryptanalysis piling-up lemma allows cryptanalyst determine probability equality holds x binary variables bits either 0 1 let p denote probability true equals one certain happen equals zero happen first consider piling-up lemma two binary variables formula_2 formula_3 consider due properties xor operation equivalent x x 0 x x 1 mutually exclusive events say must make central assumption piling-up lemma binary variables dealing independent state one effect state others thus expand probability function follows express probabilities p p ½ ε ½ ε ε probability biases — amount probability deviates ½ thus probability bias ε xor sum 2εε formula extended x follows note ε zero one binary variables unbiased entire probability function unbiased — equal ½ related slightly different definition bias formula_8 fact minus two times previous value advantage formula_9 adding random variables amounts multiplying 2nd definition biases practice x approximations s-boxes substitution components block ciphers typically x values inputs s-box values corresponding outputs simply looking s-boxes cryptanalyst tell probability biases trick find combinations input output values probabilities zero one closer approximation zero one helpful approximation linear cryptanalysis however practice binary variables independent assumed derivation piling-up lemma consideration kept mind applying lemma automatic cryptanalysis formula I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	9,697	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_msx_games.list msx games following incomplete list video games msx msx2 msx2+ msx turbo r home computers games released system 1-hop neighbor's text information: msx.msx msx standardized home computer architecture announced microsoft june 16 1983 conceived marketed kazuhiko nishi vice-president microsoft japan director ascii corporation nishi conceived project attempt create unified standards among various home computing system manufacturers period msx systems popular japan several countries difficult determine many msx computers sold worldwide eventually 5 million msx-based units sold japan alone despite microsoft involvement msx-based machines released united states great success nintendo family computer msx platform major japanese game studios konami hudson soft produced video games metal gear series example first written msx hardware exact meaning msx abbreviation remains matter debate 2001 kazuhiko nishi recalled many assumed derived microsoft extended referring built-in microsoft extended basic msx basic specifically adapted microsoft msx system others believed stood matsushita-sony however said team original definition machines software exchangeability conflicts earlier explanation 1985 named msx mx missile early 1980s home computers manufactured japan nec pc-6001 pc-8000 series fujitsu fm-7 fm-8 hitachi basic master featured variant microsoft basic interpreter integrated on-board roms hardware design computers various dialects basics incompatible japanese consumer electronics firms panasonic canon casio yamaha pioneer sanyo searching ways enter new home computer market nishi proposed msx attempt create single industry standard home computers inspired success vhs standard video cassette recorders many japanese electronic manufacturers along goldstar philips spectravideo built promoted msx computers piece hardware software msx logo compatible msx products manufacturers particular expansion cartridge form function part standard msx expansion game cartridge would work msx computer nishi standard built around spectravideo sv-328 computer standard consisted primarily several off-the-shelf parts main cpu 3.58 mhz zilog z80 texas instruments tms9918 graphics chip 16 kb dedicated vram sound partial i/o support provided ay-3-8910 chip manufactured general instrument gi intel 8255 programmable peripheral interface chip used parallel i/o keyboard choice components shared many home computers games consoles period colecovision home computer emulator later available msx systems could run software sega sg-1000 video game system reduce overall system cost many msx models used custom ic known msx-engine integrated glue logic 8255 ppi ym2149 compatible soundchip sometimes even z80 cpu however almost msx systems used professional keyboard instead chiclet keyboard driving price compared original sv-328 consequently components alongside microsoft msx basic made msx competitive though somewhat expensive home computer package 27 june 1983 msx formally announced press conference slew big japanese firms declared plans introduce machines japanese companies avoided intensely competitive u.s. home computer market throes commodore-led price war spectravideo yamaha briefly marketed msx machines u.s. spectravideo msx enjoyed little success yamaha cx5m model built interface various types midi equipment billed digital music tool standard personal computer 1980s europe became largest computer games market opposed console games world extremely popular commodore 64 atari 8-bit sinclair zx spectrum computers dominated time msx launched europe several popular 8-bit home computers also arrived far late capture extremely crowded european 8-bit computer market problem game software developers method msx-1 computers addressed video ram could quite slow compared systems gave direct access video memory fact completely different features msx-1 video chip using msx video access method compensate slower video access efficiently used porting mostly spectrum software made msx-1 appear slower running ported games minor compatibility issues also plagued ported spectrum games example toshiba hx-10 machine unable read certain key combinations time preventing spectrum standard q p steering whereas machines manufacturers worked fine later ported games tended use msx-1 joystick port used msx official arrow keys space bar offered option choose keys control program solving problem larger problem designers msx standard bank switching protocol prescribe hardware manufacturers banks cartridges importantly ram found moreover msx bios provide information either thus requiring programmers implement complex routines find resources often programmers assumed ram cartridges would available default bank switch location reality systems ram cartridge slot default location another bank switch location i.e toshiba hx-20 cases programs failed run saw 32 kb available memory instead full 64 kb almost msx-1 machines offered mainstream msx-1 machines offered least full 64 kb ram exceptions early phillips msx-1 models vg8000 offered 16 kb ram vg8010 32 kb casio pv-7 low budget msx targeted playing games 8 kb msx spawned four generations msx 1983 msx2 1985 msx2+ 1988 msx turbor 1990 first three 8-bit computers based z80 microprocessor msx turbor based custom 16-bit r800 microprocessor developed ascii corporation time msx turbor standard announced 1990 panasonic manufacturing msx computers initial model fs-a1st met moderate success upgraded model fs-a1gt introduced 1991 sold poorly due high retail cost 99800 yen production turbor ended 1993 panasonic decided focus release 3do msx3 scheduled market 1990 delays development vdp—then named v9978 pre-release spec sheets—caused yamaha miss time market deadline place improved msx2+ released msx turbor features new r800 processor dma 24-bit addressing disabled vdp eventually delivered two years planned deadline time market moved attempt reduce financial loss yamaha stripped nearly v9958 compatibility marketed resulting v9990 e-vdp iii video-chipset pc vga graphic cards moderate success sony also employed v7040 rgb encoder chip many products msx-fan magazine also mentions impressive power v9990 able compete much expensive hardware sharp x68000 japan south korea argentina brazil msx paramount home computer system 1980s also quite popular continental europe especially netherlands spain uk hand popular affordable model toshiba hx-10p msx computer commonly seen available around entire nation france italy enjoyed moderate success philips vg-8020 computer much impact netherlands spain italy belgium france canon v-20 affordable n't much success impact like amstrad cpc thomson to7/mo5 series computers classrooms full networked yamaha msx used teaching informatics schools arab countries soviet union cuba wildly popular government education schools centers however msx never took u.s. canada mexico china taiwan hong kong denmark singapore malaysia philippines indonesia czech republic hungary poland serbia bulgaria romania south africa india portugal never became worldwide standard makers envisioned msx lack success markets became apparent us manufacturer commodore business machines overhauled product line early 1980s introduced models plus/4 commodore 16 intended better compete features msx computers cuban government moved modernize studies computer systems 1985 higher pedagogical institutes schools pre-university education supplied toshiba panasonic msx systems resident msx basic language popularly known intelligent keyboards proved useful minister education continued process installing similar systems throughout secondary junior high centers finalized elementary schools adult education institutions newly nationwide formed “ computer electronic youth clubs ” 1987 forming computer clubs allowed cuban government interest educate common citizen computer subjects since selling systems personal private computer public banned see censorship cuba 1980s sakhr صخر computers developed al alamiah kuwaiti company started production first arabic version msx computers started producing yamaha ax100 models including msx2 msx2+ popular affordable model within arab states persian gulf sakhr msx ax170 also first arabise basic msx logo al-alamiah produced common models including ax100 ax123 ax150 ax170 ah200 ax200 ax230 ax235 ax250 ax330 ax350-i ax350-ii ax355 ax370 ax500 ax550 ax660 ax990 msx console famicom game slot msx computer ax330 user switch msx famicom modes pressing button back computer variants compatible sega mega drive ax660 ax990 sega master system pal cartridges playable ax660 ax990 tv game computer cartridge converter master system converter attached time connecting sega master system cartridge game inlet computer attaching master system converter play sega master cartridges ax660 ax990 possible inlet depth physical shape master system converter prevent converter attached correctly ax660 ax990 computers many msx computers used 1980s former eastern bloc countries tool subtitling pirated films vhs betamax cassettes msx computers used simplicity ability display prepared titles real time superimposed text mastering tapes msx arrived argentina late 1984 popular model talent msx dpc-200 based daewoo msx dpc-200 models spectravideo svi 728 svi x´press 3.5 built-in drive later came toshiba smaller numbers gradiente models brazil late 1987 talent presented msx2 tpc-310 ´turbo´ argentine market ´turbo´ name referring msx2+ also based daewoo design msx highly successful computer argentina commodore 64 thanks use education national level msx-logo language widely used schools msxii+ never made market argentina msx production ceased 1990 total 9 million msx computers sold japan making relatively popular still global standard intended comparison rival 8-bit computers commodore 64 sold 17 million units worldwide lifetime apple ii sold 6 million units zx spectrum 5 million units atari 8-bit sold least 4 million units amstrad cpc sold 3 million units tandy trs-80 model 1 sold 250,000 units sony msx2 machine launched space board russian mir spacecraft one professional broadcast video workstation based sony hitbit hb-f900 msx2 computer system msx closely resembled spectravideo sv-328 home computer spectravideo even claimed msx compatible advertisements actual launch msx systems fact completely compatible led new short-lived kind software cracking converting since msx games unplayable sv-328 computer sv-328 crackers developed method modifying msx games make work sv-328 cases included downloading msx bios sv-328 tape floppy disk spectravideo later launched svi-728 completely adhered msx standard sega sg-1000 memotech mtx colecovision many similarities msx1 standard none really compatible porting games systems somewhat easy also common port games zx spectrum msx since cpu spectrum 128 soundchip zx spectrum graphic mode could easily emulated msx screen-2 mode default msx machines hardcoded character set keyboard scan code handling algorithm msx full application software compatibility firmware bios level due minor hardware differences replacement bios another different pc may render incorrect scan code translations thus incorrect behaviour keyboard subsystem application software 2011 age labs introduced language pack firmware aiming make model support several localizations default installed gr8bit instead kanji-rom allows changing character set keyboard layout machine startup allowed changing japanese russian international portuguese locales ability change locales machine operation using newly introduced basic command lang selected locale setting stored unused rtc nvram memory space 2001 kazuhiko nishi initiated 'msx revival around official msx emulator called msxplayer official msx emulator msx copyrights maintained msx association 2004 dutch company bazix announced become representatives msx association europe english contact questions regarding msx trademarks copyrights licensing october 17 2006 bazix launched woomb.net website selling msx games english languages selection 14 games japan game sales began earlier project egg woomb.net english counterpart japanese services offered d4 enterprise also announced august 2006 launch new msx2 compatible system called one chip-msx system based altera cyclone ep1c12q240c8 fpga one chip-msx similar concept c-one commodore 64 clone also built basis single fpga chip new msx system housed box made transparent blue plastic used standard monitor tv pc keyboard two msx cartridge slots supports audio extensions msx-music scc+ sd/mmc-flashcard used external storage medium emulating disk drive used boot msx-dos due vhdl programmable hardware possible give device new hardware extensions simply running reconfiguration program msx-dos one chip-msx also two usb connectors used adding supporting vhdl code june 7 2008 msx resource center foundation reported msx trademark moved msx association msx licensing corporation referring benelux trademark register page msx names msx licensing corporation entitled entity till 28-10-2013 time website msx licensing corporation linked source text saying 'we planning revitalize msx innovative computer platform however website later changed contain logo itny partners link itny partners english japanese websites mention msx licensing corporation bazix reported website front page longer representative msx association due unable achieve goals bringing commercial msx revival beyond japanese borders transfer msx trademark msx association msx licensing corporation outlook progress western one chip msx project time soon result woomb.net taken offline well website redirecting bazix website solution free msx association contributions completed according post cooperate d4 enterprise msx licensing corporation one retro gaming related projects july 4 2008 msx association european contact website states official contact place msx association europe reports msx trademark copyright msx licensing corporation holding ever since 1983 explains msx association chaired dr. kazuhiko nishi operational division msx licensing corporation manages trademarks logo copyrights msx according article d4 enterprise refuse pay royalties msx association use ese artists factory work 1chipmsx software licenses project egg thus deal kazuhiko nishi 'directly msx licensing corporation article mentions well ese msx system 3 1chipmsx also known one chip msx ocm based july 5 2008 msx association europe website posted announcement reporting d4 enterprise selling 1chipmsx illegally post stated bazix longer representative europe due bazix cutting relationship 2011 age labs announced launch msx kit called gr8bit do-it-yourself computer learning purposes licensed msx licensing corporation kit priced 499 includes necessary components assemble working msx2 compatible computer except atx chassis power supply floppy drive hard disk ps/2 keyboard monitor also comes assembly operational manuals supplement compiled vendor community support gr8bit engineering community korean forum members made zemmix neo created new version msx called mini iq3000 cutie similar features iq-2000 msx2 made korea daewoo electronics based 1chipmsx special features like 'scan line generator 'multi language support scan line generator generates scan lines show msx screen better quality supports 2 languages time normally shows korean font working korean version msx pressing 'del key booting changes japanese mode even though default mode korean default font allocation table japanese shows japanese characters executing japanese version software popular famous msx games written japanese software-houses konami hudson soft several popular video game franchises initially established msx others received various installments msx including several titles unique system largely reworked versions games formats note clones unlicensed equipment keyboard functionally separate unit could connected non-multiplexed multiplexed interfaces multiplexed keyboard units feature additional data direction line allowing sending scan line number keyboard using data lines used return scan code decreasing overall number wires keyboard machine non-multiplexed interface usually used internal keyboards external keyboards like panasonic cf-3300 multiplexed interface used external keyboards e.g yamaha yis805 model keyboard organized matrix maximum 11 input lines 8 output lines accounting maximum 88 keys including control numerical alphanumerical keys scan line regularly queried identify state keys line query speed identified system interrupt frequency organization allows system sense state key exhibiting notorious problem 8042 microcontroller-based keyboards pressing several keys simultaneously usually 3 generates wrong input characters renders inability sense press keys due keyboard scan controlled system interrupts one troubleshooting hints msx machine display image assuming power present press caps key see respective led toggles toggle system likely suffering serious problem lack image screen i.e problem video cable video display interface overall 2009 kamil karimov designed adapter board connect ps/2 keyboard multiplexed msx keyboard interface firmware embedded attiny chip tailored daewoo cpc machines 2011 age labs embedded ps/2 keyboard controller unit based microchip microcontroller gr8bit do-it-yourself machine firmware developed directly convert ps/2 scan codes msx keyboard scan codes thus fully transparent applications allowing use controller unit different msx-compatible machines different localization setups msx standard requires least 1 cartridge slot msx models 2 slots interchangeable cases makes difference slot cartridge inserted physical connector 50 pin 2 x 25 contacts standard 2.54 mm 0.1 inch pitch edge connector using cartridge slots wide variety peripherals could connected regular game cartridges size audio cassette so-called konami size despite higher cost popular format due reliability ease use around 1985 hudson soft released credit card-sized bee card meant cheaper convenient alternative rom cartridges commercial failure titles released format source files development msx cartridges available age labs eagle msx systems generally built-in disk drive games published mainly cartridge cassette tape sony created battery backed ram cartridge hbi-55 data cartridge computers hit-bit line msx systems could used store programs data alternative cassette tapes floppy disk drives available msx however form cartridge containing disk interface electronics bios extension rom floppy disk drive interface connected external case drive south-america many systems used floppy disk drive europe drives popular japan msx1 systems included built-in 3.5 disk drive like panasonic previously named matsushita cf-3000 europe range philips msx2 systems nms 8230 8235 8245 8250 featured either 360 720 kb 3.5 floppy drives 1985 msx2 released systems often always included built-in 3.5 disk drive consequently popular media games software shifted floppy disks msx-dos disk operating system internal software mechanisms much like cp/m cp/m software could ported reasonably easily file system compatible ms-dos user commands also similar early ms-dos versions way microsoft could promote msx home use promoting ms-dos based personal computers office environments msx 3.5 floppy disks directly compatible ms-dos although details like file undeletion boot sector code different like ms-dos 1 msx disks formatted msx-dos 1 support subdirectories september 2012 age labs extended standard including support 1.44mb 3.5 ” format 1.44mb diskette size goes two configurations standard 1 sector per cluster 9 fat sectors compatible 4 sectors per cluster 3 fat sectors msx computers emulated many platforms today early msx emulators often based code pioneer fmsx portable msx emulator marat fayzullin many emulators removed fayzullin z80 emulation code entirely later versions avoid legal problems time fmsx n't free software somewhat later fmsx source code became free use non-profit use however license still required commercial use december 31 2013 windows version fmsx 3.7 released free anyone use official msx emulator msxplayer produced msx association inventor msx standard kazuhiko nishi president version 0.146.u mess currently supports 90 percent msx versions february 2007 nintendo japan announced msx games available wii virtual console emulator confirmed games would cost 700 wii points become available middle 2007 also became available wii u december 25 2013 ultimately 13 games mainly konami titles wii plus 1 wii u released service japan Target text information: gyrodine.gyrodine note player fire guns time I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	5,152	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: feng_office_community_edition.feng office community edition feng office community edition formerly opengoo open-source collaboration platform developed supported feng office opengoo community fully featured online office suite similar set features online office suites like g suite microsoft office live zimbra libreoffice online zoho office suite application downloaded installed server feng office could also categorized collaborative software personal information manager software feng office community edition main features include project management document management contact management e-mail time management text documents presentations created edited online files uploaded organized shared independent file formats organization information feng office community edition done using workspaces tags application presents information stored using different interfaces lists dashboards calendar views feng office community edition distributed gnu affero general public license version 3 feng office uses php javascript ajax extjs mysql technology several open source projects served basis development activecollab last open sourced release used initial code base includes ckeditor online document editing server could run operating system system needs following packages client side user required use modern web browser opengoo started degree project faculty engineering university republic uruguay project presented championed software engineer conrado viña software engineers marcos saiz ignacio de soto developed first prototype thesis professors eduardo fernández tomás laurenzo served tutors conrado ignacio marcos founded opengoo community remain active members core developers thesis approved highest score currently second project opengoo university developed students fernando rodríguez ignacio vázquez juan pedro del campo project aims build open source web-based spreadsheet december 2009 opengoo name changed feng office community edition 1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_office_password_protection.microsoft office password protection microsoft office password protection security feature protect microsoft office word excel powerpoint documents user-provided password office 2007 uses modern encryption earlier versions used weaker systems considered secure office 2007–2013 employed 128-bit key aes password protection remains secure office 2016 employed 256-bit key aes password protection also remains secure office 97–2003 password protection used 40-bit key rc4 contains multiple vulnerabilities rendering insecure microsoft office applications offer use two main groups passwords set document depending whether encrypt password-protected document passwords encrypt password-protected document different security level features microsoft office applications mentioned lack document encryption passwords mentioned reliably protect document hacker password cracking software remove protection password-protected document little time password encrypts document also restricts user opening document possible set type password microsoft office applications user fails enter correct password field appears attempt open password-protected document viewing editing document possible due encryption document protected password open hacker needs decrypt document get access contents provide improved security microsoft consistently enhancing office encryption algorithm strength excel word 95 prior editions weak protection algorithm used converts password 16-bit key hacking software readily available find 16-bit key decrypt password-protected document instantly excel word 97 2000 key length increased 40 bits protection algorithm also currently considered weak presents difficulties hacking software default protection office xp 2003 changed opportunity use custom protection algorithm added choosing non-standard cryptographic service provider allows increasing key length key used encrypt document ’ found however password-cracking programs enter multiple random passwords speed use csps slow password recovery weak passwords still recovered fast enough even custom csp office 2007 word excel powerpoint protection significantly enhanced since modern protection algorithm named advanced encryption standard used present software break encryption help sha-1 hash function password stretched 128-bit key 50,000 times opening document result time required crack vastly increased excel word 2010 still employ aes 128-bit key number sha-1 conversions doubled 100,000 increasing time required crack password office 2013 access excel onenote powerpoint project word uses 128-bit aes hash algorithm sha-1 default office 2016 access excel onenote powerpoint project word uses 256-bit aes sha-1 hash algorithm cbc cipher block chaining default protection worksheets macros necessarily weaker entire workbook software must able display use excel particularly weak equivalent password easily found form abababababax first 11 chars either b last ascii character number attacks employed find password remove password protection excel word documents password removal done help precomputation tables guaranteed decryption attack attacks target original password set microsoft excel word include dictionary attack rule-based attack brute-force attack mask attack statistics-based attack efficiency attacks considerably enhanced one following means applied multiple cpus distributed attack gpgpu applicable microsoft office 2007–2010 documents cloud computing due weak passwords moment cloud computing facilities capable unlocking many ca 80 files saved office 2007–2010 format passwords sufficient length complexity typically brute-forced office 2013 introduces sha-512 hashes encryption algorithm making brute-force rainbow table attacks slower however noted sha hash algorithms never designed password hashing thus considered secure anymore modern slower thus secure hashes pbkdf2 scrypt kdfs yet implemented office specialized software designed recover lost microsoft office passwords pre-aes encryption ultimately security password-protected document dependent user choosing password sufficient complexity password determined guesswork social engineering underlying cipher important 1-hop neighbor's text information: autonumber.autonumber autonumber type data used microsoft access tables generate automatically incremented numeric counter may used create identity column uniquely identifies record table one autonumber allowed table data type called counter access 2.0 three forms autonumbers generated default size autonumber 4-byte long integer size used start+increment random autonumbers replication id autonumbers codice_1 property field changed long integer codice_2 autonumber long integer codice_3 property determines whether start+increment random form values property take increment random default autonumber type start+increment counter start value 1 increment 1 although many instances autonumber field appear contains row count deletion rows table example cause autonumber fields re-numbered instead leaves holes numbering similarly transaction add row table begun later aborted autonumber assigned row re-used default start+increment form start value 1 increment 1 suitable circumstances reasons choose form trade-offs default start increment values might reveal information table desired reveal people viewing individual table rows example using autonumber field customer id might reveal information desirable reveal say customer number 6 one example occasion start value autonumber field raised customer number 6 say autonumber field value 10006 using random values desirable cases would unfortunate possible guess next values assigned new rows table usage rare however common problem autonumber fields encountered tables replicated multiple users using multiple replicas table likely end assigning values autonumber fields new rows add causing replication conflicts replicas merged problem addressed two ways first possible use replication ids autonumbers replication ids guids unique across replicas low probability collision second access creates table replicas automatically changes autonumbers start+increment form random form following data definition language ddl query creates autonumber field start value increment query resets counter alternative method resetting counter drop column re-add side effect renumbering existing rows table Target text information: office_online.office online office online known 2014 office web apps july 2019 office online office suite offered microsoft allows users create edit files using lightweight microsoft office web apps word excel powerpoint onenote offering also includes outlook.com people calendar onedrive accessible unified app switcher users install on-premises version service called office online server private clouds conjunction sharepoint microsoft exchange server microsoft lync server office web apps first revealed october 2008 pdc 2008 los angeles chris capossela senior vice president microsoft business division introduced office web apps lightweight versions word excel powerpoint onenote allow people create edit collaborate office documents web browser according capossela office web apps become available part office live workspace office web apps announced powered ajax well silverlight however latter optional availability enhance user experience resulting sharper images improved rendering microsoft business division president stephen elop stated pdc 2008 technology preview office web apps would become available later 2008 however technical preview office web apps released 2009 july 13 2009 microsoft announced worldwide partners conference 2009 new orleans microsoft office 2010 reached technical preview development milestone features office web apps demonstrated public first time additionally microsoft announced office web apps would made available consumers online free charge microsoft software assurance customers option running premises office 2010 beta testers given access office web apps date announced would available testers august 2009 however august 2009 microsoft spokesperson stated delay release office web apps technical preview would available end august microsoft officially released technical preview office web apps september 17 2009 office web apps made available selected testers via onedrive time skydrive service final version office web apps made available public via windows live office june 7 2010 october 22 2012 microsoft announced release new features including co-authoring performance improvements touch support november 6 2013 microsoft announced new features including real-time co-authoring auto-save feature word replacing save button february 2014 office web apps re-branded office online incorporated microsoft web services including calendar onedrive outlook.com people microsoft previously attempted unify online services suite including microsoft passport hotmail msn messenger later skydrive brand known windows live first launched 2005 however impending launch windows 8 increased use cloud services microsoft dropped windows live brand emphasize services would built directly windows merely bolted add-on critics criticized windows live brand clear vision applied increasingly broad array unrelated services time windows live hotmail re-launched outlook.com sharing name microsoft outlook personal information manager july 2019 microsoft announced retiring online branding office online product office may referred office web office browser office online open edit documents spreadsheets presentations office open xml formats web starting july 2013 render pdf documents convert microsoft word documents although formatting document may deviate original since november 2013 apps supported real-time co-authoring autosave word files word online lacks two ribbons exist word 2013 references mailings mailing allows users print envelopes labels manage mail merge printing word documents references contains features needed advanced documents e.g table contents citations bibliography captions index table authorities word online change insert section breaks views available word desktop app outline draft web layout full screen reading available word online likewise side-by-side viewing split windows available word online excel online execute macros revision support color cells outside default palette supported web browsers include microsoft edge internet explorer 11 latest versions firefox google chrome well safari os x 10.8 later personal edition office online available general public free charge microsoft account office.com website superseded skydrive onedrive office live workspace enterprise-managed versions available office 365 february 2013 ability view edit files skydrive without signing added service also installed privately enterprise environments sharepoint app office web apps server microsoft also offers web apps office suite outlook web app formerly outlook web access lync web app formerly office communicator web access project web app formerly project web access additionally microsoft offers service name online doc viewer view office documents website via office online google chrome extension free available use office online directly I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	2,046	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: virtual_device.virtual device virtual device unix file codice_1 codice_2 treated device far user level software concerned generated kernel without reference hardware instance codice_3 written kernel tells program wrote everything without actually writing anywhere read reading program told reached end file device file made mknod instance reference hardware dos- windows- os/2-like operating systems define nul device performs similar function implemented part file name processing – actual file exists name 1-hop neighbor's text information: hewlett_packard_enterprise.hewlett packard enterprise hewlett packard enterprise company commonly referred hpe american multinational enterprise information technology company based san jose california founded 1 november 2015 part splitting hewlett-packard company hpe business-focused organization two divisions enterprise group works servers storage networking consulting support financial services 4 december hpe reported fy2018 net revenue 30.9 billion 7 prior year period split structured former hewlett-packard company would change name hp inc. spin hewlett packard enterprise newly created company hp inc. retained old hp personal computer printing business well stock-price history original nyse ticker symbol hewlett-packard enterprise trades ticker symbol hpe according notes 2015 hpe revenue slightly less hp inc 2017 spun enterprise services business merged computer sciences corporation become dxc technology also spun software business merged micro focus hpe ranked 107 2018 fortune 500 list largest united states corporations total revenue full name company hewlett packard enterprise company drops hyphen previously existed hewlett packard former hewlett-packard company since separation many media outlets incorrectly named new organization using hp enterprises hp enterprise may 2016 company announced would sell enterprise services division one competitors computer sciences corporation deal valued merger hpe enterprise services csc form new company dxc technology completed 10 march 2017 approximately 100,000 current hpe employees affected 30,000 services employees areas hpe business remain hpe including technology services support consulting well software professional services august 2016 company announced plans acquire silicon graphics international sgi known capabilities high performance computing 1 november 2016 hpe announced completed acquisition per share cash transaction valued approximately net cash debt 7 september 2016 hpe announced spin-merge micro focus micro focus would acquire non-core software hpe shareholders would 50.1 percent merged company would retain current name merger concluded 1 september 2017 november 2016 pc world wrote hpe hewlett-packard failed develop middleware tools really make dent software market companies like ibm sap oracle excelling without major software product lines hpe ’ integrated offerings ’ strong competitors like dell software hardware assets adding hpe point focusing largely hardware ask end game september 2016 hewlett packard enterprise transferred two patents texas-based wholly owned shell company plectrum llc two patents originated 3com corporation bought hp 2010 along 1,400 patents us patent entitled quality service control mechanism apparatus us patent describes use high speed cache management unit replaces software-based systems hardware order reduce latency time 11 april 2017 reported synack raised round funding included hewlett packard enterprise january 2017 company acquired data management platform simplivity developer omnicube hyper-converged infrastructure appliance us 650m april 2017 hewlett packard enterprise completed acquisition hybrid flash flash manufacturer nimble storage inc per share october reuters reported company allowed russian defense agency examine cyber-defense system used pentagon report noted six former u.s. intelligence officials well former arcsight hewlett packard enterprise employees independent security experts said source code review could help moscow discover weaknesses software potentially helping attackers blind u.s. military cyber attack november 2017 meg whitman announced stepping ceo six years helm hp hpe noted 1 february 2018 antonio neri officially became hpe ’ president chief executive officer announcement created controversy leading 6 drop stock price quickly recovered next days june 2018 hewlett packard enterprise launched hybrid cloud service called greenlake hybrid cloud built top hpe onesphere cloud management saas offering greenlake hybrid cloud designed provide cloud management cost control compliance control capabilities run aws microsoft azure february 2019 meg whitman announced seeking re-election board directors ending professional involvement hpe may 2019 hewlett packard enterprise announced plans acquire cray nearly per share soon cray landed us department energy contract supply frontier supercomputer oak ridge national laboratory 2021 1-hop neighbor's text information: link_aggregation.link aggregation computer networking term link aggregation applies various methods combining aggregating multiple network connections parallel order increase throughput beyond single connection could sustain provide redundancy case one links fail link aggregation group lag combines number physical ports together make single high-bandwidth data path implement traffic load sharing among member ports group enhance connection reliability umbrella terms used describe method include port trunking link bundling ethernet/network/nic bonding channel bonding nic teaming umbrella terms encompass vendor-independent standards link aggregation control protocol lacp ethernet defined ieee 802.1ax previous ieee 802.3ad also various proprietary solutions link aggregation addresses two problems ethernet connections bandwidth limitations lack resilience regard first issue bandwidth requirements scale linearly ethernet bandwidths historically increased tenfold generation 10 megabit/s 100 mbit/s 1000 mbit/s 10,000 mbit/s one started bump bandwidth ceilings option move next generation could cost prohibitive alternative solution introduced many network manufacturers early 1990s combine two physical ethernet links one logical link via channel bonding solutions required manual configuration identical equipment sides aggregation second problem involves three single points failure typical port-cable-port connection either usual computer-to-switch switch-to-switch configuration cable either ports cable plugged fail multiple physical connections made many higher level protocols designed fail completely seamlessly network architects implement aggregation lowest three layers osi model regardless layer aggregation occurs possible balance network load across links however implementations take advantage methods provide failover well combining either occur multiple interfaces share one logical address i.e ip one physical address i.e mac address allows interface address former requires ends link use aggregation method performance advantages latter channel bonding differentiated load balancing load balancing divides traffic network interfaces per network socket layer 4 basis channel bonding implies division traffic physical interfaces lower level either per packet layer 3 data link layer 2 basis mid 1990s network switch manufacturers included aggregation capability proprietary extension increase bandwidth switches manufacturer developed method led compatibility problems ieee 802.3 group took study group create inter-operable link layer standard november 1997 meeting group quickly agreed include automatic configuration feature would add redundancy well became known link aggregation control protocol gigabit channel-bonding schemes use ieee standard link aggregation formerly clause 43 ieee 802.3 standard added march 2000 ieee 802.3ad task force nearly every network equipment manufacturer quickly adopted joint standard proprietary standards 802.3 maintenance task force report 9th revision project november 2006 noted certain 802.1 layers 802.1x security positioned protocol stack link aggregation defined 802.3 sublayer resolve discrepancy 802.3ax 802.1ax task force formed resulting formal transfer protocol 802.1 group publication ieee 802.1ax-2008 3 november 2008 within ieee specification link aggregation control protocol lacp provides method control bundling several physical ports together form single logical channel lacp allows network device negotiate automatic bundling links sending lacp packets peer directly connected device also implements lacp lacp features practical examples lacp works sending frames lacpdus links protocol enabled finds device end link also lacp enabled also independently send frames along links enabling two units detect multiple links combine single logical link lacp configured one two modes active passive active mode always send frames along configured links passive mode however acts speak spoken therefore used way controlling accidental loops long device active mode addition ieee link aggregation substandards number proprietary aggregation schemes including cisco etherchannel port aggregation protocol juniper aggregated ethernet avaya multi-link trunking split multi-link trunking routed split multi-link trunking distributed split multi-link trunking zte smartgroup huawei eth-trunk connectify speedify high-end network devices support kind link aggregation software-based implementations – *bsd lagg package linux bonding driver solaris dladm aggr etc – also exist many operating systems linux bonding driver provides method aggregating multiple network interface controllers nics single logical bonded interface two so-called nic slaves majority modern linux distributions come linux kernel linux bonding driver integrated loadable kernel module ifenslave network interface user-level control program pre-installed donald becker programmed original linux bonding driver came use beowulf cluster patches linux kernel 2.0 modes linux bonding driver network interface aggregation modes supplied parameters kernel bonding module load time may given command line arguments insmod modprobe command usually specified linux distribution-specific configuration file behavior single logical bonded interface depends upon specified bonding driver mode default parameter balance-rr linux team driver provides alternative bonding driver main difference team driver kernel part contains essential code rest code link validation lacp implementation decision making etc run userspace part teamd daemon link aggregation offers inexpensive way set high-speed backbone network transfers much data one single port device deliver link aggregation also allows network backbone speed grow incrementally demand network increases without replace everything deploy new hardware backbone installations install cabling fiber optic pairs initially necessary even immediate need additional cabling done labor costs higher cost cable running extra cable reduces future labor costs networking needs change link aggregation allow use extra cables increase backbone speeds little extra cost ports available balancing traffic network administrators often wish avoid reordering ethernet frames example tcp suffers additional overhead dealing out-of-order packets goal approximated sending frames associated particular session across link common implementations use l2 l3 hashes i.e based mac ip addresses ensuring flow always sent via physical link however may provide even distribution across links trunk single pairs hosts communicate i.e hashes provide little variation effectively limits client bandwidth aggregate single member maximum bandwidth per communication partner extreme one link fully loaded others completely idle reason even load balancing full utilization trunked links almost never reached real-life implementations advanced switches employ l4 hash i.e using tcp/udp port numbers may increase traffic variation across links – depending whether ports vary – bring balance closer even distribution multiple switches may utilized optimize maximum throughput multiple network switch topology switches configured parallel part isolated network two systems configuration switches isolated one another one reason employ topology isolated network many hosts cluster configured high performance example using multiple smaller switches cost effective single larger switch access beyond network required individual host equipped additional network device connected external network host additionally acts gateway network interfaces 1 3 computer cluster node example connected via separate network switches 1 3 network interfaces 1 3 computer cluster node b inter-connections network switches 1 3 linux bonding driver mode typically employed configurations type balance-rr balance-rr mode allows individual connections two hosts effectively utilize greater one interface bandwidth nics trunked together also provide network links beyond throughput one single nic example allows central file server establish aggregate 2-gigabit connection using two 1-gigabit nics teamed together note data signaling rate still 1gbit/s misleading depending methodologies used test throughput link aggregation employed microsoft windows server 2012 supports link aggregation natively previous windows server versions relied manufacturer support feature within device driver software intel example released advanced networking services ans bond intel fast ethernet gigabit cards.nvidia also supports teaming nvidia network access manager/firewall tool hp also teaming tool hp branded nics allow non-etherchanneled nic teaming support several modes etherchannel port aggregation including 802.3ad lacp addition basic layer-3 aggregation available least windows xp sp3 allows servers multiple ip interfaces network perform load balancing home users one internet connection increase connection speed sharing load interfaces broadcom offers advanced functions via broadcom advanced control suite bacs via teaming functionality basp broadcom advanced server program available offering 802.3ad static lags lacp smart teaming n't require configuration switches work possible configure teaming bacs mix nics different vendors long least one broadcom nics required capabilities create teaming linux freebsd netbsd openbsd macos opensolaris commercial unix distributions aix implement ethernet bonding trunking higher level hence deal nics different manufacturers drivers long nic supported kernel citrix xenserver vmware esx native support link-aggregation xenserver offers static lags well lacp vsphere 5.1 esxi supports static lags lacp natively virtual distributed switch microsoft hyper-v bonding teaming n't offered hyper-visor os-level above-mentioned methods teaming windows applies hyper-v well modes balance-rr balance-xor broadcast 802.3ad physical ports link aggregation group must reside logical switch scenarios leave single point failure physical switch links connected goes offline modes active-backup balance-tlb balance-alb also set two switches failover like modes cases active sessions may fail due arp problems restarted however almost vendors proprietary extensions resolve issue aggregate multiple physical switches one logical switch split multi-link trunking smlt protocol allows multiple ethernet links split across multiple switches stack preventing single point failure additionally allowing switches load balanced across multiple aggregation switches single access stack devices synchronize state across inter-switch trunk ist appear connecting access device single device switch block prevent packet duplication smlt provides enhanced resiliency sub-second failover sub-second recovery speed trunks 10 mbit/s 100 mbit/s 1,000 mbit/s 10 gbit/s operating transparently end-devices implementations ports used aggregation consist physical type copper ports 10/100/1000base‑t multi-mode fiber ports single-mode fiber ports however ieee standard requires link full duplex identical speed 10 100 1,000 10,000 mbit/s many switches phy independent meaning switch could mixture copper sx lx lx10 gbics maintaining phy usual approach possible aggregate 1000base-sx fiber one link 1000base-lx longer diverse path second link important thing speed 1 gbit/s full duplex links one path may slightly longer propagation time standard engineered cause issue aggregation mismatch refers matching aggregation type ends link switches implement 802.1ax standard support static configuration link aggregation therefore link aggregation similarly statically configured switches work fail statically configured switch device configured lacp ethernet interfaces channel bonding requires assistance ethernet switch host computer operating system must stripe delivery frames across network interfaces manner i/o striped across disks raid 0 array reason discussions channel bonding also refer redundant array inexpensive nodes rain redundant array independent network interfaces analog modems multiple dial-up links pots may bonded throughput bonded connections come closer aggregate bandwidth bonded links throughput routing schemes simply load-balance outgoing network connections links similarly multiple dsl lines bonded give higher bandwidth united kingdom adsl sometimes bonded give example 512kbit/s upload bandwidth 4 megabit/s download bandwidth areas access 2 megabit/s bandwidth docsis 3.0 3.1 specifications data cable tv catv systems multiple channels may bonded docsis 3.0 32 downstream 8 upstream channels may bonded typically 6 8mhz wide docsis 3.1 defines complicated arrangements involving aggregation level subcarriers larger notional channels broadband bonding type channel bonding refers aggregation multiple channels osi layers level four channels bonded wired links t-1 dsl line additionally possible bond multiple cellular links aggregated wireless bonded link previous bonding methodologies resided lower osi layers requiring coordination telecommunications companies implementation broadband bonding implemented higher layers done without coordination commercial implementations broadband channel bonding include see also mimo Target text information: intelligent_resilient_framework.intelligent resilient framework intelligent resilient framework irf proprietary software virtualization technology developed h3c 3com core idea connect multiple network devices physical irf ports perform necessary configurations devices virtualized distributed device virtualization technology realizes cooperation unified management non-stop maintenance multiple devices technology follows general concepts cisco vss vpc technologies technology originally developed 3com released 2003 xrn expandable resilient networking hp purchased 3com april 2010 hp renamed technology irf simplified topology streamlined management irf virtual device appears node network log connecting port member manage members irf virtual device companies use technology hewlett packard enterprise hpe formerly hewlett-packard h3c also hpe formerly 3com I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	2,184	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: cloud_computing.cloud computing cloud computing on-demand availability computer system resources especially data storage computing power without direct active management user term generally used describe data centers available many users internet large clouds predominant today often functions distributed multiple locations central servers connection user relatively close may designated edge server clouds may limited single organization enterprise clouds available many organizations public cloud cloud computing relies sharing resources achieve coherence economies scale advocates public hybrid clouds note cloud computing allows companies avoid minimize up-front infrastructure costs proponents also claim cloud computing allows enterprises get applications running faster improved manageability less maintenance enables teams rapidly adjust resources meet fluctuating unpredictable demand cloud providers typically use pay-as-you-go model lead unexpected operating expenses administrators familiarized cloud-pricing models availability high-capacity networks low-cost computers storage devices well widespread adoption hardware virtualization service-oriented architecture autonomic utility computing led growth cloud computing 2019 linux used type operating systems used including microsoft offerings thus described dominant cloud computing popularized amazon.com releasing elastic compute cloud product 2006 references phrase cloud computing appeared early 1996 first known mention compaq internal document cloud symbol used represent networks computing equipment original arpanet early 1977 csnet 1981—both predecessors internet word cloud used metaphor internet standardized cloud-like shape used denote network telephony schematics simplification implication specifics end points network connected relevant purposes understanding diagram term cloud used refer platforms distributed computing early 1993 apple spin-off general magic used describing paired telescript personalink technologies wired april 1994 feature bill andy excellent adventure ii andy hertzfeld commented telescript general magic distributed programming language 1960s initial concepts time-sharing became popularized via rje remote job entry terminology mostly associated large vendors ibm dec. full-time-sharing solutions available early 1970s platforms multics ge hardware cambridge ctss earliest unix ports dec hardware yet data center model users submitted jobs operators run ibm mainframes overwhelmingly predominant 1990s telecommunications companies previously offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits began offering virtual private network vpn services comparable quality service lower cost switching traffic saw fit balance server use could use overall network bandwidth effectively began use cloud symbol denote demarcation point provider responsible users responsible cloud computing extended boundary cover servers well network infrastructure computers became diffused scientists technologists explored ways make large-scale computing power available users time-sharing experimented algorithms optimize infrastructure platform applications prioritize cpus increase efficiency end users use cloud metaphor virtualized services dates least general magic 1994 used describe universe places mobile agents telescript environment could go described andy hertzfeld use cloud metaphor credited general magic communications employee david hoffman based long-standing use networking telecom addition use general magic also used promoting associated personalink services cloud computing existence since 2000 august 2006 amazon created subsidiary amazon web services introduced elastic compute cloud ec2 april 2008 google released google app engine beta early 2008 nasa opennebula enhanced reservoir european commission-funded project became first open-source software deploying private hybrid clouds federation clouds mid-2008 gartner saw opportunity cloud computing shape relationship among consumers services use services sell observed organizations switching company-owned hardware software assets per-use service-based models projected shift computing ... result dramatic growth products areas significant reductions areas 2008 u.s. national science foundation began cluster exploratory program fund academic research using google-ibm cluster technology analyze massive amounts data february 2010 microsoft released microsoft azure announced october 2008 july 2010 rackspace hosting nasa jointly launched open-source cloud-software initiative known openstack openstack project intended help organizations offering cloud-computing services running standard hardware early code came nasa nebula platform well rackspace cloud files platform open source offering along open-source solutions cloudstack ganeti opennebula attracted attention several key communities several studies aim comparing open sources offerings based set criteria march 1 2011 ibm announced ibm smartcloud framework support smarter planet among various components smarter computing foundation cloud computing critical part june 7 2012 oracle announced oracle cloud cloud offering poised first provide users access integrated set solutions including applications saas platform paas infrastructure iaas layers may 2012 google compute engine released preview rolled general availability december 2013 2019 revealed linux used microsoft azure dominant elsewhere goal cloud computing allow users take benefit technologies without need deep knowledge expertise one cloud aims cut costs helps users focus core business instead impeded obstacles main enabling technology cloud computing virtualization virtualization software separates physical computing device one virtual devices easily used managed perform computing tasks operating system–level virtualization essentially creating scalable system multiple independent computing devices idle computing resources allocated used efficiently virtualization provides agility required speed operations reduces cost increasing infrastructure utilization autonomic computing automates process user provision resources on-demand minimizing user involvement automation speeds process reduces labor costs reduces possibility human errors cloud computing uses concepts utility computing provide metrics services used cloud computing attempts address qos quality service reliability problems grid computing models cloud computing shares characteristics cloud computing exhibits following key characteristics national institute standards technology definition cloud computing identifies five essential characteristics though service-oriented architecture advocates everything service acronyms eaas xaas simply aas cloud-computing providers offer services according different models three standard models per nist infrastructure service iaas platform service paas software service saas models offer increasing abstraction thus often portrayed layers stack infrastructure- platform- software-as-a-service need related example one provide saas implemented physical machines bare metal without using underlying paas iaas layers conversely one run program iaas access directly without wrapping saas infrastructure service iaas refers online services provide high-level apis used dereference various low-level details underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources location data partitioning scaling security backup etc hypervisor runs virtual machines guests pools hypervisors within cloud operational system support large numbers virtual machines ability scale services according customers varying requirements linux containers run isolated partitions single linux kernel running directly physical hardware linux cgroups namespaces underlying linux kernel technologies used isolate secure manage containers containerisation offers higher performance virtualization hypervisor overhead also container capacity auto-scales dynamically computing load eliminates problem over-provisioning enables usage-based billing iaas clouds often offer additional resources virtual-machine disk-image library raw block storage file object storage firewalls load balancers ip addresses virtual local area networks vlans software bundles nist definition cloud computing describes iaas consumer able deploy run arbitrary software include operating systems applications consumer manage control underlying cloud infrastructure control operating systems storage deployed applications possibly limited control select networking components e.g. host firewalls iaas-cloud providers supply resources on-demand large pools equipment installed data centers wide-area connectivity customers use either internet carrier clouds dedicated virtual private networks deploy applications cloud users install operating-system images application software cloud infrastructure model cloud user patches maintains operating systems application software cloud providers typically bill iaas services utility computing basis cost reflects amount resources allocated consumed nist definition cloud computing defines platform service paas vendors offer development environment application developers provider typically develops toolkit standards development channels distribution payment paas models cloud providers deliver computing platform typically including operating system programming-language execution environment database web server application developers develop run software cloud platform instead directly buying managing underlying hardware software layers paas underlying computer storage resources scale automatically match application demand cloud user allocate resources manually integration data management providers also use specialized applications paas delivery models data examples include ipaas integration platform service dpaas data platform service ipaas enables customers develop execute govern integration flows ipaas integration model customers drive development deployment integrations without installing managing hardware middleware dpaas delivers integration—and data-management—products fully managed service dpaas model paas provider customer manages development execution programs building data applications customer dpaas users access data data-visualization tools platform service paas consumers manage control underlying cloud infrastructure including network servers operating systems storage control deployed applications possibly configuration settings application-hosting environment nist definition cloud computing defines software service software service saas model users gain access application software databases cloud providers manage infrastructure platforms run applications saas sometimes referred on-demand software usually priced pay-per-use basis using subscription fee saas model cloud providers install operate application software cloud cloud users access software cloud clients cloud users manage cloud infrastructure platform application runs eliminates need install run application cloud user computers simplifies maintenance support cloud applications differ applications scalability—which achieved cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines run-time meet changing work demand load balancers distribute work set virtual machines process transparent cloud user sees single access-point accommodate large number cloud users cloud applications multitenant meaning machine may serve one cloud-user organization pricing model saas applications typically monthly yearly flat fee per user prices become scalable adjustable users added removed point proponents claim saas gives business potential reduce operational costs outsourcing hardware software maintenance support cloud provider enables business reallocate operations costs away hardware/software spending personnel expenses towards meeting goals addition applications hosted centrally updates released without need users install new software one drawback saas comes storing users data cloud provider server result could unauthorized access data mobile backend service model also known backend service baas web app mobile app developers provided way link applications cloud storage cloud computing services application programming interfaces apis exposed applications custom software development kits sdks services include user management push notifications integration social networking services relatively recent model cloud computing baas startups dating 2011 later trends indicate services gaining significant mainstream traction enterprise consumers serverless computing cloud computing code execution model cloud provider fully manages starting stopping virtual machines necessary serve requests requests billed abstract measure resources required satisfy request rather per virtual machine per hour despite name actually involve running code without servers serverless computing named business person owns system purchase rent provision servers virtual machines back-end code run function service faas service-hosted remote procedure call leverages serverless computing enable deployment individual functions cloud run response events faas included broader term serverless computing terms may also used interchangeably private cloud cloud infrastructure operated solely single organization whether managed internally third party hosted either internally externally undertaking private cloud project requires significant engagement virtualize business environment requires organization reevaluate decisions existing resources improve business every step project raises security issues must addressed prevent serious vulnerabilities self-run data centers generally capital intensive significant physical footprint requiring allocations space hardware environmental controls assets refreshed periodically resulting additional capital expenditures attracted criticism users still buy build manage thus benefit less hands-on management essentially lacking economic model makes cloud computing intriguing concept cloud called public cloud services rendered network open public use public cloud services may free technically may little difference public private cloud architecture however security consideration may substantially different services applications storage resources made available service provider public audience communication effected non-trusted network generally public cloud service providers like amazon web services aws ibm oracle microsoft google operate infrastructure data center access generally via internet aws oracle microsoft google also offer direct connect services called aws direct connect oracle fastconnect azure expressroute cloud interconnect respectively connections require customers purchase lease private connection peering point offered cloud provider hybrid cloud composition public cloud private environment private cloud on-premise resources remain distinct entities bound together offering benefits multiple deployment models hybrid cloud also mean ability connect collocation managed and/or dedicated services cloud resources gartner defines hybrid cloud service cloud computing service composed combination private public community cloud services different service providers hybrid cloud service crosses isolation provider boundaries ca n't simply put one category private public community cloud service allows one extend either capacity capability cloud service aggregation integration customization another cloud service varied use cases hybrid cloud composition exist example organization may store sensitive client data house private cloud application interconnect application business intelligence application provided public cloud software service example hybrid cloud extends capabilities enterprise deliver specific business service addition externally available public cloud services hybrid cloud adoption depends number factors data security compliance requirements level control needed data applications organization uses another example hybrid cloud one organizations use public cloud computing resources meet temporary capacity needs met private cloud capability enables hybrid clouds employ cloud bursting scaling across clouds cloud bursting application deployment model application runs private cloud data center bursts public cloud demand computing capacity increases primary advantage cloud bursting hybrid cloud model organization pays extra compute resources needed cloud bursting enables data centers create in-house infrastructure supports average workloads use cloud resources public private clouds spikes processing demands specialized model hybrid cloud built atop heterogeneous hardware called cross-platform hybrid cloud cross-platform hybrid cloud usually powered different cpu architectures example x86-64 arm underneath users transparently deploy scale applications without knowledge cloud hardware diversity kind cloud emerges rise arm-based system-on-chip server-class computing community cloud shares infrastructure several organizations specific community common concerns security compliance jurisdiction etc whether managed internally third-party either hosted internally externally costs spread fewer users public cloud private cloud cost savings potential cloud computing realized cloud computing platform assembled distributed set machines different locations connected single network hub service possible distinguish two types distributed clouds public-resource computing volunteer cloud multicloud use multiple cloud computing services single heterogeneous architecture reduce reliance single vendors increase flexibility choice mitigate disasters etc differs hybrid cloud refers multiple cloud services rather multiple deployment modes public private legacy issues transferring large amounts data cloud well data security data cloud initially hampered adoption cloud big data much data originates cloud advent bare-metal servers cloud become solution use cases including business analytics geospatial analysis hpc cloud refers use cloud computing services infrastructure execute high-performance computing hpc applications applications consume considerable amount computing power memory traditionally executed clusters computers 2016 handful companies including r-hpc amazon web services univa silicon graphics international sabalcore gomput penguin computing offered high performance computing cloud penguin demand pod cloud one first non-virtualized remote hpc services offered pay-as-you-go basis penguin computing launched hpc cloud 2016 alternative amazon ec2 elastic compute cloud uses virtualized computing nodes cloud architecture systems architecture software systems involved delivery cloud computing typically involves multiple cloud components communicating loose coupling mechanism messaging queue elastic provision implies intelligence use tight loose coupling applied mechanisms others cloud engineering application engineering disciplines cloud computing brings systematic approach high-level concerns commercialization standardization governance conceiving developing operating maintaining cloud computing systems multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions diverse areas systems software web performance information technology engineering security platform risk quality engineering cloud computing poses privacy concerns service provider access data cloud time could accidentally deliberately alter delete information many cloud providers share information third parties necessary purposes law order without warrant permitted privacy policies users must agree start using cloud services solutions privacy include policy legislation well end users choices data stored users encrypt data processed stored within cloud prevent unauthorized access identity management systems also provide practical solutions privacy concerns cloud computing systems distinguish authorized unauthorized users determine amount data accessible entity systems work creating describing identities recording activities getting rid unused identities according cloud security alliance top three threats cloud insecure interfaces api data loss leakage hardware failure —which accounted 29 25 10 cloud security outages respectively together form shared technology vulnerabilities cloud provider platform shared different users may possibility information belonging different customers resides data server additionally eugene schultz chief technology officer emagined security said hackers spending substantial time effort looking ways penetrate cloud real achilles heels cloud infrastructure making big holes bad guys get data hundreds thousands companies stored large cloud servers hackers theoretically gain control huge stores information single attack—a process called hyperjacking examples include dropbox security breach icloud 2014 leak dropbox breached october 2014 7 million users passwords stolen hackers effort get monetary value bitcoins btc passwords able read private data well data indexed search engines making information public problem legal ownership data user stores data cloud cloud provider profit many terms service agreements silent question ownership physical control computer equipment private cloud secure equipment site someone else control public cloud delivers great incentive public cloud computing service providers prioritize building maintaining strong management secure services small businesses n't expertise security could find secure use public cloud risk end users understand issues involved signing cloud service persons sometimes n't read many pages terms service agreement click accept without reading important cloud computing becoming popular required services work example intelligent personal assistant apple siri google fundamentally private cloud seen secure higher levels control owner however public cloud seen flexible requires less time money investment user according bruce schneier downside limited customization options cloud computing cheaper economics scale and—like outsourced task—you tend get get restaurant limited menu cheaper personal chef cook anything want fewer options much cheaper price feature bug also suggests cloud provider might meet legal needs businesses need weigh benefits cloud computing risks cloud computing control back end infrastructure limited cloud vendor cloud providers often decide management policies moderates cloud users able deployment cloud users also limited control management applications data services includes data caps placed cloud users cloud vendor allocating certain amount bandwidth customer often shared among cloud users privacy confidentiality big concerns activities instance sworn translators working stipulations nda might face problems regarding sensitive data encrypted cloud computing beneficial many enterprises lowers costs allows focus competence instead matters infrastructure nevertheless cloud computing proven limitations disadvantages especially smaller business operations particularly regarding security downtime technical outages inevitable occur sometimes cloud service providers csps become overwhelmed process serving clients may result temporary business suspension since technology systems rely internet individual able access applications server data cloud outage cloud computing still subject research driving factor evolution cloud computing chief technology officers seeking minimize risk internal outages mitigate complexity housing network computing hardware in-house major cloud technology companies invest billions dollars per year cloud research development example 2011 microsoft committed 90 percent 9.6 billion r budget cloud research investment bank centaur partners late 2015 forecasted saas revenue would grow 13.5 billion 2011 32.8 billion 2016 issue carrying investigations cloud storage devices physically accessed generated number changes way digital evidence located collected new process models developed formalize collection scenarios existing digital forensics tools employed access cloud storage networked drives although slow process generating large amount internet traffic alternative approach deploy tool processes cloud organizations using office 365 'e5 subscription option use microsoft built-in ediscovery resources although provide functionality typically required forensic process 1-hop neighbor's text information: virtual_private_cloud.virtual private cloud virtual private cloud vpc on-demand configurable pool shared computing resources allocated within public cloud environment providing certain level isolation different organizations denoted users hereafter using resources isolation one vpc user users cloud vpc users well public cloud users achieved normally allocation private ip subnet virtual communication construct vlan set encrypted communication channels per user vpc previously described mechanism providing isolation within cloud accompanied vpn function allocated per vpc user secures means authentication encryption remote access organization vpc resources introduction described isolation levels organization using service effect working 'virtually private cloud cloud infrastructure shared users hence name vpc vpc commonly used context cloud infrastructure service context infrastructure provider providing underlying public cloud infrastructure provider realizing vpc service infrastructure may different vendors amazon web services launched amazon virtual private cloud 26 august 2009 allows amazon elastic compute cloud service connected legacy infrastructure ipsec virtual private network connection aws vpc free use however users charged virtual private networks vpn use ec2 rds instances running vpc also purchased using reserved instances however limitation resources guaranteed google cloud platform resources provisioned connected isolated virtual private cloud vpc across gcp regions gcp vpcs global resources subnets within vpc zonal resources allows connect zones regions without use additional networking complexity data travels encrypted transit rest google ’ global private network identity management policies security rules allow private access google storage big data analytics managed services vpcs google cloud platform leverage security google data centers microsoft azure offers possibility setting vpc using virtual networks 1-hop neighbor's text information: smartbear_software.smartbear software smartbear software privately-held information technology company delivers tools application performance monitoring apm software development software testing api management company based assembly square somerville greater boston area current smartbear company founded 2009 original smart bear company founded jason cohen 2003 current smartbear software result insight venture partners acquiring three companies smart bear automatedqa pragmatic software 2007 early 2009 companies operated aqa holdings rebranded smartbear software 2010 rebranding company acquired eviware 2011 leading api promoter soapui founder ole lensmar joining company later served chief technology officer cto smartbear year company acquired apm vendor alertsite 2013 smartbear acquired spanish apm vendor lucierna smartbear acquired open source community swagger 2015 founder tony tam joined company head products swagger commercial version swagger swaggerhub 2016 smartbear acquired crossbrowsertesting.com cbt ken hamric founder cbt joined company general manager crossbrowsertesting.com 2017 francisco partners acquired majority stake smartbear software smartbear based greater boston area u.s. offices texas tennessee florida smartbear also offices development centers ireland sweden smartbear current ceo justin teague smartbear software offers 16 commercial products following categories api readiness software testing monitoring code collaboration code optimization two open-source tools soapui swagger api readiness smartbear products include soapui pro api functional testing secure pro api security testing loadui pro api load testing swaggerhub swagger-based api editor smartbear software testing tools include testcomplete automated testing loadcomplete load testing testleft functional testing crossbrowsertesting cloud testing platform monitoring alertsite smartbear application quality performance monitoring tool code collaboration code optimization smartbear offers collaborator code review document review tool aqtime pro performance profiling Target text information: abacus_data_systems.abacus data systems abacus data systems dba abacusnext american software private cloud services provider headquartered san diego california abacusnext offers following abacus private cloud private cloud sold desktop-as-a-service within windows server 2012 r2 environment service relies veeam software backup support built intel-based architecture private cloud service colocated across three carrier-neutral data centers interconnected via self-run optical network data centers scalematrix san diego california skybox houston one houston texas supernap switch las vegas nevada abacusnext offers four windows-based platforms rely relational database management system two law practice management software lawyers abacuslaw uses advantage database amicus attorney uses microsoft sql server.. abacusnext two platforms accounting firms rely microsoft sql server resultscrm customer relationship management quickbooks officetools practice management software december 2015 american private equity investment firm providence equity partners took strategic majority investment abacusnext abacus data systems time I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	6,507	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: dell.dell dell us multinational computer technology company develops sells repairs supports computers related products services named founder michael dell company one largest technological corporations world employing 145,000 people u.s. around world annual report 2018 dell sells personal computers pcs servers data storage devices network switches software computer peripherals hdtvs cameras printers mp3 players electronics built manufacturers company well known innovations supply chain management electronic commerce particularly direct-sales model build-to-order configure order approach manufacturing—delivering individual pcs configured customer specifications dell pure hardware vendor much existence acquisition 2009 perot systems dell entered market services company since made additional acquisitions storage networking systems aim expanding portfolio offering computers delivering complete solutions enterprise customers dell listed number 51 fortune 500 list 2014 going private 2013 newly confidential nature financial information prevents company ranked fortune 2015 third largest pc vendor world lenovo hp dell largest shipper pc monitors worldwide dell sixth largest company texas total revenue according fortune magazine second largest non-oil company texas – behind – largest company greater austin area publicly traded company well component nasdaq-100 p 500 taken private leveraged buyout closed october 30 2013 2015 dell acquired enterprise technology firm emc corporation following completion purchase dell emc became divisions dell technologies dell traces origins 1984 michael dell created dell computer corporation time business pc limited student university texas austin dorm-room headquartered company sold ibm pc-compatible computers built stock components dell dropped school focus full-time fledgling business getting 1,000 expansion-capital family 1985 company produced first computer design turbo pc sold 795 pc limited advertised systems national computer magazines sale directly consumers custom assembled ordered unit according selection options company grossed 73 million first year operation 1986 michael dell brought lee walker 51-year-old venture capitalist president chief operating officer serve dell mentor implement dell ideas growing company walker also instrumental recruiting members board directors company went public 1988 walker retired 1990 due health michael dell hired morton meyerson former ceo president electronic data systems transform company fast-growing medium-sized firm billion-dollar enterprise company dropped pc limited name 1987 become dell computer corporation began expanding globally june 1988 dell market capitalization grew 30 million 80 million june 22 initial public offering 3.5 million shares 8.50 share 1992 fortune magazine included dell computer corporation list world 500 largest companies making michael dell youngest ceo fortune 500 company ever 1993 complement direct sales channel dell planned sell pcs big-box retail outlets wal-mart would brought additional 125 million annual revenue bain consultant kevin rollins persuaded michael dell pull deals believing would money losers long run margins retail thin best dell left reseller channel 1994 rollins would soon join dell full-time eventually become company president ceo originally dell emphasize consumer market due higher costs unacceptably-low profit margins selling individuals households changed company internet site took 1996 1997 industry average selling price individuals going dell going second- third-time computer buyers wanted powerful computers multiple features need much technical support choosing dell dell found opportunity among pc-savvy individuals liked convenience buying direct customizing pc means delivered days early 1997 dell created internal sales marketing group dedicated serving home market introduced product line designed especially individual users 1997 2004 dell enjoyed steady growth gained market share competitors even industry slumps period rival pc vendors compaq gateway ibm packard bell ast research struggled eventually left market bought dell surpassed compaq become largest pc manufacturer 1999 operating costs made 10 percent dell 35 billion revenue 2002 compared 21 percent revenue hewlett-packard 25 percent gateway 46 percent cisco 2002 compaq merged hewlett packard fourth-place pc maker newly combined hewlett packard took top spot struggled dell soon regained lead dell grew fastest early 2000s dell attained maintained top rating pc reliability customer service/technical support according consumer reports year year mid-to-late 90 2001 right windows xp released 1996 dell began selling computers website mid-1990s dell expanded beyond desktop computers laptops selling servers starting low-end servers major three providers servers time ibm hewlett packard compaq many based proprietary technology ibm power4 microprocessors various proprietary versions unix operating system dell new poweredge servers require major investment proprietary technologies ran microsoft windows nt intel chips could built cheaper competitors consequently dell enterprise revenues almost nonexistent 1994 accounted 13 percent company total intake 1998 three years later dell passed compaq top provider intel-based servers 31 percent market dell first acquisition occurred 1999 purchase convergenet technologies 332 million dell failed develop enterprise storage system in-house convergenet elegant complex technology fit dell commodity-producer business model forcing dell write entire value acquisition 2002 dell expanded product line include televisions handhelds digital audio players printers chairman ceo michael dell repeatedly blocked president coo kevin rollins attempt lessen company heavy dependency pcs rollins wanted fix acquiring emc corporation 2003 company rebranded simply dell inc. recognize company expansion beyond computers 2004 michael dell resigned ceo retaining position chairman handing ceo title kevin rollins president coo since 2001 despite longer holding ceo title dell essentially acted de facto co-ceo rollins rollins dell acquired alienware manufacturer high-end pcs targeted mainly towards gaming market 2005 earnings sales continued rise sales growth slowed considerably company stock lost 25 value year june 2006 stock traded around us 25 40 july 2005—the high-water mark company post-dotcom era slowing sales growth attributed maturing pc market constituted 66 dell sales analysts suggested dell needed make inroads non-pc businesses segments storage services servers dell price advantage tied ultra-lean manufacturing desktop pcs became less important savings became harder find inside company supply chain competitors hewlett-packard acer made pc manufacturing operations efficient match dell weakening dell traditional price differentiation throughout entire pc industry declines prices along commensurate increases performance meant dell fewer opportunities upsell customers lucrative strategy encouraging buyers upgrade processor memory result company selling greater proportion inexpensive pcs eroded profit margins laptop segment become fastest-growing pc market dell produced low-cost notebooks china like pc manufacturers eliminated dell manufacturing cost advantages plus dell reliance internet sales meant missed growing notebook sales big box stores cnet suggested dell getting trapped increasing commoditization high volume low margin computers prevented offering exciting devices consumers demanded despite plans expanding global regions product segments dell heavily dependent u.s. corporate pc market desktop pcs sold commercial corporate customers accounted 32 percent revenue 85 percent revenue comes businesses sixty-four percent revenue comes north south america according 2006 third-quarter results u.s. shipments desktop pcs shrinking corporate pc market purchases pcs upgrade cycles largely decided take break buying new systems last cycle started around 2002 three years companies started buying pcs ahead perceived y2k problems corporate clients expected upgrade extensive testing microsoft windows vista expected early 2007 putting next upgrade cycle around 2008 heavily depending pcs dell slash prices boost sales volumes demanding deep cuts suppliers dell long stuck direct sales model consumers become main drivers pc sales recent years yet decline consumers purchasing pcs web phone increasing numbers visiting consumer electronics retail stores try devices first dell rivals pc industry hp gateway acer long retail presence well poised take advantage consumer shift lack retail presence stymied dell attempts offer consumer electronics flat-panel tvs mp3 players dell responded experimenting mall kiosks plus quasi-retail stores texas new york dell reputation company relied upon supply chain efficiencies sell established technologies low prices instead innovator mid-2000s many analysts looking innovating companies next source growth technology sector dell low spending r relative revenue compared ibm hewlett packard apple inc. —which worked well commoditized pc market—prevented making inroads lucrative segments mp3 players later mobile devices increasing spending r would cut operating margins company emphasized dell done well horizontal organization focused pcs computing industry moved horizontal mix-and-match layers 1980s mid-2000 industry shifted vertically integrated stacks deliver complete solutions dell lagged far behind competitors like hewlett packard oracle dell reputation poor customer service since 2002 exacerbated moved call centers offshore growth outstripped technical support infrastructure came increasing scrutiny web original dell model known high customer satisfaction pcs sold thousands 2000s company could justify level service computers lineup sold hundreds rollins responded shifting dick hunter head manufacturing head customer service hunter noted dell dna cost-cutting got way aimed reduce call transfer times call center representatives resolve inquiries one call 2006 dell spent 100 million months improve rolled dellconnect answer customer inquiries quickly july 2006 company started direct2dell blog february 2007 michael dell launched ideastorm.com asking customers advice including selling linux computers reducing promotional bloatware pcs initiatives manage cut negative blog posts 49 22 well reduce dell hell prominent internet search engines also criticism dell used faulty components pcs particularly 11.8 million optiplex desktop computers sold businesses governments may 2003 july 2005 suffered faulty capacitors battery recall august 2006 result dell laptop catching fire caused much negative attention company though later sony found responsible faulty batteries 2006 marked first year dell growth slower pc industry whole fourth quarter 2006 dell lost title largest pc manufacturer rival hewlett packard whose personal systems group invigorated thanks restructuring initiated ceo mark hurd four five quarterly earnings reports expectations rollins resigned president ceo january 31 2007 founder michael dell assumed role ceo dell announced change campaign called dell 2.0 reducing number employees diversifying company products chairman board relinquishing ceo position michael dell still significant input company rollins years ceo return michael dell ceo company saw immediate changes operations exodus many senior vice-presidents new personnel brought outside company michael dell announced number initiatives plans part dell 2.0 initiative improve company financial performance include elimination 2006 bonuses employees discretionary awards reduction number managers reporting directly michael dell 20 12 reduction bureaucracy jim schneider retired cfo replaced donald carty company came sec probe accounting practices april 23 2008 dell announced closure one biggest canadian call-centers kanata ontario terminating approximately 1100 employees 500 redundancies effective spot official closure center scheduled summer call-center opened 2006 city ottawa bid host less year later dell planned double workforce nearly 3,000 workers add new building plans reversed due high canadian dollar made ottawa staff relatively expensive also part dell turnaround involved moving call-center jobs offshore cut costs company also announced shutdown edmonton alberta office losing 900 jobs total dell announced ending 8,800 jobs 2007–2008 — 10 workforce late 2000s dell configure order approach manufacturing—delivering individual pcs configured customer specifications us facilities longer efficient competitive high-volume asian contract manufacturers pcs became powerful low-cost commodities dell closed plants produced desktop computers north american market including mort topfer manufacturing center austin texas original location lebanon tennessee opened 1999 2008 early 2009 respectively desktop production plant winston-salem north carolina received us 280 million incentives state opened 2005 ceased operations november 2010 dell contract state required repay incentives failing meet conditions sold north carolina plant herbalife work used take place dell u.s. plants transferred contract manufacturers asia mexico dell factories overseas miami florida facility alienware subsidiary remains operation dell continues produce servers profitable products austin texas january 8 2009 dell announced closure manufacturing plant limerick ireland loss 1,900 jobs transfer production plant łodź poland release apple ipad tablet computer negative impact dell major pc vendors consumers switched away desktop laptop pcs dell mobility division managed success developing smartphones tablets whether running windows google android dell streak failure commercially critically due outdated os numerous bugs low resolution screen infoworld suggested dell oems saw tablets short-term low-investment opportunity running google android approach neglected user interface failed gain long term market traction consumers dell responded pushing higher-end pcs xps line notebooks compete apple ipad kindle fire tablets growing popularity smartphones tablet computers instead pcs drove dell consumer segment operating loss q3 2012 december 2012 dell suffered first decline holiday sales five years despite introduction windows 8 shrinking pc industry dell continued lose market share dropped lenovo 2011 fall number three world dell fellow american contemporary hewlett packard came pressure asian pc manufacturers lenovo asus acer lower production costs willing accept lower profit margins addition asian pc vendors improving quality design instance lenovo thinkpad series winning corporate customers away dell laptops dell customer service reputation slipping dell remained second-most profitable pc vendor took 13 percent operating profits pc industry q4 2012 behind apple inc. macintosh took 45 percent seven percent hewlett packard six percent lenovo asus one percent acer dell attempting offset declining pc business still accounted half revenue generates steady cash flow expanding enterprise market servers networking software services avoided many acquisition writedowns management turnover plagued chief rival hewlett packard dell also managed success taking advantage high-touch direct sales heritage establish close relationships design solutions clients despite spending 13 billion acquisitions diversify portfolio beyond hardware company unable convince market could thrive made transformation post-pc world suffered continued declines revenue share price dell market share corporate segment previously moat rivals longer case sales profits fallen precipitously several weeks rumors started around january 11 2013 dell announced february 5 2013 struck 24.4 billion leveraged buyout deal would delisted shares nasdaq hong kong stock exchange taken private reuters reported michael dell silver lake partners aided 2 billion loan microsoft would acquire public shares 13.65 apiece 24.4 billion buyout projected largest leveraged buyout backed private equity since 2007 financial crisis also largest technology buyout ever surpassing 2006 buyout freescale semiconductor 17.5 billion founder dell michael dell said february offer believe transaction open exciting new chapter dell customers team members dell rival lenovo reacted buyout saying financial actions traditional competitors substantially change outlook march 2013 blackstone group carl icahn expressed interest purchasing dell april 2013 blackstone withdrew offer citing deteriorating business private equity firms kkr co. tpg capital declined submit alternative bids dell citing uncertain market personal computers competitive pressures wide-open bidding war never materialized analysts said biggest challenge facing silver lake would find “ exit strategy ” profit investment would company would hold ipo go public one warned “ even get 25bn enterprise value dell take years get out. ” may 2013 dell joined board voting offer following august reached deal special committee board 13.88 raised price 13.75 plus special dividend 13 cents per share well change voting rules 13.88 cash offer plus .08 per share dividend third fiscal quarter accepted september 12 closed october 30 2013 ending dell 25-year run publicly traded company buyout newly private dell offered voluntary separation programme expected reduce workforce seven percent reception program exceeded expectations dell may forced hire new staff make losses november 19 2015 dell alongside arm holdings cisco systems intel microsoft princeton university founded openfog consortium promote interests development fog computing july 2018 dell announced intentions become publicly traded company paying 21.7 billion cash stock buy back shares stake vmware november 2018 carl icahn 9.3 owner dell sued company plans go public october 12 2015 dell announced intent acquire enterprise software storage company emc corporation 67 billion labeled highest-valued tech acquisition history announcement came two years dell inc. returned private ownership claiming faced bleak prospects would need several years public eye rebuild business thought company value roughly doubled since emc pressured elliott management hedge fund holding 2.2 emc stock reorganize unusual federation structure emc divisions effectively run independent companies elliott argued structure deeply undervalued emc core emc ii data storage business increasing competition emc ii vmware products confusing market hindering companies wall street journal estimated 2014 dell revenue 27.3billion personal computers 8.9bn servers emc 16.5bn emc ii 1bn rsa security 6bn vmware 230million pivotal software emc owns around 80 percent stock vmware proposed acquisition maintain vmware separate company held via new tracking stock parts emc rolled dell acquisition closes dell publish quarterly financial results ceased going private 2013 combined business expected address markets scale-out architecture converged infrastructure private cloud computing playing strengths emc dell commentators questioned deal fbr capital markets saying though makes ton sense dell nightmare scenario would lack strategic synergies emc fortune said lot dell like emc portfolio add enough justify tens billions dollars entire package probably register reported view william blair company merger would blow current chess board forcing infrastructure vendors restructure achieve scale vertical integration value vmware stock fell 10 announcement valuing deal around 63–64bn rather 67bn originally reported key investors backing deal besides dell singapore temasek holdings silver lake partners september 7 2016 dell completed acquisition emc post-acquisition dell re-organized new parent company dell technologies dell consumer workstation businesses internally referred dell client solutions group one company three main business divisions alongside dell emc vmware dell headquarters located round rock texas company employed 14,000 people central texas region largest private employer space 1999 almost half general fund city round rock originated sales taxes generated dell headquarters dell previously headquarters arboretum complex northern austin texas 1989 dell occupied arboretum complex 1990 dell 1,200 employees headquarters 1993 dell submitted document round rock officials titled dell computer corporate headquarters round rock texas may 1993 schematic design despite filing year company said going move headquarters 1994 dell announced moving employees arboretum going continue occupy top floor arboretum company official headquarters address would continue arboretum top floor continued hold dell board room demonstration center visitor meeting room less one month prior august 29 1994 dell moved 1,100 customer support telephone sales employees round rock dell lease arboretum scheduled expire 1994 1996 dell moving headquarters round rock january 1996 3,500 people still worked current dell headquarters one building round rock headquarters round rock 3 space 6,400 employees scheduled completed november 1996 1998 dell announced going add two buildings round rock complex adding office space complex 2000 dell announced would lease space las cimas office complex unincorporated travis county texas austin west lake hills house company executive offices corporate headquarters 100 senior executives scheduled work building end 2000 january 2001 company leased space las cimas 2 located along loop 360 las cimas 2 housed dell executives investment operations corporate functions dell also option space las cimas 3 slowdown business required reducing employees production capacity dell decided sublease offices two buildings las cimas office complex 2002 dell announced planned sublease space another tenant company planned move headquarters back round rock tenant secured 2003 dell moved headquarters back round rock leased las cimas ii total seven-year period 2003 year roughly space absorbed new subtenants 2008 dell switched power sources round rock headquarters environmentally friendly ones 60 total power coming txu energy wind farms 40 coming austin community landfill gas-to-energy plant operated waste management inc. dell facilities united states located austin texas nashua new hampshire nashville tennessee oklahoma city oklahoma peoria illinois hillsboro oregon portland area winston-salem north carolina eden prairie minnesota dell compellent bowling green kentucky lincoln nebraska miami florida facilities located abroad include penang malaysia xiamen china bracknell uk manila philippines chennai india hyderabad india noida india hortolandia porto alegre brazil bratislava slovakia łódź poland panama city panama dublin limerick ireland casablanca morocco montpellier france us india countries dell business functions provide support globally research development manufacturing finance analysis customer care early beginnings dell operated pioneer configure order approach manufacturing—delivering individual pcs configured customer specifications contrast pc manufacturers times delivered large orders intermediaries quarterly basis minimize delay purchase delivery dell general policy manufacturing products close customers also allows implementing just-in-time jit manufacturing approach minimizes inventory costs low inventory another signature dell business model—a critical consideration industry components depreciate rapidly dell manufacturing process covers assembly software installation functional testing including burn-in quality control throughout company history dell manufactured desktop machines in-house contracted manufacturing base notebooks configuration in-house company approach changed cited 2006 annual report states continuing expand use original design manufacturing partnerships manufacturing outsourcing relationships wall street journal reported september 2008 dell approached contract computer manufacturers offers sell plants late 2000s dell configure order approach manufacturing—delivering individual pcs configured customer specifications us facilities longer efficient competitive high-volume asian contract manufacturers pcs became powerful low-cost commodities assembly desktop computers north american market formerly took place dell plants austin texas original location lebanon tennessee opened 1999 closed 2008 early 2009 respectively plant winston-salem north carolina received us 280 million incentives state opened 2005 ceased operations november 2010 dell contract state requires repay incentives failing meet conditions work used take place dell u.s. plants transferred contract manufacturers asia mexico dell factories overseas miami florida facility alienware subsidiary remains operation dell continues produce servers profitable products austin texas dell assembled computers emea market limerick facility republic ireland employed 4,500 people country dell began manufacturing limerick 1991 went become ireland largest exporter goods second-largest company foreign investor january 8 2009 dell announced would move dell manufacturing limerick dell new plant polish city łódź january 2010 european union officials said would investigate €52.7million aid package polish government used attract dell away ireland european manufacturing facility 1 emf1 opened 1990 emf3 form part raheen industrial estate near limerick emf2 previously wang facility later occupied flextronics situated castletroy closed 2002 dell inc. consolidated production emf3 emf1 contains offices subsidies polish government keep dell long time ending assembly limerick plant cherrywood technology campus dublin largest dell office republic 1200 people sales mainly uk ireland support enterprise support emea research development cloud computing manufacturing except dell alienware subsidiary manufactures pcs athlone ireland plant whether facility remain ireland certain construction emf4 łódź poland dell started production autumn 2007 dell opened plants penang malaysia 1995 xiamen china 1999 facilities serve asian market assemble 95 dell notebooks dell inc. invested estimated 60 million new manufacturing unit chennai india support sales products indian subcontinent indian-made products bear made india mark 2007 chennai facility target producing 400,000 desktop pcs plans envisaged starting produce notebook pcs products second half 2007 dell moved desktop notebook poweredge server manufacturing south american market eldorado sul plant opened 1999 new plant hortolandia brazil 2007 corporation markets specific brand names different market segments business/corporate class represent brands company advertising emphasizes long life-cycles reliability serviceability brands include dell home office/consumer class emphasizes value performance expandability brands include dell peripherals class includes usb keydrives lcd televisions printers dell monitors includes lcd tvs plasma tvs projectors hdtv monitors dell ultrasharp high-end brand monitors dell service support brands include dell solution station extended domestic support services previously dell call dell support center extended support services abroad dell business support commercial service-contract provides industry-certified technician lower call-volume normal queues dell everdream desktop management software service remote-desktop management originally saas company founded elon musk cousin lyndon rive dell bought 2007 tech team support-queue available home users purchased systems either dell website dell phone-centers discontinued products brands include axim pda discontinued april 9 2007 dimension home small office desktop computers discontinued july 2007 dell digital jukebox mp3 player discontinued august 2006 dell powerapp application-based servers dell optiplex desktop tower computers previously supported run server desktop operating systems november 2015 emerged several dell computers shipped identical pre-installed root certificate known edellroot raised security risks attackers impersonating https-protected websites google bank america malware signed certificate bypass microsoft software filtering dell apologised offered removal tool also november 2015 researcher discovered customers diagnostic program dell foundation services could digitally tracked using unique service tag number assigned program possible even customer enabled private browsing deleted browser cookies ars technica recommended dell customers uninstall program issue addressed board consists nine directors michael dell founder company serves chairman board chief executive officer board members include carty judy lewent klaus luft alex mandl sam nunn shareholders elect nine board members meetings board members get majority votes must submit resignation board subsequently choose whether accept resignation board directors usually sets five committees oversight specific matters committees include audit committee handles accounting issues including auditing reporting compensation committee approves compensation ceo employees company finance committee handles financial matters proposed mergers acquisitions governance nominating committee handles various corporate matters including nomination board antitrust compliance committee attempts prevent company practices violating antitrust laws day-to-day operations company run global executive management committee sets strategic direction dell regional senior vice-presidents countries united states including david marmonti emea stephen j. felice asia/japan officers included martin garvin senior vice president worldwide procurement susan sheskey vice president chief information officer dell advertisements appeared several types media including television internet magazines catalogs newspapers dell inc marketing strategies include lowering prices times year free bonus products dell printers free shipping encourage sales stave competitors 2006 dell cut prices effort maintain 19.2 market share also cut profit margins half 8.7 4.3 percent maintain low prices dell continues accept purchases products via internet telephone network move customer-care division india el salvador popular united states television print ad campaign early 2000s featured actor ben curtis playing part steven lightly mischievous blond-haired youth came assistance bereft computer purchasers television advertisement usually ended steven catch-phrase dude 're gettin dell subsequent advertising campaign featured interns dell headquarters curtis character appearing small cameo end one first commercials particular campaign 2007 dell switched advertising agencies us bbdo working mother media july 2007 dell released new advertising created working mother support inspiron xps lines ads featured music flaming lips devo re-formed especially record song ad work also 2007 dell began using slogan say customizes computers fit customers requirements beginning 2011 dell began hosting conference austin texas austin convention center titled dell world event featured new technology services provided dell dell partners 2011 event held october 12–14 2012 event held december 11–13 2013 event held december 11–13 2014 event held november 4–6 2015 event held october 20–23 late 2007 dell inc. announced planned expand program value-added resellers vars giving official name dell partner direct new website dell india started online ecommerce website dell partner www.compuindia.com gng electronics pvt ltd termed dell express ship affiliate desa main objective reduce delivery time customers visit dell india official site given option buy online redirected dell affiliate website compuindia.com dell also operates captive analytics division supports pricing web analytics supply chain operations dga operates single centralized entity global view dell business activities firm supports 500 internal customers worldwide created quantified impact 500 million 2008 dell received press coverage claim world secure laptops specifically latitude d630 latitude d830 lenovo request u.s. national advertising division nad evaluated claim reported dell enough evidence support dell first opened retail stores india early 1990s dell sold products best buy costco sam club stores united states dell stopped practice 1994 citing low profit margins business exclusively distributing direct-sales model next decade 2003 dell briefly sold products sears stores u.s 2007 dell started shipping products major retailers u.s. starting sam club wal-mart staples largest office-supply retailer u.s. best buy largest electronics retailer u.s. became dell retail partners later year starting 2002 dell opened kiosk locations united states allow customers examine products buying directly company starting 2005 dell expanded kiosk locations include shopping malls across australia canada singapore hong kong january 30 2008 dell announced would shut 140 kiosks u.s. due expansion retail stores june 3 2010 dell also shut mall kiosks australia dell products shipped one largest office-supply retailers canada staples business depot april 2008 future shop best buy began carrying subset dell products certain desktops laptops printers monitors since shoppers certain markets show reluctance purchase technological products phone internet dell looked opening retail operations countries central europe russia april 2007 dell opened retail store budapest october year dell opened retail store moscow uk hmv flagship trocadero store sold dell xps pcs since december 2007 january 2008 uk stores dsgi sold dell products particular currys pc world stores 2008 large supermarket-chain tesco sold dell laptops desktops outlets throughout uk may 2008 dell reached agreement office supply chain officeworks part coles group stock modified models inspiron desktop notebook range models slightly different model numbers almost replicate ones available dell store dell continued retail push australian market partnership harris technology another part coles group november year addition dell expanded retail distributions australia agreement discount electrical retailer good guys known slashing prices dell agreed distribute variety makes desktops notebooks including studio xps systems late 2008 dell dick smith electronics owned woolworths limited reached agreement expand within dick smith 400 stores throughout australia new zealand may 2009 1 year since officeworks—owned coles group—reached deal retailer agreed distribute variety inspiron studio notebooks minimal studio desktops dell range dell continues run operate various kiosks 18 shopping centres throughout australia march 31 2010 dell announced australian kiosk employees shutting australian/new zealand dell kiosk program germany dell selling selected smartphones notebooks via media markt saturn well shopping websites dell major competitors include hewlett-packard hp hasee acer fujitsu toshiba gateway sony asus lenovo ibm msi panasonic samsung apple dell subsidiary alienware compete enthusiast market avadirect falcon northwest voodoopc subsidiary hp manufacturers second quarter 2006 dell 18 19 share worldwide personal computer market compared hp roughly 15 dell lost lead pc-business hewlett-packard gartner idc estimated third quarter 2006 hp shipped units worldwide dell dell 3.6 growth paled comparison hp 15 growth period problem got worse fourth quarter gartner estimated dell pc shipments declined 8.9 versus hp 23.9 growth result end 2006 dell overall pc market-share stood 13.9 versus hp 17.4 idc reported dell lost server market share top four competitors arena idc q4 2006 estimates show dell share server market 8.1 9.5 previous year represents 8.8 loss year-over-year primarily competitors emc ibm 2001 dell emc entered partnership whereby companies jointly design products dell provided support certain emc products including midrange storage systems fibre channel iscsi storage area networks relationship also promotes sells oem versions backup recovery replication archiving software december 9 2008 dell emc announced multi-year extension 2013 strategic partnership emc addition dell expanded product lineup adding emc celerra nx4 storage system portfolio dell/emc family networked storage systems partnered new line data deduplication products part tierdisk family data storage devices october 17 2011 dell discontinued reselling emc storage products ending partnership 2 years early dell committed reducing greenhouse gas emissions global activities 40 2015 2008 fiscal year baseline year listed greenpeace ’ guide greener electronics scores leading electronics manufacturers according policies sustainability climate energy green products november 2011 dell ranked 2nd 15 listed electronics makers increasing score 5.1 4.9 gained previous ranking october 2010 dell first company publicly state timeline elimination toxic polyvinyl chloride pvc brominated flame retardants bfrs planned phase end 2009 revised commitment aims remove toxics end 2011 computing products march 2010 greenpeace activists protested dell offices bangalore amsterdam copenhagen calling dell ’ founder ceo michael dell ‘ drop toxics ’ claiming dell aspiration ‘ greenest technology company planet ’ ‘ hypocritical ’ dell launched first products completely free pvc bfrs g-series monitors g2210 g2410 2009 2012 report progress relating conflict minerals enough project rated dell eighth highest 24 consumer electronics companies dell became first company information technology industry establish product-recycling goal 2004 completed implementation global consumer recycling-program 2006 february 6 2007 national recycling coalition awarded dell recycling works award efforts promote producer responsibility july 19 2007 dell announced exceeded targets working achieve multi-year goal recovering 275 million pounds computer equipment 2009 company reported recovery 78 million pounds nearly 40,000 tons equipment customers 2006 93-percent increase 2005 12.4 equipment dell sold seven years earlier june 5 2007 dell set goal becoming greenest technology company earth long term company launched zero-carbon initiative includes company introduced term re-generation round table london commemorating 2007 world environment day re-generation refers people ages throughout world want make difference improving world environment dell also talked plans take lead setting environmental standard technology industry maintaining leadership future dell reports environmental performance annual corporate social responsibility csr report follows global reporting initiative gri protocol dell 2008 csr report ranked application level b checked gri company aims reduce external environmental impact energy-efficient evolution products also reduce direct operational impact energy-efficiency programs internal energy-efficiency programs reportedly save company 3 million annually energy-cost savings largest component company internal energy-efficiency savings comes pc power management company expects save 1.8 million energy costs using specialized energy-management software network 50,000 pcs 1990s dell switched using primarily atx motherboards psu using boards power supplies mechanically identical differently wired connectors meant customers wishing upgrade hardware would replace parts scarce dell-compatible parts instead commonly available parts motherboard power connections reverted industry standard 2003 dell remains secretive motherboard pin-outs peripherals mmc readers power on/off switches leds 2005 complaints dell doubled 1,533 earnings grew 52 year 2006 dell acknowledged problems customer service issues included call transfers 45 calls long wait times dell blog detailed response 're spending 100 million—and lot blood sweat tears talented people—to fix later year company increased spending customer service 150 million since 2018 dell seen significant increase consumer satisfaction moreover customer service praised prompt accurate answers questions especially directed social media support august 17 2007 dell inc. announced internal investigation accounting practices would restate reduce earnings 2003 first quarter 2007 total amount 50 million 150 million 2 cents 7 cents per share investigation begun november 2006 resulted concerns raised u.s. securities exchange commission documents information dell inc. submitted alleged dell disclosed large exclusivity payments received intel agreeing buy processors rival manufacturer amd 2010 dell finally paid 100 million settle sec charges fraud michael dell executives also paid penalties suffered sanctions without admitting denying charges july 2009 dell apologized drawing ire taiwanese consumer protection commission twice refusing honour flood orders unusually low prices offered taiwanese website first instance dell offered 19 lcd panel 15 second instance dell offered latitude e4300 notebook nt 18,558 us 580 70 lower usual price nt 60,900 us 1900 concerning e4300 rather honour discount taking significant loss firm withdrew orders offered voucher nt 20,000 us 625 customer compensation consumer rights authorities taiwan fined dell nt 1 million us 31250 customer rights infringements many consumers sued firm unfair compensation court southern taiwan ordered firm deliver 18 laptops 76 flat-panel monitors 31 consumers nt 490,000 us 15,120 less third normal price court said event could hardly regarded mistakes prestigious firm said company mispriced products twice taiwanese website within 3 weeks michael dell made 24.4 billion buyout bid august 2013 activist shareholder carl icahn sued company board attempt derail bid promote forthcoming offer Target text information: packettrap.packettrap packettrap provider network management traffic analysis software midsize companies company headquartered san francisco california corporate parent dell located round rock texas packettrap features include desktop management server management monitor cloud assets etc I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	5,338	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: ws-policy.ws-policy ws-policy specification allows web services use xml advertise policies security quality service etc web service consumers specify policy requirements ws-policy w3c recommendation september 2007 ws-policy represents set specifications describe capabilities constraints security business policies intermediaries end points example required security tokens supported encryption algorithms privacy rules associate policies services end points assertions either requirements put upon web service advertisement policies web service two operators xml tags used make statements policy combinations logically empty wsp tag makes assertions provider consumer specify policy effective policy computed usually consists intersection policies new policy contains assertions made sides contradict however synonymous assertions considered incompatible policy intersection easily explained fact policy intersection syntactic approach incorporate semantics assertions furthermore ignores assertion parameters opposed name might suggest policy intersection although quite similar set-intersection 1-hop neighbor's text information: apache_axis2.apache axis2 apache axis2 core engine web services complete re-design re-write widely used apache axis soap stack implementations axis2 available java c. axis2 provides capability add web services interfaces web applications also function standalone application server new architecture axis2 introduced august 2004 axis2 summit colombo sri lanka new architecture axis2 based flexible efficient configurable comparison axis1.x architecture well-established concepts axis 1.x like handlers etc. preserved new architecture apache axis2 supports soap 1.1 soap 1.2 integrated support widely popular rest style web services business-logic implementation offer ws-* style interface well rest/pox style interface simultaneously axis2/java support spring framework axis2/c high-performance web services implementation implemented portability ability embedded hosted apache httpd microsoft iis axis http server see article apache axis2/c performance 2008 latest release occurred 2009 axis2 came many new features enhancements industry specification implementations key features offered include apache axis2 includes support following standards list features selling points cited apache axis site axis2 modules provides qos features like security reliable messaging etc 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_web_service_specifications.list web service specifications variety specifications associated web services specifications varying degrees maturity maintained supported various standards bodies entities specifications basic web services framework established first-generation standards represented wsdl soap uddi specifications may complement overlap compete web service specifications occasionally referred collectively ws-* though single managed set specifications consistently refers recognized owning body across ws-* prefix used indicate specifications associated web services exist many ws-* standards including ws-addressing ws-discovery ws-federation ws-policy ws-security ws-trust page includes many specifications might considered part ws-* sites contain documents links different web services standards identified page specifications provide additional information improve interoperability vendor implementations Target text information: ws-secureconversation.ws-secureconversation ws-secureconversation web services specification created ibm others works conjunction ws-security ws-trust ws-policy allow creation sharing security contexts extending use cases ws-security purpose ws-secureconversation establish security contexts multiple soap message exchanges reducing overhead key establishment ws-secureconversation meant provide extensible framework flexible syntax one could implement various security mechanisms guarantee security implementor ensure result vulnerable attack following pattern similar tls ws-secureconversation establishes kind session key processing overhead key establishment reduced significantly compared ws-security case frequent message exchanges however new layer put top ws-security implies ws-* protocols like ws-addressing ws-trust importance performance compared added complexity dependencies see performance section ws-security following specifications associated ws-secureconversation I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	10,949	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: dynamic_infrastructure.dynamic infrastructure dynamic infrastructure information technology paradigm concerning design data centers underlying hardware software respond dynamically changing levels demand fundamental efficient ways paradigm also known infrastructure 2.0 next generation data center vendors promoting dynamic infrastructures include ibm microsoft sun fujitsu hp dell bright computing basic premise dynamic infrastructures leverage pooled resources provide flexible capacity enabling allocation resources line demand business processes achieved using server virtualization technology pool computing resources wherever possible allocating resources on-demand using automated tools allows load balancing efficient approach keeping massive computing resources reserve run tasks take place example month otherwise under-utilized early examples server-level dynamic infrastructures flexframe sap flexframe oracle introduced fujitsu siemens computers fujitsu 2003 flexframe approach dynamically assign servers applications demand leveling peaks enabling organizations maximize benefit investments dynamic infrastructures may also used provide security data protection workloads moved migrations provisioning enhancing performance building co-location facilities dynamic infrastructures promoted enhance performance scalability system availability uptime increasing server utilization ability perform routine maintenance either physical virtual systems minimizing interruption business operations reducing cost dynamic infrastructures also provide fundamental business continuity high availability requirements facilitate cloud grid computing networking companies infrastructure 2.0 refers ability networks keep movement scale requirements new enterprise initiatives especially virtualization cloud computing according companies like cisco f5 networks infoblox network automation connectivity intelligence networks applications endpoints required reap full benefits virtualization many types cloud computing require network management infrastructure consolidated enabling higher levels dynamic control connectivity networks systems endpoints dynamic infrastructures take advantage intelligence gained across network design every dynamic infrastructure service-oriented focused supporting enabling end users highly responsive way utilize alternative sourcing approaches like cloud computing deliver new services agility speed global organizations already foundation dynamic infrastructure bring together business infrastructure create new possibilities example virtualized applications reduce cost testing packaging supporting application 60 reduced overall tco 5 7 model – source gartner – tco traditional software distribution vs application virtualization michael silver terrence cosgrove mark margevicious brian gammage 16 april 2008 green issues primary driver 10 current data center outsourcing hosting initiatives cost reductions initiatives driver 47 time aligned well green goals combining two means least 57 data center outsourcing hosting initiatives driven green – source gartner – green services catalyst cost optimization kurt potter 4 december 2008 2013 50 midsize organizations 75 large enterprises implement layered recovery architectures – source gartner – predicts 2009 business continuity management juggles standardization cost outsourcing risk roberta j witty john p morency dave russell donna scott rober desisto 28 january 2009 1-hop neighbor's text information: univa.univa univa privately held software company develops workload management products manage applications services containers univa software-defined computing infrastructure workload orchestration solutions enable companies scale computer resources across on-premises cloud computing hybrid systems company based chicago offices canada germany univa develops sells supports univa grid engine software univa version grid engine workload distributed resource management technology univa announced january 2011 hired personnel formerly working oracle sun microsystems grid engine development october 2 2014 univa roll new version grid engine new functionality improved scalability performance resource control small large clusters october 22 2013 univa announced acquired intellectual property copyrights trademarks pertaining grid engine technology oracle would support oracle grid engine customers univa announced navops may 2016 new business unit products enable enterprises easily migrate cloud hybrid cloud navops launch migrates hpc workload cloud univa offers consulting services installation tuning configuration products univa founded 2004 name univa corporation carl kesselman ian foster steve tuecke time primarily known providing open source products technical support based around globus toolkit september 17 2007 company announced would merge austin texas-based united devices operate new name univa ud company operated univa ud formally dropping ud returning common use univa corporation leadership current ceo gary tyreman univa announced january 17 2011 hired principal founding engineers grid engine team oct 22 2013 univa announced acquired intellectual property well copyrights trademarks pertaining grid engine technology oracle take supporting oracle grid engine customers june 2014 technical partnership racing point f1 team formerly sahara force india univa announced may 2016 univa announced new business unit navops product line based grid engine cluster workload scheduling technology originally sun microsystems later acquired univa oracle navops line differs univa grid engine enables enterprises easily migrate cloud hybrid could increase efficiencies run containers scale march 2018 univa open sources navops launch née unicloud project tortuga apache 2.0 license 1-hop neighbor's text information: amazon_web_services.amazon web services amazon web services aws subsidiary amazon provides on-demand cloud computing platforms individuals companies governments metered pay-as-you-go basis aggregate cloud computing web services provide set primitive abstract technical infrastructure distributed computing building blocks tools one services amazon elastic compute cloud allows users disposal virtual cluster computers available time internet aws version virtual computers emulate attributes real computer including hardware central processing units cpus graphics processing units gpus processing local/ram memory hard-disk/ssd storage choice operating systems networking pre-loaded application software web servers databases customer relationship management crm etc aws technology implemented server farms throughout world maintained amazon subsidiary fees based combination usage hardware/os/software/networking features chosen subscriber required availability redundancy security service options subscribers pay single virtual aws computer dedicated physical computer clusters either part subscription agreement amazon provides security subscribers system aws operates many global geographical regions including 6 north america 2017 aws comprised 90 165 2019 services spanning wide range including computing storage networking database analytics application services deployment management mobile developer tools tools internet things popular include amazon elastic compute cloud ec2 amazon simple storage service amazon s3 services exposed directly end users instead offer functionality apis developers use applications amazon web services offerings accessed http using rest architectural style soap protocol amazon markets aws subscribers way obtaining large scale computing capacity quickly cheaply building actual physical server farm services billed based usage service measures usage varying ways 2017 aws owns dominant 34 cloud iaas paas next three competitors microsoft google ibm 11 8 6 respectively according synergy group aws platform launched july 2002 early stages platform consisted disparate tools services late 2003 aws concept publicly reformulated chris pinkham benjamin black presented paper describing vision amazon retail computing infrastructure completely standardized completely automated would rely extensively web services services storage would draw internal work already underway near end paper mentioned possibility selling access virtual servers service proposing company could generate revenue new infrastructure investment november 2004 first aws service launched public usage simple queue service sqs thereafter pinkham lead developer christopher brown developed amazon ec2 service team cape town south africa amazon web services officially re-launched march 14 2006 combining three initial service offerings amazon s3 cloud storage sqs ec2 aws platform finally provided integrated suite core online services chris pinkham benjamin black proposed back 2003 service offered developers web sites client-side applications companies andy jassy aws founder vice president 2006 said time amazon s3 one first scalable elements aws helps free developers worrying going store data whether safe secure available need costs associated server maintenance whether enough storage available amazon s3 enables developers focus innovating data rather figuring store it. 2016 jassy promoted ceo division reflecting success aws annual compensation 2017 hit nearly 36 million support industry-wide training skills standardization aws began offering certification program computer engineers april 30 2013 highlight expertise cloud computing james hamilton aws engineer wrote retrospective article 2016 highlight ten-year history online service 2006 2016 early fan outspoken proponent technology joined aws engineering team 2008 january 2018 amazon launched autoscaling service aws november 2018 aws announced customized arm cores use servers also november 2018 aws developing ground stations communicate customer satellites november 2010 reported amazon.com retail sites migrated aws prior 2012 aws considered part amazon.com revenue delineated amazon financial statements year industry watchers first time estimated aws revenue 1.5 billion april 2015 amazon.com reported aws profitable sales 1.57 billion first quarter year 265 million operating income founder jeff bezos described fast-growing 5 billion business analysts described surprisingly profitable forecast october 2015 amazon.com said q3 earnings report aws operating income 521 million operating margins 25 percent aws 2015 q3 revenue 2.1 billion 78 increase 2014 q3 revenue 1.17 billion 2015 q4 revenue aws segment increased 69.5 y/y 2.4 billion 28.5 operating margin giving aws 9.6 billion run rate 2015 gartner estimated aws customers deploying 10x infrastructure aws combined adoption next 14 providers 2016 q1 revenue 2.57 billion net income 604 million 64 increase 2015 q1 resulted aws profitable amazon north american retail business first time first quarter 2016 amazon experienced 42 rise stock value result increased earnings aws contributed 56 corporate profits aws 17.46 billion annual revenue 2017 end 2018 number grown 25.65 billion notable customers include nasa obama presidential campaign 2012 netflix 2019 reported 80 germany listed dax companies use aws 2019 aws distinct operations 20 geographical regions 6 north america 1 south america 5 emea 8 asia pacific aws announced 5 new regions coming online hong kong sar bahrain milan cape town jakarta region wholly contained within single country data services stay within designated region region multiple availability zones consist one discrete data centers redundant power networking connectivity housed separate facilities availability zones automatically provide additional scalability redundancy within region since intentionally isolated prevent outages spreading zones several services operate across availability zones e.g. s3 dynamodb others configured replicate across zones spread demand avoid downtime failures december 2014 amazon web services operated estimated 1.4 million servers across 28 availability zones global network aws edge locations consists 54 points presence worldwide including locations united states europe asia australia south america 2014 aws claimed aim achieve 100 renewable energy usage future united states aws partnerships renewable energy providers include community energy virginia support us east region pattern development january 2015 construct operate amazon wind farm fowler ridge iberdrola renewables llc july 2015 construct operate amazon wind farm us east edp renewables north america november 2015 construct operate amazon wind farm us central tesla motors apply battery storage technology address power needs us west northern california region aws also pop-up lofts different locations around world market aws entrepreneurs startups different tech industries physical location visitors work relax inside loft learn aws june 2014 aws opened first temporary pop-up loft san francisco may 2015 expanded new york city september 2015 expanded berlin aws opened fourth location tel aviv march 1 2016 march 22 2016 pop-up loft open london september 10 october 29 2015 2017 aws launched amazon start united kingdom help young adults military veterans retrain technology-related skills partnership prince trust ministry defence mod aws help provide re-training opportunities young people disadvantaged backgrounds former military personnel aws working alongside number partner companies including cloudreach sage edf energy tesco bank Target text information: bright_computing.bright computing bright computing inc. developer software deploying managing high-performance hpc clusters kubernetes clusters openstack private clouds on-prem data centers well public cloud bright computing founded matthijs van leeuwen 2009 spun company clustervision co-founded alex ninaber arijan sauer alex matthijs worked together uk ’ compusys one first companies commercially build hpc clusters left compusys 2002 start clustervision netherlands determining growing market building managing supercomputer clusters using off-the-shelf hardware components open source software tied together customized scripts clustervision also provided delivery installation support services hpc clusters universities government entities 2004 martijn de vries joined clustervision began development cluster management software software made available customers 2008 name clustervisionos v4 2009 bright computing spun clustervision clustervisionos renamed bright cluster manager van leeuwen named bright computing ’ ceo 2010 ing corporate investments made 2.5 million investment bright computing 2014 draper fisher jurvetson dfj us dfj esprit uk prime ventures nl ing corporate investments invested 14.5 million bright computing time bright computing clustervision completely separated february 2016 bright appointed bill wagner chief executive officer matthijs van leeuwen became chief strategy officer left company board directors 2018 wagner presided multiple layoffs august 2019 controversial alliance huawei announced sc 18 early customers included boeing sandia national laboratories virginia tech hewlett packard nsa drexel university many early customers introduced resellers including sicorp cray dell advanced hpc 2019 company 700 customers including 50 fortune 500 companies.this citation 2016 cites much lower number removed bright cluster manager hpc lets customers deploy manage complete clusters provides management hardware operating system hpc software users 2014 company announced bright openstack software deploy provision manage openstack-based private cloud infrastructures 2016 bright started bundling several machine learning frameworks associated tools libraries product make easy get machine learning workload running bright cluster december 2018 version 8.2 released introduced support arm64 architecture edge capabilities build clusters spread many different geographical locations improved workload accounting reporting features well many improvements bright integration kubernetes bright cluster manager software frequently sold original equipment manufacturer oem resellers including dell cray technology partners include bright computing covered software magazine yahoo finance among publications 2016 bright computing awarded €1.5m horizon 2020 sme instrument grant european commission bright computing one 33 grant recipients 960 submitted proposals category 5 260 grants awarded I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	7	Distributed Computing Architecture	wikics	4,463	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: public_key_infrastructure.public key infrastructure public key infrastructure pki set roles policies hardware software procedures needed create manage distribute use store revoke digital certificates manage public-key encryption purpose pki facilitate secure electronic transfer information range network activities e-commerce internet banking confidential email required activities simple passwords inadequate authentication method rigorous proof required confirm identity parties involved communication validate information transferred cryptography pki arrangement binds public keys respective identities entities like people organizations binding established process registration issuance certificates certificate authority ca depending assurance level binding may carried automated process human supervision pki role assures valid correct registration called registration authority ra ra responsible accepting requests digital certificates authenticating entity making request microsoft pki registration authority usually called subordinate ca entity must uniquely identifiable within ca domain basis information entity third-party validation authority va provide entity information behalf ca x.509 standard defines commonly used format public key certificates public key cryptography cryptographic technique enables entities securely communicate insecure public network reliably verify identity entity via digital signatures public key infrastructure pki system creation storage distribution digital certificates used verify particular public key belongs certain entity pki creates digital certificates map public keys entities securely stores certificates central repository revokes needed pki consists broadly speaking traditionally three approaches getting trust certificate authorities cas web trust wot simple public key infrastructure spki primary role ca digitally sign publish public key bound given user done using ca private key trust user key relies one trust validity ca key ca third party separate user system called registration authority ra may may separate ca key-to-user binding established depending level assurance binding software human supervision term trusted third party ttp may also used certificate authority ca moreover pki often used synonym ca implementation model trust relationships ca trusted third party – trusted subject owner certificate party relying upon certificate according netcraft industry standard monitoring active transport layer security tls certificates states that- although global tls ecosystem competitive dominated handful major cas — three certificate authorities symantec comodo godaddy account three-quarters issued tls certificates public-facing web servers top spot held symantec verisign purchased symantec ever since survey began currently accounting third certificates illustrate effect differing methodologies amongst million busiest sites symantec issued 44 valid trusted certificates use — significantly overall market share approach involves server acts offline certificate authority within single sign-on system single sign-on server issue digital certificates client system never stores users execute programs etc temporary certificate common find solution variety x.509-based certificates alternative approach problem public authentication public key information web-of-trust scheme uses self-signed certificates third party attestations certificates singular term web trust imply existence single web trust common point trust rather one number potentially disjoint webs trust examples implementations approach pgp pretty good privacy gnupg implementation openpgp standardized specification pgp pgp implementations allow use e-mail digital signatures self-publication public key information relatively easy implement one web trust one benefits web trust pgp inter-operate pki ca fully trusted parties domain internal ca company willing guarantee certificates trusted introducer web trust completely trusted nature web trust trusting one certificate granting trust certificates web pki valuable standards practices control issuance certificates including pgp personally instituted web trust could significantly degrade trustworthiness enterprise domain implementation pki web trust concept first put forth pgp creator phil zimmermann 1992 manual pgp version 2.0 another alternative deal public authentication public key information simple public key infrastructure spki grew three independent efforts overcome complexities x.509 pgp web trust spki associate users persons since key trusted rather person spki use notion trust verifier also issuer called authorization loop spki terminology authorization integral design emerging approach pki use blockchain technology commonly associated modern cryptocurrency since blockchain technology aims provide distributed unalterable ledger information qualities considered highly suitable storage management public keys cryptocurrencies support storage different public key types ssh gpg rfc 2230 etc provides open source software directly supports pki openssh servers blockchain technology approximate proof work often underpinning confidence trust relying parties pki issues remain administrative conformance policy operational security software implementation quality certificate authority paradigm issues regardless underlying cryptographic methods algorithms employed pki seeks endow certificates trustworthy properties must also address issues list known blockchain-based pki developments pki occurred early 1970s british intelligence agency gchq james ellis clifford cocks others made important discoveries related encryption algorithms key distribution however developments gchq highly classified results work kept secret publicly acknowledged mid-1990s public disclosure secure key exchange asymmetric key algorithms 1976 diffie hellman rivest shamir adleman changed secure communications entirely development high-speed digital electronic communications internet predecessors need became evident ways users could securely communicate consequence ways users could sure actually interacting assorted cryptographic protocols invented analyzed within new cryptographic primitives could effectively used invention world wide web rapid spread need authentication secure communication became still acute commercial reasons alone e.g. e-commerce online access proprietary databases web browsers sufficient taher elgamal others netscape developed ssl protocol 'https web urls included key establishment server authentication prior v3 one-way pki structure thus created web users/sites wishing secure communications vendors entrepreneurs saw possibility large market started companies new projects existing companies began agitate legal recognition protection liability american bar association technology project published extensive analysis foreseeable legal aspects pki operations see aba digital signature guidelines shortly thereafter several u.s. states utah first 1995 jurisdictions throughout world began enact laws adopt regulations consumer groups raised questions privacy access liability considerations taken consideration jurisdictions others enacted laws regulations differed technical operational problems converting pki schemes successful commercial operation progress much slower pioneers imagined would first years 21st century underlying cryptographic engineering clearly easy deploy correctly operating procedures manual automatic easy correctly design even designed execute perfectly engineering required standards existed insufficient pki vendors found market quite market envisioned mid-1990s grown slowly somewhat different ways anticipated pkis solved problems expected several major vendors gone business acquired others pki success government implementations largest pki implementation date defense information systems agency disa pki infrastructure common access cards program pkis one type another several vendors many uses including providing public keys bindings user identities used argue purchasing certificates securing websites ssl securing software code signing costly venture small businesses however emergence free alternatives let encrypt changed presently symantec holds major share pki certificate market sold one third certificates issued globally 2013 http/2 latest version http protocol allows unsecured connections theory practice major browser companies made clear would support state-of-art protocol pki secured tls connection web browser implementation http/2 including edge microsoft chrome google firefox mozilla opera supports http/2 tls using alpn extension tls protocol would mean get speed benefits http/2 website owners would forced purchase ssl certificates controlled corporations symantec current web browsers carry pre-installed intermediary certificates issued signed certificate authority means browsers need carry large number different certificate providers increasing risk key compromise key known compromised could fixed revoking certificate compromise easily detectable huge security breach browsers issue security patch revoke intermediary certificates issued compromised root certificate authority practical security vulnerabilities x.509 certificates known cases keys stolen major certificate authority listed 1-hop neighbor's text information: mcafee.mcafee mcafee llc formerly known mcafee associates inc. 1987–2014 intel security group 2014–2017 american global computer security software company headquartered santa clara california claims world largest dedicated security technology company company purchased intel february 2011 became part intel security division september 7 2016 intel announced strategic deal tpg capital convert intel security joint venture companies called mcafee deal closed april 3 2017 thoma bravo took minority stake new company intel maintains 49 stake company founded 1987 mcafee associates named founder john mcafee resigned company 1994 mcafee incorporated state delaware 1992 network associates formed 1997 merger mcafee associates network general pgp corporation helix software company restructured 2004 beginning sale magic solutions business remedy subsidiary bmc software early year mid-2004 company sold sniffer technologies business venture capital backed firm named network general name original owner sniffer technologies changed name back mcafee reflect focus security-related technologies among companies bought sold mcafee trusted information systems developed firewall toolkit free software foundation commercial gauntlet firewall later sold secure computing corporation mcafee result brief ownership tis labs/nai labs/network associates laboratories/mcafee research highly influential world open-source software organization produced portions linux freebsd darwin operating systems developed portions bind name server software snmp version 3 mcafee acquired calgary alberta canada-based fsa corporation helped company diversify security offerings away client-based antivirus software bringing board network desktop encryption technologies fsa team also oversaw creation number technologies leading edge time including firewall file encryption public key infrastructure product lines product lines individual successes including powerbroker written dean huxley dan freedman sold beyondtrust growth antivirus ware always outpaced growth security product lines fair say mcafee remains best known anti-virus anti-spam products august 19 2010 intel announced would purchase mcafee 48 share deal valued 7.68 billion january 6 2014 intel ceo brian krzanich announced consumer electronics show name change mcafee security intel security company red shield logo would remain firm continuing operate wholly owned intel subsidiary john mcafee longer involvement company expressed pleasure name longer associated software everlastingly grateful intel freeing terrible association worst software planet words words millions irate users however 2016 products still bore mcafee name company spun back intel april 4 2017 mcafee primarily develops digital-security tools personal computers server devices recently mobile devices mcafee brands products sub-products include 1-hop neighbor's text information: global_information_grid.global information grid global information grid gig all-encompassing communications project united states department defense defined globally interconnected end-to-end set information capabilities collecting processing storing disseminating managing information demand warfighters policy makers support personnel gig includes owned leased communications computing systems services software including applications data security services associated services national security systems non-gig information technology includes stand-alone self-contained embedded connected enterprise network new definition removes references national security systems defined section 5142 clinger-cohen act 1996 new definition removes references gig providing capabilities operating locations bases posts camps stations facilities mobile platforms deployed sites lastly definition removes part definition discusses interfaces coalition allied non-department defense users systems dod use term gig undergoing changes department deals new concepts cyberspace operations gig 2.0 joint staff j6 initiative department defense information enterprise die gig managed construct known netops netops defined operational framework consisting three essential tasks situational awareness sa command control c2 commander cdr united states strategic command usstratcom coordination dod global netops community employs operate defend gig ensure information superiority department defense information enterprise defined dod information resources assets processes required achieve information advantage share information across department defense mission partners includes network-centric warfare ncw doctrine represents fundamental shift military culture away compartmentalized war machines toward interconnected units operating cohesively tenets network centric warfare enterprise level forging new paths components military communicate ease logistics burdens improve communication combat effectiveness war fighter decrease instances confusion-related fratricide accelerate trend minimizing collateral damage hasten flow business warfighter situational awareness would improved tremendously linking sees overhead satellite sees fog war would lifted seamless communication unit members site detection devices commanders operating behind line improved coordination may also assist delivering appropriate firepower tangible assets first responders domestic attacks natural disasters worldwide Target text information: host_based_security_system.host based security system host based security system hbss official name given united states department defense dod commercial-off-the-shelf cots suite software applications used within dod monitor detect defend dod computer networks systems enterprise-wide information assurance computer network defense solutions steering group essg sponsored acquisition hbss system use within dod enterprise network hbss deployed non-classified internet protocol routed network niprnet secret internet protocol routed network siprnet networks priority given installing niprnet hbss based mcafee inc epolicy orchestrator epo mcafee point product security applications host intrusion prevention system hips seeing need supply comprehensive department-wide security suite tools dod system administrators essg started gather requirements formation host-based security system summer 2005 march 2006 bae systems mcafee awarded contract supply automated host-based security system department award 22 pilot sites identified receive first deployments hbss pilot roll dod system administrators around world identified trained using hbss software preparation software deployment across dod october 9 2007 joint task force global network operations jtf-gno released communications tasking order cto 07-12 deployment host based security system hbss mandating deployment hbss combatant command service agency cc/s/a networks within dod completion date 3rd quarter 2008 release cto brought hbss attention major department heads cc/s/a providing essg necessary authority enforce deployment agencies willing comply cto risked disconnected dod global information grid gig lack compliance lessons learned pilot deployments provided valuable insight hbss program eventually leading defense information systems agency disa supplying pre-loaded hbss hardware well providing hbss software image could loaded compliant hardware platforms proved invaluable easing deployment task newly trained hbss system administrators provided consistent department-wide software baseline disa provided step-by-step documentation completing hbss baseline creation freshly installed operating system lessons learned niprnet deployments simplified process deploying hbss siprnet throughout lifetime hbss undergone several major baseline updates well minor maintenance releases first major release hbss known baseline 1.0 contained mcafee epolicy orchestrator engine hips software compliance profiler scp rogue system detection rsd asset baseline manager abm assets software new releases introduced software products evolved new products added cases completely replaced different products january 2011 hbss currently baseline 4.5 maintenance release 2.0 mr2 mr2 contains following software heart mcafee epolicy orchestrator epo management engine hbss mcafee tools responsible mcafee considers point product individual software applications controlled epo server hbss point products consist following host intrusion prevention system hips consists host-based firewall application-level blocking consolidated single product hips component one significant components hbss provides capability block known intrusion signatures restrict unauthorized services applications running host machines policy auditor pa introduced hbss baseline 2.0 policy auditor responsible ensuring compliance mandates payment card industry data security standard pci dss sarbanes–oxley act 2002 sox gramm–leach–bliley act 1999 glba health insurance portability accountability act 1996 hipaa federal information security management act 2002 fisma well best practice frameworks control objectives information related technology cobit pa maps controls predefined policy content mcafee policy auditor helps report consistently accurately key industry mandates internal policies across infrastructure specific targeted systems policy auditor agent-based audit solution leverages security content automation protocol scap automate processes required internal external audits assets baseline module released baseline 1.0 government off-the-shelf gots product used address system baseline configurations changes order respond information operations condition infocon infocon changes necessary times heightened security threats system initial deployment stages hbss assets module juvenile lacked much products intended capabilities however application fully evolved robust feature packed version capable handling original software design goals abm originally known assets 1.0 upgraded assets 2.0 hbss baseline 2.0 later called assets 3000 hbss baseline 3.0 rogue system detector rsd component hbss used provide real-time detection new hosts attaching network rsd monitors network segments reports hosts seen network epo server epo server determines whether system connected epo server mcafee agent installed identified exception considered rogue epo server take appropriate action concerning rogue host specified rsd policy hbss baseline 1.0 introduced rsd 1.0 rsd updated 2.0 hbss baseline 2.0 dcm component hbss introduced hbss baseline 2.0 specifically address use usb devices dod networks jtf-gno cto 09-xxx removable flash media device implementation within department defense dod networks released march 2009 allowed use usb removable media provided meets conditions stated within cto one conditions requires use hbss dcm module installed configured manage usb devices attached system dcm renamed data loss prevention dlp hbss baseline 3.0 mr3 assets publishing service aps hbss introduced hbss baseline 4.0 allow enclaves report asset information third-party dod entity standards-compliant format adds contextual information hbss assets allows improved reporting features systems relying hbss data according jtf-gno cto 07-12 dod agencies required deploy hbss networks disa made hbss software available download pki protected patch server users attempting download software required common access card cac .mil network disa provides software updates free charge dod entities additionally hbss administrators require satisfactory completion hbss training commonly appointed unit section commander writing order receive administer hbss system system administrators must satisfactorily complete online class hbss training well identified hbss administrator online training takes 30 hours complete class training requires four days excluding travel advanced hbss class also available hbss administrators wishing acquire in-depth knowledge system hbss online class training managed disa information pertaining training classes obtained disa information assurance support environment iase website disa risk management executive office formerly field security office fso provides free technical support hbss administrators help desk disa three tiers support tier tier iii tier tier ii support provided disa fso tier iii support provided mcafee disa fso support available using one following methods current pace hbss updated several times original baseline 1.0 current baseline 3.0 mr3 version within baseline 3.0 maintenance releases introduced every two four months bringing better stability security release hbss follows mcafee epo version updates closely expected continue trend epo continuously developed I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	8,968	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: x-video_motion_compensation.x-video motion compensation x-video motion compensation xvmc extension x video extension xv x window system xvmc api allows video programs offload portions video decoding process gpu video-hardware theory process also reduce bus bandwidth requirements currently supported portions offloaded xvmc onto gpu motion compensation mo comp inverse discrete cosine transform idct mpeg-2 video xvmc also supports offloading decoding mo comp idct vld variable-length decoding commonly known slice level acceleration mpeg-2 also mpeg-4 asp video via unichrome s3 graphics chrome series hardware xvmc first unix equivalent microsoft windows directx video acceleration dxva api popular software applications known take advantage xvmc include mplayer mythtv xine hardware video gpu capable xvmc video acceleration requires x11 software device driver enable features currently three x11 nvidia drivers available 2d-only open source obfuscated driver maintained nvidia called nv proprietary binary driver nvidia open source driver based reverse engineering binary driver developed linux community called nouveau nouveau pursuing xvmc support 2d nv driver support xvmc official proprietary binary driver nvidia supports mpeg-2 offloading mo comp idct hardware including geforce 7000 series via provides open source device drivers via unichrome s3 graphics chrome series hardware supporting offloading mpeg-2 mpeg-4 asp video thanks vld level decoding via offloads much decoding tasks cpu gpus supporting idct mo comp levels keep mind devices supported caveats intel provides official open source device drivers supports mpeg-2 offloading mo comp idct intel 8xx/9xx range integrated graphics chips although ati first manufacturer provide mpeg2 acceleration graphic boards rage 128 gpu never provided documentation use xvmc available probably never xvmc supported radeon-4000 cards uvd catalyst driver 8.10 higher experimental level meaning n't work box see also x-video bitstream acceleration motion compensation support ati/amd hardware planned future hardware support mpeg-2 acceleration idct mo comp levels device drivers support xvmc matrox hardware although matrox parhelia hardware support mpeg-2 acceleration mo comp level binary device driver s3 supports mpeg-2 offloading initial 2.0.16 driver chrome 20 gpus x-video motion compensation api specification v. 1.0 xvmc extends x video extension xv makes use familiar concept xvport ports attributes set queried xv xvmc ports also hardware motion compensation contexts created use ports support xvimages i.e xv_image port encoding described xv version 2.2 api addendum queried list xvmcsurface types support support xvmcsurface types xvmccontext created port xvmccontext describes state motion compensation pipeline individual xvmccontext created use single port surface type motion compensation type width height combination example context might created particular port mpeg-2 motion compensation 720 x 480 4:2:0 surfaces context created referencing implies port surface type size motion compensation type contexts may direct indirect indirect contexts x display server renders video using data passed client direct contexts client libraries render video little interaction x display server xvmcsurfaces buffers motion compensation hardware render data buffers client accessible may stored hardware-specific format number buffers created use particular context resources permitting xvmc provides video acceleration starting one two places video pipeline acceleration starting first point shall call motion compensation level begins inverse quantization idct place motion compensation applied second point shall call idct level begins idct inverse quantization rendering done presenting library target xvmcsurface two reference xvmcsurfaces motion compensation buffer 8x8 blocks command buffer describes use 8x8 blocks along motion compensation vectors construct data target xvmcsurface pipeline starts idct level xv perform idct blocks performing motion compensation function provided copy/overlay portion xvmcsurface drawable arbitrary scaling xvmcsubpictures separate surfaces may blended target surface number xvmcsubpictures may created use context resources permitting backend frontend subpicture behavior supported xvmc acceleration supported even though xvmc currently supports hardware acceleration motion compensation mo comp inverse discrete cosine transform idct variable-length decoding via unichrome gpu additional video decoding processes could passed modern gpus could accelerated via gpu fragment programs xvmc could extended future support processes newer competing hardware video acceleration apis like vdpau xvba vaapi besides matching features function dxva microsoft equivalent api windows lacking support video formats mpeg-2 linux device drivers intel nvidia xvmc api specification version 1.0 currently also limitations project called va api underway develop modern video acceleration api support video acceleration features modern gpus xvideo 1-hop neighbor's text information: plymouth_(software).plymouth software plymouth bootsplash linux supporting animations using direct rendering manager drm kms driver gets packed initrd besides eye-candy plymouth also handles user interaction boot plymouth first included fedora 10 cambridge shipped november 25 2008 replaced red hat graphical boot rhgb ubuntu includes ubuntu 10.04 lts lucid lynx release shipped april 29 2010 mandriva switched splashy plymouth version adélie 2010.0 Target text information: video_acceleration_api.video acceleration api video acceleration api va api royalty-free api well implementation free open-source library libva distributed mit license va api implemented device drivers offer end-user software vlc media player gstreamer access available video acceleration hardware purevideo libva-vdpau driver implements va api terms vdpau unified video decoder api enables provides access hardware-accelerated video processing using hardware graphics processing units gpu accelerate video encoding decoding offloading processing central processing unit cpu va api video decode/encode interface platform window system independent primarily targeted direct rendering infrastructure dri x window system unix-like operating systems including linux freebsd solaris android however potentially also used direct framebuffer graphics sub-systems video output accelerated processing includes support video decoding video encoding subpicture blending rendering va api specification originally designed intel gma graphics media accelerator series gpu hardware specific purpose eventually replacing xvmc standard default unix multi-platform equivalent microsoft windows directx video acceleration dxva api today api longer limited intel-specific hardware gpus hardware manufacturers freely use open standard api hardware accelerated video processing hardware without paying royalty fee main motivation va api enable hardware-accelerated video decode various entry-points vld idct motion compensation deblocking prevailing coding standards today mpeg-2 mpeg-4 asp/h.263 mpeg-4 avc/h.264 h.265/hevc vc-1/wmv3 extending xvmc considered due original design mpeg-2 motioncomp made sense design interface scratch fully expose video decode capabilities today gpus january 17 2012 va api natively supported va api currently supports video codecs official mainline version note exactly video codecs supported depends hardware driver capabilities video decoding post-processing processes offloaded accelerated device drivers gpu hardware supports current interface window system independent potentially used graphics sub-systems dri direct rendering infrastructure x window system direct framebuffer work third-party drm direct rendering manager libraries nutshell scheme pass various types data buffers application gpu decoding encoding compressed bit-stream I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	7,309	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: authentication.authentication authentication authentikos real genuine αὐθέντης authentes author act proving assertion identity computer system user contrast identification act indicating person thing identity authentication process verifying identity might involve validating personal identity documents verifying authenticity website digital certificate determining age artifact carbon dating ensuring product document counterfeit authentication relevant multiple fields art antiques anthropology common problem verifying given artifact produced certain person certain place period history computer science verifying user identity often required allow access confidential data systems authentication considered three types first type authentication accepting proof identity given credible person first-hand evidence identity genuine authentication required art physical objects proof could friend family member colleague attesting item provenance perhaps witnessed item creator possession autographed sports memorabilia could involve someone attesting witnessed object signed vendor selling branded items implies authenticity may evidence every step supply chain authenticated centralized authority-based trust relationships back secure internet communication known public certificate authorities decentralized peer-based trust also known web trust used personal services email files pretty good privacy gnu privacy guard trust established known individuals signing cryptographic key key signing parties instance second type authentication comparing attributes object known objects origin example art expert might look similarities style painting check location form signature compare object old photograph archaeologist hand might use carbon dating verify age artifact chemical spectroscopic analysis materials used compare style construction decoration artifacts similar origin physics sound light comparison known physical environment used examine authenticity audio recordings photographs videos documents verified created ink paper readily available time item implied creation attribute comparison may vulnerable forgery general relies facts creating forgery indistinguishable genuine artifact requires expert knowledge mistakes easily made amount effort required considerably greater amount profit gained forgery art antiques certificates great importance authenticating object interest value certificates however also forged authentication poses problem instance son han van meegeren well-known art-forger forged work father provided certificate provenance well see article jacques van meegeren criminal civil penalties fraud forgery counterfeiting reduce incentive falsification depending risk getting caught currency financial instruments commonly use second type authentication method bills coins cheques incorporate hard-to-duplicate physical features fine printing engraving distinctive feel watermarks holographic imagery easy trained receivers verify third type authentication relies documentation external affirmations criminal courts rules evidence often require establishing chain custody evidence presented accomplished written evidence log testimony police detectives forensics staff handled antiques accompanied certificates attesting authenticity signed sports memorabilia usually accompanied certificate authenticity external records problems forgery perjury also vulnerable separated artifact lost computer science user given access secure systems based user credentials imply authenticity network administrator give user password provide user key card access device allow system access case authenticity implied guaranteed consumer goods pharmaceuticals perfume fashion clothing use three forms authentication prevent counterfeit goods taking advantage popular brand reputation damaging brand owner sales reputation mentioned item sale reputable store implicitly attests genuine first type authentication second type authentication might involve comparing quality craftsmanship item expensive handbag genuine articles third type authentication could presence trademark item legally protected marking identifying feature aids consumers identification genuine brand-name goods software companies taken great steps protect counterfeiters including adding holograms security rings security threads color shifting ink ways someone may authenticated fall three categories based known factors authentication something user knows something user something user authentication factor covers range elements used authenticate verify person identity prior granted access approving transaction request signing document work product granting authority others establishing chain authority security research determined positive authentication elements least two preferably three factors verified three factors classes elements factor weakest level authentication single component one three categories factors used authenticate individual ’ identity use one factor offer much protection misuse malicious intrusion type authentication recommended financial personally relevant transactions warrant higher level security multi-factor authentication involves two authentication factors something know something something two-factor authentication special case multi-factor authentication involving exactly two factors example using bankcard something user along pin something user knows provides two-factor authentication business networks may require users provide password knowledge factor pseudorandom number security token ownership factor access very-high-security system might require mantrap screening height weight facial fingerprint checks several inherence factor elements plus pin day code knowledge factor elements still two-factor authentication frequent types authentication available use authenticating online users differ level security provided combining factors one three categories factors authentication u.s. government national information assurance glossary defines strong authentication layered authentication approach relying two authenticators establish identity originator receiver information european central bank ecb defined strong authentication procedure based two three authentication factors factors used must mutually independent least one factor must non-reusable non-replicable except case inherence factor must also incapable stolen internet european well us-american understanding strong authentication similar multi-factor authentication 2fa exceeding rigorous requirements fast identity online fido alliance striving establish technical specifications strong authentication conventional computer systems authenticate users initial log-in session cause critical security flaw resolve problem systems need continuous user authentication methods continuously monitor authenticate users based biometric trait study used behavioural biometrics based writing styles continuous authentication method recent research shown possibility using smartphones ’ sensors accessories extract behavioral attributes touch dynamics keystroke dynamics gait recognition attributes known behavioral biometrics could used verify identify users implicitly continuously smartphones authentication systems built based behavioral biometric traits known active continuous authentication systems term digital authentication also known electronic authentication refers group processes confidence user identities established presented via electronic methods information system also referred e-authentication digital authentication process creates technical challenges need authenticate individuals entities remotely network american national institute standards technology nist created generic model digital authentication describes processes used accomplish secure authentication authentication information pose special problems electronic communication vulnerability man-in-the-middle attacks whereby third party taps communication stream poses two communicating parties order intercept information extra identity factors required authenticate party identity counterfeit products often offered consumers authentic counterfeit consumer goods electronics music apparel counterfeit medications sold legitimate efforts control supply chain educate consumers help ensure authentic products sold used even security printing packages labels nameplates however subject counterfeiting secure key storage device used authentication consumer electronics network authentication license management supply chain management etc generally device authenticated needs sort wireless wired digital connection either host system network nonetheless component authenticated need electronic nature authentication chip mechanically attached read connector host e.g authenticated ink tank use printer products services secure coprocessors applied offer solution much difficult counterfeit options time easily verified packaging labeling engineered help reduce risks counterfeit consumer goods theft resale products package constructions difficult copy pilfer-indicating seals counterfeit goods unauthorized sales diversion material substitution tampering reduced anti-counterfeiting technologies packages may include authentication seals use security printing help indicate package contents counterfeit subject counterfeiting packages also include anti-theft devices dye-packs rfid tags electronic article surveillance tags activated detected devices exit points require specialized tools deactivate anti-counterfeiting technologies used packaging include literary forgery involve imitating style famous author original manuscript typewritten text recording available medium packaging – anything box e-mail headers help prove disprove authenticity document however text audio video copied new media possibly leaving informational content use authentication various systems invented allow authors provide means readers reliably authenticate given message originated relayed involve authentication factors like opposite problem detection plagiarism information different author passed person work common technique proving plagiarism discovery another copy similar text different attribution cases excessively high quality style mismatch may raise suspicion plagiarism literacy authentication readers ’ process questioning veracity aspect literature verifying questions via research fundamental question authentication literature – one believe related authentication project therefore reading writing activity students documents relevant research process builds students critical literacy documentation materials literature go beyond narrative texts likely include informational texts primary sources multimedia process typically involves internet hands-on library research authenticating historical fiction particular readers consider extent major historical events well culture portrayed e.g. language clothing food gender roles believable period historically fingerprints used authoritative method authentication court cases us elsewhere raised fundamental doubts fingerprint reliability outside legal system well fingerprints shown easily spoofable british telecom top computer-security official noting fingerprint readers already tricked one spoof another hybrid two-tiered authentication methods offer compelling solution private keys encrypted fingerprint inside usb device computer data context cryptographic methods developed see digital signature challenge-response authentication currently spoofable originator key compromised originator anyone attacker knows n't know compromise irrelevant known whether cryptographically based authentication methods provably secure since unanticipated mathematical developments may make vulnerable attack future occur may call question much authentication past particular digitally signed contract may questioned new attack cryptography underlying signature discovered process authorization distinct authentication whereas authentication process verifying say authorization process verifying permitted trying mean authorization presupposes authentication anonymous agent could authorized limited action set one familiar use authentication authorization access control computer system supposed used authorized must attempt detect exclude unauthorized access therefore usually controlled insisting authentication procedure establish degree confidence identity user granting privileges established identity 1-hop neighbor's text information: access_control.access control fields physical security information security access control ac selective restriction access place resource act accessing may mean consuming entering using permission access resource called authorization locks login credentials two analogous mechanisms access control geographical access control may enforced personnel e.g. border guard bouncer ticket checker device turnstile may fences avoid circumventing access control alternative access control strict sense physically controlling access system checking authorized presence see e.g ticket controller transportation variant exit control e.g shop checkout country term access control refers practice restricting entrance property building room authorized persons physical access control achieved human guard bouncer receptionist mechanical means locks keys technological means access control systems like mantrap within environments physical key management may also employed means managing monitoring access mechanically keyed areas access certain small assets physical access control matter access control system determines allowed enter exit allowed exit enter allowed enter exit historically partially accomplished keys locks door locked someone key enter door depending lock configured mechanical locks keys allow restriction key holder specific times dates mechanical locks keys provide records key used specific door keys easily copied transferred unauthorized person mechanical key lost key holder longer authorized use protected area locks must re-keyed electronic access control uses computers solve limitations mechanical locks keys wide range credentials used replace mechanical keys electronic access control system grants access based credential presented access granted door unlocked predetermined time transaction recorded access refused door remains locked attempted access recorded system also monitor door alarm door forced open held open long unlocked credential presented reader reader sends credential information usually number control panel highly reliable processor control panel compares credential number access control list grants denies presented request sends transaction log database access denied based access control list door remains locked match credential access control list control panel operates relay turn unlocks door control panel also ignores door open signal prevent alarm often reader provides feedback flashing red led access denied flashing green led access granted description illustrates single factor transaction credentials passed around thus subverting access control list example alice access rights server room bob alice either gives bob credential bob takes access server room prevent two-factor authentication used two factor transaction presented credential second factor needed access granted another factor pin second credential operator intervention biometric input three types factors authenticating information passwords common means verifying user identity access given information systems addition fourth factor authentication recognized someone know whereby another person knows provide human element authentication situations systems set allow scenarios example user may password forgotten smart card scenario user known designated cohorts cohorts may provide smart card password combination extant factor user question thus provide two factors user missing credential giving three factors overall allow access credential physical/tangible object piece knowledge facet person physical enables individual access given physical facility computer-based information system typically credentials something person knows number pin something access badge something biometric feature combination items known multi-factor authentication typical credential access card key-fob newer software also turn users smartphones access devices many card technologies including magnetic stripe bar code wiegand 125 khz proximity 26-bit card-swipe contact smart cards contactless smart cards also available key-fobs compact id cards attach key ring biometric technologies include fingerprint facial recognition iris recognition retinal scan voice hand geometry built-in biometric technologies found newer smartphones also used credentials conjunction access software running mobile devices addition older traditional card access technologies newer technologies near field communication nfc bluetooth low energy also potential communicate user credentials readers system building access access control point door turnstile parking gate elevator physical barriers granting access electronically rely users credentials biometric fingerprints face card readers pin typically access point door electronic advanced access control door contain several elements basic stand-alone electric lock lock unlocked operator switch automate operator intervention replaced reader reader could keypad code entered could card reader could biometric reader readers usually make access decision send card number access control panel verifies number access list monitor door position magnetic door switch used concept door switch unlike refrigerators car doors generally entry controlled exit uncontrolled cases exit also controlled second reader used opposite side door cases exit controlled free exit device called request-to-exit rex used request-to-exit devices push-button motion detector button pushed motion detector detects motion door door alarm temporarily ignored door opened exiting door without electrically unlock door called mechanical free egress important safety feature cases lock must electrically unlocked exit request-to-exit device also unlocks door access control decisions made comparing credential access control list look-up done host server access control panel reader development access control systems seen steady push look-up central host edge system reader predominant topology circa 2009 hub spoke control panel hub readers spokes look-up control functions control panel spokes communicate serial connection usually rs-485 manufactures pushing decision making edge placing controller door controllers ip enabled connect host database using standard networks access control readers may classified functions able perform readers may additional features lcd function buttons data collection purposes i.e clock-in/clock-out events attendance reports camera/speaker/microphone intercom smart card read/write support access control readers may also classified type identification technology 1 serial controllers controllers connected host pc via serial rs-485 communication line via 20ma current loop older systems external rs-232/485 converters internal rs-485 cards installed standard pcs rs-485 communication ports advantages disadvantages 2 serial main sub-controllers door hardware connected sub-controllers a.k.a door controllers door interfaces sub-controllers usually make access decisions instead forward requests main controllers main controllers usually support 16 32 sub-controllers advantages disadvantages 3 serial main controllers intelligent readers door hardware connected directly intelligent semi-intelligent readers readers usually make access decisions forward requests main controller connection main controller unavailable readers use internal database make access decisions record events semi-intelligent reader database function without main controller used areas require high security main controllers usually support 16 64 readers advantages disadvantages ones listed second paragraph 4 serial controllers terminal servers spite rapid development increasing use computer networks access control manufacturers remained conservative rush introduce network-enabled products pressed solutions network connectivity many chose option requiring less efforts addition terminal server device converts serial data transmission via lan wan advantages disadvantages rs-485-related advantages disadvantages also apply 5 network-enabled main controllers topology nearly described second third paragraphs advantages disadvantages apply on-board network interface offers couple valuable improvements transmission configuration user data main controllers faster may done parallel makes system responsive interrupt normal operations special hardware required order achieve redundant host pc setup case primary host pc fails secondary host pc may start polling network controllers disadvantages introduced terminal servers listed fourth paragraph also eliminated 6 ip controllers controllers connected host pc via ethernet lan wan advantages disadvantages 7 ip readers readers connected host pc via ethernet lan wan advantages disadvantages advantages disadvantages ip controllers apply ip readers well common security risk intrusion access control system simply following legitimate user door referred tailgating often legitimate user hold door intruder risk minimized security awareness training user population active means turnstiles high security applications risk minimized using sally port sometimes called security vestibule mantrap operator intervention required presumably assure valid identification second common risk levering door open relatively difficult properly secured doors strikes high holding force magnetic locks fully implemented access control systems include forced door monitoring alarms vary effectiveness usually failing high false positive alarms poor database configuration lack active intrusion monitoring newer access control systems incorporate type door prop alarm inform system administrators door left open longer specified length time third common security risk natural disasters order mitigate risk natural disasters structure building quality network computer equipment vital organizational perspective leadership need adopt implement hazards plan incident response plan highlights incident plan determined national incident management system must include pre-incident planning incident actions disaster recovery action review similar levering crashing cheap partition walls shared tenant spaces divisional wall vulnerability vulnerability along lines breaking sidelights spoofing locking hardware fairly simple elegant levering strong magnet operate solenoid controlling bolts electric locking hardware motor locks prevalent europe us also susceptible attack using doughnut shaped magnet also possible manipulate power lock either removing adding current although access control systems incorporate battery back-up systems locks almost always located secure side door access cards proven vulnerable sophisticated attacks enterprising hackers built portable readers capture card number user proximity card hacker simply walks user reads card presents number reader securing door possible card numbers sent clear encryption used counter dual authentication methods card plus pin always used many access control credentials unique serial numbers programmed sequential order manufacturing known sequential attack intruder credential used system simply increment decrement serial number find credential currently authorized system ordering credentials random unique serial numbers recommended counter threat finally electric locking hardware still mechanical keys fail-over mechanical key locks vulnerable bumping need know principle enforced user access controls authorization procedures objective ensure authorized individuals gain access information systems necessary undertake duties computer security general access control includes authentication authorization audit narrow definition access control would cover access approval whereby system makes decision grant reject access request already authenticated subject based subject authorized access authentication access control often combined single operation access approved based successful authentication based anonymous access token authentication methods tokens include passwords biometric scans physical keys electronic keys devices hidden paths social barriers monitoring humans automated systems access-control model entities perform actions system called subjects entities representing resources access may need controlled called objects see also access control matrix subjects objects considered software entities rather human users human users effect system via software entities control although systems equate subjects user ids processes started user default authority level control fine-grained enough satisfy principle least privilege arguably responsible prevalence malware systems see computer insecurity models example object-capability model software entity potentially act subject object access-control models tend fall one two classes based capabilities based access control lists acls capability-based acl-based models mechanisms allow access rights granted members group subjects often group modeled subject access control systems provide essential services authorization identification authentication access approval accountability access accounts enforced many types controls telecommunication term access control defined u.s. federal standard 1037c following meanings definition depends several technical terms federal standard 1037c object-oriented programming languages access control part apparatus achieving encapsulation one four fundamentals object-oriented programming goal establish clear separation interface visible accessible parts class implementation internal representation helper methods also known data hiding ensures exclusive data access class members variables methods protects object integrity preventing corruption client programmer/ client classes rule thumb use restrictive access level data unless compelling reason expose also helps reduce interdependencies classes leading lower coupling fewer regression bugs object-oriented programming access control typically implemented using access modifiers object class although access modifiers may syntactically different languages attempt achieve goal define variables methods visible several programming languages e.g java c++ c ruby use public protected private access modifiers keywords allow programmer establish access levels classes class members data methods exact use programming language varied depending language philosophy similarities differences note ruby private methods always self implicit receiver therefore used current object languages mechanisms override access modifies gain access private components object one example friend class c++ special public member methods accessors aka getters mutator methods often called setters used control changes class variables order prevent unauthorized access data corruption public policy access control restrict access systems authorization track monitor behavior within systems accountability implementation feature using trusted systems security social control 1-hop neighbor's text information: superuser.superuser computing superuser special user account used system administration depending operating system os actual name account might root administrator admin supervisor cases actual name account determining factor unix-like systems example user user identifier uid zero superuser regardless name account systems implement role based security model user role superuser synonyms carry actions superuser account principle least privilege recommends users applications run ordinary account perform work superuser account capable making unrestricted potentially adverse system-wide changes unix-like computer oses linux root conventional name user rights permissions files programs modes single- multi-user alternative names include baron beos avatar unix variants bsd often provides toor root written backward account addition root account regardless name superuser always user id 0 root user many things ordinary user changing ownership files binding network ports numbered 1024 name root may originated root user account permission modify root directory unix system directory originally considered root home directory unix filesystem hierarchy standard recommends root home /root first process bootstrapped unix-like system usually called init runs root privileges spawns processes directly indirectly inherit parents privileges process running root allowed change user id another user done way back sometimes called dropping root privileges often done security measure limit damage possible contamination process another case login programs ask users credentials case successful authentication allow run programs privileges accounts often recommended no-one use root normal user account since simple typographical errors entering commands cause major damage system instead normal user account used either su substitute user sudo substitute user command used su approach requires user know root password sudo method requires user set power run root within /etc/sudoers file typically indirectly made member wheel adm admin sudo group number reasons sudo approach generally preferred – example leaves audit trail used command administrative operations performed oses macos linux distributions notably ubuntu automatically give initial user created ability run root via sudo – configure ask password administrative actions cases actual root account disabled default ca n't directly used mobile platform-oriented oss apple ios android superuser access inaccessible design generally security system exploited order obtain systems plan 9 superuser windows nt later systems derived windows 2000 windows xp windows server 2003 windows vista/7/8/10 must least one administrator account windows xp earlier one able elevate privileges superuser windows vista/7/8/10 via user account control windows xp earlier systems built-in administrator account remains hidden user administrator-equivalent account exists built-in administrator account created blank password poses security risks local users would able access computer via built-in administrator account password left blank account disabled default windows vista later systems due introduction user account control uac remote users unable access built-in administrator account windows administrator account exact analogue unix root account – administrator built-in administrator account user administrator account level privileges default user account created windows systems administrator account unlike macos linux windows vista/7/8/10 administrator accounts administrator accounts windows systems without uac insulate system pitfalls full root access one pitfalls includes decreased resilience malware infections avoid maintain optimal system security pre-uac windows systems recommended simply authenticate necessary standard user account either via password set built-in administrator account another administrator account windows vista/7/8/10 administrator accounts prompt appear authenticate running process elevated privileges usually user credentials required authenticate uac prompt administrator accounts authenticating uac prompt requires entering username password administrator standard user accounts windows xp earlier systems administrator accounts authentication required run process elevated privileges poses another security risk led development uac users set process run elevated privileges standard accounts setting process run administrator using runas command authenticating prompt credentials username password administrator account much benefit authenticating standard account negated administrator account credentials used blank password built-in administrator account windows xp earlier systems hence recommended set password built-in administrator account windows nt 2000 higher root user administrator account novell netware superuser called supervisor later admin openvms system superuser account os many older oses computers intended personal home use anyone using system full privileges many systems dos concept multiple accounts although others windows 95 allow multiple accounts could preferences profile – users still full administrative control machine Target text information: logical_security.logical security logical security consists software safeguards organization ’ systems including user identification password access authenticating access rights authority levels measures ensure authorized users able perform actions access information network workstation subset computer security elements logical security token authentication comprises small devices authorized users computer systems networks carry assist identifying logging computer network system actually authorized also store cryptographic keys biometric data popular type security token rsa securid displays number changes every minute users authenticated entering personal identification number number token token contains time day clock unique seed value number displayed cryptographic hash seed value time day computer accessed also contains algorithm able match number matching user ’ seed time day clock error taken account values minutes sometimes accepted another similar type token cryptogram produce value time button pressed security tokens connect directly computer usb smart card bluetooth ports special purpose interfaces cell phones pda also used security tokens proper programming password authentication uses secret data control access particular resource usually user attempting access network computer computer program queried whether know password granted denied access accordingly passwords either created user assigned similar usernames however assigned password user usually given option change password something his/her choice depending restrictions system network user may change his/her password alphanumeric sequence usually limitations password creation include length restrictions requirement number uppercase letter special character able use past four five changed passwords associated username addition system may force user change his/her password given amount time two-way authentication involves user system network convincing know shared password without transmitting password communication channel done using password encryption key transmit randomly generated piece information “ challenge. ” side must return similarly encrypted value predetermined function originally offered information his/her “ response ” proves he/she able decrypt challenge kerberos computer network authentication protocol good example sends encrypted integer n response must encrypted integer n 1 access rights authority levels rights power granted users create change delete view data files within system network rights vary user user range anonymous login guest privileges superuser root privileges guest superuser accounts two extremes individual access rights denied granted user usually system administrator a.k.a superuser ability grant deny rights guest accounts anonymous logins set multiple users log account time without password users sometimes asked type username account limited access often allowed access special public files usually anonymous accounts read access rights security purposes superuser authority level assigned system administrators computer operating systems unix related operating systems level also called root access rights system including changing ownership files pre-windows xp nt systems dos windows 9x users effectively superusers users access rights windows nt related systems windows 2000 xp superuser known administrator account however administrator account may may exist depending whether separation I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	1,511	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: susan_kare.susan kare susan kare born february 5 1954 artist graphic designer created many interface elements typefaces apple macintosh 1980s also creative director one original employees next company formed steve jobs left apple 1985 worked microsoft ibm pinterest facebook kare born ithaca new york sister aerospace engineer jordin kare.in high school worked museum designer harry loucks introduced typography graphic design graduated harriton high school 1971 graduated summa cum laude b.a art mount holyoke college 1975 received ph.d. new york university 1978 next moved san francisco worked fine arts museums kare joined apple computer receiving call high school friend andy hertzfeld early 1980s member original apple macintosh design team worked apple starting 1982 badge 3978 kare originally hired macintosh software group design user interface graphics fonts business cards read hi macintosh artist later creative director apple creative services working director organization tom suiter designer many typefaces icons original marketing material original macintosh operating system descendants groundbreaking work still seen many computer graphics tools accessories especially icons lasso grabber paint bucket designs created first visual language apple new point-and-click computing presentation layers design conference san francisco revealed command icon apple keyboards originally symbol used denote notable interesting features swedish campgrounds kare early pioneer pixel art recognizable works time apple chicago typeface prominent user-interface typeface seen classic mac os interfaces system 1 1984 mac os 9 1999 well typeface used first four generations apple ipod interface geneva typeface original monospace monaco typeface clarus dogcow happy mac icon smiling computer welcomed mac users starting machines command key symbol apple keyboards icons drew many sources art history wacky gadgets forgotten hieroglyphics mac concept command symbol taken saint hannes cross symbol place interest leaving apple kare joined next designer working clients microsoft ibm projects microsoft included card deck windows 3.0 solitaire game well numerous icons design elements windows 3.0 many icons notepad various control panels remained essentially unchanged microsoft windows xp ibm produced icons design elements os/2 eazel contributed iconography nautilus file manager 2003 became member advisory board glam media mode media 2006 2010 produced icons gifts feature facebook initially profits gift sales donated susan g. komen cure foundation valentine day 2007 gift selection modified include new limited edition gifts necessarily pertain valentine day one gift icons titled big kiss also featured versions mac os x user account picture 2007 designed identity icons website chumby industries inc. well interface internet-enabled alarm clock since 2008 museum modern art store new york city carried stationery notebooks featuring designs 2015 moma also acquired notebooks sketches led early mac icons august 2012 called expert witness apple company patent-infringement trial industry competitor samsung see apple inc. v. samsung electronics co. 2015 kare hired pinterest product design lead heads digital design practice san francisco sells limited-edition signed fine-art prints currently uses adobe photoshop adobe illustrator make designs logos recognition design work kare awarded american institute graphic arts medal april 2018 married three sons 1-hop neighbor's text information: nextdimension.nextdimension nextdimension nd accelerated 32-bit colour board manufactured sold next 1991 gave nextcube colour capabilities postscript planned nextbus nubus like implementation card full size card nextcube filling one four slots another one filled main board nextdimension featured s-video input output rgb output intel i860 64-bit risc processor 33 mhz postscript acceleration 256mb ram main memory 4mb vram resolution 1120*832 24-bit colour plus 8-bit alpha channel onboard c-cube cl550 chip mjpeg video compression announced never shipped handful engineering prototypes mjpeg daughterboard exist none actually function stripped mach kernel used operating system card due supporting processor 32-bit colour nextdimension faster 2-bit greyscale display postscript nextcube display postscript never actually ran board intel i860 never much move blocks colour data around motorola 68040 crunching board fast time never lived hype since main board always included greyscale video logic nextdimension allowed simultaneous use additional monitor list price nextdimension sold add-on nextcube us 3,995 1-hop neighbor's text information: interface_builder.interface builder interface builder software development application apple macos operating system part xcode formerly project builder apple developer developer toolset interface builder allows cocoa carbon developers create interfaces applications using graphical user interface resulting interface stored .nib file short next interface builder recently .xib file interface builder descended nextstep development software name version interface builder also used development openstep software similar tool called gorm exists gnustep march 27 2008 specialized iphone version interface builder allowing interface construction iphone applications released iphone sdk beta 2 interface builder intentionally developed separate application allow interaction designers design interfaces without use code-oriented ide xcode 4 apple integrated functionality directly xcode interface builder first made appearance 1986 written lisp experlisp product expertelligence invented developed jean-marie hullot using object-oriented features experlisp deeply integrated macintosh toolbox denison bollay took jean-marie hullot next later year demonstrate steve jobs jobs immediately recognized value started incorporating nextstep 1988 part nextstep 0.8 first commercial application allowed interface objects buttons menus windows placed interface using mouse one notable early use interface builder development first worldwideweb web browser tim berners-lee cern made using next workstation interface builder provides palettes collections user interface objects objective-c swift developer user interface objects contain items like text fields data tables sliders pop-up menus interface builder palettes completely extensible meaning developer develop new objects add palettes interface builder build interface developer simply drags interface objects palette onto window menu actions messages objects emit connected targets application code outlets pointers declared application code connected specific objects way initialization done runtime improving performance streamlining development process interface builder standalone application interface designers could ship nib files developers would drop projects interface builder saves application interface bundle contains interface objects relationships used application objects archived process also known serialization marshalling contexts either xml file next-style property list file .nib extension upon running application proper nib objects unarchived connected binary owning application awakened unlike almost gui designer systems generate code construct ui notable exceptions glade embarcadero technologies delphi c++builder stream ui objects similarly nibs often referred freeze dried contain archived objects ready run interface builder version 3 new file format extension .xib added functionally identical .nib except stored flat file making suitable storage revision control systems processing tools diff Target text information: next_megapixel_display.next megapixel display next megapixel display range crt-based computer monitors manufactured sold next nextcube nextstation workstations designed hartmut esslinger/frog design inc original megapixel display monochrome 17 monitor displaying 4 brightness levels black dark gray light gray white fixed resolution 1120 x 832 92 dpi shy true megapixel 931,840 total pixels 68 hz integrated mono microphone mono speaker stereo rca sockets 3.5mm headphone socket socket keyboard turn provided socket mouse unique feature monitor connected computer single 6 foot cable provided power video signals aforementioned signals severe problem setup monitor could switched completely computer powered screen could switched black cathode heater always remained led extreme screen dimming years use especially computer turned overnight server setup busy software lab problem later rectified ultra rare 4000a model rated 10,000 hours ~14 months display stand allows tilted stand also features two rollers used move monitor back forth despite heavy weight stand also provides place keyboard use freeing real desktop front nextstation color nextdimension board released next sold rebranded color monitors megapixel color display either 17 21 connections provided separate box next soundbox next user reference I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	11,420	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: search/retrieve_web_service.search/retrieve web service search/retrieve web service srw web service search retrieval srw provides soap interface queries augment url interface provided companion protocol search/retrieve via url sru queries sru srw expressed using contextual query language cql standards srw sru cql promulgated united states library congress 1-hop neighbor's text information: search_engine_optimization.search engine optimization search engine optimization seo process increasing quality quantity website traffic increasing visibility website web page users web search engine seo refers improvement unpaid results known natural organic results excludes direct traffic/visitors purchase paid placement primarily seo pertains search engine seo may target different kinds search including image search video search academic search news search industry-specific vertical search engines optimizing website may involve editing content adding content modifying html associated coding increase relevance specific keywords remove barriers indexing activities search engines promoting site increase number backlinks inbound links another seo tactic may 2015 mobile search surpassed desktop search internet marketing strategy seo considers search engines work computer programmed algorithms dictate search engine behavior people search actual search terms keywords typed search engines search engines preferred targeted audience seo performed website receive visitors search engine higher website ranks search engine results page serp visitors converted customers seo differs local search engine optimization latter focused optimizing business online presence web pages displayed search engines user enters local search products services former instead focused national international searches webmasters content providers began optimizing websites search engines mid-1990s first search engines cataloging early web initially webmasters needed submit address page url various engines would send spider crawl page extract links pages return information found page indexed process involves search engine spider downloading page storing search engine server second program known indexer extracts information page words contains located weight specific words well links page contains information placed scheduler crawling later date website owners recognized value high ranking visibility search engine results creating opportunity white hat black hat seo practitioners according industry analyst danny sullivan phrase search engine optimization probably came use 1997 sullivan credits bruce clay one first people popularize term may 2 2007 jason gambert attempted trademark term seo convincing trademark office arizona seo process involving manipulation keywords marketing service early versions search algorithms relied webmaster-provided information keyword meta tag index files engines like aliweb meta tags provide guide page content using metadata index pages found less reliable however webmaster choice keywords meta tag could potentially inaccurate representation site actual content inaccurate incomplete inconsistent data meta tags could cause pages rank irrelevant searches web content providers also manipulated attributes within html source page attempt rank well search engines 1997 search engine designers recognized webmasters making efforts rank well search engine webmasters even manipulating rankings search results stuffing pages excessive irrelevant keywords early search engines altavista infoseek adjusted algorithms prevent webmasters manipulating rankings relying much factors keyword density exclusively within webmaster control early search engines suffered abuse ranking manipulation provide better results users search engines adapt ensure results pages showed relevant search results rather unrelated pages stuffed numerous keywords unscrupulous webmasters meant moving away heavy reliance term density holistic process scoring semantic signals since success popularity search engine determined ability produce relevant results given search poor quality irrelevant search results could lead users find search sources search engines responded developing complex ranking algorithms taking account additional factors difficult webmasters manipulate 2005 annual conference airweb adversarial information retrieval web created bring together practitioners researchers concerned search engine optimization related topics companies employ overly aggressive techniques get client websites banned search results 2005 wall street journal reported company traffic power allegedly used high-risk techniques failed disclose risks clients wired magazine reported company sued blogger seo aaron wall writing ban google matt cutts later confirmed google fact ban traffic power clients search engines also reached seo industry frequent sponsors guests seo conferences webchats seminars major search engines provide information guidelines help website optimization google sitemaps program help webmasters learn google problems indexing website also provides data google traffic website bing webmaster tools provides way webmasters submit sitemap web feeds allows users determine crawl rate track web pages index status 2015 reported google developing promoting mobile search key feature within future products response many brands began take different approach internet marketing strategies 1998 two graduate students stanford university larry page sergey brin developed backrub search engine relied mathematical algorithm rate prominence web pages number calculated algorithm pagerank function quantity strength inbound links pagerank estimates likelihood given page reached web user randomly surfs web follows links one page another effect means links stronger others higher pagerank page likely reached random web surfer page brin founded google 1998 google attracted loyal following among growing number internet users liked simple design off-page factors pagerank hyperlink analysis considered well on-page factors keyword frequency meta tags headings links site structure enable google avoid kind manipulation seen search engines considered on-page factors rankings although pagerank difficult game webmasters already developed link building tools schemes influence inktomi search engine methods proved similarly applicable gaming pagerank many sites focused exchanging buying selling links often massive scale schemes link farms involved creation thousands sites sole purpose link spamming 2004 search engines incorporated wide range undisclosed factors ranking algorithms reduce impact link manipulation june 2007 new york times saul hansell stated google ranks sites using 200 different signals leading search engines google bing yahoo disclose algorithms use rank pages seo practitioners studied different approaches search engine optimization shared personal opinions patents related search engines provide information better understand search engines 2005 google began personalizing search results user depending history previous searches google crafted results logged users 2007 google announced campaign paid links transfer pagerank june 15 2009 google disclosed taken measures mitigate effects pagerank sculpting use nofollow attribute links matt cutts well-known software engineer google announced google bot would longer treat nofollow links way prevent seo service providers using nofollow pagerank sculpting result change usage nofollow led evaporation pagerank order avoid seo engineers developed alternative techniques replace nofollowed tags obfuscated javascript thus permit pagerank sculpting additionally several solutions suggested include usage iframes flash javascript december 2009 google announced would using web search history users order populate search results june 8 2010 new web indexing system called google caffeine announced designed allow users find news results forum posts content much sooner publishing google caffeine change way google updated index order make things show quicker google according carrie grimes software engineer announced caffeine google caffeine provides 50 percent fresher results web searches last index ... google instant real-time-search introduced late 2010 attempt make search results timely relevant historically site administrators spent months even years optimizing website increase search rankings growth popularity social media sites blogs leading engines made changes algorithms allow fresh content rank quickly within search results february 2011 google announced panda update penalizes websites containing content duplicated websites sources historically websites copied content one another benefited search engine rankings engaging practice however google implemented new system punishes sites whose content unique 2012 google penguin attempted penalize websites used manipulative techniques improve rankings search engine although google penguin presented algorithm aimed fighting web spam really focuses spammy links gauging quality sites links coming 2013 google hummingbird update featured algorithm change designed improve google natural language processing semantic understanding web pages hummingbird language processing system falls newly recognized term 'conversational search system pays attention word query order better match pages meaning query rather words regards changes made search engine optimization content publishers writers hummingbird intended resolve issues getting rid irrelevant content spam allowing google produce high-quality content rely 'trusted authors leading search engines google bing yahoo use crawlers find pages algorithmic search results pages linked search engine indexed pages need submitted found automatically yahoo directory dmoz two major directories closed 2014 2017 respectively required manual submission human editorial review google offers google search console xml sitemap feed created submitted free ensure pages found especially pages discoverable automatically following links addition url submission console yahoo formerly operated paid submission service guaranteed crawling cost per click however practice discontinued 2009 search engine crawlers may look number different factors crawling site every page indexed search engines distance pages root directory site may also factor whether pages get crawled today people searching google using mobile device november 2016 google announced major change way crawling websites started make index mobile-first means mobile version website becomes starting point google includes index avoid undesirable content search indexes webmasters instruct spiders crawl certain files directories standard robots.txt file root directory domain additionally page explicitly excluded search engine database using meta tag specific robots usually meta name= robots content= noindex search engine visits site robots.txt located root directory first file crawled robots.txt file parsed instruct robot pages crawled search engine crawler may keep cached copy file may occasion crawl pages webmaster wish crawled pages typically prevented crawled include login specific pages shopping carts user-specific content search results internal searches march 2007 google warned webmasters prevent indexing internal search results pages considered search spam variety methods increase prominence webpage within search results cross linking pages website provide links important pages may improve visibility writing content includes frequently searched keyword phrase relevant wide variety search queries tend increase traffic updating content keep search engines crawling back frequently give additional weight site adding relevant keywords web page metadata including title tag meta description tend improve relevancy site search listings thus increasing traffic url canonicalization web pages accessible via multiple urls using canonical link element via 301 redirects help make sure links different versions url count towards page link popularity score seo techniques classified two broad categories techniques search engine companies recommend part good design white hat techniques search engines approve black hat search engines attempt minimize effect latter among spamdexing industry commentators classified methods practitioners employ either white hat seo black hat seo white hats tend produce results last long time whereas black hats anticipate sites may eventually banned either temporarily permanently search engines discover seo technique considered white hat conforms search engines guidelines involves deception search engine guidelines written series rules commandments important distinction note white hat seo following guidelines ensuring content search engine indexes subsequently ranks content user see white hat advice generally summed creating content users search engines making content easily accessible online spider algorithms rather attempting trick algorithm intended purpose white hat seo many ways similar web development promotes accessibility although two identical black hat seo attempts improve rankings ways disapproved search engines involve deception one black hat technique uses hidden text either text colored similar background invisible div positioned screen another method gives different page depending whether page requested human visitor search engine technique known cloaking another category sometimes used grey hat seo black hat white hat approaches methods employed avoid site penalized act producing best content users grey hat seo entirely focused improving search engine rankings search engines may penalize sites discover using black hat methods either reducing rankings eliminating listings databases altogether penalties applied either automatically search engines algorithms manual site review one example february 2006 google removal bmw germany ricoh germany use deceptive practices companies however quickly apologized fixed offending pages restored google search engine results page seo appropriate strategy every website internet marketing strategies effective paid advertising pay per click ppc campaigns depending site operator goals search engine marketing sem practice designing running optimizing search engine ad campaigns difference seo simply depicted difference paid unpaid priority ranking search results purpose regards prominence relevance website developers regard sem utmost importance consideration visibility navigate primary listings search successful internet marketing campaign may also depend upon building high quality web pages engage persuade setting analytics programs enable site owners measure results improving site conversion rate november 2015 google released full 160 page version search quality rating guidelines public revealed shift focus towards usefulness mobile search recent years mobile market exploded overtaking use desktops shown statcounter october 2016 analyzed 2.5 million websites found 51.3 pages loaded mobile device google one companies utilizing popularity mobile usage encouraging websites use google search console mobile-friendly test allows companies measure website search engine results user-friendly seo may generate adequate return investment however search engines paid organic search traffic algorithms change guarantees continued referrals due lack guarantees certainty business relies heavily search engine traffic suffer major losses search engines stop sending visitors search engines change algorithms impacting website placement possibly resulting serious loss traffic according google ceo eric schmidt 2010 google made 500 algorithm changes – almost 1.5 per day considered wise business practice website operators liberate dependence search engine traffic addition accessibility terms web crawlers addressed user web accessibility become increasingly important seo optimization techniques highly tuned dominant search engines target market search engines market shares vary market market competition 2003 danny sullivan stated google represented 75 searches markets outside united states google share often larger google remains dominant search engine worldwide 2007 2006 google 85–90 market share germany hundreds seo firms us time five germany june 2008 market share google uk close 90 according hitwise market share achieved number countries 2009 large markets google leading search engine cases google leading given market lagging behind local player notable example markets china japan south korea russia czech republic respectively baidu yahoo japan naver yandex seznam market leaders successful search optimization international markets may require professional translation web pages registration domain name top level domain target market web hosting provides local ip address otherwise fundamental elements search optimization essentially regardless language october 17 2002 searchking filed suit united states district court western district oklahoma search engine google searchking claim google tactics prevent spamdexing constituted tortious interference contractual relations may 27 2003 court granted google motion dismiss complaint searchking failed state claim upon relief may granted march 2006 kinderstart filed lawsuit google search engine rankings kinderstart website removed google index prior lawsuit amount traffic site dropped 70 march 16 2007 united states district court northern district california san jose division dismissed kinderstart complaint without leave amend partially granted google motion rule 11 sanctions kinderstart attorney requiring pay part google legal expenses 1-hop neighbor's text information: world_wide_web.world wide web world wide web www commonly known web information system documents web resources identified uniform resource locators urls nowiki https //www.example.com/ /nowiki may interlinked hypertext accessible internet resources www may accessed users software application called web browser english scientist tim berners-lee invented world wide web 1989 wrote first web browser 1990 employed cern near geneva switzerland browser released outside cern 1991 first research institutions starting january 1991 general public august 1991 world wide web central development information age primary tool billions people use interact internet web resources may type downloaded media web pages hypertext media formatted hypertext markup language html formatting allows embedded hyperlinks contain urls permit users navigate web resources addition text web pages may contain images video audio software components rendered user web browser coherent pages multimedia content multiple web resources common theme common domain name make website websites stored computers running program called web server responds requests made internet web browsers running user computer website content largely provided publisher interactively users contribute content content depends upon users actions websites may provided myriad informative entertainment commercial governmental non-governmental reasons tim berners-lee vision global hyperlinked information system became possibility second half 1980s 1985 global internet began proliferate europe domain name system upon uniform resource locator built came 1988 first direct ip connection europe north america made berners-lee began openly discuss possibility web-like system cern working cern berners-lee became frustrated inefficiencies difficulties posed finding information stored different computers march 12 1989 submitted memorandum titled information management proposal management cern system called mesh referenced enquire database software project built 1980 used term web described elaborate information management system based links embedded text imagine references document associated network address thing referred reading document could skip click mouse system explained could referred using one existing meanings word hypertext term says coined 1950s reason proposal continues hypertext links could encompass multimedia documents including graphics speech video berners-lee goes use term hypermedia help colleague fellow hypertext enthusiast robert cailliau published formal proposal 12 november 1990 build hypertext project called worldwideweb one word web hypertext documents viewed browsers using client–server architecture point html http already development two months first web server month completing first successful test proposal estimated read-only web would developed within three months would take six months achieve creation new links new material readers authorship becomes universal well automatic notification reader new material interest him/her become available read-only goal met accessible authorship web content took longer mature wiki concept webdav blogs web 2.0 rss/atom proposal modelled sgml reader dynatext electronic book technology spin-off institute research information scholarship brown university dynatext system licensed cern key player extension sgml iso 8879:1986 hypermedia within hytime considered expensive inappropriate licensing policy use general high energy physics community namely fee document document alteration next computer used berners-lee world first web server also write first web browser worldwideweb 1990 christmas 1990 berners-lee built tools necessary working web first web browser web editor well first web server first web site described project published 20 december 1990 first web page may lost paul jones unc-chapel hill north carolina announced may 2013 berners-lee gave says oldest known web page 1991 visit unc jones stored magneto-optical drive next computer 6 august 1991 berners-lee published short summary world wide web project newsgroup alt.hypertext date sometimes confused public availability first web servers occurred months earlier another example confusion several news media reported first photo web published berners-lee 1992 image cern house band les horribles cernettes taken silvano de gennaro gennaro disclaimed story writing media totally distorting words sake cheap sensationalism first server outside europe installed stanford linear accelerator center slac palo alto california host spires-hep database accounts differ substantially date event world wide web consortium timeline says december 1992 whereas slac claims december 1991 w3c document titled little history world wide web underlying concept hypertext originated previous projects 1960s hypertext editing system hes brown university ted nelson project xanadu douglas engelbart on-line system nls nelson engelbart turn inspired vannevar bush microfilm-based memex described 1945 essay may think berners-lee breakthrough marry hypertext internet book explains repeatedly suggested marriage two technologies possible members technical communities one took invitation finally assumed project process developed three essential technologies world wide web several differences hypertext systems available time web required unidirectional links rather bidirectional ones making possible someone link another resource without action owner resource also significantly reduced difficulty implementing web servers browsers comparison earlier systems turn presented chronic problem link rot unlike predecessors hypercard world wide web non-proprietary making possible develop servers clients independently add extensions without licensing restrictions 30 april 1993 cern announced world wide web would free anyone fees due coming two months announcement server implementation gopher protocol longer free use produced rapid shift away gopher towards web early popular web browser violawww unix x window system scholars generally agree turning point world wide web began introduction mosaic web browser 1993 graphical browser developed team national center supercomputing applications university illinois urbana–champaign ncsa-uiuc led marc andreessen funding mosaic came us high-performance computing communications initiative high performance computing act 1991 one several computing developments initiated us senator al gore prior release mosaic graphics commonly mixed text web pages web popularity less older protocols use internet gopher wide area information servers wais mosaic graphical user interface allowed web become far popular internet protocol world wide web consortium w3c founded tim berners-lee left european organization nuclear research cern october 1994 founded massachusetts institute technology laboratory computer science mit/lcs support defense advanced research projects agency darpa pioneered internet year later second site founded inria french national computer research lab support european commission dg infso 1996 third continental site created japan keio university end 1994 total number websites still relatively small many notable websites already active foreshadowed inspired today popular services connected internet websites created around world motivated international standards development protocols formatting berners-lee continued stay involved guiding development web standards markup languages compose web pages advocated vision semantic web world wide web enabled spread information internet easy-to-use flexible format thus played important role popularising use internet although two terms sometimes conflated popular use world wide web synonymous internet web information space containing hyperlinked documents resources identified uris implemented client server software using internet protocols tcp/ip http berners-lee knighted 2004 queen elizabeth ii services global development internet never patented invention terms internet world wide web often used without much distinction however two terms mean thing internet global system interconnected computer networks contrast world wide web global collection documents resources linked hyperlinks uris web resources accessed using http https application-level internet protocols use internet transport protocols viewing web page world wide web normally begins either typing url page web browser following hyperlink page resource web browser initiates series background communication messages fetch display requested page 1990s using browser view web pages—and move one web page another hyperlinks—came known 'browsing 'web surfing channel surfing 'navigating web early studies new behaviour investigated user patterns using web browsers one study example found five user patterns exploratory surfing window surfing evolved surfing bounded navigation targeted navigation following example demonstrates functioning web browser accessing page url codice_1 browser resolves server name url codice_2 internet protocol address using globally distributed domain name system dns lookup returns ip address 203.0.113.4 2001 db8:2e :7334 browser requests resource sending http request across internet computer address requests service specific tcp port number well known http service receiving host distinguish http request network protocols may servicing http protocol normally uses port number 80 https protocol normally port number 443 content http request simple two lines text computer receiving http request delivers web server software listening requests port 80 web server fulfil request sends http response back browser indicating success followed content requested page hypertext markup language html basic web page might look like web browser parses html interprets markup paragraph surrounds words format text screen many web pages use html reference urls resources images embedded media scripts affect page behaviour cascading style sheets affect page layout browser makes additional http requests web server internet media types receives content web server browser progressively renders page onto screen specified html additional resources hypertext markup language html standard markup language creating web pages web applications cascading style sheets css javascript forms triad cornerstone technologies world wide web web browsers receive html documents web server local storage render documents multimedia web pages html describes structure web page semantically originally included cues appearance document html elements building blocks html pages html constructs images objects interactive forms may embedded rendered page html provides means create structured documents denoting structural semantics text headings paragraphs lists links quotes items html elements delineated tags written using angle brackets tags directly introduce content page tags surround provide information document text may include tags sub-elements browsers display html tags use interpret content page html embed programs written scripting language javascript affects behavior content web pages inclusion css defines look layout content world wide web consortium w3c maintainer html css standards encouraged use css explicit presentational html web pages contain hyperlinks related pages perhaps downloadable files source documents definitions web resources underlying html hyperlink looks like collection useful related resources interconnected via hypertext links dubbed web information publication internet created tim berners-lee first called worldwideweb original camelcase subsequently discarded november 1990 hyperlink structure www described webgraph nodes web graph correspond web pages urls directed edges hyperlinks time many web resources pointed hyperlinks disappear relocate replaced different content makes hyperlinks obsolete phenomenon referred circles link rot hyperlinks affected often called dead links ephemeral nature web prompted many efforts archive web sites internet archive active since 1996 best known efforts many hostnames used world wide web begin www long-standing practice naming internet hosts according services provide hostname web server often www way may ftp ftp server news nntp usenet news server host names appear domain name system dns subdomain names www.example.com use www required technical policy standard many web sites use first web server nxoc01.cern.ch according paolo palazzi worked cern along tim berners-lee popular use www subdomain accidental world wide web project page intended published www.cern.ch info.cern.ch intended cern home page however dns records never switched practice prepending www institution website domain name subsequently copied many established websites still use prefix employ subdomain names www2 secure en special purposes many web servers set main domain name e.g. example.com www subdomain e.g. www.example.com refer site others require one form may map different web sites use subdomain name useful load balancing incoming web traffic creating cname record points cluster web servers since currently subdomain used cname result achieved using bare domain root user submits incomplete domain name web browser address bar input field web browsers automatically try adding prefix www beginning possibly .com .org .net end depending might missing example entering may transformed nowiki http //www.microsoft.com/ /nowiki 'openoffice nowiki http //www.openoffice.org /nowiki feature started appearing early versions firefox still working title 'firebird early 2003 earlier practice browsers lynx reported microsoft granted us patent idea 2008 mobile devices english www usually read double-u double-u double-u users pronounce dub-dub-dub particularly new zealand stephen fry podgrams series podcasts pronounces wuh wuh wuh english writer douglas adams quipped independent sunday 1999 world wide web thing know whose shortened form takes three times longer say short mandarin chinese world wide web commonly translated via phono-semantic matching wàn wéi wǎng satisfies www literally means myriad dimensional net translation reflects design concept proliferation world wide web tim berners-lee web-space states world wide web officially spelled three separate words capitalised intervening hyphens use www prefix declining especially web 2.0 web applications sought brand domain names make easily pronounceable mobile web grew popularity services like gmail.com outlook.com myspace.com facebook.com twitter.com often mentioned without adding www indeed .com domain scheme specifiers codice_3 codice_4 start web uri refer hypertext transfer protocol http secure respectively specify communication protocol use request response http protocol fundamental operation world wide web added encryption layer https essential browsers send retrieve confidential data passwords banking information web browsers usually automatically prepend nowiki http // /nowiki user-entered uris omitted web page also written webpage document suitable world wide web web browsers web browser displays web page monitor mobile device term web page usually refers visible may also refer contents computer file usually text file containing hypertext written html comparable markup language typical web pages provide hypertext browsing web pages via hyperlinks often referred links web browsers frequently access multiple web resource elements reading style sheets scripts images presenting web page network web browser retrieve web page remote web server web server may restrict access private network corporate intranet web browser uses hypertext transfer protocol http make requests web server static web page delivered exactly stored web content web server file system contrast dynamic web page generated web application usually driven server-side software dynamic web pages help browser client enhance web page user input server static web page sometimes called flat page/stationary page web page delivered user exactly stored contrast dynamic web pages generated web application consequently static web page displays information users contexts subject modern capabilities web server negotiate content-type language document versions available server configured server-side dynamic web page web page whose construction controlled application server processing server-side scripts server-side scripting parameters determine assembly every new web page proceeds including setting client-side processing client-side dynamic web page processes web page using html scripting running browser loads javascript scripting languages determine way html received page parsed document object model dom represents loaded web page client-side techniques dynamically update change dom way dynamic web page reloaded user computer program change variable content updating information could come server changes made page dom may may truncate browsing history create saved version go back dynamic web page update using ajax technologies neither create page go back truncate web browsing history forward displayed page using ajax technologies end user gets one dynamic page managed single page web browser actual web content rendered page vary ajax engine sits browser requesting parts dom dom client application server dhtml umbrella term technologies methods used create web pages static web pages though fallen common use since popularization ajax term rarely used client-side-scripting server-side scripting combination make dynamic web experience browser javascript scripting language initially developed 1995 brendan eich netscape use within web pages standardised version ecmascript make web pages interactive web applications also use javascript techniques ajax asynchronous javascript xml client-side script delivered page make additional http requests server either response user actions mouse movements clicks based elapsed time server responses used modify current page rather creating new page response server needs provide limited incremental information multiple ajax requests handled time users interact page data retrieved web pages may also regularly poll server check whether new information available website collection related web resources including web pages multimedia content typically identified common domain name published least one web server notable examples wikipedia.org google.com amazon.com website may accessible via public internet protocol ip network internet private local area network lan referencing uniform resource locator url identifies site websites many functions used various fashions website personal website corporate website company government website organization website etc websites typically dedicated particular topic purpose ranging entertainment social networking providing news education publicly accessible websites collectively constitute world wide web private websites company website employees typically part intranet web pages building blocks websites documents typically composed plain text interspersed formatting instructions hypertext markup language html xhtml may incorporate elements websites suitable markup anchors web pages accessed transported hypertext transfer protocol http may optionally employ encryption http secure https provide security privacy user user application often web browser renders page content according html markup instructions onto display terminal hyperlinking web pages conveys reader site structure guides navigation site often starts home page containing directory site web content websites require user registration subscription access content examples subscription websites include many business sites news websites academic journal websites gaming websites file-sharing websites message boards web-based email social networking websites websites providing real-time stock market data well sites providing various services end users access websites range devices including desktop laptop computers tablet computers smartphones smart tvs web browser commonly referred browser software user agent accessing information world wide web connect website server display pages user needs web browser program program user runs download format display web page user computer addition allowing users find displaying moving web pages web browser usually features like keeping bookmarks recording history managing cookies see home pages may facilities recording passwords logging web sites popular browsers chrome firefox safari internet explorer edge web server server software hardware dedicated running said software satisfy world wide web client requests web server general contain one websites web server processes incoming network requests http several related protocols primary function web server store process deliver web pages clients communication client server takes place using hypertext transfer protocol http pages delivered frequently html documents may include images style sheets scripts addition text content user agent commonly web browser web crawler initiates communication making request specific resource using http server responds content resource error message unable resource typically real file server secondary storage necessarily case depends web server implemented primary function serve content full implementation http also includes ways receiving content clients feature used submitting web forms including uploading files many generic web servers also support server-side scripting using active server pages asp php hypertext preprocessor scripting languages means behaviour web server scripted separate files actual server software remains unchanged usually function used generate html documents dynamically on-the-fly opposed returning static documents former primarily used retrieving modifying information databases latter typically much faster easily cached deliver dynamic content web servers also frequently found embedded devices printers routers webcams serving local network web server may used part system monitoring administering device question usually means additional software installed client computer since web browser required included operating systems http cookie also called web cookie internet cookie browser cookie simply cookie small piece data sent website stored user computer user web browser user browsing cookies designed reliable mechanism websites remember stateful information items added shopping cart online store record user browsing activity including clicking particular buttons logging recording pages visited past also used remember arbitrary pieces information user previously entered form fields names addresses passwords credit card numbers cookies perform essential functions modern web perhaps importantly authentication cookies common method used web servers know whether user logged account logged without mechanism site would know whether send page containing sensitive information require user authenticate logging security authentication cookie generally depends security issuing website user web browser whether cookie data encrypted security vulnerabilities may allow cookie data read hacker used gain access user data used gain access user credentials website cookie belongs see cross-site scripting cross-site request forgery examples tracking cookies especially third-party tracking cookies commonly used ways compile long-term records individuals browsing histories potential privacy concern prompted european u.s. lawmakers take action 2011 european law requires websites targeting european union member states gain informed consent users storing non-essential cookies device google project zero researcher jann horn describes ways cookies read intermediaries like wi-fi hotspot providers recommends use browser incognito mode circumstances web search engine internet search engine software system designed carry web search internet search means search world wide web systematic way particular information specified web search query search results generally presented line results often referred search engine results pages serps information may mix web pages images videos infographics articles research papers types files search engines also mine data available databases open directories unlike web directories maintained human editors search engines also maintain real-time information running algorithm web crawler internet content capable searched web search engine generally described deep web deep web invisible web hidden web parts world wide web whose contents indexed standard web search engines opposite term deep web surface web accessible anyone using internet computer scientist michael k. bergman credited coining term deep web 2001 search indexing term content deep web hidden behind http forms includes many common uses web mail online banking services users must pay protected paywall video demand online magazines newspapers among others content deep web located accessed direct url ip address may require password security access past public website page web cache server computer located either public internet within enterprise stores recently accessed web pages improve response time users content requested within certain time original request web browsers also implement browser cache writing recently obtained data local data storage device http requests browser may ask data changed since last access web pages resources may contain expiration information control caching secure sensitive data online banking facilitate frequently updated sites news media even sites highly dynamic content may permit basic resources refreshed occasionally web site designers find worthwhile collate resources css data javascript site-wide files cached efficiently enterprise firewalls often cache web resources requested one user benefit many users search engines store cached content frequently accessed websites criminals web become venue spread malware engage range cybercrimes including identity theft fraud espionage intelligence gathering web-based vulnerabilities outnumber traditional computer security concerns measured google one ten web pages may contain malicious code web-based attacks take place legitimate websites measured sophos hosted united states china russia common malware threats sql injection attacks websites html uris web vulnerable attacks like cross-site scripting xss came introduction javascript exacerbated degree web 2.0 ajax web design favours use scripts today one estimate 70 websites open xss attacks users phishing another common threat web february 2013 rsa security division emc estimated global losses phishing 1.5 billion 2012 two well-known phishing methods covert redirect open redirect proposed solutions vary large security companies like mcafee already design governance compliance suites meet post-9/11 regulations like finjan recommended active real-time inspection programming code content regardless source argued enterprises see web security business opportunity rather cost centre others call ubiquitous always-on digital rights management enforced infrastructure replace hundreds companies secure data networks jonathan zittrain said users sharing responsibility computing safety far preferable locking internet every time client requests web page server identify request ip address usually logs also unless set web browsers record requested web pages viewable history feature usually cache much content locally unless server-browser communication uses https encryption web requests responses travel plain text across internet viewed recorded cached intermediate systems another way hide personally identifiable information using vpn vpn encrypts online traffic masks original ip address lowering chance user identification web page asks user supplies personally identifiable information—such real name address e-mail address etc.—web-based entities associate current web traffic individual website uses http cookies username password authentication tracking techniques relate web visits identifiable information provided way possible web-based organisation develop build profile individual people use site sites may able build record individual includes information leisure activities shopping interests profession aspects demographic profile profiles obviously potential interest marketeers advertisers others depending website terms conditions local laws apply information profiles may sold shared passed organisations without user informed many ordinary people means little unexpected e-mails in-box uncannily relevant advertising future web page others mean time spent indulging unusual interest result deluge targeted marketing may unwelcome law enforcement counter terrorism espionage agencies also identify target track individuals based interests proclivities web social networking sites try get users use real names interests locations rather pseudonyms executives believe makes social networking experience engaging users hand uploaded photographs unguarded statements identified individual may regret exposure employers schools parents relatives may influenced aspects social networking profiles text posts digital photos posting individual intend audiences on-line bullies may make use personal information harass stalk users modern social networking websites allow fine grained control privacy settings individual posting complex easy find use especially beginners photographs videos posted onto websites caused particular problems add person face on-line profile modern potential facial recognition technology may possible relate face previously anonymous images events scenarios imaged elsewhere due image caching mirroring copying difficult remove image world wide web web standards include many interdependent standards specifications govern aspects internet world wide web even web-focused standards directly indirectly affect development administration web sites web services considerations include interoperability accessibility usability web pages web sites web standards broader sense consist following web standards fixed sets rules constantly evolving set finalized technical specifications web technologies web standards developed standards organizations—groups interested often competing parties chartered task standardization—not technologies developed declared standard single individual company crucial distinguish specifications development ones already reached final development status case w3c specifications highest maturity level methods accessing web alternative mediums formats facilitate use individuals disabilities disabilities may visual auditory physical speech-related cognitive neurological combination accessibility features also help people temporary disabilities like broken arm ageing users abilities change web receives information well providing information interacting society world wide web consortium claims essential web accessible provide equal access equal opportunity people disabilities tim berners-lee noted power web universality access everyone regardless disability essential aspect many countries regulate web accessibility requirement websites international co-operation w3c web accessibility initiative led simple guidelines web content authors well software developers use make web accessible persons may may using assistive technology w3c internationalisation activity assures web technology works languages scripts cultures beginning 2004 2005 unicode gained ground eventually december 2007 surpassed ascii western european web frequently used character encoding originally allowed resources identified uri subset us-ascii allows characters—any character universal character set—and resource identified iri language Target text information: search/retrieve_via_url.search/retrieve via url search/retrieve via url sru standard search protocol internet search queries utilizing contextual query language cql standard query syntax representing queries sample code complete answer sru query-url url query version=1.1 operation=searchretrieve query=dc.title=darwinism cql query dc.title=darwinism I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	8	Web Technology	wikics	3,979	train
1-hop neighbor's text information: port_state_control.port state control port state control psc inspection regime countries inspect foreign-registered ships port flag state take action ships compliance inspectors called psc officers required investigate compliance requirements international conventions solas marpol stcw mlc inspections involve checking vessel manned operated compliance applicable international law verifying competency ship master officers ship condition equipment 1978 number european countries agreed hague memorandum audit labour conditions board vessels whether accordance rules ilo amoco cadiz sank year decided also audit safety pollution practices end 1982 fourteen european countries agreed paris memorandum understanding port state control paris mou establish port state control nowadays 26 european countries canada signatories paris mou psc reaction failure flag states especially flag convenience states — delegated survey certification responsibilities classification societies modeled paris mou several regional mous signed including tokyo mou pacific ocean acuerdo latino acuerdo de viña del mar south central america caribbean mou mediterranean mou indian ocean mou abuja mou west central atlantic africa black sea mou riyadh mou persian gulf port state control psc makes inspection ships port taken port state control officer psco annual report paris mou reported total 74,713 deficiencies recorded port state control inspections 2007 deficiencies resulted 1,250 detentions year detention ship last course action psco would take upon finding deficiencies aboard vessel courses action psco may impose ship deficiencies order ascending gravity 1-hop neighbor's text information: ship_registration_in_hong_kong.ship registration hong kong hong kong shipping register set 1990 hong kong merchant shipping registration ordinance administered marine department hong kong since transfer sovereignty united kingdom 1997 hong kong authorised basic law government people ’ republic china using name “ hong kong china ” maintain separate ship registration system april 1999 hong kong government launched new measures improve ship registration system hong kong cooperation government shipping industry total tonnage ship registry hong kong reached 100 millions gross tonnes 2,440 vessels registered january 2016 hong kong ship register world ’ fourth largest ship register world ’ largest national flag register first time registration fee ship determined according gross tonnage gt annual tonnage charge ship determined referring net tonnage nt minimum annual tonnage charge hk 1,500 every tonne 1000 nt costing extra hk 3.5 15,000 nt whereby rate lowers hk 3 per tonne thereafter charge would exceed hk 77,500 annual tonnage charge atc reduction scheme since february 2006 annual tonnage charge atc reduction scheme enacted reduce long term cost ship owners whereby every two years qualifying period satisfying registered ship owner would right enjoy six months atc reduction following year general ship eligible registration ship 3 types registration full registration provisional registration bare boat charter registration registration procedures requires submission ship hong kong shipping register full provisional registration mortgages ship registered agents hk flag registration include hong kong registered ships enjoy 30 preferential port dues mainland china ports since january 2000 order reduce port light dues hong kong registered ships hksar expects sign agreements countries two-tier charging system income derived international trade hong kong registered ships exempted profits tax hksar also entered bilateral double taxation relief agreements 40 countries include agreement avoidance double taxation dta denmark germany netherlands norway singapore sri lanka united kingdom united states reciprocal tax exemption rte chile korea new zealand comprehensive dta cdta austria belgium brunei canada czech france guernsey hungary indonesia ireland italy japan jersey korea kuwait liechtenstein luxembourg mainland china malaysia malta mexico netherlands new zealand portugal qatar romania south africa spain switzerland thailand united arab emirates united kingdom vietnam flag state quality control fsqc system based information system monitor quality hong kong registered ships analyzing collecting information unqualified conditions ship identified flag state inspection pre-registration quality control prqc system involves marine department inspect ship ’ condition registered hong kong ship meet safety pollution prevention standards announced international maritime organization Target text information: hong_kong_shipping_register.hong kong shipping register port hong kong deep water port located southern china one hub ports serving south-east east asia region gateway mainland china city hong kong began colony united kingdom free port became international trade center connecting land sea transport china countries port mature infrastructure well-developed air-sea-land transport helps hong kong maintain position international trade centre transshipment hub part 1997 transfer sovereignty hong kong britain china ship registration system made adjustments 1990 marine department set separate system hong kong shipping register ordinance hong kong ship registration amended accordingly new measures reduce operation cost ship management also improve service quality new system increased hong kong competitive advantage attracting ships port january 2009 hong kong registered ships reached 40.56 million tons 1,380 vessels I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	1	Databases	wikics	10,073	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: page_description_language.page description language digital printing page description language pdl computer language describes appearance printed page higher level actual output bitmap overlapping term printer control language includes hewlett-packard printer command language pcl postscript one noted page description languages markup language adaptation pdl page description markup language page description languages text human-readable binary data streams usually intermixed text graphics printed distinct graphics application programming interfaces apis gdi opengl called software generate graphical output various page description languages exist 1-hop neighbor's text information: spooling.spooling computing spooling specialized form multi-programming purpose copying data different devices contemporary systems usually used mediating computer application slow peripheral printer spooling allows programs hand work done peripheral proceed tasks begin input transcribed dedicated program spooler maintains orderly sequence jobs peripheral feeds data rate conversely slow input peripherals card reader spooler maintain sequence computational jobs waiting data starting job relevant input available see batch processing spool refers sequence jobs storage area held many cases spooler able drive devices full rated speed minimal impact processing spooling combination buffering queueing nowadays common use spooling printing documents formatted printing stored queue speed computer retrieved printed speed printer multiple processes write documents spool without waiting perform tasks spooler process operates printer example large organization prepares payroll cheques computation takes minutes even seconds printing process might take hours payroll program printed cheques directly would unable proceed computations cheques printed similarly spooling added pc operating systems word processors unable anything else including interact user printing spooler print management software often includes variety related features allowing priorities assigned print jobs notifying users documents printed distributing print jobs among several printers selecting appropriate paper document etc print server applies spooling techniques allow many computers share printer group printers print spoolers configured add banner page also called burst page job sheet printer separator front document separate documents identify document e.g title often also state printed e.g username job name banner pages valuable office environments many people share small number printers depending configuration banner pages might generated client computer centralized print server printer printers using fanfold continuous forms leading banner page would often printed twice one copy would always face-up jobs separated page might include lines printed fold would visible along edge stack printed output allowing operator easily separate jobs systems would also print banner page end job assuring users collected printout spooling also used mediate access punched card readers punches magnetic tape drives slow sequential i/o devices allows application run speed cpu operating peripheral devices full rates speed batch processing system uses spooling maintain queue ready-to-run tasks started soon system resources process store forward messaging systems uucp used spool refer inbound outbound message queues terminology still found documentation email usenet software even though messages often delivered immediately nowadays peripheral devices always much slower core processing units especially severe problem early mainframes example job read punched cards generated printed output directly forced run speed slow mechanical devices first spooling programs ibm spool system 7070-io-076 copied data punched cards magnetic tape tape back punched cards printers hard disks even faster support random access started replace use magnetic tape middle 1960s 1970s eliminated use tape unit record equipment ibm mainframes early 1960s slow common use small offline machine 1401 instead spooling term spool probably originates simultaneous peripheral operations on-line spool software derivation uncertain simultaneous peripheral operations on-line may backronym another explanation refers spools reels magnetic tape 1-hop neighbor's text information: windows_vista_networking_technologies.windows vista networking technologies computing microsoft windows vista windows server 2008 introduced 2007/2008 new networking stack named next generation tcp/ip stack improve previous stack several ways stack includes native implementation ipv6 well complete overhaul ipv4 new tcp/ip stack uses new method store configuration settings enables dynamic control require computer restart change settings new stack implemented dual-stack model depends strong host-model features infrastructure enable modular components one dynamically insert remove next generation tcp/ip stack connects nics via network driver interface specification ndis driver network stack implemented codice_1 implements transport network data link layers tcp/ip model transport layer includes implementations tcp udp unformatted raw protocols network layer ipv4 ipv6 protocols implemented dual-stack architecture data link layer also called framing layer implements 802.3 802.1 ppp loopback tunnelling protocols layer accommodate windows filtering platform wfp shims allows packets layer introspected also host wfp callout api networking api exposed via three components user interface configuring troubleshooting working network connections changed significantly prior versions windows well users make use new network sharing center see status network connections access every aspect configuration single icon notification area system tray represents connectivity network adapters whether wired wireless network browsed using network explorer replaces windows xp network places network explorer items shared device scanner file share network location awareness nla service uniquely identifies network exposes network attributes connectivity type applications determine optimal network configuration however applications use nla apis explicitly aware network connectivity changes adapt accordingly windows vista uses link layer topology discovery lltd protocol graphically present different devices connected network network map addition network map uses lltd determine connectivity information media type wired wireless map topologically accurate ability know network topology important diagnosing solving networking problems streaming content network connection device implement lltd appear network map icon representing device allowing users one-click access device user interface lltd invoked provides metadata device contains static state information mac address ipv4/ipv6 address signal strength etc windows vista classifies networks connects either public private domain uses network location awareness switch network types different network types different firewall policies open network public wireless network classified public restrictive network settings mode computers network trusted external access computer including sharing files printers disabled home network classified private enables file sharing computers computer joined domain network classified domain network network policies set domain controller network first connected windows vista prompts choose correct network type subsequent connections network service used gain information network connected automatically switch network configuration connected network windows vista introduces concept network profiles network system stores ip address dns server proxy server network features specific network network profile network subsequently connected settings need reconfigured ones saved profile used case mobile machines network profiles chosen automatically based networks available profile part either public private domain network windows vista networking stack supports dual internet protocol ip layer architecture ipv4 ipv6 implementations share common transport framing layers windows vista provides gui configuration ipv4 ipv6 properties ipv6 supported networking components services windows vista dns client use ipv6 transport internet explorer windows vista applications use wininet windows mail file sharing support literal ipv6 addresses windows firewall ipsec policies snap-in support ipv6 addresses permissible character strings ipv6 mode windows vista use link local multicast name resolution llmnr protocol described resolve names local hosts network dns server running service useful networks without central managing server ad hoc wireless networks ipv6 also used ppp-based dial-up pppoe connections windows vista also act client/server file sharing dcom ipv6 support dhcpv6 used ipv6 also included ipv6 even used full native ipv6 connectivity available using teredo tunneling even traverse ipv4 symmetric network address translations nats well full support multicast also included via mldv2 ssm protocols ipv6 interface id randomly generated permanent autoconfigured ipv6 addresses prevent determining mac address based known company ids nic manufacturers support wireless networks built network stack new set apis called native wifi emulate wired connections case previous versions windows allows implementation wireless-specific features larger frame sizes optimized error recovery procedures native wifi exposed auto configuration module acm replaces windows xp wireless zero configuration acm extensible developers incorporate additional wireless functionality automatic wireless roaming override automatic configuration connection logic without affecting built-in framework easier find wireless networks range tell networks open closed hidden wireless networks advertise name ssid better supported security wireless networks improved improved support newer wireless standards like 802.11i eap-tls default authentication mode connections made secure connection level supported wireless access point wpa2 used even ad-hoc mode windows vista also provides fast roaming service allow users move one access point another without loss connectivity preauthentication new wireless access point used retain connectivity wireless networks managed either connect network dialog box within gui netsh wlan command shell settings wireless networks also configured using group policy windows vista enhances security joining domain wireless network use single sign use credentials join wireless network well domain housed within network case radius server used peap authentication joining network ms-chap v2 authentication log domain bootstrap wireless profile also created wireless client first authenticates computer wireless network joins network stage machine still access domain resources machine run script stored either system usb thumb drive authenticates domain authentication done either using username password combination security certificates public key infrastructure pki vendor verisign windows vista features windows connect supports setting wireless network using several methods supported wi-fi protected setup standard implements native code api web services devices wsdapi support devices profile web services dpws also managed code implementation wcf dpws enables simpler device discoverability like upnp describes available services clients function discovery new technology serves abstraction layer applications devices allowing applications discover devices referencing device function rather bus type nature connection plug play extensions pnp-x allow network-connected devices appear local devices inside windows connected physically upnp support also enhanced include integration pnp-x function discovery windows vista networking stack also uses several performance optimizations allow higher throughput allowing faster recovery packet losses using high packet loss environment wireless networks windows vista uses newreno algorithm allows sender send data retrying case receives partial acknowledgement acknowledgement receiver part data received also uses selective acknowledgements sack reduce amount data retransmitted case portion data sent received correctly forward rto-recovery f-rto prevent unnecessary retransmission tcp segments round trip time increases also includes neighbour unreachability detection capability ipv4 ipv6 tracks accessibility neighboring nodes allows faster error recovery case neighboring node fails ndis 6.0 introduced windows vista supports offloading ipv6 traffic checksum calculations ipv6 improved manageability scalability performance reduced complexity ndis miniports simpler models writing lightweight filter drivers lwf lwf drivers combination ndis intermediate drivers miniport driver eliminate need write separate protocol miniport bypass mode examine selected control data paths tcp/ip stack also provides fail-back support default gateway changes periodically attempting send tcp traffic previously detected unavailable gateway provide faster throughput sending traffic primary default gateway subnet another significant change aims improve network throughput automatic resizing tcp receive window receive window rwin specifies much data host prepared receive limited among things available buffer space words measure much data remote transmitter send requiring acknowledgement outstanding data receive window small remote transmitter frequently find hit limit much outstanding data transmit even though enough bandwidth available transmit data leads incomplete link utilization using larger rwin size boosts throughput situations auto-adjusting rwin tries keep throughput rate high permissible bandwidth link receive window auto tuning functionality continually monitors bandwidth latency tcp connections individually optimize receive window connection window size increased high-bandwidth ~5 mbit/s+ high-latency 10ms situations traditional tcp implementations uses tcp slow start algorithm detect fast transmit without choking receiver intermediate nodes nutshell specifies transmission start slow rate transmitting packets number controlled congestion window – specifies number outstanding packets transmitted acknowledgement receipt receiver yet received acknowledgements received congestion window expanded one tcp segment time till acknowledgement fails arrive sender assumes congestion window size instant network gets congested however high bandwidth network sustain quite large congestion window without choking slow start algorithm take quite time reach threshold – leaving network under-utilized significant time new tcp/ip stack also supports explicit congestion notification ecn keep throughput hit due network congestion low possible without ecn tcp message segment dropped router buffer full hosts get notice building congestion packets start dropped sender detects segment reach destination due lack feedback congested router information extent reduction transmission rate needs make standard tcp implementations detect drop time waiting acknowledgement receiver sender reduces size congestion window limit amount data flight time multiple packet drops even result reset congestion window tcp maximum segment size tcp slow start exponential backoff additive increase produce stable network behaviour letting routers recover congestion however dropping packets noticeable impacts time-sensitive streams like streaming media takes time drop noticed retransmitted ecn support enabled router sets two bits data packets indicate receiver experiencing congestion yet fully choked receiver turn lets sender know router facing congestion sender lowers transmission rate amount router still congested set bits eventually sender slow even advantage approach router get full enough drop packets thus sender lower transmission rate significantly cause serious delays time-sensitive streams risk severe under-utilization bandwidth without ecn way routers tell hosts anything dropping packets ecn like random early drop except packets marked instead dropped caveat sender receiver well intermediate routers ecn-friendly router along way prevent use ecn considers ecn-marked packets invalid drops typically whole connection setup fails piece network equipment drops connection setup packets ecn flags set routers n't know ecn still drop packets normally ecn-hostile network equipment internet reason ecn disabled default enabled via codice_2 command previous versions windows processing needed receive transfer data one network interface done single processor even multi processor system supported network interface adapters windows vista distribute job traffic processing network communication among multiple processors feature called receive side scaling windows vista also supports network cards tcp offload engine certain hardware-accelerated tcp/ip-related functionality windows vista uses tcp chimney offload system offload cards framing routing error-correction acknowledgement retransmission jobs required tcp however application compatibility tcp data transfer functionality offloaded nic tcp connection setup remove load cpu traffic processing ipv4 ipv6 offloaded windows vista also supports netdma uses dma engine allow processors freed hassles moving data network card data buffers application buffers requires specific hardware dma architectures intel i/o acceleration enabled compound tcp modified tcp congestion avoidance algorithm meant improve networking performance applications enabled default pre-service pack 1 version windows vista enabled sp1 windows server 2008 uses different algorithm modify congestion window – borrowing tcp vegas tcp new reno every acknowledgement received increases congestion window aggressively thus reaching peak throughput much faster increasing overall throughput windows vista networking stack includes integrated policy-based quality service qos functionality prioritize network traffic quality service used manage network usage specific applications users throttling bandwidth available used limit bandwidth usage applications high priority applications real time conferencing applications run ensure get bandwidth need traffic throttling also used prevent large data transfer operations using available bandwidth qos policies confined application executable name folder path source destination ipv4 ipv6 addresses source destination tcp udp ports range ports windows vista qos policies applied application network layer thus eliminating need rewrite applications using qos apis qos-aware qos policies either set per-machine basis set active directory group policy objects ensures windows vista clients connected active directory container domain site organizational unit enforce policy settings windows vista supports wireless multimedia wmm profile classes qos wireless networks certified wi-fi alliance bg background data best effort non real time data vi real time videos vo real time voice data wireless access point well wireless nic supports wmm profiles windows vista provide preferential treatment data sent windows vista includes specialized qos api called qwave quality windows audio/video experience pre-configured quality service module time dependent multimedia data audio video streams qwave uses different packet priority schemes real-time flows multimedia packets best-effort flows file downloads e-mails ensure real-time data gets little delays possible providing high quality channel data packets qwave intended ensure real-time transport multimedia networks within wireless network qwave supports multiple simultaneous multimedia well data streams qwave depend solely bandwidth reservation schemes provided rsvp providing qos guarantees bandwidth wireless network fluctuates constantly result also uses continuous bandwidth monitoring implement service guarantees applications explicitly use qwave apis use service multimedia application requests qwave initiate new media stream qwave tries reserve bandwidth using rsvp time uses qos probes make sure network enough bandwidth support stream conditions met stream allowed prioritized applications eat share bandwidth however environmental factors affect reception wireless signals reduce bandwidth even stream allowed access reserved bandwidth due qwave continuously monitors available bandwidth decreases application informed creating feedback loop adapt stream fit lower bandwidth range bandwidth available qwave automatically reserves informs application improvement probing quality network probe packets sent source statistics round trip time loss latency jitter etc path analyzed results cached probe repeated specific time intervals update cache whenever stream requested cache looked qwave also serializes creation multiple simultaneous streams even across devices probes sent one stream interfered others qwave uses client side buffers keep transmission rate within range slowest part network access point buffers overwhelmed thus reducing packet loss qwave works best source sink client multimedia stream qwave aware also wireless access point ap needs qos-enabled supporting bandwidth reservation also work without qos-aware aps however since qwave reserve bandwidth case depend application adapt stream based available bandwidth affected network conditions data network well qwave also available devices part windows rally technologies order provide better security transferring data network windows vista provides enhancements cryptographic algorithms used obfuscate data support 256-bit 384-bit 512-bit elliptic curve diffie–hellman ecdh algorithms well 128-bit 192-bit 256-bit advanced encryption standard aes included network stack direct support ssl connections new winsock api allows socket applications directly control security traffic network providing security policy requirements traffic querying security settings rather add extra code support secure connection computers running windows vista part logically isolated networks within active directory domain computers logical network partition able access resources domain even though systems may physically network unless logical partition wo n't able access partitioned resources system may part multiple network partitions windows vista also includes extensible authentication protocol host eaphost framework provides extensibility authentication methods commonly used protected network access technologies 802.1x ppp allows networking vendors develop easily install new authentication methods known eap methods planned feature new tcp/ip suite known routing compartments utilized per-user routing table thus compartmentalizing network according user needs data one segment would go another feature however removed release windows vista slated included possibly future release windows windows vista also introduces network access protection nap makes sure computers connecting network conform required level system health set administrator network nap enabled network windows vista computer attempts join network verified computer up-to-date security updates virus signatures factors including configuration ipsec 802.1x authentication settings specified network administrator granted full access network criteria met failing may either denied access network granted limited access certain resources may optionally granted access servers provide latest updates updates installed computer granted access network however windows vista nap client i.e. client computer connects nap enabled network health policy verification servers running windows server 2008 ipsec configuration fully integrated windows firewall advanced security snap-in netsh advfirewall command-line tool prevent contradictory rules offer simplified configuration along authenticating firewall advanced firewall filtering rules exceptions ipsec policies set domain public private profiles source destination ip addresses ip address range source destination tcp udp ports multiple ports specific types interfaces icmp icmpv6 traffic type code services edge traversal ipsec protection state specified users computers based active directory accounts prior windows vista setting maintaining ipsec policy configuration many scenarios required setting set rules protection another set rules traffic exemptions ipsec nodes windows vista communicate simultaneously negotiating protected communications response received negotiation completes subsequent communications protected eliminates need set ipsec filters exemptions set hosts support ipsec allows setting required incoming protected initiated communication optional outgoing communication ipsec also allows securing traffic domain controllers member computers still allowing clear text domain joins communication types ipsec protected domain joins allowed using ntlm v2 domain controllers member computers running windows server 2008 windows vista respectively ipsec fully supports ipv6 authip allows second authentication integration nap authenticating health certificate network diagnostics framework support failed ipsec negotiation new ipsec performance counters improved detection cluster node failure faster renegotiation security associations support stronger algorithms main mode negotiation stronger dh algorithms suite b data integrity encryption aes cbc aes-gmac sha-256 aes-gcm ability assist user diagnosing network problem expected major new networking feature extensive support runtime diagnostics wired wireless networks including support tcp management information base mib -ii better system event logging tracing vista tcp/ip stack also supports estats defines extended performance statistics tcp help determining cause network performance bottlenecks windows vista inform user causes network transmission failure incorrect ip address incorrect dns default gateway settings gateway failure port use blocked receiver ready dhcp service running netbios tcp/ip name resolution failure etc transmission errors also exhaustively logged analyzed better find cause error windows vista greater awareness network topology host computer using technologies universal plug play new network awareness technology windows vista provide help user fixing network issues simply provide graphical view perceived network configuration windows vista network stack includes windows filtering platform allows external applications access hook packet processing pipeline networking subsystem wfp allows incoming outgoing packets filtered analyzed modified several layers tcp/ip protocol stack wfp inbuilt filtering engine applications need write custom engine need provide custom logic engine use wfp includes base filtering engine implements filter requests packets processed using generic filtering engine also includes callout module applications providing custom processing logic hooked wfp put uses inspecting packets malware selective packet restriction firewalls providing custom encryption systems among others upon initial release wfp plagued bugs including memory leaks race conditions windows firewall windows vista implemented wfp windows vista includes significant peer-to-peer support introduction new apis protocols new version peer name resolution protocol pnrp v2 well set peer distributed routing table peer graphing peer grouping peer naming peer identity management apis introduced contacts created administered new peer-to-peer subsystem—serverless presence allows users manage real-time presence information track presence registered users across subnet internet new people near service allows discovery management contacts subnet uses windows contacts manage store contact information new capabilities allows peers send application invitations peers ad-hoc collaboration also supported without centralized server windows meeting space example application pnrp also allows creating overlay network called graph peer overlay network corresponds node graph nodes graph share book-keeping information responsible functioning network whole example distributed resource management network node resource needs shared information shared records flooded peers graph peer stores record local database record consists header body body contains data specific application using api header contains metadata describe data body name-value pairs serialized using xml addition author version information also contain index body data fast searching node connect nodes directly well communication need shared entire graph api also allows creation secure overlay network called group consisting subset nodes graph group shared multiple applications unlike graph peers group must identifiable unique named registered using pnrp digital signature certificate termed group member certificate gmc records exchanged digitally signed peers must invited group invitation contains gmc enables join group new windows internet computer names wicn peer networking feature allows ipv6-connected machine obtain custom unique domain name computer connected internet users specify secured unsecured host name computer console command without requiring register domain name configuring dynamic dns wicn used application accepts ip address dns name pnrp performs domain name resolution peer-to-peer level another planned feature windows vista would provided new domain-like networking setup known castle make release castle would made possible identification service provides user authentication members network without centralized server would allowed user credentials propagate across peer-to-peer network making suitable home network people near formerly people nearby peer-to-peer service designed simplify communication collaboration among users connected subnet people near used windows meeting space collaboration contact discovery people near listed part microsoft mobile platform strategy revealed windows hardware engineering conference 2004 people near uses windows contacts manage contact information default user may receive invitations users connected subnet user designate another user trusted contact enable collaboration across internet increase security determine presence contacts new background intelligent transfer service bits 3.0 new feature called neighbor casting supports peer-to-peer file transfers within domain facilitates peer caching allows users download serve content wsus updates peers subnet receive notification file downloaded access temporary file download progress control http redirects saves bandwidth network reduces performance load server bits 3.0 also uses internet gateway device protocol counters accurately calculate available bandwidth http kernel mode driver windows vista http.sys enhanced support server-side authentication logging idn hostnames event tracing better manageability netsh http new performance counters wininet protocol handler http ftp handles ipv6 literal addresses includes support gzip deflate decompression improve content encoding performance internationalized domain names support event tracing winhttp client api server-based applications services supports ipv6 autoproxy http/1.1 chunked transfer encoding larger data uploads ssl client certificates server proxy authentication automatic handling redirects keep-alive connections http/1.0 protocol including support keep-alive persistent connections session cookies winsock updated new apis support event tracing winsock layered service provider support enhanced logged installations removals new api reliably installing lsps command reliably remove lsps facilities categorize lsps remove lsps processing path system critical services support network diagnostics framework winsock kernel wsk new transport-independent kernel-mode network programming interface npi provides tdi client developers sockets-like programming model similar supported user-mode winsock sockets programming concepts exist user-mode winsock socket creation bind connect accept send receive winsock kernel completely new programming interface unique characteristics asynchronous i/o uses irps event callbacks enhance performance tdi supported windows vista backward compatibility new version server message block smb protocol introduced windows vista number changes improve performance add additional capabilities windows vista later operating systems use smb 2.0 communicating machines running windows vista later smb 1.0 continues use connections previous version windows samba samba 3.6 also includes support smb 2.0 remote differential compression rdc client-server synchronization protocol allows data synchronized remote source using compression techniques minimize amount data sent across network synchronizes files calculating transferring differences on-the-fly therefore rdc suitable efficient synchronization files updated independently network bandwidth small scenarios files large differences small windows vista bluetooth stack improved support hardware ids edr performance improvements adaptive frequency hopping wi-fi co-existence synchronous connection oriented sco protocol support needed audio profiles windows vista bluetooth stack supports kernel mode device driver interface besides user-mode programming interface enables third parties add support additional bluetooth profiles sco sdp l2cap lacking windows xp service pack 2 built-in bluetooth stack entirely replaced third-party stack additional profile support also provides rfcomm support using sockets besides virtual com ports kb942567 called windows vista feature pack wireless adds bluetooth 2.1+edr support remote wake s3 s4 support self-powered bluetooth modules feature pack initially available oems eventually included windows vista service pack 2 Target text information: technical_features_new_to_windows_vista.technical features new windows vista windows vista formerly codenamed windows longhorn many significant new features compared previous microsoft windows versions covering aspects operating system addition new user interface security capabilities developer technologies several major components core operating system redesigned notably audio print display networking subsystems results work visible software developers end-users see appear evolutionary changes user interface part redesign networking architecture ipv6 incorporated operating system number performance improvements introduced tcp window scaling prior versions windows typically needed third-party wireless networking software work properly longer case windows vista includes comprehensive wireless networking support graphics windows vista introduces new well major revisions direct3d new display driver model facilitates new desktop window manager provides tearing-free desktop special effects cornerstones windows aero graphical user interface new display driver model also able offload rudimentary tasks gpu allow users install drivers without requiring system reboot seamlessly recover rare driver errors due illegal application behavior core operating system many improvements made memory manager process scheduler heap manager i/o scheduler kernel transaction manager implemented used data persistence services enable atomic transactions service used give applications ability work file system registry using atomic transaction operations windows vista features completely re-written audio stack designed provide low-latency 32-bit floating point audio higher-quality digital signal processing bit-for-bit sample level accuracy 144 db dynamic range new audio apis created team including steve ball larry osterman new audio stack runs user level thus increasing stability windows vista audio engine designed run faster windows xp audio engine tighter requirements audio buffer position accuracy also new universal audio architecture uaa model introduced replacing wdm audio allows compliant audio hardware automatically work windows without needing device drivers audio hardware vendor three major apis windows vista audio architecture applications communicate audio driver sessions sessions programmed windows audio session api wasapi general wasapi operates two modes exclusive mode also called dma mode unmixed audio streams rendered directly audio adapter application audio play signal processing effect exclusive mode useful applications demand least amount intermediate processing audio data want output compressed audio data dolby digital dts wma pro s/pdif wasapi exclusive mode similar kernel streaming function kernel mode programming required shared mode audio streams rendered application optionally applied per-stream audio effects known local effects lfx per-session volume control streams mixed global audio engine set global audio effects gfx may applied finally 're rendered audio device higher level apis waveform-audio interface wavexxx functions directsound use shared mode results pre-mixed pcm audio sent driver single format terms sample rate bit depth channel count format configurable end user control panel passing wasapi host-based audio processing including custom audio processing take place sample rate conversion mixing effects host-based processing modules referred audio processing objects apos components operate user mode portion architecture runs kernel mode audio driver contains port class driver vendor miniport driver vendor hal windows kernel mixer kmixer completely gone direct path directsound audio drivers directsound mme emulated session instances since whole point directsound acceleration allow hardware process unmixed audio content directsound accelerated audio model directsound3d supported also breaks eax extensions apis asio openal affected windows vista also includes new multimedia class scheduler service mmcss allows multimedia applications register time-critical processing run elevated thread priority thus ensuring prioritized access cpu resources time-sensitive dsp processing mixing tasks audio professionals new wavert port driver introduced strives achieve real-time performance using multimedia class scheduler supports audio applications reduce latency audio streams consequently user mode applications completely govern streams audio without code execution kernel runtime wavert allows user mode application direct access internal audio hardware buffers sample position counters data memory mapped audio hardware dma engine allows applications poll current position dma memory window hardware accessing wavert also supports notion hardware generated clock notification event similar asio api applications need poll current position n't want existing audio apis re-plumbed emulated use apis internally audio goes three apis applications work fault mme wavein/waveout emulation introduced windows vista sample rate conversion needed audible noise sometimes introduced playing audio web browser uses apis internal resampler longer configurable defaults linear interpolation lowest-quality conversion mode could set previous versions windows resampler set high-quality mode via hotfix windows 7 windows server 2008 r2 new digital signal processing functionalities room correction bass management loudness equalization speaker fill introduced speaker fill mixes 2-channel content use available speakers manner similar creative cmss bass management used redirect subwoofer signal main speakers channel missing feature called channel phantoming allows best use speakers redirecting sound missing channels speakers whether multi-channel stereo sound system home theater living room windows vista also includes ability calibrate speakers room placing microphone listener plans sit running wizard measures room response windows vista automatically set levels delay frequency balance channel accordingly position pcs equipped stereo headphones vista adds ability surround sound using new feature called headphone virtualization uses technology based upon head-related transfer function windows vista also includes ability use custom host-based digital signal processing effects part audio device manufacturer-supplied driver value-added features effects packaged user-mode system effect audio processing objects sapos sapos also reusable third-party software windows vista builds universal audio architecture new class driver definition aims reduce need third-party drivers increase overall stability reliability audio windows microsoft also included new high quality voice capture directx media object dmo part directshow allows voice capture applications instant messengers speech recognition applications apply acoustic echo cancellation microphone array processing speech signals windows vista first windows operating system include fully integrated support speech recognition windows 2000 xp speech recognition installed office 2003 included windows xp tablet pc edition windows speech recognition allows users control machine voice commands enables dictation many applications application fairly high recognition accuracy provides set commands assists dictation brief speech-driven tutorial included help familiarize user speech recognition commands training could also completed improve accuracy speech recognition windows vista includes speech recognition 8 languages release time english u.s. british spanish german french japanese chinese traditional simplified support additional languages planned post-release speech recognition vista utilizes version 5.3 microsoft speech api sapi version 8 speech recognizer speech synthesis first introduced windows windows 2000 significantly enhanced windows vista code name mulan old voice microsoft sam replaced two new natural sounding voices generally greater intelligibility anna lili latter capable speaking chinese screen-reader narrator uses voices also updated microsoft agent text speech applications use newer sapi 5 voices windows vista includes redesigned print architecture built around windows presentation foundation provides high-fidelity color printing improved use color management removes limitations current gdi-based print subsystem enhances support printing advanced effects gradients transparencies etc. color laser printers use xml paper specification xps print subsystem windows vista implements new xps print path well legacy gdi print path legacy support windows vista transparently makes use xps print path printers support otherwise using gdi print path documents intensive graphics xps printers expected produce much greater quality prints gdi printers networked environment print server running windows vista documents rendered client machine rather server using feature known client side rendering rendered intermediate form transferred server printed without additional processing making print servers scalable offloading rendering computation clients xps print path introduced windows vista supports high quality 16-bit color printing xps print path uses xml paper specification xps print spooler file format serves page description language pdl printers xps spooler format intended replacement enhanced metafile emf format print spooler format graphics device interface gdi print path xps xml-based specifically xaml-based color-managed device resolution independent vector-based paged document format encapsulates exact representation actual printed output xps documents packed zip container along text fonts raster images 2d vector graphics drm information printers supporting xps eliminates intermediate conversion printer-specific language increasing reliability fidelity printed output microsoft claims major printer vendors planning release printers built-in xps support provide better fidelity original document core xps print path xpsdrv xps-based printer driver includes filter pipeline contains set filters print processing modules xml-based configuration file describe filters loaded filters receive spool file data input perform document processing rendering pdl post-processing output pdl data printer consume filters perform single function watermarking page color transformations perform several print processing functions specific document parts individually collectively convert spool file page description language supported printer windows vista also provides improved color support windows color system higher color precision dynamic range also supports cmyk colorspace multiple ink systems higher print fidelity print subsystem also support named colors simplifying color definition images transmitted printer supporting colors xps print path automatically calibrate color profile settings used display subsystem conversely xps print drivers express configurable capabilities printer virtue xps printcapabilities class enable fine-grained control print settings tuned individual printing device applications use windows presentation foundation display elements directly print xps print path without need image colorspace conversion xps format used spool file represents advanced graphics effects 3d images glow effects gradients windows presentation foundation primitives processed printer drivers without rasterization preventing rendering artifacts reducing computational load legacy gdi print path used xps spool file used processing converted gdi image minimize processing done raster level print schemas provide xml-based format expressing organizing large set properties describe either job format print capabilities hierarchically structured manner print schemas intended address problems associated internal communication components print subsystem external communication print subsystem applications windows vista contains new networking stack brings large improvements areas network-related functionality includes native implementation ipv6 well complete overhaul ipv4 ipv6 supported networking components services user interface ipv6 mode windows vista use link local multicast name resolution llmnr protocol resolve names local hosts network dns server running new tcp/ip stack uses new method store configuration settings enables dynamic control require computer restart settings changed new stack also based strong host model features infrastructure enable modular components dynamically inserted removed user interface configuring troubleshooting working network connections changed significantly prior versions windows well users make use new network center see status network connections access every aspect configuration network browsed using network explorer replaces windows xp network places network explorer items shared device scanner file share network location awareness uniquely identifies network exposes network attributes connectivity type windows vista graphically presents different devices connected network network map view using lltd protocol addition network map uses lltd determine connectivity information media type wired wireless device implement lltd appear network map icon representing device allowing users one-click access device user interface lltd invoked provides metadata device contains static state information mac address ipv4/ipv6 address signal strength etc support wireless networks built network stack emulate wired connections case previous versions windows allows implementation wireless-specific features larger frame sizes optimized error recovery procedures windows vista uses various techniques like receive window auto-scaling explicit congestion notification tcp chimney offload compound tcp improve networking performance quality service qos policies used prioritize network traffic traffic shaping available applications even explicitly use qos apis windows vista includes in-built support peer-to-peer networks smb 2.0 improved network security windows vista supports 256-bit 384-bit diffie-hellman dh algorithms well 128-bit 192-bit 256-bit advanced encryption standard aes included network stack integrating ipsec windows firewall windows vista introduces overhaul previous windows nt operating system loader architecture ntldr used versions windows nt since inception windows nt 3.1 ntldr completely replaced new architecture designed address modern firmware technologies unified extensible firmware interface new architecture introduces firmware-independent data store backward compatible previous versions windows operating system windows vista introduces improved driver model windows driver foundation opt-in framework replace older windows driver model includes windows vista includes following changes enhancements processor power management windows vista first client version windows ship .net framework specifically includes .net framework 2.0 .net framework 3.0 previously known winfx version 1.0 1.1 .net framework set managed code apis slated succeed win32 win32 api also present windows vista give direct access new functionality introduced .net framework addition .net framework intended give programmers easier access functionality present windows .net framework 3.0 includes apis ado.net asp.net windows forms among others adds four core frameworks .net framework windows presentation foundation codenamed avalon overhaul graphical subsystem windows flagship resolution independent api 2d 3d graphics raster vector graphics xaml fixed adaptive documents xps advanced typography animation xaml data binding audio video windows vista wpf enables richer control design development visual aspects windows programs based directx renders graphics using direct3d routing graphics direct3d allows windows offload graphics tasks gpu reducing workload computer cpu capability used desktop window manager make desktop windows shell elements 3d surfaces wpf applications deployed desktop hosted web browser xbap 3d capabilities wpf limited compared available direct3d however wpf provides tighter integration features like user interface ui documents media makes possible 3d ui 3d documents 3d media set built-in controls provided part wpf containing items button menu list box controls wpf provides ability perform control composition control contain control layout wpf also built-in set data services enable application developers bind data controls images supported using windows imaging component media wpf supports audio video formats windows media player play addition wpf supports time-based animations contrast frame-based approach delinks speed animation slow fast system performing text anti-aliased rendered using cleartype wpf uses extensible application markup language xaml variant xml intended use developing user interfaces using xaml develop user interfaces also allows separation model view xaml every element maps onto class underlying api attributes set properties instantiated classes elements wpf may also coded .net language c xaml code ultimately compiled managed assembly way .net languages means use xaml development incur performance cost windows communication foundation codenamed indigo new communication subsystem enable applications one machine across multiple machines connected network communicate wcf programming model unifies web services .net remoting distributed transactions message queues single service-oriented architecture model distributed computing server exposes service via interface defined using xml clients connect wcf runs sandbox provides enhanced security model .net applications provide wcf capable using soap communication two processes thereby making wcf based applications interoperable process communicates via soap wcf process communicates non-wcf process xml based encoding used soap messages communicates another wcf process soap messages encoded optimized binary format optimize communication encodings conform data structure soap format called infoset windows vista also incorporates microsoft message queuing 4.0 msmq supports subqueues poison messages messages continually fail processed correctly receiver transactional receives messages remote queue windows workflow foundation microsoft technology defining executing managing workflows technology part .net framework 3.0 therefore targeted primarily windows vista operating system windows workflow foundation runtime components provide common facilities running managing workflows hosted clr application domain workflows comprise 'activities developers write domain-specific activities use workflows windows workflow foundation also provides set general-purpose 'activities cover several control flow constructs also includes visual workflow designer workflow designer used within visual studio 2005 including integration visual studio project system debugger windows cardspace codenamed infocard part .net framework 3.0 implementation identity metasystem centralizes acquiring usage management digital identity digital identity represented logical security tokens consist one claims provide information different aspects identity name address etc identity system centers around three entities — user identified identity provider provides identifying information regarding user relying party uses identity authenticate user identity provider may service like active directory even user provides authentication password biometric authentication data relying party issues request application identity means policy states claims needs physical representation security token application passes request windows cardspace contacts suitable identity provider retrieves identity provides application identity along information use windows cardspace also keeps track identities used represents visually identifiable virtual cards accessible user centralized location whenever application requests identity windows cardspace informs user identity used needs confirmation provides requestor identity windows cardspace presents api allows application use windows cardspace handle authentication tasks similarly api allows identity providers hook windows cardspace relying party appears service provides authentication credentials media foundation set com-based apis handle audio video playback provides directx video acceleration 2.0 better resilience cpu i/o memory stress glitch-free low-latency playback audio video also enables high color spaces multimedia processing pipeline directshow windows media sdk gradually deprecated future versions windows vista instant search index also accessed programmatically using managed well native code native code connects index catalog using data source object retrieved windows vista shell indexing service ole db provider managed code use msidxs ado.net provider index catalog name catalog remote machine also specified using unc path criteria search specified using sql-like syntax default catalog called systemindex stores properties indexed items predefined naming pattern example name location documents system exposed table column names system itemname system itemurl respectively sql query directly refer tables index catalogues use msidxs provider run queries search index also used via ole db using collatordso provider however ole db provider read-only supporting select group sql statements windows search api also used convert search query written using advanced query syntax natural query syntax natural language version aqs sql queries exposes method generatesqlfromuserquery method isearchqueryhelper interface searches also performed using search-ms protocol pseudo protocol lets searches exposed uri contains operators search terms specified aqs refer saved search folders well uri activated windows search registered handler protocol parses uri extract parameters perform search winsock kernel wsk new transport-independent kernel-mode network programming interface npi provides tdi client developers sockets-like programming model similar supported user-mode winsock sockets programming concepts exist user-mode winsock socket creation bind connect accept send receive winsock kernel completely new programming interface unique characteristics asynchronous i/o uses irps event callbacks enhance performance tdi supported windows vista backward compatibility windows vista includes specialized qos api called qwave quality windows audio/video experience pre-configured quality service module time dependent multimedia data audio video streams qwave uses different packet priority schemes real-time flows multimedia packets best-effort flows file downloads e-mails ensure real time data gets little delays possible providing high quality channel data packets windows filtering platform allows external applications access hook packet processing pipeline networking subsystem windows vista features update microsoft crypto api known cryptography api next generation cng cng extensible user mode kernel mode api includes support elliptic curve cryptography number newer algorithms part national security agency nsa suite b also integrates smart card subsystem including base csp module encapsulates smart card api developers write complex csps I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	2,221	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: operating_system.operating system operating system os system software manages computer hardware software resources provides common services computer programs time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources hardware functions input output memory allocation operating system acts intermediary programs computer hardware although application code usually executed directly hardware frequently makes system calls os function interrupted operating systems found many devices contain computer cellular phones video game consoles web servers supercomputers dominant desktop operating system microsoft windows market share around 82.74 macos apple inc. second place 13.23 varieties linux collectively third place 1.57 mobile smartphone tablet combined sector use 2017 70 google android according third quarter 2016 data android smartphones dominant 87.5 percent growth rate 10.3 percent per year followed apple ios 12.1 percent per year decrease market share 5.2 percent operating systems amount 0.3 percent linux distributions dominant server supercomputing sectors specialized classes operating systems embedded real-time systems exist many applications single-tasking system run one program time multi-tasking operating system allows one program running concurrency achieved time-sharing available processor time divided multiple processes processes interrupted repeatedly time slices task-scheduling subsystem operating system multi-tasking may characterized preemptive co-operative types preemptive multitasking operating system slices cpu time dedicates slot programs unix-like operating systems solaris linux—as well non-unix-like amigaos—support preemptive multitasking cooperative multitasking achieved relying process provide time processes defined manner 16-bit versions microsoft windows used cooperative multi-tasking 32-bit versions windows nt win9x used preemptive multi-tasking single-user operating systems facilities distinguish users may allow multiple programs run tandem multi-user operating system extends basic concept multi-tasking facilities identify processes resources disk space belonging multiple users system permits multiple users interact system time time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks efficient use system may also include accounting software cost allocation processor time mass storage printing resources multiple users distributed operating system manages group distinct computers makes appear single computer development networked computers could linked communicate gave rise distributed computing distributed computations carried one machine computers group work cooperation form distributed system os distributed cloud computing context templating refers creating single virtual machine image guest operating system saving tool multiple running virtual machines technique used virtualization cloud computing management common large server warehouses embedded operating systems designed used embedded computer systems designed operate small machines like pdas less autonomy able operate limited number resources compact extremely efficient design windows ce minix 3 examples embedded operating systems real-time operating system operating system guarantees process events data specific moment time real-time operating system may single- multi-tasking multitasking uses specialized scheduling algorithms deterministic nature behavior achieved event-driven system switches tasks based priorities external events time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based clock interrupts library operating system one services typical operating system provides networking provided form libraries composed application configuration code construct unikernel specialized single address space machine image deployed cloud embedded environments early computers built perform series single tasks like calculator basic operating system features developed 1950s resident monitor functions could automatically run different programs succession speed processing operating systems exist modern complex forms early 1960s hardware features added enabled use runtime libraries interrupts parallel processing personal computers became popular 1980s operating systems made similar concept used larger computers 1940s earliest electronic digital systems operating systems electronic systems time programmed rows mechanical switches jumper wires plug boards special-purpose systems example generated ballistics tables military controlled printing payroll checks data punched paper cards programmable general purpose computers invented machine languages consisting strings binary digits 0 1 punched paper tape introduced sped programming process stern 1981 early 1950s computer could execute one program time user sole use computer limited period time would arrive scheduled time program data punched paper cards punched tape program would loaded machine machine would set work program completed crashed programs could generally debugged via front panel using toggle switches panel lights said alan turing master early manchester mark 1 machine already deriving primitive conception operating system principles universal turing machine later machines came libraries programs would linked user program assist operations input output generating computer code human-readable symbolic code genesis modern-day operating system however machines still ran single job time cambridge university england job queue one time washing line clothes line tapes hung different colored clothes-pegs indicate job-priority improvement atlas supervisor introduced manchester atlas commissioned 1962 considered many first recognisable modern operating system brinch hansen described significant breakthrough history operating systems 1950s many major features pioneered field operating systems mainframe computers including batch processing input/output interrupt buffering multitasking spooling runtime libraries link-loading programs sorting records files features included included application software option application programmers rather separate operating system used applications 1959 share operating system released integrated utility ibm 704 later 709 7090 mainframes although quickly supplanted ibsys/ibjob 709 7090 7094 1960s ibm os/360 introduced concept single os spanning entire product line crucial success system/360 machines ibm current mainframe operating systems distant descendants original system applications written os/360 still run modern machines os/360 also pioneered concept operating system keeps track system resources used including program data space allocation main memory file space secondary storage file locking update process terminated reason resources re-claimed operating system alternative cp-67 system s/360-67 started whole line ibm operating systems focused concept virtual machines operating systems used ibm s/360 series mainframes included systems developed ibm cos/360 compatibility operating system dos/360 disk operating system tss/360 time sharing system tos/360 tape operating system bos/360 basic operating system acp airline control program well non-ibm systems mts michigan terminal system music multi-user system interactive computing orvyl stanford timesharing system control data corporation developed scope operating system 1960s batch processing cooperation university minnesota kronos later nos operating systems developed 1970s supported simultaneous batch timesharing use like many commercial timesharing systems interface extension dartmouth basic operating systems one pioneering efforts timesharing programming languages late 1970s control data university illinois developed plato operating system used plasma panel displays long-distance time sharing networks plato remarkably innovative time featuring real-time chat multi-user graphical games 1961 burroughs corporation introduced b5000 mcp master control program operating system b5000 stack machine designed exclusively support high-level languages machine language assembler indeed mcp first os written exclusively high-level language espol dialect algol mcp also introduced many ground-breaking innovations first commercial implementation virtual memory development as/400 ibm made approach burroughs license mcp run as/400 hardware proposal declined burroughs management protect existing hardware production mcp still use today unisys clearpath/mcp line computers univac first commercial computer manufacturer produced series exec operating systems like early main-frame systems batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums disks card readers line printers 1970s univac produced real-time basic rtb system support large-scale time sharing also patterned dartmouth bc system general electric mit developed general electric comprehensive operating supervisor gecos introduced concept ringed security privilege levels acquisition honeywell renamed general comprehensive operating system gcos digital equipment corporation developed many operating systems various computer lines including tops-10 tops-20 time sharing systems 36-bit pdp-10 class systems widespread use unix tops-10 particularly popular system universities early arpanet community rt-11 single-user real-time os pdp-11 class minicomputer rsx-11 corresponding multi-user os late 1960s late 1970s several hardware capabilities evolved allowed similar ported software run one system early systems utilized microprogramming implement features systems order permit different underlying computer architectures appear others series fact 360s 360/40 except 360/165 360/168 microprogrammed implementations enormous investment software systems made since 1960s caused original computer manufacturers continue develop compatible operating systems along hardware notable supported mainframe operating systems include first microcomputers capacity need elaborate operating systems developed mainframes minis minimalistic operating systems developed often loaded rom known monitors one notable early disk operating system cp/m supported many early microcomputers closely imitated microsoft ms-dos became widely popular operating system chosen ibm pc ibm version called ibm dos pc dos 1980s apple computer inc. apple inc. abandoned popular apple ii series microcomputers introduce apple macintosh computer innovative graphical user interface gui mac os introduction intel 80386 cpu chip october 1985 32-bit architecture paging capabilities provided personal computers ability run multitasking operating systems like earlier minicomputers mainframes microsoft responded progress hiring dave cutler developed vms operating system digital equipment corporation would lead development windows nt operating system continues serve basis microsoft operating systems line steve jobs co-founder apple inc. started next computer inc. developed nextstep operating system nextstep would later acquired apple inc. used along code freebsd core mac os x macos latest name change gnu project started activist programmer richard stallman goal creating complete free software replacement proprietary unix operating system project highly successful duplicating functionality various parts unix development gnu hurd kernel proved unproductive 1991 finnish computer science student linus torvalds cooperation volunteers collaborating internet released first version linux kernel soon merged gnu user space components system software form complete operating system since combination two major components usually referred simply linux software industry naming convention stallman free software foundation remain opposed preferring name gnu/linux berkeley software distribution known bsd unix derivative distributed university california berkeley starting 1970s freely distributed ported many minicomputers eventually also gained following use pcs mainly freebsd netbsd openbsd unix originally written assembly language ken thompson wrote b mainly based bcpl based experience multics project b replaced c unix rewritten c developed large complex family inter-related operating systems influential every modern operating system see history unix-like family diverse group operating systems several major sub-categories including system v bsd linux name unix trademark open group licenses use operating system shown conform definitions unix-like commonly used refer large set operating systems resemble original unix unix-like systems run wide variety computer architectures used heavily servers business well workstations academic engineering environments free unix variants linux bsd popular areas four operating systems certified open group holder unix trademark unix hp hp-ux ibm aix descendants original system v unix designed run respective vendor hardware contrast sun microsystems solaris run multiple types hardware including x86 sparc servers pcs apple macos replacement apple earlier non-unix mac os hybrid kernel-based bsd variant derived nextstep mach freebsd unix interoperability sought establishing posix standard posix standard applied operating system although originally created various unix variants subgroup unix family berkeley software distribution family includes freebsd netbsd openbsd operating systems commonly found webservers although also function personal computer os internet owes much existence bsd many protocols commonly used computers connect send receive data network widely implemented refined bsd world wide web also first demonstrated number computers running os based bsd called nextstep 1974 university california berkeley installed first unix system time students staff computer science department began adding new programs make things easier text editors berkeley received new vax computers 1978 unix installed school undergraduates modified unix even order take advantage computer hardware possibilities defense advanced research projects agency us department defense took interest decided fund project many schools corporations government organizations took notice started use berkeley version unix instead official one distributed steve jobs upon leaving apple inc. 1985 formed next inc. company manufactured high-end computers running variation bsd called nextstep one computers used tim berners-lee first webserver create world wide web developers like keith bostic encouraged project replace non-free code originated bell labs done however sued two years legal disputes bsd project spawned number free derivatives netbsd freebsd 1993 openbsd netbsd 1995 macos formerly mac os x later os x line open core graphical operating systems developed marketed sold apple inc. latest pre-loaded currently shipping macintosh computers macos successor original classic mac os apple primary operating system since 1984 unlike predecessor macos unix operating system built technology developed next second half 1980s apple purchased company early 1997 operating system first released 1999 mac os x server 1.0 followed march 2001 client version mac os x v10.0 cheetah since six distinct client server editions macos released two merged os x 10.7 lion prior merging macos server edition macos server architecturally identical desktop counterpart usually ran apple line macintosh server hardware macos server included work group management administration software tools provide simplified access key network services including mail transfer agent samba server ldap server domain name server others mac os x v10.7 lion server aspects mac os x server integrated client version product re-branded os x dropping mac name server tools offered application linux kernel originated 1991 project linus torvalds university student finland posted information project newsgroup computer students programmers received support assistance volunteers succeeded creating complete functional kernel linux unix-like developed without unix code unlike bsd variants open license model linux kernel code available study modification resulted use wide range computing machinery supercomputers smart-watches although estimates suggest linux used 1.82 desktop laptop pcs widely adopted use servers embedded systems cell phones linux superseded unix many platforms used supercomputers including top 385 many computers also green500 different order linux runs top 10 linux also commonly used small energy-efficient computers smartphones smartwatches linux kernel used popular distributions red hat debian ubuntu linux mint google android chrome os chromium os microsoft windows family proprietary operating systems designed microsoft corporation primarily targeted intel architecture based computers estimated 88.9 percent total usage share web connected computers latest version windows 10 2011 windows 7 overtook windows xp common version use microsoft windows first released 1985 operating environment running top ms-dos standard operating system shipped intel architecture personal computers time 1995 windows 95 released used ms-dos bootstrap backwards compatibility win9x could run real-mode ms-dos 16-bit windows 3.x drivers windows released 2000 last version win9x family later versions based windows nt kernel current client versions windows run ia-32 x86-64 32-bit arm microprocessors addition itanium still supported older server version windows server 2008 r2 past windows nt supported additional architectures server editions windows widely used recent years microsoft expended significant capital effort promote use windows server operating system however windows usage servers widespread personal computers windows competes linux bsd server market share reactos windows-alternative operating system developed principles windows without using microsoft code many operating systems significant day longer amigaos os/2 ibm microsoft classic mac os non-unix precursor apple macos beos xts-300 risc os morphos haiku baremetal freemint still used niche markets continue developed minority platforms enthusiast communities specialist applications openvms formerly dec still active development hewlett-packard yet operating systems used almost exclusively academia operating systems education research operating system concepts typical example system fulfills roles minix example singularity used purely research another example oberon system designed eth zürich niklaus wirth jürg gutknecht group students former computer systems institute 1980s used mainly research teaching daily work wirth group operating systems failed win significant market share introduced innovations influenced mainstream operating systems least bell labs plan 9 components operating system exist order make different parts computer work together user software needs go operating system order use hardware whether simple mouse keyboard complex internet component aid firmware device drivers kernel provides basic level control computer hardware devices manages memory access programs ram determines programs get access hardware resources sets resets cpu operating states optimal operation times organizes data long-term non-volatile storage file systems media disks tapes flash memory etc operating system provides interface application program computer hardware application program interact hardware obeying rules procedures programmed operating system operating system also set services simplify development execution application programs executing application program involves creation process operating system kernel assigns memory space resources establishes priority process multi-tasking systems loads program binary code memory initiates execution application program interacts user hardware devices interrupts central operating systems provide efficient way operating system interact react environment alternative operating system watch various sources input events polling require action found older systems small stacks 50 60 bytes unusual modern systems large stacks interrupt-based programming directly supported modern cpus interrupts provide computer way automatically saving local register contexts running specific code response events even basic computers support hardware interrupts allow programmer specify code may run event takes place interrupt received computer hardware automatically suspends whatever program currently running saves status runs computer code previously associated interrupt analogous placing bookmark book response phone call modern operating systems interrupts handled operating system kernel interrupts may come either computer hardware running program hardware device triggers interrupt operating system kernel decides deal event generally running processing code amount code run depends priority interrupt example person usually responds smoke detector alarm answering phone processing hardware interrupts task usually delegated software called device driver may part operating system kernel part another program device drivers may relay information running program various means program may also trigger interrupt operating system program wishes access hardware example may interrupt operating system kernel causes control passed back kernel kernel processes request program wishes additional resources wishes shed resources memory triggers interrupt get kernel attention modern microprocessors cpu mpu support multiple modes operation cpus capability offer least two modes user mode supervisor mode general terms supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access machine resources including mpu instructions user mode operation sets limits instruction use typically disallows direct access machine resources cpus might modes similar user mode well virtual modes order emulate older processor types 16-bit processors 32-bit one 32-bit processors 64-bit one power-on reset system begins supervisor mode operating system kernel loaded started boundary user mode supervisor mode also known kernel mode established supervisor mode used kernel low level tasks need unrestricted access hardware controlling memory accessed communicating devices disk drives video display devices user mode contrast used almost everything else application programs word processors database managers operate within user mode access machine resources turning control kernel process causes switch supervisor mode typically transfer control kernel achieved executing software interrupt instruction motorola 68000 codice_1 instruction software interrupt causes microprocessor switch user mode supervisor mode begin executing code allows kernel take control user mode programs usually access restricted set microprocessor instructions generally execute instructions could potentially cause disruption system operation supervisor mode instruction execution restrictions typically removed allowing kernel unrestricted access machine resources term user mode resource generally refers one cpu registers contain information running program n't allowed alter attempts alter resources generally causes switch supervisor mode operating system deal illegal operation program attempting example forcibly terminating killing program among things multiprogramming operating system kernel must responsible managing system memory currently use programs ensures program interfere memory already use another program since programs time share program must independent access memory cooperative memory management used many early operating systems assumes programs make voluntary use kernel memory manager exceed allocated memory system memory management almost never seen since programs often contain bugs cause exceed allocated memory program fails may cause memory used one programs affected overwritten malicious programs viruses may purposefully alter another program memory may affect operation operating system cooperative memory management takes one misbehaved program crash system memory protection enables kernel limit process access computer memory various methods memory protection exist including memory segmentation paging methods require level hardware support 80286 mmu n't exist computers segmentation paging certain protected mode registers specify cpu memory address allow running program access attempts access addresses trigger interrupt cause cpu re-enter supervisor mode placing kernel charge called segmentation violation seg-v short since difficult assign meaningful result operation usually sign misbehaving program kernel generally resorts terminating offending program reports error windows versions 3.1 level memory protection programs could easily circumvent need use general protection fault would produced indicating segmentation violation occurred however system would often crash anyway use virtual memory addressing paging segmentation means kernel choose memory program may use given time allowing operating system use memory locations multiple tasks program tries access memory n't current range accessible memory nonetheless allocated kernel interrupted way would program exceed allocated memory see section memory management unix kind interrupt referred page fault kernel detects page fault generally adjusts virtual memory range program triggered granting access memory requested gives kernel discretionary power particular application memory stored even whether actually allocated yet modern operating systems memory accessed less frequently temporarily stored disk media make space available use programs called swapping area memory used multiple programs memory area contains swapped exchanged demand virtual memory provides programmer user perception much larger amount ram computer really multitasking refers running multiple independent computer programs computer giving appearance performing tasks time since computers one two things one time generally done via time-sharing means program uses share computer time execute operating system kernel contains scheduling program determines much time process spends executing order execution control passed programs control passed process kernel allows program access cpu memory later control returned kernel mechanism another program may allowed use cpu so-called passing control kernel applications called context switch early model governed allocation time programs called cooperative multitasking model control passed program kernel may execute long wants explicitly returning control kernel means malicious malfunctioning program may prevent programs using cpu hang entire system enters infinite loop modern operating systems extend concepts application preemption device drivers kernel code operating system preemptive control internal run-times well philosophy governing preemptive multitasking ensuring programs given regular time cpu implies programs must limited much time allowed spend cpu without interrupted accomplish modern operating system kernels make use timed interrupt protected mode timer set kernel triggers return supervisor mode specified time elapsed see sections interrupts dual mode operation many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking perfectly adequate home computers generally run small number well tested programs amigaos exception preemptive multitasking first version windows nt first version microsoft windows enforced preemptive multitasking n't reach home user market windows xp since windows nt targeted professionals access data stored disks central feature operating systems computers store data disks using files structured specific ways order allow faster access higher reliability make better use drive available space specific way files stored disk called file system enables files names attributes also allows stored hierarchy directories folders arranged directory tree early operating systems generally supported single type disk drive one kind file system early file systems limited capacity speed kinds file names directory structures could use limitations often reflected limitations operating systems designed making difficult operating system support one file system many simpler operating systems support limited range options accessing storage systems operating systems like unix linux support technology known virtual file system vfs operating system unix supports wide array storage devices regardless design file systems allowing accessed common application programming interface api makes unnecessary programs knowledge device accessing vfs allows operating system provide programs access unlimited number devices infinite variety file systems installed use specific device drivers file system drivers connected storage device hard drive accessed device driver device driver understands specific language drive able translate language standard language used operating system access disk drives unix language block devices kernel appropriate device driver place access contents disk drive raw format may contain one file systems file system driver used translate commands used access specific file system standard set commands operating system use talk file systems programs deal file systems basis filenames directories/folders contained within hierarchical structure create delete open close files well gather various information including access permissions size free space creation modification dates various differences file systems make supporting file systems difficult allowed characters file names case sensitivity presence various kinds file attributes makes implementation single interface every file system daunting task operating systems tend recommend using support natively file systems specifically designed example ntfs windows ext3 reiserfs linux however practice third party drivers usually available give support widely used file systems general-purpose operating systems example ntfs available linux ntfs-3g ext2/3 reiserfs available windows third-party software support file systems highly varied among modern operating systems although several common file systems almost operating systems include support drivers operating systems vary file system support disk formats may installed windows file system usually limited application certain media example cds must use iso 9660 udf windows vista ntfs file system operating system installed possible install linux onto many types file systems unlike operating systems linux unix allow file system used regardless media stored whether hard drive disc cd dvd ... usb flash drive even contained within file located another file system device driver specific type computer software developed allow interaction hardware devices typically constitutes interface communicating device specific computer bus communications subsystem hardware connected providing commands and/or receiving data device end requisite interfaces operating system software applications specialized hardware-dependent computer program also operating system specific enables another program typically operating system applications software package computer program running operating system kernel interact transparently hardware device usually provides requisite interrupt handling necessary necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs key design goal device drivers abstraction every model hardware even within class device different newer models also released manufacturers provide reliable better performance newer models often controlled differently computers operating systems expected know control every device future solve problem operating systems essentially dictate every type device controlled function device driver translate operating system mandated function calls device specific calls theory new device controlled new manner function correctly suitable driver available new driver ensures device appears operate usual operating system point view versions windows vista versions linux 2.6 driver execution co-operative meaning driver entered infinite loop would freeze system recent revisions operating systems incorporate kernel preemption kernel interrupts driver give tasks separates process receives response device driver gives tasks currently operating systems support variety networking protocols hardware applications using means computers running dissimilar operating systems participate common network sharing resources computing files printers scanners using either wired wireless connections networks essentially allow computer operating system access resources remote computer support functions could resources connected directly local computer includes everything simple communication using networked file systems even sharing another computer graphics sound hardware network services allow resources computer accessed transparently ssh allows networked users direct access computer command line interface client/server networking allows program computer called client connect via network another computer called server servers offer host various services network computers users services usually provided ports numbered access points beyond server ip address port number usually associated maximum one running program responsible handling requests port daemon user program turn access local hardware resources computer passing requests operating system kernel many operating systems support one vendor-specific open networking protocols well example sna ibm systems decnet systems digital equipment corporation microsoft-specific protocols smb windows specific protocols specific tasks may also supported nfs file access protocols like esound esd easily extended network provide sound local applications remote system sound hardware computer secure depends number technologies working properly modern operating system provides access number resources available software running system external devices like networks via kernel operating system must capable distinguishing requests allowed processed others processed systems may simply distinguish privileged non-privileged systems commonly form requester identity user name establish identity may process authentication often username must quoted username may password methods authentication magnetic cards biometric data might used instead cases especially connections network resources may accessed authentication reading files network share also covered concept requester identity authorization particular services resources accessible requester logged system tied either requester user account variously configured groups users requester belongs addition allow disallow model security system high level security also offers auditing options would allow tracking requests access resources reading file internal security security already running program possible possibly harmful requests must carried interrupts operating system kernel programs directly access hardware resources secured external security involves request outside computer login connected console kind network connection external requests often passed device drivers operating system kernel passed onto applications carried directly security operating systems long concern highly sensitive data held computers commercial military nature united states government department defense dod created trusted computer system evaluation criteria tcsec standard sets basic requirements assessing effectiveness security became vital importance operating system makers tcsec used evaluate classify select trusted operating systems considered processing storage retrieval sensitive classified information network services include offerings file sharing print services email web sites file transfer protocols ftp compromised security front line security hardware devices known firewalls intrusion detection/prevention systems operating system level number software firewalls available well intrusion detection/prevention systems modern operating systems include software firewall enabled default software firewall configured allow deny network traffic service application running operating system therefore one install running insecure service telnet ftp threatened security breach firewall would deny traffic trying connect service port alternative strategy sandbox strategy available systems meet popek goldberg virtualization requirements operating system running user programs native code instead either emulates processor provides host p-code based system java internal security especially relevant multi-user systems allows user system private files users tamper read internal security also vital auditing use since program potentially bypass operating system inclusive bypassing auditing every computer operated individual requires user interface user interface usually referred shell essential human interaction supported user interface views directory structure requests services operating system acquire data input hardware devices keyboard mouse credit card reader requests operating system services display prompts status messages output hardware devices video monitor printer two common forms user interface historically command-line interface computer commands typed line-by-line graphical user interface visual environment commonly wimp present modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces gui often include computer systems original implementation classic mac os gui integrated kernel technically graphical user interface operating system service incorporating support one operating system kernel allow gui responsive reducing number context switches required gui perform output functions operating systems modular separating graphics subsystem kernel operating system 1980s unix vms many others operating systems built way linux macos also built way modern releases microsoft windows windows vista implement graphics subsystem mostly user-space however graphics drawing routines versions windows nt 4.0 windows server 2003 exist mostly kernel space windows 9x little distinction interface kernel many computer operating systems allow user install create user interface desire x window system conjunction gnome kde plasma 5 commonly found setup unix unix-like bsd linux solaris systems number windows shell replacements released microsoft windows offer alternatives included windows shell shell separated windows numerous unix-based guis existed time derived x11 competition among various vendors unix hp ibm sun led much fragmentation though effort standardize 1990s cose cde failed various reasons eventually eclipsed widespread adoption gnome k desktop environment prior free software-based toolkits desktop environments motif prevalent toolkit/desktop combination basis upon cde developed graphical user interfaces evolve time example windows modified user interface almost every time new major version windows released mac os gui changed dramatically introduction mac os x 1999 real-time operating system rtos operating system intended applications fixed deadlines real-time computing applications include small embedded systems automobile engine controllers industrial robots spacecraft industrial control large-scale computing systems early example large-scale real-time operating system transaction processing facility developed american airlines ibm sabre airline reservations system embedded systems fixed deadlines use real-time operating system vxworks pikeos ecos qnx montavista linux rtlinux windows ce real-time operating system shares similar apis desktop windows shares none desktop windows codebase symbian os also rtos kernel eka2 starting version 8.0b embedded systems use operating systems palm os bsd linux although operating systems support real-time computing operating system development one complicated activities computing hobbyist may engage hobby operating system may classified one whose code directly derived existing operating system users active developers cases hobby development support homebrew computing device example simple single-board computer powered 6502 microprocessor development may architecture already widespread use operating system development may come entirely new concepts may commence modeling existing operating system either case hobbyist his/her developer may interact small sometimes unstructured group individuals like interests examples hobby operating system include syllable templeos application software generally written use specific operating system sometimes even specific hardware porting application run another os functionality required application may implemented differently os names functions meaning arguments etc requiring application adapted changed otherwise maintained unix first operating system written assembly language making portable systems different native pdp-11 cost supporting operating systems diversity avoided instead writing applications software platforms java qt abstractions already borne cost adaptation specific operating systems system libraries another approach operating system vendors adopt standards example posix os abstraction layers provide commonalities reduce porting costs 1-hop neighbor's text information: ibm_pc_compatible.ibm pc compatible ibm pc compatible computers computers similar original ibm pc xt able use software expansion cards computers referred pc clones ibm clones duplicate almost exactly significant features pc architecture facilitated ibm choice commodity hardware components various manufacturers ability reverse engineer bios firmware using clean room design technique columbia data products built first clone ibm personal computer clean room implementation bios early ibm pc compatibles used computer bus original pc models ibm compatible bus later named industry standard architecture isa bus manufacturers compatible computers term ibm pc compatible historical description since ibm ended personal computer sales descendants ibm pc compatibles comprise majority personal computers market presently dominant operating system microsoft windows although interoperability bus structure peripherals original pc architecture may limited non-existent computers ran ms-dos enough hardware differences ibm compatible software could used examples include slight differences memory map serial ports video hardware macintosh kept significant market share without compatibility ibm pc ibm decided 1980 market low-cost single-user computer quickly possible 12 august 1981 first ibm pc went sale three operating systems os available least expensive popular pc dos made microsoft crucial concession ibm agreement allowed microsoft sell version ms-dos non-ibm computers component original pc architecture exclusive ibm bios basic input/output system ibm first asked developers avoid writing software addressed computer hardware directly instead make standard calls bios functions carried hardware-dependent operations software would run machine using ms-dos pc-dos software directly addressed hardware instead making standard calls faster however particularly relevant games software addressing ibm pc hardware way would run ms-dos machines different hardware ibm pc sold high enough volumes justify writing software specifically encouraged manufacturers produce machines could use programs expansion cards peripherals pc 808x computer marketplace rapidly excluded machines hardware- software-compatible pc 640 kb barrier conventional system memory available ms-dos legacy period non-clone machines subject limit could exceed 640 kb rumors lookalike compatible computers created without ibm approval began almost immediately ibm pc release infoworld wrote first anniversary ibm pc june 1983 pc magazine defined pc 'clone computer accommodate user takes disk home ibm pc walks across room plugs 'foreign machine shortage ibm pcs year many customers purchased clones instead columbia data products produced first computer less compatible ibm pc standard june 1982 soon followed eagle computer compaq announced first ibm pc compatible november 1982 compaq portable compaq first sewing machine-sized portable computer essentially 100 pc-compatible company could copy bios directly result court decision apple v. franklin could reverse-engineer ibm bios write bios using clean room design time many manufacturers tandy/radioshack xerox hewlett-packard digital equipment corporation sanyo texas instruments tulip wang olivetti introduced personal computers supported ms-dos completely software- hardware-compatible ibm pc tandy described tandy 2000 example 'next generation true 16-bit cpu speed disk storage expansion ibm pc ms-dos computers admitting 1984 many ms-dos programs support computer company stated popular sophisticated software market available either immediately next six months like ibm microsoft intention application writers would write application programming interfaces ms-dos firmware bios would form would termed hardware abstraction layer computer would original equipment manufacturer oem version ms-dos customized hardware software written ms-dos would operate ms-dos computer despite variations hardware design expectation seemed reasonable computer marketplace time microsoft based primarily computer languages basic established small system operating software cp/m digital research use hobbyist level professional using microcomputers achieve widespread use thus make product viable economically os operate across range machines different vendors widely varying hardware customers needed applications starter programs could reasonably expect publishers offer products variety computers suitable media microsoft competing os intended initially operate similar varied spectrum hardware although based 8086 processor thus ms-dos several years sold oem product microsoft-branded ms-dos ms-dos could purchased directly microsoft oem release packaged trade dress given pc vendor malfunctions reported oem microsoft however machines compatible ibm hardware—thus supporting direct calls hardware—became widespread soon became clear oem versions ms-dos virtually identical except perhaps provision utility programs ms-dos provided adequate functionality character-oriented applications could implemented text-only terminal bulk commercially important software nature low-level hardware compatibility might mattered however order provide maximum performance leverage hardware features work around hardware bugs pc applications quickly developed beyond simple terminal applications ms-dos supported directly spreadsheets wysiwyg word processors presentation software remote communication software established new markets exploited pc strengths required capabilities beyond ms-dos provided thus early development ms-dos software environment many significant commercial software products written directly hardware variety reasons may 1983 future computing defined four levels compatibility development compaq engineers found microsoft flight simulator would run sublogic bruce artwick described bug one intel chips forcing make new computer bug compatible ibm pc first clones compaq offered truly full compatibility jerry pournelle purchased ibm pc mid-1983 rotten keyboard four cubic feet unevaluated software much wo n't run anything ibm pc although lot machines claim 100 percent ibm pc compatible 've yet one arrive ... alas lot stuff n't run eagle z-100 compupro anything else around columbia university reported january 1984 kermit ran without modification compaq columbia data products clones eagle seequa ms-dos computers also required custom code many companies reluctant products pc compatibility tested pc magazine requested samples computer manufacturers claimed produce compatibles april 1984 review 14 31 declined corona data systems specified systems run software conforms ibm pc programming standards popular software byte journalist asked test peachtext spring 1983 comdex corona representatives hemmed hawed bit finally led ... corner one would see fail magazine reported hesitancy unnecessary disk booted without problem zenith data systems bolder bragging z-150 ran applications people brought test 1984 west coast computer faire creative computing 1985 stated reiterate standard line regarding ibm pc compatibles try package want use buy computer companies modified computers bios work newly discovered incompatible applications reviewers users developed stress tests measure compatibility 1984 ability operate lotus 1-2-3 flight simulator became standard compatibles specifically designed run ibm believed companies eagle corona handwell infringed copyright apple computer inc. v. franklin computer corp. successfully forced clone makers stop using bios phoenix bios 1984 however similar products ami bios permitted computer makers legally build essentially 100 -compatible clones without reverse-engineer pc bios september 1985 infoworld chart listed seven compatibles 256 kb ram two disk drives monochrome monitors 1,495 2,320 equivalent ibm pc cost 2,820 1986 compute stated clones generally reliable 99 percent compatible february 1984 byte wrote ibm burgeoning influence pc community stifling innovation many companies mimicking big blue market grew ibm influence diminished november 1985 pc magazine stated created pc market market n't necessarily need ibm machines may depend ibm set standards develop higher-performance machines ibm better conform existing standards hurt users january 1987 bruce webster wrote byte rumors ibm would introduce proprietary personal computers proprietary operating system cares ibm likely isolate largest marketplace really ca n't compete anymore anyway magazine predicted 1987 market complete transition ibm standard intel/ms-dos/expansion bus standard ... folks n't much concerned ibm compatibility lotus 1-2-3 compatibility 1992 macworld stated clones ibm lost control market became minor player technology ibm announced os/2-oriented ps/2 line early 1987 sales existing dos-compatible pc compatibles rose part proprietary operating system available 1988 gartner group estimated public purchased 1.5 clones every ibm pc 1989 compaq influential industry executives spoke compaq compatible observers stating customers saw company ibm equal 1987 ibm pc compatibles dominated home business markets commodity computers notable alternative architectures used niche markets like macintosh computers offered apple inc. used mainly desktop publishing time aging 8-bit commodore 64 selling 150 time became world best-selling computer 32-bit commodore amiga line used television video production 32-bit atari st used music industry however ibm lost main role market ibm pc compatibles 1990 events retrospect important despite popularity thinkpad set laptop pc ibm finally relinquished role consumer pc manufacturer april 2005 sold laptop desktop pc divisions lenovo us 1.75 billion october 2007 hewlett-packard dell largest shares pc market north america also successful overseas acer lenovo toshiba also notable worldwide huge number pcs white box systems assembled myriad local systems builders despite advances computer technology current ibm pc compatibles remain much compatible original ibm pc computers although components implement compatibility special backward compatibility modes used system boot often practical run old software modern system using emulator rather relying features 2014 lenovo acquired ibm x86-based server business us 2.1 billion one strengths pc compatible design modular hardware design end-users could readily upgrade peripherals degree processor memory without modifying computer motherboard replacing whole computer case many microcomputers time however processor speed memory width increased limits original xt/at bus design soon reached particularly driving graphics video cards ibm introduce upgraded bus ibm ps/2 computer overcame many technical limits xt/at bus rarely used basis ibm compatible computers since required licence payments ibm ps/2 bus prior at-bus designs produced company seeking license unpopular hardware manufacturers several competing bus standards developed consortiums agreeable license terms various attempts standardize interfaces made practice many attempts either flawed ignored even many expansion options despite confusion users pc compatible design advanced much faster competing designs time even market dominance 1990s ibm influence pc architecture started decline ibm-brand pc became exception rather rule instead placing importance compatibility ibm pc vendors began emphasize compatibility windows 1993 version windows nt released could operate processors x86 set required applications recompiled developers hardware independence used silicon graphics sgi x86 workstations–thanks nt hardware abstraction layer hal could operate nt vast application library mass-market personal computer hardware vendor dared incompatible latest version windows microsoft annual winhec conferences provided setting microsoft could lobby for—and cases dictate—the pace direction hardware pc industry microsoft intel become important ongoing development pc hardware industry writers began using word wintel refer combined hardware-software system terminology becoming misnomer intel lost absolute control direction x86 hardware development amd amd64 also non-windows operating systems like macos linux established presence x86 architecture although ibm pc designed expandability designers could anticipate hardware developments 1980s size industry would engender make things worse ibm choice intel 8088 cpu introduced several limitations developing software pc compatible platform example 8088 processor 20-bit memory addressing space expand pc beyond one megabyte lotus intel microsoft jointly created expanded memory ems bank-switching scheme allow memory provided add-in hardware accessed set four 16-kilobyte windows inside 20-bit addressing later intel cpus larger address spaces could directly address 16- megabytes mibs 80286 causing microsoft develop extended memory xms require additional hardware expanded extended memory incompatible interfaces anyone writing software used one megabyte provide systems greatest compatibility ms-dos began including emm386 simulated ems memory using xms memory protected mode os also written 80286 dos application compatibility difficult expected dos applications accessed hardware directly bypassing bios routines intended ensure compatibility also bios requests made first 32 interrupt vectors marked reserved protected mode processor exceptions intel video cards suffered incompatibilities standard interface using higher-resolution svga graphics modes supported later video cards manufacturer developed methods accessing screen memory including different mode numberings different bank switching arrangements latter used address large images within single 64kb segment memory previously vga standard used planar video memory arrangements effect easily extend greater colour depths higher resolutions offered svga adapters attempt creating standard named vesa bios extensions vbe made manufacturers used 386 introduced protected mode os could written time dos compatibility much easier virtual 8086 mode unfortunately programs could switch directly eventually new memory-model apis developed vcpi dpmi latter becoming popular great number third-party adapters standard programming pc could difficult professional developers would operate large test-suite various known-to-be-popular hardware combinations meanwhile consumers overwhelmed competing incompatible standards many different combinations hardware offer give idea sort pc would need operate software multimedia pc mpc standard set 1990 pc met minimum mpc standard could marketed mpc logo giving consumers easy-to-understand specification look software could operate minimally mpc-compliant pc would guaranteed operate mpc mpc level 2 mpc level 3 standards set later term mpc compliant never became popular mpc level 3 1996 mpc standards established late 1990s success microsoft windows driven rival commercial operating systems near-extinction ensured “ ibm pc compatible ” computer dominant computing platform meant developer made software wintel platform would still able reach vast majority computer users late 1980s major competitor windows percentage points market share apple inc. macintosh mac started billed computer rest us mac high prices closed architecture meant dos/windows onslaught quickly drove macintosh education desktop publishing niche emerged mid-2000s mid-1990s mac market share dwindled around 5 introducing new rival operating system become risky commercial venture experience shown even operating system technically superior windows would failure market beos os/2 example 1989 steve jobs said new next system either last new hardware platform succeed first fail four years later 1993 next announced ending production nextcube porting nextstep intel processors early pc history companies introduced xt-compatible chipsets example chips technologies introduced 82c100 xt controller integrated replaced six original xt circuits one 8237 dma controller one 8253 interrupt timer one 8255 parallel interface controller one 8259 interrupt controller one 8284 clock generator one 8288 bus controller similar non-intel chipsets appeared at-compatibles example opti 82c206 82c495xlc found many 486 early pentium systems x86 chipset market volatile though 1993 vlsi technology become dominant market player virtually wiped intel year later intel uncontested leader ever since wintel platform gained dominance intel gradually abandoned practice licensing technologies chipset makers 2010 intel involved litigation related refusal license processor bus related technologies companies like nvidia companies amd cyrix developed alternative cpus functionally compatible intel towards end 1990s amd taking increasing share cpu market pcs amd even ended playing significant role directing development x86 platform athlon line processors continued develop classic x86 architecture intel deviated netburst architecture pentium 4 cpus ia-64 architecture itanium set server cpus amd developed amd64 first major extension created intel intel later adopted x86-64 2006 intel began abandoning netburst release set core processors represented development earlier pentium iii major alternative wintel domination rise alternative operating systems since early 2000s marked start post-pc era term ibm pc compatible commonly used presently current mainstream desktop laptop computers based pc architecture ibm longer makes pcs competing hardware architectures either discontinued like amiga relegated niche enthusiast markets past successful exception apple macintosh platform used non-intel processors inception although macintosh initially based motorola 68000 family transitioned powerpc architecture macintosh computers transitioned intel processors beginning 2006 today macintosh computers share system architecture wintel counterparts boot microsoft windows without dos compatibility card processor speed memory capacity modern pcs many orders magnitude greater original ibm pc yet backwards compatibility largely maintained 32-bit operating system still operate many simpler programs written os early 1980s without needing emulator though emulator like dosbox near-native functionality full speed additionally many modern pcs still run dos directly although special options usb legacy mode sata-to-pata emulation may need set bios setup utility computers using extensible firmware interface might need set legacy bios mode able boot dos however bios/efi options mass-produced consumer-grade computers limited configured truly handle oses original variants dos recent spread x86-64 architecture distanced current computers operating systems internal similarity original ibm pc introducing yet another processor mode instruction set modified 64-bit addressing x86-64 capable processors also retain standard x86 compatibility 1-hop neighbor's text information: tandy_2000.tandy 2000 tandy 2000 personal computer introduced radio shack september 1983 based 8 mhz intel 80186 microprocessor running ms-dos comparison ibm pc xt introduced march 1983 used older 4.77 mhz 8088 processor ibm pc introduced 1984 would later use newer 6 mhz intel 80286 due 16-bit-wide data bus efficient instruction decoding 80186 tandy 2000 ran significantly faster pc compatibles slightly faster pc later ibm upgraded 80286 new pc models 8 mhz though wait states tandy 2000 company first computer built around intel x86 series microprocessor previous models used z80 68000 cpus touted compatible ibm xt tandy 2000 different enough existing pc software purely text-oriented failed work properly tandy 2000 special version ms-dos supported 768 kb ram significantly 640 kb limit imposed ibm architecture used 80-track double-sided quad-density floppy drives 720 kb capacity ibm standard time introduction tandy 2000 360 kb tandy 2000 tandy trs-80 logos case marking start phaseout trs-80 brand introduction ibm model 5150 personal computer august 1981 created entirely new market microcomputers many hardware software companies founded specifically exploit ibm microsoft new presence standard-setter small computers established manufacturers shifted focus well date tandy/radio shack small-computer market four years since august 1977 introduction trs-80 model new computer division followed october 1979 trs-80 model ii—a high-end business-oriented system 1983 trs-80 model 4 succeeded model iii replaced model consumer educational markets business segment trs-80 model 12 model 16 succeeded model ii adding higher-end features thus far tandy/radio shack computer lines occupied niches market proprietary system software applications tandy attempted monopolize software peripheral sales offering third-party products company stores ibm pc introduced nearest thing industry standard small computers cp/m-80 single manufacturer dominated 1983 ibm pc tandy discouraging third-party products halved company market share stopped profit growth tandy motive moving new ms-dos domain twofold capitalize new market leverage sales opportunities afforded solid position small computers marketing management believed many tandy customers would prefer stay tandy products inevitably seemed made jump onto burgeoning ibm/microsoft bandwagon figured company well-positioned regard large base customers consumer business markets z80-based trs-80 models i/iii/4 68000-based models 12 16 respectively tandy large presence computer retailer several thousand radio shack stores throughout us deemed advantage well pc manufacturers especially ibm relied mainly sales corporate accounts consumer retail tandy/radio shack thus company would become market leader offering hottest new trend—affordable 16-bit computers running ms-dos—directly computing public therefore tandy would produce ibm-style computer running industry-standard ms-dos company decided distinguish similar products producing better computer new machine would aimed mid-price market high-end consumers low-end businesses deemed prudent order seriously cannibalize current product lines serving market segments big-name computer manufacturers made leap pc/ms-dos market half 100 popular pc programs incompatible 2000 including killer app lotus 1-2-3 tandy realize similar non-compatible computers dec ti eagle successful strategy offering high-performance pc genesis tandy 2000 technical specifications rival computers improved pc hardware matched tandy 2000 one two dimensions none offered across-the-board enhancement except noted ran ms-dos incompatible ibm pc hardware level copycat computers competed primarily lower pricing like tandy exploiting installed customer bases tandy described 2000 'next generation true 16-bit cpu speed disk storage expansion ibm pc ms-dos computers admitting 1984 many ms-dos programs support computer company stated popular sophisticated software market available either immediately next six months two models tandy 2000 introduced dual-drive floppy-only model 2,750 2000hd single floppy drive half-height 10 mb hard drive 4,250 dual-floppy model 128 kb ram hard-drive-equipped 2000hd 256 kb comparison time low-end trs-80 model 4 two floppy drives cost 1,999 high-end model 16 two floppy drives cost 4,699 tandy executive ed juge said within six months tandy realized erred 2000 early 1985 infoworld reported tandy introduced tandy 1000 found market prefers true pc compatibility 2000 incomplete compatibility tandy 2000 received lukewarm welcome market computer press inability run popular ms-dos applications anticipated tandy time accepted practice new software created new computer came market also many pc-style computers manufacturers hardware-compatible ibm pc though company supported machine hardware add-ons software tailored specially including bestsellers like lotus 1-2-3 autocad computer failed gain popular acceptance never developed would late 1986 introduction tandy 3000 tandy offered pc-style computer performance comparable tandy 2000 tandy 2000 marketed early 1988 continual price cuts eventually closed 999 remaining unsold computers converted radio shack store operations terminals coincidentally one backup plans original trs-80 model four card slots back could accept expansion boards without need open case using rail system available expansion boards/cards included tandy 2000 nominally bios-compatible ibm xt allowed well-behaved dos software run platforms however dos software time bypassed operating system bios directly accessed hardware especially video external ports achieve higher performance rendering software incompatible tandy 2000 base-model tandy 2000 supported text-mode display monochrome tandy vm-1 monitor used 8-pin video port computer rear panel text-mode address space different location third-party memory-resident software hacks remedied copying pc-compatible text-mode memory tandy 2000 text space rate 5–10 times per second sometimes caused choppiness display produced fast text display rate—often fast read—but 'hold key keyboard could used pause text output bit pattern text character raster image maintained ram could modified user clever programming display ability present fine lines provided 640x400 screen resolution could accessed text mode even without optional graphics board display upgradable support pixel-addressable graphics via tandy 2000 graphics adapter circuit board fit expansion slot connector monochrome vm-1 monitor video connector rear-panel cabinet disabled expansion board installed graphics resolution 640x400 supported high intensity pixels color capability provided color graphics option set chips inserted empty sockets monochrome graphics adapter provided purpose resolution color board 640x400 non-interlaced eight colors palette sixteen available colors displayable tandy cm-1 monitor 799 particularly high-resolution colorful display day cm-1 accepted input color graphics board digital rgbi signals indicating separate red green blue signals intensity bit cga compatibility hit-or-miss three non-tandy monitors worked tandy 2000 graphics card long production original 1986–88 mitsubishi diamond scan nippon electronics corporation nec multisync multisync gs grayscale required horizontal scan frequency tandy 2000 26.4 khz modern flat-screen multisync computer monitors sync frequencies 30 khz cm-1 monitor also digital rgb modern crt monitors analog-only tandy 2000 used quad-density 5.25 floppy disks formatted 720k format 80-track disks double-density bitrate used pc-compatibles although cp/m machines commodore 8050/8250 drives normal pcs time 40-track double-density floppy drives could read quad-density due drive heads wide read narrower tracks 1.2mb 5.25 drives introduced ibm could read quad-density disks 80-track thinner heads various utility programs dos existed allowed nonstandard formats tandy 2000 disks read much like 1.2mb drives tandy 2000 problems reliably writing 360k pc disks due smaller heads completely erasing tracks causing 40-track drives become confused residual magnetic signals outer edge track tandy distributed computer utility called pc-maker would read format 40-track disks 2000s 80-track drives readable drives ordinary pcs floppy controller tandy 2000 accept 3.5 low-density 720 kb floppy drives may 2019 abandonware site winworldpc.com available download disk image latest version ms-dos tandy 2000 includes instructions using ibm 1.2mb 5.25-inch disk drive 80-track create system disk bootable tandy 2000 5.25-inch drive procedure also used create bootable 3.5-inch system disk using ordinary 720kb 3.5-inch pc drive boot tandy 2000 5.25-inch boot drive replaced low-density 720 kb 3.5 inch pc drive keyboard entirely new design made expressly tandy 2000 would later keyboard shipped tandy 1000 successors arrangement function keys changed ibm pc/xt ten left hand side keyboard two columns five tandy among first pc manufacturers change modern arrangement twelve function keys arranged horizontally across top ibm gave nod new standard making arrangement pc-at keyboard serial port hardware completely different pc/xt pc-compatible terminal emulation software either maintain strict bios usage serial hardware else use fossil driver software wrapper virtualized serial hardware see also dec rainbow allowing terminal software work wider variety hardware several terminal programs available tandy 2000 making possible log bbs e-mail remote systems tandy 2000 required specific version ms-dos would run machine standard ms-dos pc dos generic ibm-compatibles would run tandy 2000 standard practice microsoft expectation time customized version ms-dos would prepared different machine i/o drivers designed hardware model highest version dos tandy corporation released tandy 2000 2.11.03 minor third-party patches fact modified version windows 1.0 able run tandy 2000 ms-dos tandy 2000 resided entirely ram unlike ibm pcs contained bios portion os rom complete ms-dos system bios bdos occupied 53 kb ram means ram required run applications tandy 2000 little greater however tandy 2000 fared better comparison later ibm pc-at required run ms-dos version 3.x order operate 1.2 mb floppy drives hard drive version 3 ms-dos rather larger version 2.x running tandy 2000 also proved advantageous tandy 2000 os resided entirely ram therefore could updated hacked rather less effort microsoft basic interpreter supplied computer highly customized tandy 2000 hardware particularly high-resolution color graphics although ibm produced enhanced graphics adapter little year later october 1984 microsoft basic interpreter would support greater color resolution capabilities 1988 tandy/radio shack produced print advertising featuring bill gates microsoft extolling superior performance tandy 2000 advantageous microsoft development windows 1.0 software packages released tandy 2000 included wordperfect 4.2 wp5.1 could work software patches lotus 1-2-3 ashton-tate framework dbase multimate autocad lumena time arts shareware office programs complete line microsoft language products microsoft released version xenix tandy 2000 used western digital vianet network card distributed tandy better basic tandy 2000 pc used write bbs software tandy 2000 later ported ibm pc radio shack deskmate also used tandy 2000 tandy 1000 micropro wordstar versions 3.3 4.0 would run tandy 2000 provided user ran winstall installation utility prompted type video display used selected rom bios would result functional installation none t2000 special features would operative except increased speed version lotus 1-2-3 offered tandy 2000 release 1a customized take advantage unique hardware computer including full 768k ram high resolution color graphics two extra function keys release 1a executable code 60 kb smaller later release 2 provided greater macro programming facilities extra space data additional 128 kb ram available fully expanded tandy 2000 made possible construct larger worksheets later pcs running release 2 advent machines expanded memory nearly two years following introduction tandy 2000 top performer processing large models lotus 1-2-3 tandy 2000 720 kb floppy drives distinct advantage running lotus large enough store even largest worksheets single diskette stark contrast ibm pc xt 360 kb floppy disks order store largest worksheets pc user would split save two disks—and 'd recombine memory later although xt hard drive could store large lotus worksheets single file user could rely single storage device permanent storage important data files 'd forced segment worksheets storage separate disks tandy 2000 large-capacity floppy disks made backup maintenance relatively effortless tandy dropped support tandy 2000 group users formed tandy 2000 orphans software reviews software hardware hacks shareware/freeware repository discovered amateur programmers many commercial ms-dos applications needed minor modifications function tandy 2000 unique hardware also bbs based texas extensive library compatible software available download neither bbs web-based descendant active today Target text information: mindset_(computer).mindset computer mindset released spring 1984 intel 80186-based ms-dos personal computer unlike ibm pc compatibles time custom graphics hardware supporting 16 simultaneous colors chosen 512-shade palette hardware-accelerated drawing capabilities including blitter allowed update screen 50 times fast cga adaptor standard pc basic unit priced conceptually similar successful commodore amiga released year later due financial legal complications spite glowing reviews system never sold well disappeared market year lamented industry commenters looked event first clear evidence end innovation favor compatibility distinctive case remains permanent collection museum modern art new york computer systems era cpu used create graphics drawing bit patterns directly memory separate hardware reads patterns produces actual video signal display mindset designed ex-atari engineers added new custom-designed vlsi vector processor handle many common drawing tasks like lines filling areas instead cpu work changing memory directly mindset cpu would simply set instructions hand actual bit fiddling separate processor mindset president compared chipset intel 8087 floating point processor running alongside intel 80186 machine based number parallels mindset amiga 1000 another computer designed ex-atari engineers offered advanced graphics development continued became clear machine would ready ms-dos-based microsoft windows 1.0 bill gates became personally involved project assist mindset emulating ibm character graphics without losing performance mindset officials determined desirable software compatible development frozen os burned rom late 1983 rom run 20 pc software base including microsoft flight simulator wordstar one pc applications reported run mindset publicized list 60 applications ran unmodified software base expected increase dramatically final version windows released release early 1984 jack tramiel rumored tried buy mindset technology would also amiga ultimately buying atari designing new machine off-the-shelf parts atari st mindset released 2 may 1984 base model 64k ram floppy disk drive sold us 1099 128k model single disk available 1,798 256k dual-disk version cost 2,398 disk-less version machine still usable system also included two rom cartridge ports front machine could used operating system another program canonical cartridge extended version gw-basic machine packaged unique enclosure designed gvo menlo park visually separated two sections rom slots lower half optional diskettes upper half sold complete custom nylon carrying case mindset president claimed graphics capabilities unmatched except us 50,000 workstations time garnered critical acclaim reviewers universally praising graphics overall performance much faster contemporary pcs although many cases caveat market rapidly standardizing summer 1985 clear system selling expected company re-purposed video production graphics design markets followed august round layoffs another january time half employees let go company filed chapter 11 protection 28 august never emerged 1985 clear system living promise windows 1.0 flop general john j. anderson published review system decrying personal computer market beginning value compatibility technology noted base system unit referred model m1001 later mindset ii computer released badge engineered version m1001 adhesive label designating ii embossed name internally video processor board separate mini-daughterboard enhanced functionality totally understood mindset ii advanced professional videographics system users guide makes mention chaining two mindset mindset ii referred front user guide model m1500 however internal pages reference m1000-ii also make mention mindset video production module model m1011 system architecture based intel 80186 proprietary vlsi chips enhanced sped graphics although disk compatible ibm pc dos enhanced graphics capabilities made achieving full ibm compatibility difficult competitors bill gates became involved development assisting mindset emulating ibm character graphics without losing performance mindset officials determined desirable software compatible development frozen os burned rom locked 20 pc software base including microsoft flight simulator wordstar one pc applications reported run mindset publicized list 60 applications ran unmodified software base expected increase dramatically final version windows released mindset design modular many aspects top case opening access system bus allowed expansion module plug main computer module add memory one two disk drives mindset designed several ex-atari engineers like amiga 1000 another computer era advanced graphics subsystem modular expandability jack tramiel forming ttl – tramiel technologies limited tried buy mindset technology spring 1984 dual 5.25 floppy drive module sat main unit available part common sales configuration system module also included expansion memory well mindset dual front-mounted rom cartridge ports locking knob left side main computer module lock rom modules place mindset option system configuration utility able select whether system booted left right rom carts disk drive cartridges could also contain cmos ram would retained unplugged battery cartridge case cartridges envisioned primary medium software distribution mindset sales system low cartridges economical software distributed disk instead released 1984 models m1001 mindset computer bios rom code 1.07 earlier show copyright notice c 1983 mindset computer corp rear computer equipped following ports rear main computer module also 3× 36 pin expansion bus slots dual disk/memory expansion unit adds additional 3 36 pin expansion bus slots system note noticeable internal external differences dual disk drive/memory expansion modules marked model m1003 others found marked m1004 I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	3	Computer Architecture	wikics	9,212	val
1-hop neighbor's text information: dynamic_host_configuration_protocol.dynamic host configuration protocol dynamic host configuration protocol dhcp network management protocol used udp/ip networks whereby dhcp server dynamically assigns ip address network configuration parameters device network communicate ip networks dhcp server enables computers request ip addresses networking parameters automatically internet service provider isp reducing need network administrator user manually assign ip addresses network devices absence dhcp server computer device network needs manually assigned ip address assign apipa address enable communicate outside local subnet dhcp implemented networks ranging size home networks large campus networks regional internet service provider networks router residential gateway enabled act dhcp server residential network routers receive globally unique ip address within isp network within local network dhcp server assigns local ip address device connected network 1984 reverse address resolution protocol rarp defined rfc 903 introduced allow simple devices diskless workstations dynamically obtain suitable ip address however acted data link layer made implementation difficult many server platforms also required server present individual network link rarp superseded bootstrap protocol bootp defined rfc 951 september 1985 introduced concept relay agent allowed forwarding bootp packets across networks allowing one central bootp server serve hosts many ip subnets dhcp based bootp dynamically allocate ip addresses pool reclaim longer use also used deliver wide range extra configuration parameters ip clients including platform-specific parameters dhcp first defined rfc 1531 october 1993 due errors editorial process almost immediately reissued rfc 1541 four years later dhcpinform message type small changes added rfc 2131 remains standard ipv4 networks dhcpv6 initially described rfc 3315 2003 updated many subsequent rfcs rfc 3633 added dhcpv6 mechanism prefix delegation stateless address autoconfiguration added rfc 3736 udp/ip defines devices one network communicate devices another network dhcp server manage udp/ip settings devices network automatically dynamically assigning ip addresses devices dhcp operates based client–server model computer device connects network dhcp client software sends dhcp broadcast query requesting necessary information dhcp server network may service request dhcp server manages pool ip addresses information client configuration parameters default gateway domain name name servers time servers receiving dhcp request dhcp server may respond specific information client previously configured administrator specific address information valid entire network time period allocation lease valid dhcp client typically queries information immediately booting periodically thereafter expiration information dhcp client refreshes assignment initially requests parameter values dhcp server may assign new address based assignment policies set administrators large networks consist multiple links single dhcp server may service entire network aided dhcp relay agents located interconnecting routers agents relay messages dhcp clients dhcp servers located different subnets depending implementation dhcp server may three methods allocating ip addresses dhcp used internet protocol version 4 ipv4 ipv6 versions serve purpose details protocol ipv4 ipv6 differ sufficiently may considered separate protocols ipv6 operation devices may alternatively use stateless address autoconfiguration ipv6 hosts may also use link-local addressing achieve operations restricted local network link dhcp employs connectionless service model using user datagram protocol udp implemented two udp port numbers operations bootstrap protocol bootp udp port number 67 destination port server udp port number 68 used client dhcp operations fall four phases server discovery ip lease offer ip lease request ip lease acknowledgement stages often abbreviated dora discovery offer request acknowledgement dhcp operation begins clients broadcasting request client server different subnets dhcp helper dhcp relay agent may used clients requesting renewal existing lease may communicate directly via udp unicast since client already established ip address point additionally broadcast flag 1 bit 2 byte flags field bits reserved set 0 client use indicate way broadcast unicast receive dhcpoffer 0x8000 broadcast 0x0000 unicast usually dhcpoffer sent unicast hosts accept unicast packets ip addresses configured flag used work around issue dhcp client broadcasts dhcpdiscover message network subnet using destination address 255.255.255.255 limited broadcast specific subnet broadcast address directed broadcast dhcp client may also request last known ip address client remains connected network server may grant request otherwise depends whether server set authoritative authoritative server denies request causing client issue new request non-authoritative server simply ignores request leading implementation-dependent timeout client expire request ask new ip address example htype set 1 specify medium used ethernet hlen set 6 ethernet address mac address 6 octets long chaddr set mac address used client options set well dhcp server receives dhcpdiscover message client ip address lease request dhcp server reserves ip address client makes lease offer sending dhcpoffer message client message contains client client id traditionally mac address ip address server offering subnet mask lease duration ip address dhcp server making offer dhcp server may also take notice hardware-level mac address underlying transport layer according current rfcs transport layer mac address may used client id provided dhcp packet dhcp server determines configuration based client hardware address specified chaddr client hardware address field server 192.168.1.1 specifies client ip address yiaddr ip address field response dhcp offer client replies dhcprequest message broadcast server requesting offered address client receive dhcp offers multiple servers accept one dhcp offer based required server identification option request broadcast messaging servers informed whose offer client accepted dhcp servers receive message withdraw offers made client return offered ip address pool available addresses dhcp server receives dhcprequest message client configuration process enters final phase acknowledgement phase involves sending dhcpack packet client packet includes lease duration configuration information client might requested point ip configuration process completed protocol expects dhcp client configure network interface negotiated parameters client obtains ip address probe newly received address e.g arp address resolution protocol prevent address conflicts caused overlapping address pools dhcp servers dhcp client may request information server sent original dhcpoffer client may also request repeat data particular application example browsers use dhcp inform obtain web proxy settings via client sends request dhcp server release dhcp information client deactivates ip address client devices usually know users may unplug network protocol mandate sending dhcp release dhcp server provide optional configuration parameters client rfc 2132 describes available dhcp options defined internet assigned numbers authority iana dhcp bootp parameters dhcp client select manipulate overwrite parameters provided dhcp server unix-like systems client-level refinement typically takes place according values configuration file /etc/dhclient.conf options octet strings varying length first octet option code second octet number following octets remaining octets code dependent example dhcp message-type option offer would appear 0x35 0x01 0x02 0x35 code 53 dhcp message type 0x01 means one octet follows 0x02 value offer following tables list available dhcp options listed rfc 2132 iana registry option exists identify vendor functionality dhcp client information variable-length string characters octets meaning specified vendor dhcp client one method dhcp client utilize communicate server using certain type hardware firmware set value dhcp requests called vendor class identifier vci option 60 method allows dhcp server differentiate two kinds client machines process requests two types modems appropriately types set-top boxes also set vci option 60 inform dhcp server hardware type functionality device value option set gives dhcp server hint required extra information client needs dhcp response relay agent information option option 82 specifies container attaching sub-options dhcp requests transmitted dhcp relay dhcp server small networks one ip subnet managed dhcp clients communicate directly dhcp servers however dhcp servers also provide ip addresses multiple subnets case dhcp client yet acquired ip address communicate directly dhcp server using ip routing routable ip address know link layer address router know ip address dhcp server order allow dhcp clients subnets directly served dhcp servers communicate dhcp servers dhcp relay agents installed subnets dhcp client broadcasts local link relay agent receives broadcast transmits one dhcp servers using unicast relay agent stores ip address field giaddr field dhcp packet dhcp server uses giaddr-value determine subnet relay agent received broadcast allocates ip address subnet dhcp server replies client sends reply giaddr-address using unicast relay agent retransmits response local network situation communication relay agent dhcp server typically uses source destination udp port 67 dhcp ensures reliability several ways periodic renewal rebinding failover dhcp clients allocated leases last period time clients begin attempt renew leases half lease interval expired sending unicast dhcprequest message dhcp server granted original lease server unreachable fail respond dhcprequest however case client repeats dhcprequest time time dhcp server comes back becomes reachable dhcp client succeed contacting renew lease dhcp server unreachable extended period time dhcp client attempt rebind broadcasting dhcprequest rather unicasting broadcast dhcprequest message reach available dhcp servers dhcp server able renew lease time order rebinding work client successfully contacts backup dhcp server server must accurate information client binding maintaining accurate binding information two servers complicated problem servers able update lease database must mechanism avoid conflicts updates independent servers proposal implementing fault-tolerant dhcp servers submitted internet engineering task force never formalized rebinding fails lease eventually expire lease expires client must stop using ip address granted lease time restart dhcp process beginning broadcasting codice_1 message since lease expired accept ip address offered new ip address presumably different dhcp server able use network however since ip address changed ongoing connections broken 2018 dhcp remains widely-used automatically assign ip addresses newer iterations assigning ip addresses include dhcpv6 slaac base dhcp include mechanism authentication vulnerable variety attacks attacks fall three main categories client way validate identity dhcp server unauthorized dhcp servers commonly called rogue dhcp operated networks providing incorrect information dhcp clients serve either denial-of-service attack preventing client gaining access network connectivity man-in-the-middle attack dhcp server provides dhcp client server ip addresses ip address one dns servers attacker convince dhcp client dns lookups dns server therefore provide answers dns queries client turn allows attacker redirect network traffic allowing eavesdrop connections client network servers contacts simply replace network servers dhcp server secure mechanism authenticating client clients gain unauthorized access ip addresses presenting credentials client identifiers belong dhcp clients also allows dhcp clients exhaust dhcp server store ip addresses—by presenting new credentials time asks address client consume available ip addresses particular network link preventing dhcp clients getting service dhcp provide mechanisms mitigating problems relay agent information option protocol extension rfc 3046 usually referred industry actual number option 82 allows network operators attach tags dhcp messages messages arrive network operator trusted network tag used authorization token control client access network resources client access network upstream relay agent lack authentication prevent dhcp server operator relying authorization token another extension authentication dhcp messages rfc 3118 provides mechanism authenticating dhcp messages 2002 nowiki rfc 3118 /nowiki seen widespread adoption problems managing keys large numbers dhcp clients 2007 book dsl technologies remarked numerous security vulnerabilities identified security measures proposed rfc 3118 fact combined introduction 802.1x slowed deployment take-rate authenticated dhcp never widely deployed 2010 book notes implementations dhcp authentication challenges key management processing delays due hash computation deemed heavy price pay perceived benefits architectural proposals 2008 involve authenticating dhcp requests using 802.1x pana transport eap ietf proposal made including eap dhcp so-called eapodhcp appear progressed beyond ietf draft level last dates 2010 1-hop neighbor's text information: unixware.unixware unixware unix operating system originally released univel jointly owned venture unix system laboratories usl novell taken novell via santa cruz operation sco went caldera systems caldera international sco group sold unxis xinuos unixware typically deployed server rather desktop binary distributions unixware available x86 architecture computers unixware primarily marketed server operating system svr4 effort merge sunos system v unix system laboratories usl formed univel partnership novell develop desktop version unix codenamed destiny destiny based unix system v release 4.2 kernel moolit toolkit used windowing system allowing user choose open look motif-like look feel run time order make system robust commodity desktop hardware veritas vxfs journaling file system used place ufs file system used svr4 networking support unixware included tcp/ip interoperability novell netware protocols ipx/spx former standard among unix users time development pc networking much commonly based netware destiny released 1992 unixware 1.0 intention unifying fragmented pc unix market behind single variant operating system system earlier reach corporate computing market microsoft windows nt observers period remarked unixware another flavor unix novell involvement marketing ploy significant influx technology os existed two editions personal edition included novell ipx networking tcp/ip advanced server edition tcp/ip server software personal edition limited two active users server edition included unlimited user license around 35,000 copies unixware 1.0 sold 1993 novell purchased usl merged usl univel new unix systems group 1994 novell released unixware 1.1 included tcp/ip personal advanced server editions motif 1.2 runtime libraries included cose compliance nuc netware unix client software included integration novell netware servers advanced merge application installed server personal editions allow running dos windows 3.1 applications novell later released bug-fix versions 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 finally 1.1.4 19 june 1995 unixware 2.0 based unix system v release 4.2mp kernel added support multiprocessing began shipping oems developers december 1994 consumer market march 1995 personal server editions supported two processor systems possibility buying extra processor upgrade licenses server edition supported multiprocessor systems included standard intel mp 1.1 smp machines corollary c-bus systems system supported netware odi network drivers effort increase number supported network interfaces new features release included posix threads library addition older ui threads library sco licensed unixware 1995 novell also announced project create supernos based netware 4.1 unixware 2.0 technologies future however never materialized instead netware 4.10 server linux offered caldera netware linux openlinux since 1998 novell open enterprise server finally came 2005 1995 santa cruz operation sco acquired unixware novell exact terms transaction disputed see sco vs novell courts subsequently determined novell retained ownership unix transfer made public sco announced would work towards merging unixware openserver svr3.2 based os first release unixware sco version 2.1 1996 release unixware 2.1 announced proposed unixware/openserver merger known project gemini available 1997 64-bit version unixware developed 1998 one controversial change adoption openserver like user licensing policy univel novell releases unixware allowed 2 users personal edition unlimited numbers users server edition unixware 2.1 server edition included license 5 users customers wanting users could buy 10 25 100 500 unlimited user license extensions sco released three updates unixware 2.1 unixware 2.1.1 released 1996 achieved unix 95 branding unixware 2.1.2 2.1.3 available 1998 largely bug fix releases 1998 compaq released package known integrity xc consisting single-system image cluster proliant servers version unixware 2.1 unixware nonstop clusters first results gemini project made available early 1998 unixware 7 sco named kernel version unix system v release 5 system largely based unixware 2.1 features driver compatibility openserver allowing use openserver network drivers system administration utilities openserver scoadmin replaced original unixware sysadm utility major new features unixware 7 included multi-path i/o large files file systems support large memory systems unixware 7 lacked xenix compatibility features ancestors licensing reasons avoid paying microsoft code included svr3.2 1999 sco released unixware 7.1 update increased number editions business 5-user department 25 user enterprise 50 user editions replaced earlier personal server editions webtop application tarantella inc. included 2000 sco released unixware 7.1.1 update simultaneously unixware nonstop clusters 7.1.1+ip single-system image cluster package released new package allowed commodity hardware used well proprietary compaq hardware supported earlier integrity xc product directly available sco 2 august 2000 santa cruz operation sco announced would sell server software services divisions well rights openserver unixware products caldera systems march 2001 caldera systems became caldera international cii sco purchase completed may 2001 remaining part santa cruz operation company tarantella division changed name tarantella inc. caldera international initial release unixware renamed openunix 8 release would unixware 7.1.2 caldera international renamed sco group august 2002 broadening product line include mobile products services later newly renamed sco group reverted previous unixware brand version release numbering releasing unixware 7.1.3 7.1.4 openunix releases made available openunix 8.1.2 ou812 never released sco group continued maintain unixware issues periodic maintenance updates support 2007 2011 sco group engaged series legal battles september 2007 sco group filed chapter 11 bankruptcy protection 11 april 2011 unxis bought sco group operating assets intellectual property rights approved bankruptcy court delaware sco group inc. renamed tsg group inc. sco operations inc. became tsg operations inc. august 2012 filed convert chapter 11 chapter 7 rights unixware well openserver acquired unxis 2011 june 2013 unxis renamed xinuos announced product availability sco unixware 7.1.4+ supporting physical virtual machines versions unixware included significant open source components including bind/x11/sendmail/dhcp/perl/tcl others later releases bundled numerous additional open source applications including apache samba mysql postgresql openssh mozilla software versions sco operating system distributions including unixware also extensive set open source packages available free download via sco skunkware site 1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_microsoft_operating_systems.list microsoft operating systems following list microsoft written published operating systems codenames microsoft gave operating systems see microsoft codenames another list versions microsoft windows see list microsoft windows versions releases windows windows 2000 part windows nt family Target text information: arpa_host_name_server_protocol.arpa host name server protocol arpa host name server protocol nameserver obsolete network protocol used translating host name internet address iana transmission control protocol tcp user datagram protocol udp port 42 nameserver port commonly used windows internet name service wins microsoft operating systems nameserver protocol used darpa trivial name server server process called tnamed provided implementations unix support nameserver protocol deprecated may available latest implementations unix operating systems domain name system dns replaced arpa host name server protocol darpa trivial name server I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	5	Internet Protocols	wikics	10,698	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: next.next next inc. later next computer inc. next software inc. american computer software company founded 1985 apple computer co-founder steve jobs name usually pronounced next based redwood city california company developed manufactured series computer workstations intended higher education business markets next founded jobs fired apple along several co-workers next introduced first next computer 1988 smaller nextstation 1990 next computers experienced relatively limited sales estimates 50,000 units shipped total nevertheless innovative object-oriented nextstep operating system development environment interface builder highly influential first major outside investment ross perot invested seeing segment next entrepreneurs 1987 invested 20 million exchange 16 percent next stock subsequently joined board directors 1988 next later released much nextstep system programming environment standard called openstep next withdrew hardware business 1993 concentrate marketing openstep mach openstep implementation several original equipment manufacturers oems next also developed webobjects one first enterprise web application frameworks webobjects never became popular initial high price 50,000 remains prominent early example web server based dynamic page generation rather static content apple purchased next 1997 429 million equivalent million 1.5 million shares apple stock part agreement steve jobs chairman ceo next software returned apple company co-founded 1976 founder promised merge software next apple hardware platforms eventually resulting macos ios watchos tvos operating systems completely based upon nextstep openstep foundation 1985 apple co-founder steve jobs led apple supermicro division responsible development macintosh lisa personal computers macintosh successful university campuses partly apple university consortium allowed students institutions buy computers discount consortium earned 50 million computers february 1984 chairman jobs visited university departments faculty members sell macintosh jobs met paul berg nobel laureate chemistry luncheon held silicon valley honor françois mitterrand president france berg frustrated expense teaching students recombinant dna textbooks instead wet laboratories used testing analysis chemicals drugs materials biological matter wet labs prohibitively expensive lower-level courses complex simulated personal computers time berg suggested jobs use influence apple create 3m computer workstation higher education featuring least one megabyte random-access memory ram megapixel display megaflops performance hence name 3m jobs intrigued berg concept workstation contemplated starting higher education computer company fall 1985 amidst increasing turmoil apple jobs division release upgraded versions macintosh much macintosh office system result sales plummeted apple forced write millions dollars unsold inventory apple chief executive officer ceo john sculley ousted jobs day-to-day role apple replacing jean-louis gassée 1985 later year jobs began power struggle regain control company board directors sided sculley jobs took business visit western europe soviet union behalf apple several months sidelined jobs resigned apple september 13 1985 told board leaving set new computer company would taking several apple employees supermicro division also told board new company would compete apple might even consider licensing designs back market macintosh brand jobs named new company next inc. number former apple employees followed next including joanna hoffman bud tribble george crow rich page susan barnes susan kare dan l lewin consulting major educational buyers around country including follow-up meeting paul berg tentative specification workstation drawn designed powerful enough run wet lab simulations cheap enough college students use dormitory rooms specifications finished however apple sued next nefarious schemes take advantage cofounders insider information jobs remarked hard think 2 billion company 4,300-plus people could n't compete six people blue jeans suit eventually dismissed trial 1986 jobs recruited famous graphic designer paul rand create brand identity costing 100,000 jobs recalled asked would come options said 'no solve problem pay ’ use solution want options go talk people rand created 20-page brochure detailing brand including precise angle used logo 28° new company name spelling next next changed business plan mid-1986 company decided develop computer hardware software instead low-end workstation team led avie tevanian joined company working one mach kernel engineers carnegie mellon university develop nextstep operating system hardware division led rich page — one cofounders previously led apple lisa team — designed developed hardware next first factory completed fremont california 1987 capable producing 150,000 machines per year next first workstation officially named next computer although widely termed cube distinctive case 1 ft magnesium cube designed apple iic case designer frogdesign accordance edict jobs original design team anticipated releasing computer us 3,000 spring 1987 ready sale summer year next computer received standing ovations revealed lavish invitation-only gala event next introduction — introduction next generation computers education louise m. davies symphony hall san francisco california wednesday october 12 1988 following day selected educators software developers invited 100 registration fee attend first public technical overview next computer event called next day held san francisco hilton event gave developers interested developing next software insight software architecture object-oriented programming developing next computer luncheon speaker steve jobs first machines tested 1989 next started selling limited numbers universities beta version nextstep operating system installed initially next computer targeted u.s. higher education establishments base price 6,500 machine widely reviewed magazines generally concentrating hardware asked upset computer debut delayed several months jobs responded late computer five years ahead time next computer based new 25 mhz motorola 68030 central processing unit cpu motorola 88000 risc chip originally considered available sufficient quantities included 8 64 mb random-access memory ram 256 mb magneto-optical mo drive 40 mb swap-only 330 mb 660 mb hard disk drive 10base2 ethernet nubus 17-inch megapixel grayscale display measuring 1120 832 pixels 1989 typical new pc macintosh amiga computer included megabytes ram 640×480 16-color 320x240 4000-color display 10 20 megabyte hard drive networking capabilities also first computer ship general-purpose dsp chip motorola 56001 motherboard used support sophisticated music sound processing including music kit software magneto-optical drive manufactured canon inc. used primary mass storage device drives relatively new market next first computer use cheaper hard drives blank media especially though cost 150 canon jobs negotiations saw canon agree retail 50 apiece slower average seek time 96 ms design made impossible move files computers without network since next computer one mo drive disk could removed without shutting system storage options proved challenging first next computers magneto-optical media relatively expensive performance reliability problems despite faster floppy drive drive sufficient run primary medium running nextstep operating system terms speed capacity 1989 next struck deal former compaq reseller businessland sell next computers select markets nationwide selling retailer major change next original business model selling directly students educational institutions businessland founder david norman predicted sales next computer would surpass sales compaq computers 12 months 1989 canon invested us 100 million next giving 16.67 percent stake making next worth almost 600 million canon invested next condition would able use nextstep environment workstations would mean greatly expanded market software next exited hardware business canon produced line pcs called object.station including models 31 41 50 52 specifically designed run nextstep/intel canon also served next distributor japan next computers first released retail market 1990 9,999 next original investor ross perot resigned board directors june 1991 dedicate time perot systems plano texas-based systems integrator next released second generation workstations 1990 new range included revised next computer renamed nextcube nextstation nicknamed slab pizza box case form-factor jobs explicit ensuring next staff use latter terminology lest next machines compared competing sun workstations already nickname magneto-optical drive replaced 2.88 mb floppy drive 2.88 mb floppy disks expensive technology supplant 1.44 mb floppy realizing next utilized cd-rom drive eventually became industry standard storage color graphics available nextstation color nextdimension graphics processor hardware nextcube new computers cheaper faster predecessors new motorola 68040 processor 1992 next launched turbo variants nextcube nextstation 33 mhz 68040 processor maximum ram capacity increased 128 mb next sold 20,000 computers 1992 next counted upgraded motherboards back order system sales — small number compared competitors however company reported sales 140 million year encouraging canon invest 30 million keep company afloat total 50,000 next machines sold including thousands super secret national reconnaissance office located chantilly virginia next long-term aim migrate risc reduced instruction set computing architecture processor design strategy intended increase performance project known next risc workstation nrw initially nrw based motorola 88110 processor due lack confidence motorola commitment 88000-series architecture later redesigned around dual powerpc 601s next produced motherboards enclosures exited hardware business full production next computers delivered mathematica pre-installed several developers used next platform write pioneering programs tim berners-lee used next computer 1990 create first web browser web server accordingly next instrumental development world wide web next used professors scientific engineering applications developing finished newspaper layouts using news george mason university early 1990s set next workstations publishing well silicon graphics cad/gl mathematica astrophysics games doom quake developed id software next machines games based doom engine heretic raven software well strife rogue entertainment also developed next hardware using id tools commercial programs released next computers including altsys virtuoso vector drawing program page-layout features ported mac os microsoft windows aldus freehand v4 lotus improv spreadsheet program systems bundled number smaller built-in applications merriam-webster collegiate dictionary oxford quotations complete works william shakespeare digital librarian search engine access next started porting nextstep operating system ibm pc compatible computers using intel 80486 processor late 1991 change business strategy withdraw hardware business entirely demonstration port displayed nextworld expo january 1992 mid-1993 product complete version 3.1 also known nextstep 486 released prior release chrysler planned buy 3,000 copies 1992 nextstep 3.x later ported pa-risc sparc-based platforms total four versions nextstep/next next 68k black boxes nextstep/intel nextstep/pa-risc nextstep/sparc although ports widely used nextstep gained popularity institutions first chicago nbd swiss bank corporation o'connor company organizations owing programming model used many american federal agencies united states naval research laboratory national security agency advanced research projects agency central intelligence agency national reconnaissance office ibm pc clone vendors offered somewhat customized hardware solutions delivered running nextstep intel elonex nextstation canon object.station 41 next withdrew hardware business 1993 company renamed next software inc consequently 300 540 staff employees laid next negotiated sell hardware business including fremont factory canon later pulled deal work powerpc machines stopped along hardware production ceo sun microsystems scott mcnealy announced plans invest 10 million 1993 use next software future sun systems next partnered sun create openstep nextstep application layer hosted third party operating system exiting hardware business next focused operating systems effect returning original business plan new products based openstep released including openstep enterprise version microsoft windows nt company launched webobjects platform building large-scale dynamic web applications many large businesses including dell disney worldcom bbc used webobjects short time eventually webobjects used solely power apple itunes store corporate website discontinuing apple computer announced intention acquire next december 20 1996 apple paid 429 million cash went initial investors 1.5 million apple shares went steve jobs deliberately given cash part deal main purpose acquisition use nextstep foundation replace dated classic mac os instead beos in-development copland deal finalized february 7 1997 bringing jobs back apple consultant later appointed interim ceo 2000 jobs took ceo position permanent assignment holding position resignation august 24 2011 jobs died six weeks later october 5 2011 complications relapsed pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor several next executives replaced apple counterparts steve jobs restructured company board directors next five years nextstep operating system ported powerpc architecture time intel port openstep enterprise toolkit windows produced operating system code named rhapsody toolkit development platforms called yellow box backwards compatibility apple added blue box rhapsody allowing existing mac applications run self-contained cooperative multitasking environment server version new operating system released mac os x server 1.0 1999 first consumer version mac os x 10.0 2001 openstep developer toolkit renamed cocoa rhapsody blue box renamed classic environment changed run applications full-screen without requiring separate window apple included updated version original macintosh toolbox called carbon gave existing mac applications access environment without constraints blue box nextstep interface features used mac os x including dock services menu finder column view cocoa text system nextstep processor-independent capabilities retained mac os x leading powerpc intel x86 versions although powerpc versions publicly available 2006 apple moved intel processors august 2006 jobs created different corporate culture next terms facilities salaries benefits jobs experimented structural changes apple next abandoned conventional corporate structures instead making community members instead employees two different salaries next early 1990s team members joined 1986 paid 75,000 joined afterwards paid 50,000 caused awkward situations managers paid less employees employees given performance reviews raises every six months spartan salary plans foster openness employees full access payrolls although employees ever took advantage privilege next health insurance plan offered benefits married couples unmarried couples same-sex couples although latter privilege later withdrawn due insurance complications payroll schedule also different companies silicon valley time instead getting paid twice month arrears end pay period employees would get paid month advance beginning words jobs found office space palo alto california 3475 deer creek road occupying glass concrete building featured staircase designed architect i. m. pei first floor used hardwood flooring large worktables workstations would assembled avoid inventory errors next used just-in-time jit inventory strategy company contracted major components mainboards cases finished components shipped first floor assembly second floor office space open floor plan enclosed rooms jobs office conference rooms next expanded office space needed company rented office 800 900 chesapeake drive redwood city also designed pei architectural centerpiece floating staircase visible supports open floor plan retained although furnishings became luxurious 5,000 chairs 10,000 sofas ansel adams prints next first campus palo alto subsequently occupied sap ag second campus redwood city occupied apnicure oncomed pharmaceuticals inc first issue nextworld magazine printed 1991 published san francisco integrated media edited michael miley later dan ruby mainstream periodical discuss next computers operating system next software publication discontinued 1994 four volumes nextworld expo followed developer conference held 1991 1992 san francisco civic center 1993 1994 moscone center san francisco steve jobs keynote speaker though profitable company wide-ranging impact computer industry object-oriented programming graphical user interfaces became common 1988 release nextcube nextstep technologically successful platform often held trendsetter companies started emulate success next object-oriented system widely seen response next microsoft announced cairo project 1991 cairo specification included similar object-oriented user interface features coming consumer version windows nt although cairo ultimately abandoned elements integrated projects 1994 microsoft next collaborating windows nt port openstep never released 1993 taligent considered press competitor objects operating systems even without product release next main point comparison first years taligent theoretical newness often compared next older mature commercially established platform taligent debut release 1995 called little late especially compared next webobjects failed achieve wide popularity partly initial high price us 50,000 remains first prominent early example web application server enabled dynamic page generation based user interactions opposed static content webobjects bundled macos server xcode 1-hop neighbor's text information: apple_push_notification_service.apple push notification service apple push notification service commonly referred apple notification service apns platform notification service created apple inc. enables third party application developers send notification data applications installed apple devices notification information sent include badges sounds newsstand updates custom text alerts first launched ios 3 june 17 2009 apns support local applications later added mac os x api beginning release mac os x 10.7 lion support website notifications later added release mac os x 10.9 mavericks apple announced service june 9 2008 original stated release september however stated scott forstall ios 3.0 preview event march 17 2009 rollout delayed decision restructure apns scalability purposes due allegedly overwhelming response announcement apns events forstall stated push notifications better conserve battery background processes used pull technology receiving notifications apns first launched together ios 3.0 june 17 2009 release ios 5.0 included notification center adding support receiving reading local notifications single place apns also added api mac os x 10.7 lion developers could begin updating third-party applications start utilizing service support later improved os x 10.8 mountain lion introduction notification center ios 5.0 improvement allowed users manage read received notifications single location release os x 10.9 mavericks included safari 7.0 added support accepting receiving apns notifications websites user granted permission 2014 maximum size allowed notification payload sent binary interface increased 256 bytes 2 kilobytes december 2015 new http/2 provider api released apple effectively replacing now-legacy binary interface maximum notification payload size allowed using http/2 api 4 kilobytes october 22 2014 apple announced would cease support ssl 3.0 october 29 2014 due poodle attack gained public attention shortly date developers required use tls protocol send notification using apns 1-hop neighbor's text information: apple_a7.apple a7 apple a7 64-bit system chip soc designed apple inc first appeared iphone 5s introduced september 10 2013 apple states twice fast twice graphics power compared predecessor apple a6 first 64-bit arm cpu first ship consumer smartphone tablet computer software updates systems using chip cease late 2019 ios 13 support iphone 5s ipados 13 support ipad air mini 2 3 a7 features apple-designed 64-bit 1.3–1.4 ghz armv8-a dual-core cpu called cyclone 64-bit a64 instruction set armv8-a architecture doubles number registers a7 compared armv7 architecture used a6 31 general purpose registers 64-bits wide 32 floating-point/neon registers 128-bits wide a7 also integrates graphics processing unit gpu anandtech believes powervr g6430 four cluster configuration a7 per-core l1 cache 64 kb data 64 kb instructions l2 cache 1 mb shared cpu cores 4 mb l3 cache services entire soc a7 includes new image processor feature originally introduced a5 used functionality related camera image stabilizing color correction light balance a7 also includes area called secure enclave stores protects data touch id fingerprint sensor iphone 5s ipad mini 3 speculated security data secure enclave enforced arm trustzone/securcore technology change apple a6 a7 soc longer services accelerometer gyroscope compass order reduce power consumption functionality moved new m7 motion coprocessor appears separate arm-based microcontroller nxp semiconductors apple uses apl0698 variant a7 chip running 1.3 ghz iphone 5s ipad mini 2 ipad mini 3 a7 manufactured samsung high-κ metal gate hkmg 28 nm process chip includes 1 billion transistors die 102 mm size according abi research a7 drew 1100 fixed point operations 520 floating point operations predecessor a6 processor iphone 5 drew 485 320 manufactured package package pop together 1 gb lpddr3 dram 64-bit wide memory interface onto package apple uses apl5698 variant a7 chip running 1.4 ghz,1.4 ipad air die identical size layout first a7 manufactured samsung however unlike first version a7 a7 used ipad air pop stacked ram instead uses chip-on-board mounting immediately adjacent dram covered metallic heat spreader similar apple a5x a6x a7 branch predictor claimed infringe 1998 patent october 14 2015 district judge found apple guilty infringing u.s. patent table based data speculation circuit parallel processing computer apple a7 a8 processors patent owned wisconsin alumni research foundation warf firm affiliated university wisconsin july 24 2017 apple ordered pay warf 506 million patent infringement apple filed appellate brief october 26 2017 u.s. court appeals federal circuit argued apple infringe patent owned wisconsin alumni research foundation september 28 2018 ruling overturned appeal award thrown u.s. federal circuit court appeals patent expired december 2016 images illustrations Target text information: iphone_4.iphone 4 iphone 4 smartphone designed marketed apple inc fourth generation iphone succeeding 3gs preceding 4s following number notable leaks iphone 4 first unveiled june 7 2010 apple worldwide developers conference san francisco released june 24 2010 united states united kingdom france germany japan iphone 4 introduced new hardware design iphone family apple ceo steve jobs touted thinnest smartphone world time consisted stainless steel frame doubles antenna internal components situated aluminosilicate glass iphone 4 also introduced apple new high-resolution retina display pixel density 326 pixels per inch maintaining physical size aspect ratio precursors iphone 4 also introduced apple a4 system-on-chip along ios 4—which notably introduced multitasking functionality apple new facetime video chat service iphone 4 also first iphone include front-facing camera first released version cdma networks ending period exclusive carrier iphone products united states iphone 4 received generally positive reception critics praising revamped design powerful hardware comparison previous models market success 600,000 pre-orders within 24 hours release iphone 4 plagued highly publicized reports abnormalities new antenna design caused device lose cellular signal held certain way human contact phone outer edge would cause significant decrease signal strength iphone 4 spent longest time apple flagship iphone model fifteen months although succeeding 4s announced october 2011 4 continued sold midrange model september 2012 thereafter entry-level offering apple lineup september 2013 announcement iphone 5s/iphone 5c iphone 4 longest lifespan iphone ever produced spanning close four years available developing countries early 2015 official unveiling iphone 4 june 7 2010 two prototypes brought attention media breaching apple normally secretive development process many speculations regarding technical specifications proved accurate january 27 2010 gadget website engadget received leaked images unreleased ipad unbeknownst editors readers images contained two unreleased iphone 4s n't subsequent gizmodo release aware complete contents images april 19 2010 gadget website gizmodo reported purchased iphone prototype 5000 furthermore conducted product teardown device prototype reported lost apple employee gray powell redwood city california shortly gizmodo published detailed information prototype apple legal associates formally requested phone returned apple gizmodo responded intent cooperate april 23 officers rapid enforcement allied computer team react task force california httap program raided home jason chen gizmodo editor responsible reviewing prototype seizing computers hard drives electronic frontier foundation criticized raid violating journalist source protection laws forbid seizure journalist computers well suspicion apple used influence member steering committee charged direction oversight california react task force push police action way would normally conducted type incident apple already received iphone prototype raid returned gizmodo district attorney stated investigation suspended discontinued searching gizmodo editor belongings determine whether shield laws applicable cautioned charges issued point pictures video second prototype published vietnamese website taoviet may 12 2010 almost identical first used a4 chip manufactured apple website purchased prototype 4,000 digitimes reported screen resolution new phone 960-by-640 confirmed apple iphone 4 official announcement iphone 4 available pre-order june 15 2010 customers attempting pre-order iphone 4 reported problems pre-order process us uk online apple stores crashed due surge traffic issue reported softbank apple exclusive partners united states japan respectively suspended advance sales iphone 4 demand threatened exceed supply retail stores also unable complete pre-order transactions due servers crashing apple partner carriers received 600,000 pre-orders iphone 4 first 24 hours largest number pre-orders apple received single day device point engadget reported 20:30 utc iphone 4 pre-order suppliers sold 1.7 million iphone 4s sold first three days availability iphone 4 also released orange tunisia available eight cities launch july 30 2010 iphone 4 made available sale australia new zealand 15 countries free bumper cases south korea released kt september 10 israel released september 24 cellcom pelephone orange launched thailand september 23 ais dtac true move malaysia september 26 kuala lumpur nationwide september 27 according website maxis iphone 4 released south africa september 22 vodacom mtn networks limited quantities iphone 4 launched vietnam september 30 vinaphone viettel first 3 major cities hanoi ho chi minh city da nang country end october iphone 4 launched india may 27 2011 aircel airtel january 11 2011 verizon wireless announced media event reached agreement apple would begin selling cdma iphone 4 united states ending apple exclusivity agreement verizon iphone went sale february 10 pre orders began february 3 verizon iphone includes 'personal hotspot feature allows user use iphone wireless hotspot five devices connecting one time february 3 2011 presale iphone 4 broke verizon first day sales records single device june 24 2010 apple issued statement white iphone 4 models proving challenging manufacture expected initially pushed release date back second half july lot speculation surrounding delay white iphone 4 among popular rumors concerning phone internal camera adversely affected light leaking due semi-translucent glass white paint sources report problem relates apple inability match white color front face plate home button april 27 2011 apple announced would releasing white iphone 4 model april 28 2011 gsm cdma release white iphone 4 carried april 28 apple official unveiling iphone 4s october 4 2011 announced sprint would begin carrying reconfigured cdma iphone 4 iphone 4s us october 14 september 2013 release iphone 5s iphone 5c apple stopped selling iphone 4 stores well website replaced 8 gb iphone 4s display iphone 4 manufactured lg exclusive contract apple features led backlit tft lcd capacitive touchscreen pixel density 326 pixels per inch ppi diagonally measured 960×640 display pixel 78 micrometers width display contrast ratio 800:1 screen marketed apple retina display based assertion display approximately 300 ppi distance one eye 57 arcseconds per pixel maximum amount detail human retina perceive iphone expected used distance 12 inches eyes higher resolution would allegedly effect image apparent quality maximum potential human eye already met claim disputed raymond soneira president displaymate technologies said interview wired magazine claims jobs something exaggeration reasonably close perfect display steve pushed little far soneira stated resolution human retina higher claimed apple working 477 ppi eyes 36 arcseconds per pixel however phil plait author bad astronomy whose career includes collaboration nasa regarding camera hubble space telescope responded criticism stating better 20/20 eyesight one foot away iphone 4 pixels resolved picture look pixellated average eyesight picture look fine iphone 4 features additional front-facing vga camera backside-illuminated 5 megapixel rear-facing camera 3.85 mm f/2.8 lens led flash rear-facing camera capable recording hd video 720p 30 frames per second cameras make use tap focus feature part ios 4 photo video recording rear-facing camera 5× digital zoom contrast steve jobs announcement wwdc 2010 recent federal communications commission documentation shown iphone 4 contains penta-band 3g umts antenna quad-band 3g umts radio advertised apple according fcc documentation filed apple radio inside iphone 4 supports 800 850 900 1,900 2,100 mhz 800 mhz frequency commonly used japanese mobile phones advertised supported apple however 800 mhz band subset 850 mhz band probably explains device advertised quad-band chip-sets manufactured skyworks solutions infineon gsm version apple mobile products time iphone 4 also used 30 pin dock connector external data port iphone 4 first generation iphone second microphone used noise cancellation located top unit near headphone jack main microphone bottom left iphone 4 introduces gyroscopic sensor detects 3-axis angular acceleration around x z axes enabling precise calculation yaw pitch roll gyroscope complements accelerometer sensor present since original iphone detects device acceleration shake vibration shock fall detecting linear acceleration along one three axes x z combined data accelerometer gyroscope provides detailed precise information device 6-axis movement space 3 axes gyroscope combined 3 axes accelerometer enable device recognize approximately far fast direction moved space iphone 4 powered apple a4 chip designed intrinsity like prior iphone models manufactured samsung system-on-a-chip composed arm cortex-a8 cpu integrated powervr sgx535 gpu apple a4 also used ipad clocked rated speed 1 ghz clock speed iphone 4 disclosed prior models iphone underclocked cpu typically extends battery life lowers heat dissipation iphone 4 512 mb dram additional dram supports increased performance multi-tasking iphone 4 uses micro-sim card iphone 4 devices running gsm network positioned ejectable tray located right side device cdma network however phone connects network using esn prior models used regular mini-sim cards depending operator micro-sim cards may available networks globally technical workaround possible trim mini-sim card knife scissors fits micro-sim tray prior models data stored flash memory 8 16 32 gb sim unlike prior generations storage capacity printed back unit iphone 4 features redesigned structure designed jony ive design would later reused adapted iphone 4s 5 5s se notably bulges back panel well band front back gone replaced flattened surfaces redesign reflects utilitarianism uniformity existing apple products ipad imac overall dimensions iphone 4 reduced predecessor high wide deep compared iphone 3gs high wide deep making iphone 4 24 thinner predecessor iphone 3gs steve jobs claimed thinnest smartphone planet reduced size device primarily due externally placed antenna iphone 4 structured around stainless steel frame wraps around edge phone acting primary structure device iphone 4 antennas metal band features two slits gsm version phone one lower left one top fake slit along lower right cosmetically mirror one lower left divide band two antenna sections left section band serves bluetooth wi-fi gps antenna right lower sections band act antenna gsm umts connectivity cdma version phone four slits metal band two top left right two bottom divides metal band four different segments like gsm version phone serves different antennas connectivity top portion band divided top left right slits connecting cdma network left portion metal band bluetooth wi-fi gps like gsm version right side antenna serves cosmetically mirror left side also create similar look gsm version phone internal components situated two panels aluminosilicate glass described apple chemically strengthened 20 times stiffer 30 times harder plastic theoretically allowing scratch resistant durable prior models fall 2010 pentalobe screws started replace philips screws used post-repair units us production units japan iphone 4 shipped ios 4 newest version apple ios mobile operating system time ios 4 introduced multitasking system allowing apps remain suspended memory perform certain operations background allowing users switch apps using on-screen menu also introduced facetime allows users perform video calls iphone ipad ipod touch os x users iphone 4 supports ios 7 released september 2013 due relatively aged hardware iphone 4 certain features available newer iphone models available device ios 7 include siri 3d maps turn-by-turn navigation airdrop airplay mirroring live camera filters panorama mode certain visual effects introduced ios 7 blurring translucent interface elements parallax effect home screen live wallpapers still subject limitations ios 7.1 bring slight performance improvements operating system iphone 4. ios 7 specifically ios 7.1.2 last version ios support iphone 4 unlike iphone 4s iphone 4 receive ios 8 update due performance issues iphone 4 bumper ring rubber plastic surrounds edge iphone 4 purpose protecting phone inner part rubber external band made plastic bumper wraps around edges device protecting edges lesser extent screen bumper cover front rear phone though slightly raise iphone whatever surface sitting additionally plastic band houses metallic buttons volume controls sleep/wake button six holes bumper enable access mute switch dock connector headphone jack speaker microphones apple updated bumper wider volume switch hole release iphone 4 cdma network updated bumper also compatible iphone 4s next generation iphone identical exterior design measurements iphone 4 cdma pre-release reception generally positive announcement included information covered gizmodo fox news commented seeing action far informative staring gizmodo photos busted test unit rhodri marsden independent said aside introduction face-to-face video calling staggering feature set instead focusing device powerful predecessor speedier easier use make previously laborious tasks seem like cinch cnet reacted announcement explaining believes imovie ios exciting part year wwdc keynote article noted iphone 4 unlike current cameras record hd content edit device labeling true mobile editing suite reviews iphone 4 generally favorable walt mossberg wall street journal called device best device class engadget named best smartphone market june 2010 cnet gave iphone 4 rating 8.6 10 one highest ratings given smartphone techradar gave device 4.5/5 stars consumer reports said signal problem reason rate recommended model although tests ranked highest among smart phones joshua topolsky engadget described device industrial design detailed sophisticated predecessor users reported yellow discoloration screen disappeared several days attributed glass lamination glue used time dry fully unit reached consumers due speed manufacturing another issue reported users within days iphone 4 release calls proximity sensor insensitive facial contact touchscreen end calls mute calls dial numbers users reported particularly low-light conditions photos taken iphone 4 sometimes contained blue green splotches issues white balance also discovered particularly using flash shortly iphone 4 launched consumers reported signal strength phone reduced touching lower left edge phone bridging one two locations separates two antennas resulting dropped calls areas lower signal reception response apple issued statement advising customers avoid gripping phone lower left corner making receiving call consequence problem reported july 2 2010 several iphone 4 users planning suing apple fraud concealment negligence intentional misrepresentation defective design legal challenge started law firm set website recruit disenchanted iphone 4 buyers lawsuit apple later day apple issued another statement stating discovered cause dramatic drop bars apple explained formula used calculate number bars display wrong apple promised correct issue release software update within weeks would address mistake present since original iphone new york times commented failure detect longstanding problem earlier astonishing consumer reports initially stated iphone 4 signal issues unique may serious continued mention signal loss problem faced entire smartphone industry problem apple made formal apology next day magazine altered stance encountering instances dropped calls magazine rejected apple explanation conducting tests controlled environment comparing results prior generations iphone sarcastically pointed using piece tape cover lower left antenna gap one way fix problem recommended consumers want iphone works well without masking-tape fix purchase iphone 3gs instead magazine also tested iphone 4 wearing bumper frame-like cover sold apple prevents direct contact antenna reporting resolve problem cnn repeated consumer reports statement small amount duct tape proven effective fix iphone 4 dropped call issue july 16 2010 press conference steve jobs announced apple would provide iphone 4 owners free case help solve antenna issue refund users already purchased bumper free case offer would valid september 30 2010 apple would re-evaluate situation get free case owners able apply via app installed phone found app store july 22 2010 september 30 2010 jobs also announced apple could produce enough bumpers owners phone would source supply offer range cases additionally jobs cited figures applecare showed 0.55 percent iphone 4 users complained company issue number phones returned apple 1.7 percent – 4.3 percentage points less number iphone 3gs models returned first month phone launch consumer reports noted solution permanent though good first step however jobs specify time line fixing problem offering free bumper temporary solution pc world decided remove iphone 4 top 10 cell phones chart reassign pending rating despite negative media attention regarding antenna issues 72 iphone 4 users say satisfied iphone 4 according august 2010 survey changewave research iphone 4 model continued sold unchanged september 2013 2011 two iphone 4 units equipped special application taken international space station aboard space shuttle sts-135 mission devices used various experiments utilizing sensors special app I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	2	Operating Systems	wikics	2,492	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: microsoft_interface_definition_language.microsoft interface definition language microsoft interface definition language midl text-based interface description language microsoft based dce/rpc idl extends use microsoft component object model compiler also called midl 1-hop neighbor's text information: programming_language.programming language programming language formal language comprises set instructions produce various kinds output programming languages used computer programming implement algorithms programming languages consist instructions computers programmable machines use set specific instructions rather general programming languages early ones preceded invention digital computer first probably automatic flute player described 9th century brothers musa baghdad islamic golden age since early 1800s programs used direct behavior machines jacquard looms music boxes player pianos programs machines player piano scrolls produce different behavior response different inputs conditions thousands different programming languages created created every year many programming languages written imperative form i.e. sequence operations perform languages use declarative form i.e desired result specified achieve description programming language usually split two components syntax form semantics meaning languages defined specification document example c programming language specified iso standard languages perl dominant implementation treated reference languages basic language defined standard extensions taken dominant implementation common programming language notation writing programs specifications computation algorithm authors restrict term programming language languages express possible algorithms traits often considered important constitutes programming language include markup languages like xml html troff define structured data usually considered programming languages programming languages may however share syntax markup languages computational semantics defined xslt example turing complete language entirely using xml syntax moreover latex mostly used structuring documents also contains turing complete subset term computer language sometimes used interchangeably programming language however usage terms varies among authors including exact scope one usage describes programming languages subset computer languages similarly languages used computing different goal expressing computer programs generically designated computer languages instance markup languages sometimes referred computer languages emphasize meant used programming another usage regards programming languages theoretical constructs programming abstract machines computer languages subset thereof runs physical computers finite hardware resources john c. reynolds emphasizes formal specification languages much programming languages languages intended execution also argues textual even graphical input formats affect behavior computer programming languages despite fact commonly turing-complete remarks ignorance programming language concepts reason many flaws input formats early computers colossus programmed without help stored program modifying circuitry setting banks physical controls slightly later programs could written machine language programmer writes instruction numeric form hardware execute directly example instruction add value two memory location might consist 3 numbers opcode selects add operation two memory locations programs decimal binary form read punched cards paper tape magnetic tape toggled switches front panel computer machine languages later termed first-generation programming languages 1gl next step development so-called second-generation programming languages 2gl assembly languages still closely tied instruction set architecture specific computer served make program much human-readable relieved programmer tedious error-prone address calculations first high-level programming languages third-generation programming languages 3gl written 1950s early high-level programming language designed computer plankalkül developed german z3 konrad zuse 1943 1945 however implemented 1998 2000 john mauchly short code proposed 1949 one first high-level languages ever developed electronic computer unlike machine code short code statements represented mathematical expressions understandable form however program translated machine code every time ran making process much slower running equivalent machine code university manchester alick glennie developed autocode early 1950s programming language used compiler automatically convert language machine code first code compiler developed 1952 mark 1 computer university manchester considered first compiled high-level programming language second autocode developed mark 1 r. a. brooker 1954 called mark 1 autocode brooker also developed autocode ferranti mercury 1950s conjunction university manchester version edsac 2 devised d. f. hartley university cambridge mathematical laboratory 1961 known edsac 2 autocode straight development mercury autocode adapted local circumstances noted object code optimisation source-language diagnostics advanced time contemporary separate thread development atlas autocode developed university manchester atlas 1 machine 1954 fortran invented ibm john backus first widely used high-level general purpose programming language functional implementation opposed design paper still popular language high-performance computing used programs benchmark rank world fastest supercomputers another early programming language devised grace hopper us called flow-matic developed univac remington rand period 1955 1959 hopper found business data processing customers uncomfortable mathematical notation early 1955 team wrote specification english programming language implemented prototype flow-matic compiler became publicly available early 1958 substantially complete 1959 flow-matic major influence design cobol since direct descendant aimaco actual use time increased use high-level languages introduced requirement low-level programming languages system programming languages languages varying degrees provide facilities assembly languages high-level languages used perform tasks require direct access hardware facilities still provide higher-level control structures error-checking period 1960s late 1970s brought development major language paradigms use languages spawned descendants modern programming languages count least one ancestry 1960s 1970s also saw considerable debate merits structured programming whether programming languages designed support edsger dijkstra famous 1968 letter published communications acm argued goto statements eliminated higher level programming languages 1980s years relative consolidation c++ combined object-oriented systems programming united states government standardized ada systems programming language derived pascal intended use defense contractors japan elsewhere vast sums spent investigating so-called fifth-generation languages incorporated logic programming constructs functional languages community moved standardize ml lisp rather inventing new paradigms movements elaborated upon ideas invented previous decades one important trend language design programming large-scale systems 1980s increased focus use modules large-scale organizational units code modula-2 ada ml developed notable module systems 1980s often wedded generic programming constructs rapid growth internet mid-1990s created opportunities new languages perl originally unix scripting tool first released 1987 became common dynamic websites java came used server-side programming bytecode virtual machines became popular commercial settings promise write run anywhere ucsd pascal popular time early 1980s developments fundamentally novel rather refinements many existing languages paradigms although syntax often based c family programming languages programming language evolution continues industry research current directions include security reliability verification new kinds modularity mixins delegates aspects database integration microsoft linq fourth-generation programming languages 4gl computer programming languages aim provide higher level abstraction internal computer hardware details 3gls fifth-generation programming languages 5gl programming languages based solving problems using constraints given program rather using algorithm written programmer programming languages primitive building blocks description data processes transformations applied like addition two numbers selection item collection primitives defined syntactic semantic rules describe structure meaning respectively programming language surface form known syntax programming languages purely textual use sequences text including words numbers punctuation much like written natural languages hand programming languages graphical nature using visual relationships symbols specify program syntax language describes possible combinations symbols form syntactically correct program meaning given combination symbols handled semantics either formal hard-coded reference implementation since languages textual article discusses textual syntax programming language syntax usually defined using combination regular expressions lexical structure backus–naur form grammatical structure simple grammar based lisp grammar specifies following following examples well-formed token sequences grammar codice_1 codice_2 codice_3 syntactically correct programs semantically correct many syntactically correct programs nonetheless ill-formed per language rules may depending language specification soundness implementation result error translation execution cases programs may exhibit undefined behavior even program well-defined within language may still meaning intended person wrote using natural language example may possible assign meaning grammatically correct sentence sentence may false following c language fragment syntactically correct performs operations semantically defined operation codice_4 meaning value complex type codice_5 defined value codice_6 null pointer type declaration first line omitted program would trigger error undefined variable p compilation however program would still syntactically correct since type declarations provide semantic information grammar needed specify programming language classified position chomsky hierarchy syntax programming languages specified using type-2 grammar i.e. context-free grammars languages including perl lisp contain constructs allow execution parsing phase languages constructs allow programmer alter behavior parser make syntax analysis undecidable problem generally blur distinction parsing execution contrast lisp macro system perl codice_7 blocks may contain general computations c macros merely string replacements require code execution term semantics refers meaning languages opposed form syntax static semantics defines restrictions structure valid texts hard impossible express standard syntactic formalisms compiled languages static semantics essentially include semantic rules checked compile time examples include checking every identifier declared used languages require declarations labels arms case statement distinct many important restrictions type like checking identifiers used appropriate context e.g adding integer function name subroutine calls appropriate number type arguments enforced defining rules logic called type system forms static analyses like data flow analysis may also part static semantics newer programming languages like java c definite assignment analysis form data flow analysis part static semantics data specified machine must instructed perform operations data example semantics may define strategy expressions evaluated values manner control structures conditionally execute statements dynamic semantics also known execution semantics language defines various constructs language produce program behavior many ways defining execution semantics natural language often used specify execution semantics languages commonly used practice significant amount academic research went formal semantics programming languages allow execution semantics specified formal manner results field research seen limited application programming language design implementation outside academia type system defines programming language classifies values expressions types manipulate types interact goal type system verify usually enforce certain level correctness programs written language detecting certain incorrect operations decidable type system involves trade-off rejects many incorrect programs also prohibit correct albeit unusual programs order bypass downside number languages type loopholes usually unchecked casts may used programmer explicitly allow normally disallowed operation different types typed languages type system used type check programs number languages usually functional ones infer types relieving programmer need write type annotations formal design study type systems known type theory language typed specification every operation defines types data operation applicable example data represented codice_8 string many programming languages dividing number string meaning executed invalid operation may detected program compiled static type checking rejected compiler compilation error message may detected program running dynamic type checking resulting run-time exception many languages allow function called exception handler handle exception example always return -1 result special case typed languages single-typed languages often scripting markup languages rexx sgml one data type–—most commonly character strings used symbolic numeric data contrast untyped language assembly languages allows operation performed data generally sequences bits various lengths high-level untyped languages include bcpl tcl varieties forth practice languages considered typed type theory verifying rejecting operations modern languages offer degree typing many production languages provide means bypass subvert type system trading type-safety finer control program execution see casting static typing expressions types determined prior program executed typically compile-time example 1 2+2 integer expressions passed function expects string stored variable defined hold dates statically typed languages either manifestly typed type-inferred first case programmer must explicitly write types certain textual positions example variable declarations second case compiler infers types expressions declarations based context mainstream statically typed languages c++ c java manifestly typed complete type inference traditionally associated less mainstream languages haskell ml however many manifestly typed languages support partial type inference example c++ java c infer types certain limited cases additionally programming languages allow types automatically converted types example int used program expects float dynamic typing also called latent typing determines type-safety operations run time words types associated run-time values rather textual expressions type-inferred languages dynamically typed languages require programmer write explicit type annotations expressions among things may permit single variable refer values different types different points program execution however type errors automatically detected piece code actually executed potentially making debugging difficult lisp smalltalk perl python javascript ruby examples dynamically typed languages weak typing allows value one type treated another example treating string number occasionally useful also allow kinds program faults go undetected compile time even run time strong typing prevents program faults attempt perform operation wrong type value raises error strongly typed languages often termed type-safe safe alternative definition weakly typed refers languages perl javascript permit large number implicit type conversions javascript example expression codice_9 implicitly converts codice_10 number conversion succeeds even codice_10 codice_12 codice_13 codice_14 string letters implicit conversions often useful mask programming errors strong static generally considered orthogonal concepts usage literature differs use term strongly typed mean strongly statically typed even confusingly mean simply statically typed thus c called strongly typed weakly statically typed may seem odd professional programmers c could weakly statically typed however notice use generic pointer void* pointer allow casting pointers pointers without needing explicit cast extremely similar somehow casting array bytes kind datatype c without using explicit cast codice_15 codice_16 programming languages associated core library sometimes known 'standard library especially included part published language standard conventionally made available implementations language core libraries typically include definitions commonly used algorithms data structures mechanisms input output line language core library differs language language cases language designers may treat library separate entity language however language core library often treated part language users language specifications even require library made available implementations indeed languages designed meanings certain syntactic constructs even described without referring core library example java string literal defined instance codice_17 class similarly smalltalk anonymous function expression block constructs instance library codice_18 class conversely scheme contains multiple coherent subsets suffice construct rest language library macros language designers even bother say portions language must implemented language constructs must implemented parts library programming languages share properties natural languages related purpose vehicles communication syntactic form separate semantics showing language families related languages branching one another artificial constructs also differ fundamental ways languages evolved usage significant difference programming language fully described studied entirety since precise finite definition contrast natural languages changing meanings given users different communities constructed languages also artificial languages designed ground specific purpose lack precise complete semantic definition programming language many programming languages designed scratch altered meet new needs combined languages many eventually fallen disuse although attempts design one universal programming language serves purposes failed generally accepted filling role need diverse programming languages arises diversity contexts languages used one common trend development programming languages add ability solve problems using higher level abstraction earliest programming languages tied closely underlying hardware computer new programming languages developed features added let programmers express ideas remote simple translation underlying hardware instructions programmers less tied complexity computer programs computing less effort programmer lets write functionality per time unit natural language programming proposed way eliminate need specialized language programming however goal remains distant benefits open debate edsger w. dijkstra took position use formal language essential prevent introduction meaningless constructs dismissed natural language programming foolish alan perlis similarly dismissive idea hybrid approaches taken structured english sql language designers users must construct number artifacts govern enable practice programming important artifacts language specification implementation specification programming language artifact language users implementors use agree upon whether piece source code valid program language behavior shall programming language specification take several forms including following implementation programming language provides way write programs language execute one configurations hardware software broadly two approaches programming language implementation compilation interpretation generally possible implement language using either technique output compiler may executed hardware program called interpreter implementations make use interpreter approach distinct boundary compiling interpreting instance implementations basic compile execute source line time programs executed directly hardware usually run much faster interpreted software one technique improving performance interpreted programs just-in-time compilation virtual machine execution translates blocks bytecode going used machine code direct execution hardware although commonly used programming languages fully open specifications implementations many programming languages exist proprietary programming languages implementation available single vendor may claim proprietary language intellectual property proprietary programming languages commonly domain specific languages internal scripting languages single product proprietary languages used internally within vendor others available external users programming languages exist border proprietary open example oracle corporation asserts proprietary rights aspects java programming language microsoft c programming language open implementations parts system also common language runtime clr closed environment many proprietary languages widely used spite proprietary nature examples include matlab vbscript wolfram language languages may make transition closed open example erlang originally ericsson internal programming language thousands different programming languages created mainly computing field software commonly built 5 programming languages programming languages differ forms human expression require greater degree precision completeness using natural language communicate people human authors speakers ambiguous make small errors still expect intent understood however figuratively speaking computers exactly told understand code programmer intended write combination language definition program program inputs must fully specify external behavior occurs program executed within domain control program hand ideas algorithm communicated humans without precision required execution using pseudocode interleaves natural language code written programming language programming language provides structured mechanism defining pieces data operations transformations may carried automatically data programmer uses abstractions present language represent concepts involved computation concepts represented collection simplest elements available called primitives programming process programmers combine primitives compose new programs adapt existing ones new uses changing environment programs computer might executed batch process without human interaction user might type commands interactive session interpreter case commands simply programs whose execution chained together language run commands interpreter unix shell command-line interface without compiling called scripting language determining widely used programming language difficult since definition usage varies context one language may occupy greater number programmer hours different one lines code third may consume cpu time languages popular particular kinds applications example cobol still strong corporate data center often large mainframes fortran scientific engineering applications ada aerospace transportation military real-time embedded applications c embedded applications operating systems languages regularly used write many different kinds applications various methods measuring language popularity subject different bias measured proposed combining averaging information various internet sites stackify.com reported ten popular programming languages descending order overall popularity java c c++ python c javascript vb .net r php matlab dialect programming language data exchange language relatively small variation extension language change intrinsic nature languages scheme forth standards may considered insufficient inadequate illegitimate implementors often deviate standard making new dialect cases dialect created use domain-specific language often subset lisp world languages use basic s-expression syntax lisp-like semantics considered lisp dialects although vary wildly say racket clojure common one language several dialects become quite difficult inexperienced programmer find right documentation basic programming language many dialects explosion forth dialects led saying 've seen one forth ... 've seen one forth overarching classification scheme programming languages given programming language usually single ancestor language languages commonly arise combining elements several predecessor languages new ideas circulation time ideas originate one language diffuse throughout family related languages leap suddenly across familial gaps appear entirely different family task complicated fact languages classified along multiple axes example java object-oriented language encourages object-oriented organization concurrent language contains built-in constructs running multiple threads parallel python object-oriented scripting language broad strokes programming languages divide programming paradigms classification intended domain use general-purpose programming languages distinguished domain-specific programming languages traditionally programming languages regarded describing computation terms imperative sentences i.e issuing commands generally called imperative programming languages great deal research programming languages aimed blurring distinction program set instructions program assertion desired answer main feature declarative programming refined paradigms include procedural programming object-oriented programming functional programming logic programming languages hybrids paradigms multi-paradigmatic assembly language much paradigm direct model underlying machine architecture purpose programming languages might considered general purpose system programming languages scripting languages domain-specific languages concurrent/distributed languages combination general purpose languages designed largely educational goals programming language may also classified factors unrelated programming paradigm instance programming languages use english language keywords minority languages may classified deliberately esoteric 1-hop neighbor's text information: weak_entity.weak entity relational database weak entity entity uniquely identified attributes alone therefore must use foreign key conjunction attributes create primary key foreign key typically primary key entity related entity relationship diagrams er diagrams weak entity set indicated bold double-lined rectangle entity connected bold double-lined type arrow bold double-lined diamond relationship type relationship called identifying relationship idef1x notation represented oval entity rather square entity base tables identifying relationship one primary key populated child weak entity primary key entity general though necessarily weak entity items primary key inherited primary key sequence number two types weak entities associative entities subtype entities latter represents crucial type normalization super-type entity inherits attributes subtype entities based value discriminator idef1x government standard capturing requirements possible sub-type relationships classic example weak entity without sub-type relationship would header/detail records many real world situations claims orders invoices header captures information common across forms detail captures information specific individual items standard example complete subtype relationship party entity given discriminator party type could individual partnership c corporation sub chapter association association governmental unit quasi-governmental agency two subtype entities person contains individual-specific information first last name date birth organization would contain attributes legal name organizational hierarchies cost centers sub-type relationships rendered database super-type becomes referred base table sub-types considered derived tables correspond weak entities referential integrity enforced via cascading updates deletes consider database records customer orders order one items enterprise sells database would contain table identifying customers customer number primary key another identifying products sold product number primary key would contain pair tables describing orders one tables could called orders would order number primary key identify order uniquely would contain customer number foreign key identify products sold plus information date time order placed paid shipped table could called orderitem would identified compound key consisting order number foreign key item line number non-primary key attributes product number foreign key ordered quantity price discount special options may zero one many orderitem entries corresponding order entry orderitem entry exist unless corresponding order entry exists zero orderitem case normally applies transiently order first entered first ordered item recorded orderitem table stores weak entities precisely orderitem meaning independent order might argue orderitem meaning records time identified record somebody identified record ordered certain quantity certain product information might use limited use example soon want find seasonal geographical trends sales item need information related order record order would exist without product person create order could argued order would described weak entity products ordered would multivalue attribute order Target text information: discriminator.discriminator distributed computing discriminator typed tag field present omg idl discriminated union type value definitions determines union member selected current union instance unlike conventional programming languages offering support unions discriminator idl identical selected field name example idl union type definition effective value register type may contain ax selected field discriminator value may either b stored memory separately therefore idl logically separates information currently selected field name union effective value information current discriminator value example discriminator value may anything following b c well characters belonging idl codice_1 type since codice_2 branch specified example register type allows use remaining characters well microsoft interface definition language also supports tagged unions allowing choose discriminator via attribute enclosing structure function I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	9,596	test
1-hop neighbor's text information: memory_barrier.memory barrier memory barrier also known membar memory fence fence instruction type barrier instruction causes central processing unit cpu compiler enforce ordering constraint memory operations issued barrier instruction typically means operations issued prior barrier guaranteed performed operations issued barrier memory barriers necessary modern cpus employ performance optimizations result out-of-order execution reordering memory operations loads stores normally goes unnoticed within single thread execution cause unpredictable behaviour concurrent programs device drivers unless carefully controlled exact nature ordering constraint hardware dependent defined architecture memory ordering model architectures provide multiple barriers enforcing different ordering constraints memory barriers typically used implementing low-level machine code operates memory shared multiple devices code includes synchronization primitives lock-free data structures multiprocessor systems device drivers communicate computer hardware program runs single-cpu machine hardware performs necessary bookkeeping ensure program executes memory operations performed order specified programmer program order memory barriers necessary however memory shared multiple devices cpus multiprocessor system memory-mapped peripherals out-of-order access may affect program behavior example second cpu may see memory changes made first cpu sequence differs program order following two-processor program gives example out-of-order execution affect program behavior initially memory locations codice_1 codice_2 hold value codice_3 program running processor 1 loops value codice_2 zero prints value codice_1 program running processor 2 stores value codice_6 codice_1 stores value codice_8 codice_2 pseudo-code two program fragments shown steps program correspond individual processor instructions processor 1 processor 2 one might expect print statement always print number 42 however processor 2 store operations executed out-of-order possible codice_2 updated codice_1 print statement invoked come loop similarly processor 1 load operations may executed out-of-order possible codice_1 read codice_2 checked print statement might therefore print unexpected value programs neither situations acceptable memory barrier inserted processor 2 assignment codice_2 ensure new value codice_1 visible processors prior change value codice_2 another inserted processor 1 access codice_1 ensure value codice_1 read prior seeing change value codice_2 another example driver performs following sequence processor store operations executed out-of-order hardware module may triggered data ready memory another illustrative example non-trivial one arises actual practice see double-checked locking multithreaded programs usually use synchronization primitives provided high-level programming environment java .net framework application programming interface api posix threads windows api synchronization primitives mutexes semaphores provided synchronize access resources parallel threads execution primitives usually implemented memory barriers required provide expected memory visibility semantics environments explicit use memory barriers generally necessary api programming environment principle high-level memory model defines memory visibility semantics although programmers usually need use memory barriers high level environments important understand memory visibility semantics extent possible understanding necessarily easy achieve memory visibility semantics always consistently specified documented programming language semantics defined different level abstraction machine language opcodes programming environment memory model defined different level abstraction hardware memory model important understand distinction realize always simple mapping low-level hardware memory barrier semantics high-level memory visibility semantics particular programming environment result particular platform implementation posix threads may employ stronger barriers required specification programs take advantage memory visibility implemented rather specified may portable memory barrier instructions address reordering effects hardware level compilers may also reorder instructions part program optimization process although effects parallel program behavior similar cases general necessary take separate measures inhibit compiler reordering optimizations data may shared multiple threads execution note measures usually necessary data protected synchronization primitives discussed prior section c c++ volatile keyword intended allow c c++ programs directly access memory-mapped i/o memory-mapped i/o generally requires reads writes specified source code happen exact order specified omissions omissions reorderings reads writes compiler would break communication program device accessed memory-mapped i/o c c++ compiler may omit reads writes volatile memory locations may reorder read/writes relative actions volatile location variable keyword volatile guarantee memory barrier enforce cache-consistency therefore use volatile alone sufficient use variable inter-thread communication systems processors c c++ standards prior c11 c++11 address multiple threads multiple processors usefulness volatile depends compiler hardware although volatile guarantees volatile reads volatile writes happen exact order specified source code compiler may generate code cpu may re-order execution volatile read write reordered regard non-volatile reads writes thus limiting usefulness inter-thread flag mutex preventing compiler specific compilers like gcc reorder operations around in-line assembly code volatile memory tags like asm volatile memory see examples compiler memory barrier moreover guaranteed volatile reads writes seen order processors cores due caching cache coherence protocol relaxed memory ordering meaning volatile variables alone may even work inter-thread flags mutexes 1-hop neighbor's text information: data_type.data type computer science computer programming data type simply type attribute data tells compiler interpreter programmer intends use data programming languages support common data types real integer boolean data type constrains values expression variable function might take data type defines operations done data meaning data way values type stored type value expression may take value data types used within type systems offer various ways defining implementing using different type systems ensure varying degrees type safety almost programming languages explicitly include notion data type though different languages may use different terminology common data types include example java programming language type int represents set 32-bit integers ranging value −2,147,483,648 2,147,483,647 well operations performed integers addition subtraction multiplication colors hand represented three bytes denoting amounts red green blue one string representing color name allowable operations include addition subtraction multiplication programming languages also allow programmer define additional data types usually combining multiple elements types defining valid operations new data type example programmer might create new data type named complex number would include real imaginary parts data type also represents constraint placed upon interpretation data type system describing representation interpretation structure values objects stored computer memory type system uses data type information check correctness computer programs access manipulate data data types statistics comparable types computer programming vice versa shown following table identified five definitions type used—sometimes implicitly—in literature types including behavior align closely object-oriented models whereas structured programming model would tend include code called plain old data structures five types definition terms representation often done imperative languages algol pascal definition terms value space behaviour used higher-level languages simula clu primitive data types typically types built-in basic language implementation data computers based digital electronics represented bits alternatives 0 1 lowest level smallest addressable unit data usually group bits called byte usually octet 8 bits unit processed machine code instructions called word typically 32 64 bits instructions interpret word binary number 32-bit word represent unsigned integer values 0 formula_1 signed integer values formula_2 formula_3 two complement machine language machine n't need distinguish unsigned signed data types part floating point numbers used floating point arithmetic use different interpretation bits word see https //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/floating-point_arithmetic details machine data types need exposed made available systems low-level programming languages allowing fine-grained control hardware c programming language instance supplies integer types various widths codice_1 codice_2 corresponding native type exist target platform compiler break code using types exist instance 32-bit integer requested 16 bit platform compiler tacitly treat array two 16 bit integers higher level programming machine data types often hidden abstracted implementation detail would render code less portable exposed instance generic codice_3 type might supplied instead integers specific bit-width boolean type represents values true false although two values possible rarely implemented single binary digit efficiency reasons many programming languages explicit boolean type instead interpreting instance 0 false values true boolean data refers logical structure language interpreted machine language case boolean 0 refers logic false true always non zero especially one known boolean 1 composite types derived one primitive type done number ways ways combined called data structures composing primitive type compound type generally results new type e.g array-of-integer different type integer many others possible tend variations compounds example linked list store data array provides sequential access rather random built records dynamic memory though arguably data structure rather type per se also common distinct enough including discussion composite types justified enumerated type distinct values compared assigned necessarily particular concrete representation computer memory compilers interpreters represent arbitrarily example four suits deck playing cards may four enumerators named club diamond heart spade belonging enumerated type named suit variable v declared suit data type one assign four values implementations allow programmers assign integer values enumeration values even treat type-equivalent integers character string types store sequences characters character set ascii since character sets include digits possible numeric string codice_7 however many languages treat belonging different type numeric value codice_8 character string types different subtypes according required character width original 7-bit wide ascii found limited superseded 8 16-bit sets encode wide variety non-latin alphabets hebrew chinese symbols strings may either stretch-to-fit fixed size even programming language may also subtyped maximum size note strings primitive languages instance c composed array characters types based derived basic types explained languages c functions type derived type return value main non-composite derived type pointer data type whose value refers directly points another value stored elsewhere computer memory using address primitive kind reference everyday terms page number book could considered piece data refers another one pointers often stored format similar integer however attempting dereference look pointer whose value never valid memory address would cause program crash ameliorate potential problem pointers considered separate type type data point even underlying representation type specify implementation abstract data type instance stack abstract type implemented array contiguous block memory containing multiple values linked list set non-contiguous memory blocks linked pointers abstract types handled code know care underlying types contained programming agnostic concrete data types called generic programming arrays records also contain underlying types considered concrete specify contents elements laid memory examples include convenience high-level languages may supply ready-made real world data types instance times dates monetary values memory even language allows built primitive types type system associates types computed values examining flow values type system attempts prove type errors occur type system question determines constitutes type error type system generally seeks guarantee operations expecting certain kind value used values operation make sense compiler may use static type value optimize storage needs choice algorithms operations value many c compilers data type example represented 32 bits accord ieee specification single-precision floating point numbers thus use floating-point-specific microprocessor operations values floating-point addition multiplication etc. depth type constraints manner evaluation affect typing language programming language may associate operation varying concrete algorithms type case type polymorphism type theory study type systems although concrete type systems programming languages originate practical issues computer architecture compiler implementation language design type systems may variously static dynamic strong weak typing forth 1-hop neighbor's text information: c_(programming_language).c programming language c letter c general-purpose procedural computer programming language supporting structured programming lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations design c provides constructs map efficiently typical machine instructions found lasting use applications previously coded assembly language applications include operating systems well various application software computers ranging supercomputers embedded systems c originally developed bell labs dennis ritchie 1972 1973 make utilities running unix later applied re-implementing kernel unix operating system 1980s c gradually gained popularity nowadays one widely used programming languages c compilers various vendors available majority existing computer architectures operating systems c standardized ansi since 1989 see ansi c subsequently international organization standardization c imperative procedural language designed compiled using relatively straightforward compiler provide low-level access memory provide language constructs map efficiently machine instructions require minimal runtime support despite low-level capabilities language designed encourage cross-platform programming standards-compliant c program written portability mind compiled wide variety computer platforms operating systems changes source code language become available various platforms embedded microcontrollers supercomputers like procedural languages algol tradition c facilities structured programming allows lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations c executable code contained within subroutines also called functions though strictly sense functional programming function parameters always passed value pass-by-reference simulated c explicitly passing pointer values c program source text free-format using semicolon statement terminator curly braces grouping blocks statements c language also exhibits following characteristics c include certain features found languages object orientation garbage collection implemented emulated often use external libraries e.g. glib object system boehm garbage collector many later languages borrowed directly indirectly c including c++ c unix c shell go java javascript limbo lpc objective-c perl php python rust swift verilog systemverilog hardware description languages languages drawn many control structures basic features c. python dramatic exception also express highly similar syntax c tend combine recognizable expression statement syntax c underlying type systems data models semantics radically different origin c closely tied development unix operating system originally implemented assembly language pdp-7 dennis ritchie ken thompson incorporating several ideas colleagues eventually decided port operating system pdp-11 original pdp-11 version unix developed assembly language thompson needed programming language make utilities first tried make fortran compiler soon gave idea made new language b thompson simplified version bcpl however utilities written b b slow b could take advantage pdp-11 features byte addressability 1972 ritchie started improve b resulted creating new language c. c compiler utilities made included version 2 unix version 4 unix released nov. 1973 unix kernel extensively re-implemented c. time c language acquired powerful features codice_12 types unix one first operating system kernels implemented language assembly earlier instances include multics system written pl/i master control program mcp burroughs b5000 written algol 1961 around 1977 ritchie stephen c. johnson made changes language facilitate portability unix operating system johnson portable c compiler served basis several implementations c new platforms 1978 brian kernighan dennis ritchie published first edition c programming language book known c programmers k r served many years informal specification language version c describes commonly referred k r c second edition book covers later ansi c standard described k r introduced several language features even publication 1989 ansi standard many years k r c still considered lowest common denominator c programmers restricted maximum portability desired since many older compilers still use carefully written k r c code legal standard c well early versions c functions return types codice_30 must declared used function definition functions used without prior declaration presumed return type codice_30 example codice_30 type specifiers commented could omitted k r c required later standards since k r function declarations include information function arguments function parameter type checks performed although compilers would issue warning message local function called wrong number arguments multiple calls external function used different numbers types arguments separate tools unix lint utility developed among things could check consistency function use across multiple source files years following publication k r c several features added language supported compilers particular pcc vendors included large number extensions lack agreement standard library together language popularity fact even unix compilers precisely implemented k r specification led necessity standardization late 1970s 1980s versions c implemented wide variety mainframe computers minicomputers microcomputers including ibm pc popularity began increase significantly 1983 american national standards institute ansi formed committee x3j11 establish standard specification c. x3j11 based c standard unix implementation however non-portable portion unix c library handed ieee working group 1003 become basis 1988 posix standard 1989 c standard ratified ansi x3.159-1989 programming language c version language often referred ansi c standard c sometimes c89 1990 ansi c standard formatting changes adopted international organization standardization iso iso/iec 9899:1990 sometimes called c90 therefore terms c89 c90 refer programming language ansi like national standards bodies longer develops c standard independently defers international c standard maintained working group iso/iec jtc1/sc22/wg14 national adoption update international standard typically occurs within year iso publication one aims c standardization process produce superset k r c incorporating many subsequently introduced unofficial features standards committee also included several additional features function prototypes borrowed c++ codice_15 pointers support international character sets locales preprocessor enhancements although syntax parameter declarations augmented include style used c++ k r interface continued permitted compatibility existing source code c89 supported current c compilers c code written today based program written standard c without hardware-dependent assumptions run correctly platform conforming c implementation within resource limits without precautions programs may compile certain platform particular compiler due example use non-standard libraries gui libraries reliance compiler- platform-specific attributes exact size data types byte endianness cases code must compilable either standard-conforming k r c-based compilers codice_38 macro used split code standard k r sections prevent use k r c-based compiler features available standard c. ansi/iso standardization process c language specification remained relatively static several years 1995 normative amendment 1 1990 c standard iso/iec 9899/amd1:1995 known informally c95 published correct details add extensive support international character sets c standard revised late 1990s leading publication iso/iec 9899:1999 1999 commonly referred c99 since amended three times technical corrigenda c99 introduced several new features including inline functions several new data types including codice_39 codice_40 type represent complex numbers variable-length arrays flexible array members improved support ieee 754 floating point support variadic macros macros variable arity support one-line comments beginning codice_41 bcpl c++ many already implemented extensions several c compilers c99 part backward compatible c90 stricter ways particular declaration lacks type specifier longer codice_30 implicitly assumed standard macro codice_43 defined value codice_44 indicate c99 support available gcc solaris studio c compilers support many new features c99 c compiler microsoft visual c++ however implements c89 standard parts c99 required compatibility c++11 2007 work began another revision c standard informally called c1x official publication 2011-12-08 c standards committee adopted guidelines limit adoption new features tested existing implementations c11 standard adds numerous new features c library including type generic macros anonymous structures improved unicode support atomic operations multi-threading bounds-checked functions also makes portions existing c99 library optional improves compatibility c++ standard macro codice_43 defined codice_46 indicate c11 support available published june 2018 c18 current standard c programming language introduces new language features technical corrections clarifications defects c11 standard macro codice_43 defined codice_48 historically embedded c programming requires nonstandard extensions c language order support exotic features fixed-point arithmetic multiple distinct memory banks basic i/o operations 2008 c standards committee published technical report extending c language address issues providing common standard implementations adhere includes number features available normal c fixed-point arithmetic named address spaces basic i/o hardware addressing c formal grammar specified c standard line endings generally significant c however line boundaries significance preprocessing phase comments may appear either delimiters codice_49 codice_50 since c99 following codice_41 end line comments delimited codice_49 codice_50 nest sequences characters interpreted comment delimiters appear inside string character literals c source files contain declarations function definitions function definitions turn contain declarations statements declarations either define new types using keywords codice_12 codice_35 codice_14 assign types perhaps reserve storage new variables usually writing type followed variable name keywords codice_57 codice_30 specify built-in types sections code enclosed braces codice_59 codice_60 sometimes called curly brackets limit scope declarations act single statement control structures imperative language c uses statements specify actions common statement expression statement consisting expression evaluated followed semicolon side effect evaluation functions may called variables may assigned new values modify normal sequential execution statements c provides several control-flow statements identified reserved keywords structured programming supported codice_61 -codice_62 conditional execution codice_63-codice_4 codice_4 codice_2 iterative execution looping codice_2 statement separate initialization testing reinitialization expressions omitted codice_68 codice_69 used leave innermost enclosing loop statement skip reinitialization also non-structured codice_70 statement branches directly designated label within function codice_5 selects codice_72 executed based value integer expression expressions use variety built-in operators may contain function calls order arguments functions operands operators evaluated unspecified evaluations may even interleaved however side effects including storage variables occur next sequence point sequence points include end expression statement entry return function call sequence points also occur evaluation expressions containing certain operators codice_73 codice_10 codice_75 comma operator permits high degree object code optimization compiler requires c programmers take care obtain reliable results needed programming languages kernighan ritchie say introduction c programming language c like language blemishes operators wrong precedence parts syntax could better c standard attempt correct many blemishes impact changes already existing software basic c source character set includes following characters newline indicates end text line need correspond actual single character although convenience c treats one additional multi-byte encoded characters may used string literals entirely portable latest c standard c11 allows multi-national unicode characters embedded portably within c source text using codice_83 codice_84 encoding codice_85 denotes hexadecimal character although feature yet widely implemented basic c execution character set contains characters along representations alert backspace carriage return run-time support extended character sets increased revision c standard c89 32 reserved words also known keywords words used purposes predefined c99 reserved five words c11 reserved seven words recently reserved words begin underscore followed capital letter identifiers form previously reserved c standard use implementations since existing program source code using identifiers would affected c implementations started supporting extensions programming language standard headers define convenient synonyms underscored identifiers language previously included reserved word called codice_130 seldom implemented removed reserved word c supports rich set operators symbols used within expression specify manipulations performed evaluating expression c operators c uses operator codice_136 used mathematics express equality indicate assignment following precedent fortran pl/i unlike algol derivatives c uses operator codice_156 test equality similarity two operators assignment equality may result accidental use one place many cases mistake produce error message although compilers produce warnings example conditional expression codice_176 might mistakenly written codice_177 evaluated true codice_76 zero assignment c operator precedence always intuitive example operator codice_156 binds tightly executed prior operators codice_9 bitwise codice_149 bitwise expressions codice_182 must written codice_183 coder intent hello world example appeared first edition k r become model introductory program programming textbooks regardless programming language program prints hello world standard output usually terminal screen display original version main standard-conforming hello world program int main void first line program contains preprocessing directive indicated codice_184 causes compiler replace line entire text codice_185 standard header contains declarations standard input output functions codice_186 codice_187 angle brackets surrounding codice_185 indicate codice_185 located using search strategy prefers headers provided compiler headers name opposed double quotes typically include local project-specific header files next line indicates function named codice_190 defined codice_190 function serves special purpose c programs run-time environment calls codice_190 function begin program execution type specifier codice_30 indicates value returned invoker case run-time environment result evaluating codice_190 function integer keyword codice_15 parameter list indicates function takes arguments opening curly brace indicates beginning definition codice_190 function next line calls diverts execution function named codice_186 case supplied system library call codice_186 function passed provided single argument address first character string literal codice_199 string literal unnamed array elements type codice_57 set automatically compiler final 0-valued character mark end array codice_186 needs know codice_202 escape sequence c translates newline character output signifies end current line return value codice_186 function type codice_30 silently discarded since used careful program might test return value determine whether codice_186 function succeeded semicolon codice_206 terminates statement closing curly brace indicates end code codice_190 function according c99 specification newer codice_190 function unlike function implicitly return value codice_80 upon reaching codice_60 terminates function formerly explicit codice_211 statement required interpreted run-time system exit code indicating successful execution type system c static weakly typed makes similar type system algol descendants pascal built-in types integers various sizes signed unsigned floating-point numbers enumerated types codice_14 integer type codice_57 often used single-byte characters c99 added boolean datatype also derived types including arrays pointers records codice_12 unions codice_35 c often used low-level systems programming escapes type system may necessary compiler attempts ensure type correctness expressions programmer override checks various ways either using type cast explicitly convert value one type another using pointers unions reinterpret underlying bits data object way find c declaration syntax unintuitive particularly function pointers ritchie idea declare identifiers contexts resembling use declaration reflects use c usual arithmetic conversions allow efficient code generated sometimes produce unexpected results example comparison signed unsigned integers equal width requires conversion signed value unsigned generate unexpected results signed value negative c supports use pointers type reference records address location object function memory pointers dereferenced access data stored address pointed invoke pointed-to function pointers manipulated using assignment pointer arithmetic run-time representation pointer value typically raw memory address perhaps augmented offset-within-word field since pointer type includes type thing pointed expressions including pointers type-checked compile time pointer arithmetic automatically scaled size pointed-to data type pointers used many purposes c. text strings commonly manipulated using pointers arrays characters dynamic memory allocation performed using pointers many data types trees commonly implemented dynamically allocated codice_12 objects linked together using pointers pointers functions useful passing functions arguments higher-order functions qsort bsearch callbacks invoked event handlers null pointer value explicitly points valid location dereferencing null pointer value undefined often resulting segmentation fault null pointer values useful indicating special cases next pointer final node linked list error indication functions returning pointers appropriate contexts source code assigning pointer variable null pointer constant written codice_80 without explicit casting pointer type codice_218 macro defined several standard headers conditional contexts null pointer values evaluate false pointer values evaluate true void pointers codice_219 point objects unspecified type therefore used generic data pointers since size type pointed-to object known void pointers dereferenced pointer arithmetic allowed although easily many contexts implicitly converted object pointer type careless use pointers potentially dangerous typically unchecked pointer variable made point arbitrary location cause undesirable effects although properly used pointers point safe places made point unsafe places using invalid pointer arithmetic objects point may continue used deallocation dangling pointers may used without initialized wild pointers may directly assigned unsafe value using cast union another corrupt pointer general c permissive allowing manipulation conversion pointer types although compilers typically provide options various levels checking programming languages address problems using restrictive reference types array types c traditionally fixed static size specified compile time recent c99 standard also allows form variable-length arrays however also possible allocate block memory arbitrary size run-time using standard library codice_220 function treat array c unification arrays pointers means declared arrays dynamically allocated simulated arrays virtually interchangeable since arrays always accessed effect via pointers array accesses typically checked underlying array size although compilers may provide bounds checking option array bounds violations therefore possible rather common carelessly written code lead various repercussions including illegal memory accesses corruption data buffer overruns run-time exceptions bounds checking desired must done manually c special provision declaring multi-dimensional arrays rather relies recursion within type system declare arrays arrays effectively accomplishes thing index values resulting multi-dimensional array thought increasing row-major order multi-dimensional arrays commonly used numerical algorithms mainly applied linear algebra store matrices structure c array well suited particular task however since arrays passed merely pointers bounds array must known fixed values else explicitly passed subroutine requires dynamically sized arrays arrays accessed using double indexing workaround allocate array additional row vector pointers columns c99 introduced variable-length arrays address issues ordinary c arrays subscript notation codice_221 codice_222 designates pointer syntactic sugar codice_223 taking advantage compiler knowledge pointer type address codice_224 points base address pointed codice_222 incremented codice_27 bytes rather defined base address incremented codice_27 multiplied size element codice_222 points thus codice_221 designates codice_230th element array furthermore expression contexts notable exception operand codice_108 name array automatically converted pointer array first element implies array never copied whole named argument function rather address first element passed therefore although function calls c use pass-by-value semantics arrays effect passed reference size element determined applying operator codice_108 dereferenced element codice_222 codice_234 codice_235 number elements declared array codice_78 determined codice_237 latter applies array names variables declared subscripts codice_238 due semantics c possible determine entire size arrays pointers arrays created dynamic allocation codice_220 code codice_240 codice_241 designates pointer work since compiler assumes size pointer requested since array name arguments codice_108 converted pointers exhibit ambiguity however arrays created dynamic allocation accessed pointers rather true array variables suffer codice_108 issues array pointers thus despite apparent equivalence array pointer variables still distinction made even though name array expression contexts converted pointer first element pointer occupy storage array name l-value address constant unlike pointer variable consequently array points changed impossible assign new address array name array contents may copied however using codice_244 function accessing individual elements one important functions programming language provide facilities managing memory objects stored memory c provides three distinct ways allocate memory objects three approaches appropriate different situations various trade-offs example static memory allocation little allocation overhead automatic allocation may involve slightly overhead dynamic memory allocation potentially great deal overhead allocation deallocation persistent nature static objects useful maintaining state information across function calls automatic allocation easy use stack space typically much limited transient either static memory heap space dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation objects whose size known run-time c programs make extensive use three possible automatic static allocation usually simplest storage managed compiler freeing programmer potentially error-prone chore manually allocating releasing storage however many data structures change size runtime since static allocations automatic allocations c99 must fixed size compile-time many situations dynamic allocation necessary prior c99 standard variable-sized arrays common example see article codice_220 example dynamically allocated arrays unlike automatic allocation fail run time uncontrolled consequences dynamic allocation functions return indication form null pointer value required storage allocated static allocation large usually detected linker loader program even begin execution unless otherwise specified static objects contain zero null pointer values upon program startup automatically dynamically allocated objects initialized initial value explicitly specified otherwise initially indeterminate values typically whatever bit pattern happens present storage might even represent valid value type program attempts access uninitialized value results undefined many modern compilers try detect warn problem false positives false negatives occur another issue heap memory allocation synchronized actual usage program order reused much possible example pointer heap memory allocation goes scope value overwritten codice_249 called memory recovered later reuse essentially lost program phenomenon known memory leak conversely possible memory freed continue referenced leading unpredictable results typically symptoms appear portion program far removed actual error making difficult track problem issues ameliorated languages automatic garbage collection c programming language uses libraries primary method extension c library set functions contained within single archive file library typically header file contains prototypes functions contained within library may used program declarations special data types macro symbols used functions order program use library must include library header file library must linked program many cases requires compiler flags e.g. codice_250 shorthand link math library common c library c standard library specified iso ansi c standards comes every c implementation implementations target limited environments embedded systems may provide subset standard library library supports stream input output memory allocation mathematics character strings time values several separate standard headers example codice_185 specify interfaces standard library facilities another common set c library functions used applications specifically targeted unix unix-like systems especially functions provide interface kernel functions detailed various standards posix single unix specification since many programs written c wide variety libraries available libraries often written c c compilers generate efficient object code programmers create interfaces library routines used higher-level languages like java perl python file input output i/o part c language instead handled libraries c standard library associated header files e.g codice_185 file handling generally implemented high-level i/o works streams stream perspective data flow independent devices file concrete device high level i/o done association stream file c standard library buffer memory area queue temporarily used store data sent final destination reduces time spent waiting slower devices example hard drive solid state drive low-level i/o functions part standard c library generally part bare metal programming programming independent operating system embedded programming exceptions implementations include low-level i/o number tools developed help c programmers find fix statements undefined behavior possibly erroneous expressions greater rigor provided compiler tool lint first leading many others automated source code checking auditing beneficial language c many tools exist lint common practice use lint detect questionable code program first written program passes lint compiled using c compiler also many compilers optionally warn syntactically valid constructs likely actually errors misra c proprietary set guidelines avoid questionable code developed embedded systems also compilers libraries operating system level mechanisms performing actions standard part c bounds checking arrays detection buffer overflow serialization dynamic memory tracking automatic garbage collection tools purify valgrind linking libraries containing special versions memory allocation functions help uncover runtime errors memory usage c widely used systems programming implementing operating systems embedded system applications c code written portability used purposes yet needed system-specific code used access specific hardware addresses perform type punning match externally imposed interface requirements low run-time demand system resources c also used website programming using cgi gateway information web application server browser c often chosen interpreted languages speed stability near-universal availability one consequence c wide availability efficiency compilers libraries interpreters programming languages often implemented c. reference implementations python perl php example written c. layer abstraction thin overhead low c enables programmers create efficient implementations algorithms data structures useful computationally intense programs example gnu multiple precision arithmetic library gnu scientific library mathematica matlab completely partially written c. c sometimes used intermediate language implementations languages approach may used portability convenience using c intermediate language additional machine-specific code generators necessary c features line-number preprocessor directives optional superfluous commas end initializer lists support compilation generated code however c shortcomings prompted development c-based languages specifically designed use intermediate languages c -- c also widely used implement end-user applications however applications also written newer higher-level languages c directly indirectly influenced many later languages c go java javascript limbo lpc perl php python unix c shell pervasive influence syntactical languages mentioned combine statement less recognizably expression syntax c type systems data models and/or large-scale program structures differ c sometimes radically several c near-c interpreters exist including ch cint also used scripting object-oriented languages became popular c++ objective-c two different extensions c provided object-oriented capabilities languages originally implemented source-to-source compilers source code translated c compiled c compiler c++ programming language devised bjarne stroustrup approach providing object-oriented functionality c-like syntax c++ adds greater typing strength scoping tools useful object-oriented programming permits generic programming via templates nearly superset c c++ supports c exceptions objective-c originally thin layer top c remains strict superset c permits object-oriented programming using hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm objective-c derives syntax c smalltalk syntax involves preprocessing expressions function declarations function calls inherited c syntax object-oriented features originally taken smalltalk addition c++ objective-c ch cilk unified parallel c nearly supersets c Target text information: volatile_(computer_programming).volatile computer programming computer programming particularly c c++ c java programming languages volatile keyword indicates value may change different accesses even appear modified keyword prevents optimizing compiler optimizing away subsequent reads writes thus incorrectly reusing stale value omitting writes volatile values primarily arise hardware access memory-mapped i/o reading writing memory used communicate peripheral devices threading different thread may modified value despite common keyword behavior codice_1 differs significantly programming languages easily misunderstood c c++ type qualifier like codice_2 property type furthermore c c++ work threading scenarios use discouraged java c property variable indicates object variable bound may mutate specifically intended threading programming language separate keyword codice_3 threading usage codice_1 keyword exists c consequently c++ codice_1 keyword intended operations codice_1 variables atomic establish proper happens-before relationship threading specified relevant standards c c++ posix win32 volatile variables threadsafe vast majority current implementations thus usage codice_1 keyword portable synchronization mechanism discouraged many c/c++ groups example code sets value stored codice_11 codice_12 starts poll value repeatedly changes codice_13 static int foo void bar void optimizing compiler notice code possibly change value stored codice_11 assume remain equal codice_12 times compiler therefore replace function body infinite loop similar void bar_optimized void however codice_11 might represent location changed elements computer system time hardware register device connected cpu code would never detect change without codice_1 keyword compiler assumes current program part system could change value far common situation prevent compiler optimizing code codice_1 keyword used static volatile int foo void bar void modification loop condition optimized away system detect change occurs generally memory barrier operations available platforms exposed c++11 preferred instead volatile allow compiler perform better optimization importantly guarantee correct behaviour multi-threaded scenarios neither c specification c11 c++ specification c++11 specifies multi-threaded memory model volatile may behave deterministically across oses/compilers/cpus following c programs accompanying assemblies demonstrate codice_1 keyword affects compiler output compiler case gcc observing assembly code clearly visible code generated codice_1 objects verbose making longer nature codice_1 objects fulfilled codice_1 keyword prevents compiler performing optimization code involving volatile objects thus ensuring volatile variable assignment read corresponding memory access without codice_1 keyword compiler knows variable need reread memory use writes memory location thread process according c++11 iso standard volatile keyword meant use hardware access use inter-thread communication inter-thread communication standard library provides codice_24 templates java programming language also codice_1 keyword used somewhat different purpose applied field java qualifier codice_1 provides following guarantees using codice_1 may faster lock work situations range situations volatile effective expanded java 5 particular double-checked locking works correctly c codice_1 ensures code accessing field subject thread-unsafe optimizations may performed compiler clr hardware following types marked volatile reference types single boolean byte sbyte int16 uint16 int32 uint32 char enumerated types underlying type byte sbyte int16 uint16 int32 uint32 excludes value structs well primitive types double int64 uint64 decimal basically codice_1 shorthand calling codice_30 codice_31 methods special effect methods disable optimizations usually performed c compiler jit compiler cpu methods work follows codice_35 part fortran 2003 standard although earlier version supported extension making variables codice_1 function also useful finding aliasing related bugs integer volatile defined volatile following two lines code identical write i*2 loads variable memory multiplies value times write ii loads variable twice memory multiplies values always drilling memory volatile fortran compiler precluded reordering reads writes volatiles makes visible threads actions done thread vice versa use volatile reduces even prevent optimization I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	9,794	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: ibm.ibm international business machines corporation ibm american multinational information technology company headquartered armonk new york operations 170 countries company began 1911 founded endicott new york computing-tabulating-recording company ctr renamed international business machines 1924 ibm produces sells computer hardware middleware software provides hosting consulting services areas ranging mainframe computers nanotechnology ibm also major research organization holding record u.s. patents generated business 26 consecutive years inventions ibm include automated teller machine atm floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database sql programming language upc barcode dynamic random-access memory dram ibm mainframe exemplified system/360 dominant computing platform 1960s 1970s ibm continually shifted business operations focusing higher-value profitable markets includes spinning printer manufacturer lexmark 1991 sale personal computer thinkpad/thinkcentre x86-based server businesses lenovo 2005 2014 respectively acquiring companies pwc consulting 2002 spss 2009 weather company 2016 red hat 2019 also 2015 ibm announced would go fabless continuing design semiconductors offloading manufacturing globalfoundries nicknamed big blue ibm one 30 companies included dow jones industrial average one world largest employers 380,000 employees known ibmers least 70 ibmers based outside united states country largest number ibmers india ibm employees awarded five nobel prizes six turing awards ten national medals technology usa five national medals science usa 1880s technologies emerged would ultimately form core international business machines ibm julius e. pitrap patented computing scale 1885 alexander dey invented dial recorder 1888 herman hollerith 1860–1929 patented electric tabulating machine willard bundy invented time clock record worker arrival departure time paper tape 1889 june 16 1911 four companies amalgamated new york state charles ranlett flint forming fifth company computing-tabulating-recording company ctr based endicott new york five companies 1,300 employees offices plants endicott binghamton new york dayton ohio detroit michigan washington d.c. toronto manufactured machinery sale lease ranging commercial scales industrial time recorders meat cheese slicers tabulators punched cards thomas j. watson sr. fired national cash register company john henry patterson called flint 1914 offered position ctr watson joined ctr general manager 11 months later made president court cases relating time ncr resolved learned patterson pioneering business practices watson proceeded put stamp ncr onto ctr companies implemented sales conventions generous sales incentives focus customer service insistence well-groomed dark-suited salesmen evangelical fervor instilling company pride loyalty every worker favorite slogan think became mantra company employees watson first four years revenues reached 9 million company operations expanded europe south america asia australia watson never liked clumsy hyphenated name computing-tabulating-recording company february 14 1924 chose replace expansive title international business machines 1933 subsidiaries merged one company ibm 1937 ibm tabulating equipment enabled organizations process unprecedented amounts data clients including u.s. government first effort maintain employment records 26 million people pursuant social security act tracking persecuted groups hitler third reich largely german subsidiary dehomag 1949 thomas watson sr. created ibm world trade corporation subsidiary ibm focused foreign operations 1952 stepped almost 40 years company helm son thomas watson jr. named president 1956 company demonstrated first practical example artificial intelligence arthur l. samuel ibm poughkeepsie new york laboratory programmed ibm 704 merely play checkers learn experience 1957 fortran scientific programming language developed 1961 ibm developed sabre reservation system american airlines introduced highly successful selectric typewriter 1963 ibm employees computers helped nasa track orbital flights mercury astronauts year later moved corporate headquarters new york city armonk new york latter half 1960s saw ibm continue support space exploration participating 1965 gemini flights 1966 saturn flights 1969 lunar mission april 7 1964 ibm announced first computer system family ibm system/360 spanned complete range commercial scientific applications large small allowing companies first time upgrade models greater computing capability without rewrite applications followed ibm system/370 1970 together 360 370 made ibm mainframe dominant mainframe computer dominant computing platform industry throughout period early 1980s operating systems ran os/vs1 mvs middleware built top cics transaction processing monitor near-monopoly-level hold computer industry became almost synonymous ibm products due marketshare 1974 ibm engineer george j. laurer developed universal product code ibm world bank first introduced financial swaps public 1981 entered swap agreement ibm pc originally designated ibm 5150 introduced 1981 soon became industry standard 1991 ibm spun printer manufacturing new business called lexmark 1993 ibm posted us 8 billion loss – time biggest american corporate history lou gerstner hired ceo rjr nabisco turn company around 2002 ibm acquired pwc consulting 2003 initiated project redefine company values hosting three-day online discussion key business issues 50,000 employees result three values dedication every client success innovation matters—for company world trust personal responsibility relationships 2005 company sold personal computer business chinese technology company lenovo 2009 acquired software company spss inc. later 2009 ibm blue gene supercomputing program awarded national medal technology innovation u.s. president barack obama 2011 ibm gained worldwide attention artificial intelligence program watson exhibited jeopardy game-show champions ken jennings brad rutter company also celebrated 100th anniversary year june 16 2012 ibm announced agreed buy kenexa year later also acquired softlayer technologies web hosting service deal worth around 2 billion 2014 ibm announced would sell x86 server division lenovo 2.1 billion also year ibm began announcing several major partnerships companies including apple inc. twitter facebook tencent cisco underarmour box microsoft vmware csc macy sesame workshop parent company sesame street salesforce.com 2015 ibm announced three major acquisitions merge healthcare 1 billion data storage vendor cleversafe digital assets weather company including weather.com weather channel mobile app also year ibmers created film boy atom first molecule movie tell story 2016 ibm acquired video conferencing service ustream formed new cloud video unit april 2016 posted 14-year low quarterly sales following month groupon sued ibm accusing patent infringement two months ibm accused groupon patent infringement separate lawsuit 2015 ibm bought digital part weather company october 2018 ibm announced intention acquire red hat 34 billion acquisition completed july 9 2019 june 2019 ibm cut 2,000 jobs ibm headquartered armonk new york community north midtown manhattan principal building referred chq glass stone edifice parcel amid 432-acre former apple orchard company purchased mid-1950s two ibm buildings within walking distance chq north castle office previously served ibm headquarters louis v. gerstner jr. center learning formerly known ibm learning center ilc resort hotel training center 182 guest rooms 31 meeting rooms various amenities ibm operates 174 countries mobility centers smaller markets areas major campuses larger ones new york city ibm several offices besides chq including ibm watson headquarters astor place manhattan outside new york major campuses united states include austin texas research triangle park raleigh-durham north carolina rochester minnesota silicon valley california ibm real estate holdings varied globally diverse towers occupied ibm include 1250 rené-lévesque montreal canada tour descartes paris france one atlantic center atlanta georgia usa beijing china ibm occupies pangu plaza city seventh tallest building overlooking beijing national stadium bird nest home 2008 summer olympics ibm india private limited indian subsidiary ibm headquartered bengaluru karnataka facilities bengaluru ahmedabad delhi kolkata mumbai chennai pune gurugram noida bhubaneshwar coimbatore visakhapatnam hyderabad notable buildings include ibm rome software lab rome italy hursley house winchester uk 330 north wabash chicago illinois united states cambridge scientific center cambridge massachusetts united states ibm toronto software lab toronto canada ibm building johannesburg johannesburg south africa ibm building seattle seattle washington united states ibm hakozaki facility tokyo japan ibm yamato facility yamato japan ibm canada head office building ontario canada watson iot headquarters munich germany defunct ibm campuses include ibm somers office complex somers new york company contributions industrial architecture design include works eero saarinen ludwig mies van der rohe i.m pei van der rohe building chicago recognized 1990 honor award national building museum ibm recognized one top 20 best workplaces commuters united states environmental protection agency epa 2005 recognized fortune 500 companies provided employees excellent commuter benefits help reduce traffic air pollution 2004 concerns raised related ibm contribution early days pollution original location endicott new york fiscal year 2017 ibm reported earnings us 5.7 billion annual revenue us 79.1 billion decline 1.0 previous fiscal cycle ibm shares traded 125 per share market capitalization valued us 113.9 billion september 2018 ibm ranked 34 2018 fortune 500 rankings largest united states corporations total revenue ibm large diverse portfolio products services offerings fall categories cloud computing artificial intelligence commerce data analytics internet things iot infrastructure mobile security ibm cloud includes infrastructure service iaas software service saas platform service paas offered public private hybrid cloud delivery models instance ibm bluemix paas enables developers quickly create complex websites pay-as-you-go model ibm softlayer dedicated server managed hosting cloud computing provider 2011 reported hosting 81,000 servers 26,000 customers ibm also provides cloud data encryption services icdes using cryptographic splitting secure customer data ibm also hosts industry-wide cloud computing mobile technologies conference interconnect year hardware designed ibm categories include ibm power microprocessors employed inside many console gaming systems including xbox 360 playstation 3 nintendo wii u. ibm secure blue encryption hardware built microprocessors 2014 company revealed truenorth neuromorphic cmos integrated circuit announced 3 billion investment following five years design neural chip mimics human brain 10 billion neurons 100 trillion synapses uses 1 kilowatt power 2016 company launched all-flash arrays designed small midsized companies includes software data compression provisioning snapshots across various systems outsourcing also represents major service provided ibm 40 data centers worldwide alphaworks ibm source emerging software technologies spss software package used statistical analysis ibm kenexa suite provides employment retention solutions includes brassring applicant tracking system used thousands companies recruiting ibm also owns weather company provides weather forecasting includes weather.com weather underground smarter planet initiative seeks achieve economic growth near-term efficiency sustainable development societal progress targeting opportunities smart grids water management systems solutions traffic congestion greener buildings services provisions include redbooks publicly available online books best practices ibm products developerworks website software developers professionals how-to articles tutorials well software downloads code samples discussion forums podcasts blogs wikis resources developers technical professionals ibm watson technology platform uses natural language processing machine learning reveal insights large amounts unstructured data watson debuted 2011 american game-show jeopardy competed champions ken jennings brad rutter three-game tournament watson since applied business healthcare developers universities example ibm partnered memorial sloan kettering cancer center assist considering treatment options oncology patients melanoma screenings also several companies begun using watson call centers either replacing assisting customer service agents january 2019 ibm introduced first commercial quantum computer ibm q system one ibm also provides infrastructure new york city police department ibm cognos analytics perform data visualizations compstat crime data research part ibm since founding organized efforts trace roots back 1945 watson scientific computing laboratory founded columbia university new york city converting renovated fraternity house manhattan west side ibm first laboratory ibm research constitutes largest industrial research organization world 12 labs 6 continents ibm research headquartered thomas j. watson research center new york facilities include almaden lab california austin lab texas australia lab melbourne brazil lab são paulo rio de janeiro china lab beijing shanghai ireland lab dublin haifa lab israel india lab delhi bangalore tokyo lab zurich lab africa lab nairobi terms investment ibm r expenditure totals several billion dollars year 2012 expenditure approximately us 6.9 billion recent allocations included 1 billion create business unit watson 2014 3 billion create next-gen semiconductor along 4 billion towards growing company strategic imperatives cloud analytics mobile security social 2015 ibm leading proponent open source initiative began supporting linux 1998 company invests billions dollars services software based linux ibm linux technology center includes 300 linux kernel developers ibm also released code different open source licenses platform-independent software framework eclipse worth approximately us 40 million time donation three-sentence international components unicode icu license java-based relational database management system rdbms apache derby ibm open source involvement trouble-free however see sco v. ibm famous inventions developments ibm include automated teller machine atm dynamic random access memory dram electronic keypunch financial swap floppy disk hard disk drive magnetic stripe card relational database risc sabre airline reservation system sql universal product code upc bar code virtual machine additionally 1990 company scientists used scanning tunneling microscope arrange 35 individual xenon atoms spell company acronym marking first structure assembled one atom time major part ibm research generation patents since first patent traffic signaling device ibm one world prolific patent sources 2018 company holds record patents generated business marking 25 consecutive years achievement five ibmers received nobel prize leo esaki thomas j. watson research center yorktown heights n.y. 1973 work semiconductors gerd binnig heinrich rohrer zurich research center 1986 scanning tunneling microscope georg bednorz alex müller also zurich 1987 research superconductivity several ibmers also turing award including first female recipient frances e. allen current research includes collaboration university michigan see computers act academic advisor undergraduate computer science engineering students university partnership combining cloud internet things iot platforms make interoperable provide developers easier tools company also involved research advanced algorithms machine learning decision-making processes end company recently released analysis tool algorithms make decisions scanning biases automated decision-making ibm nicknamed big blue part due blue logo color scheme also partially since ibm de facto dress code white shirts blue suits company logo undergone several changes years current 8-bar logo designed 1972 graphic designer paul rand general replacement 13-bar logo since period photocopiers render large areas well aside logo ibm used helvetica corporate typeface 50 years replaced 2017 custom-designed ibm plex ibm valuable brand result 100 years operations marketing campaigns since 1996 ibm exclusive technology partner masters tournament one four major championships professional golf ibm creating first masters.org 1996 first course cam 1998 first iphone app live streaming 2009 first-ever live 4k ultra high definition feed united states major sporting event 2016 result ibm ceo ginni rometty became third female member master governing body augusta national golf club ibm also major sponsor professional tennis engagements u.s. open wimbledon australian open french open company also sponsored olympic games 1960–2000 national football league 2003–2012 2012 ibm brand valued 75.5 billion ranked interbrand second-best brand worldwide year also ranked top company leaders fortune number two green company u.s. newsweek second-most respected company barron fifth-most admired company fortune 18th-most innovative company fast company number one technology consulting number two outsourcing vault 2015 forbes ranked ibm fifth-most valuable brand january 1969 last day johnson administration united states department justice antitrust division filed suit ibm alleging company engaged monopolistic business practices talks ibm would agree settlement consent decree two sides unable come terms case went trial 1975 legal matter justice department estimated would take 60 days three years millions pages evidence justice department decided drop suit new york times article states ibm never publicly disclosed much spent defending suit estimated tens millions dollars ibm one largest workforces world employees big blue referred ibmers company among first corporations provide group life insurance 1934 survivor benefits 1935 training women 1935 paid vacations 1937 training disabled people 1942 ibm hired first black salesperson 1946 1952 ceo thomas j. watson jr. published company first written equal opportunity policy letter one year u.s. supreme court decision brown vs. board education 11 years civil rights act 1964 human rights campaign rated ibm 100 index gay-friendliness every year since 2003 ibm providing same-sex partners employees health benefits anti-discrimination clause additionally 2005 ibm became first major company world commit formally use genetic information employment decisions 2017 ibm named working mother 100 best companies list 32nd consecutive year ibm several leadership development recognition programs recognize employee potential achievements early-career high potential employees ibm sponsors leadership development programs discipline e.g. general management gmldp human resources hrldp finance fldp year company also selects 500 ibmers ibm corporate service corps csc described corporate equivalent peace corps gives top employees month humanitarian work abroad certain interns ibm also program called extreme blue partners top business technical students develop high-value technology compete present business case company ceo internship end company also various designations exceptional individual contributors senior technical staff member stsm research staff member rsm distinguished engineer de distinguished designer dd prolific inventors also achieve patent plateaus earn designation master inventor company prestigious designation ibm fellow since 1963 company names handful fellows year based technical achievement programs recognize years service quarter century club established 1924 sellers eligible join hundred percent club composed ibm salesmen meet quotas convened atlantic city new jersey year company also selects 1,000 ibmers annually award best ibm award includes all-expenses paid trip awards ceremony exotic location ibm culture evolved significantly century operations early days dark gray suit white shirt sincere tie constituted public uniform ibm employees ibm management transformation 1990s ceo louis v. gerstner jr. relaxed codes normalizing dress behavior ibm employees company culture also given different plays company acronym ibm saying stands 've moved due relocations layoffs others saying stands 'm pursuant prevalent work-from-anywhere norm others saying stands 'm mentored due company open door policy encouragement mentoring levels terms labor relations company traditionally resisted labor union organizing although unions represent ibm workers outside united states japan ibm employees also american football team complete pro stadium cheerleaders televised games competing japanese x-league big blue 2015 ibm started giving employees option choosing either pc mac primary work device resulting ibm becoming world largest mac shop 2016 ibm eliminated forced rankings changed annual performance review system focus frequent feedback coaching skills development many ibmers also achieved notability outside work leaving ibm business former ibm employees include apple inc. ceo tim cook former eds ceo politician ross perot microsoft chairman john w. thompson sap co-founder hasso plattner gartner founder gideon gartner advanced micro devices amd ceo lisa su former citizens financial group ceo ellen alemany former yahoo chairman alfred amoroso former ceo c. michael armstrong former xerox corporation ceos david t. kearns g. richard thoman former fair isaac corporation ceo mark n. greene citrix systems co-founder ed iacobucci asos.com chairman brian mcbride former lenovo ceo steve ward former teradata ceo kenneth simonds government alumna patricia roberts harris served united states secretary housing urban development first african american woman serve united states cabinet samuel k. skinner served u.s. secretary transportation white house chief staff alumni also include u.s senators mack mattingly thom tillis wisconsin governor scott walker former u.s ambassadors vincent obsitnik slovakia arthur k. watson france thomas watson jr. soviet union former u.s representatives todd akin glenn andrews robert garcia katherine harris amo houghton jim ross lightfoot thomas j. manton donald w. riegle jr. ed zschau others nasa astronaut michael j. massimino canadian astronaut governor-general julie payette harvey mudd college president maria klawe western governors university president emeritus robert mendenhall former university kentucky president lee t. todd jr. nfl referee bill carollo former rangers f.c chairman john mcclelland recipient nobel prize literature j. m. coetzee thomas watson jr. also served 11th national president boy scouts america company 14 member board directors responsible overall corporate management includes ceos american express ford motor company boeing dow chemical johnson johnson cemex well president rensselaer polytechnic institute 2011 ibm became first technology company warren buffett holding company berkshire hathaway invested initially bought 64 million shares costing 10.5 billion dollars years increased ibm holdings however reduced 94.5 2.05 million shares end 2017 may 2018 completely ibm 1-hop neighbor's text information: biometric_tokenization.biometric tokenization biometric tokenization process substituting stored biometric template non-sensitive equivalent called token lacks extrinsic exploitable meaning value process combines biometrics public-key cryptography enable use stored biometric template e.g. fingerprint image mobile desktop device secure strong authentication applications systems without presenting template original replicable form biometric tokenization particular builds upon longstanding practice tokenization sequestering secrets manner secret user credentials like usernames passwords personally identifiable information pii represented substitute key public sphere technology closely associated authentication online applications running desktop computers mobile devices internet things iot nodes specific use cases include secure login payments physical access management smart connected products connected homes connected cars well adding biometric component two-factor authentication multi-factor authentication september 9 2014 launch apple pay service cupertino calif.-based apple inc. initiated conversation surrounding use biometricsupported tokenization payment data point sale retail transactions apple pay tokenizes mobile users ’ virtualized bank card data order wirelessly transmit payment represented token participating retailers support apple pay e.g partnerships supported hardware apple pay leverages proprietary touch id fingerprint scanner proprietary iphone line aside cryptography added security apple a7 system chip includes secure enclave hardware feature stores protects data touch id fingerprint sensor apple pay least payments credited innovating space biometric tokenization even use case limited payment convenience security restricted company ’ hardware software despite fact executives publicly utter phrase “ biometric tokenization ” speak underlying technology biometric tokenization apple pay similar biometric tokenization known today particularly using term verbatim authentication feature goes beyond payment convenience security distinctive features biometric tokenization implemented operating systems osx microsoft windows google android password-less login desktop mobile applications biometric tokenization like non-biometric counterpart tokenization utilizes end-to-end encryption safeguard data transit biometric tokenization user initiates authentication first accessing unlocking biometrics fingerprint recognition facial recognition system speech recognition iris recognition retinal scan combination biometric modalities user ’ unique qualities generally stored one two ways either on-device trusted execution environment tee trusted platform module tpm server way data stored biometric tokenization champions typically prefer biometric templates encrypted stored tees tpms prevent large-scale data breaches june 2015 u.s. office personnel management one biometric tokenization aided on-device storage user data also preserve internet privacy user data stored individually inside single devices rather aggregated ostensibly vulnerable servers moving biometric user credentials either two-factor authentication unqualified authentication example servers onto devices tenet fast identity online fido alliance industry consortium concerned replacing passwords decentralized biometrics next step biometric tokenization unlocking user credentials trusted area device credentials tokenized token containing precise data required action e.g login payment access token time-stamped case one-time passwords session tokens useful specific time period may biometric tokenization token validated means joint client-side server-side validation occurs challenge-response token exchange user logged authenticated otherwise granted access order achieve highest level privacy protection calculating transmitting sensitive information biometric tokenization leverages existing encryption algorithms authentication protocols well hardware trust zones combining methods maximizes level protection needed uphold integrity process security data could otherwise expose users breach trust mass scale 1-hop neighbor's text information: risc-v.risc-v risc-v pronounced risk-five open-source hardware instruction set architecture isa based established reduced instruction set computer risc principles project began 2010 university california berkeley many contributors volunteers affiliated university june 2019 version 2.2 user-space isa version 1.11 privileged isa frozen permitting software hardware development proceed debug specification available draft version 0.3 usable new isas usually expensive computer-designers normally afford work free also developing cpu requires design expertise several specialties electronic digital logic compilers operating systems rare find team outside professional engineering organization team normally paid money charged designs therefore commercial vendors computer designs arm holdings mips technologies charge royalties use designs patents copyrights also often require non-disclosure agreements releasing documents describe designs detailed advantages instruction set many cases never describe reasons design choices expense secrecy make development new hardware software much difficult also prevents security audits another result modern high-quality general-purpose computer instruction sets explained available except academic settings risc-v started solve problems goal make practical isa open-sourced usable academically hardware software design without royalties also rationales every part project explained least broadly risc-v authors academic substantial experience computer design risc-v isa direct development series academic computer-design projects originated part aid projects address cost design project started academic research funded darpa order build large continuing community users therefore accumulate designs software risc-v isa designers planned support wide variety practical uses small fast low-power real-world implementations without over-architecting particular microarchitecture need large base contributors part reason risc-v engineered fit many uses therefore many risc-v contributors see project unified community effort term risc dates 1980 knowledge simpler computers could effective design principles widely described simple effective computers always academic interest academics created risc instruction set dlx first edition computer architecture quantitative approach 1990 david patterson author later assisted risc-v. dlx intended educational use academics hobbyists implemented using field-programmable gate arrays commercial success arm cpus versions 2 earlier public-domain instruction set still supported gnu compiler collection gcc popular free-software compiler three open-source cores exist isa manufactured openrisc open-source isa based dlx associated risc designs fully supported gcc linux implementations however commercial implementations krste asanović university california berkeley found many uses open-source computer system 2010 decided develop publish one short three-month project summer plan help academic industrial users david patterson berkeley also aided effort originally identified properties berkeley risc risc-v one long series cooperative risc research projects stage students inexpensively provided initial software simulations cpu designs risc-v authors institution originally provided isa documents several cpu designs bsd licenses allow derivative works—such risc-v chip designs—to either open free closed proprietary early funding darpa commercial users require isa stable utilize product might last many years address issue risc-v foundation formed maintain publish intellectual property related risc-v definition original authors owners surrendered rights foundation designers say instruction set main interface computer lies hardware software good instruction set open available use dramatically reduce cost software permitting far reuse also increase competition among hardware providers use resources design less software support designers assert new principles becoming rare instruction set design successful designs last forty years become increasingly similar failed sponsoring companies failed commercially instruction sets poor technically well-designed open instruction set designed using well-established principles attract long-term support many vendors prior open isas used gnu general public license gpl encouraging users open implementations copying use others unlike academic designs optimized simplicity exposition designers state risc-v instruction set practical computers said features increase computer speed yet reduce cost power use include load–store architecture bit patterns simplify multiplexers cpu simplified standards-based floating-point design architecturally neutral placing most-significant bits fixed location speed sign-extension sign extension said often critical timing path instruction set designed wide range uses supports three word-widths 32 64 128 bits variety subsets definitions subset vary slightly three word-widths subsets support small embedded systems personal computers supercomputers vector processors warehouse-scale rack-mounted parallel computers instruction set variable-width extensible encoding bits always added space 128-bit stretched version isa reserved 60 years industry experience shown unrecoverable error instruction set design lack memory address space 128-bit isa remains undefined intentionally yet little practical experience large memory systems proposals implement variable-width instructions 864-bits risc-v also supports designers academic uses simplicity integer subset permits basic student exercises integer subset simple isa enabling software control research machines variable-length isa enables extensions student exercises research separated privileged instruction set permits research operating system support without redesigning compilers risc-v open intellectual property allows designs published reused modified normal problem new instruction set lack cpu designs software issues limit usability reduce adoption risc-v website specification user-mode instructions preliminary specification general-purpose privileged instruction set support operating systems several open-sourced risc-v cpu designs including 64-bit berkeley order machine boom 64-bit rocket five 32-bit sodor cpu designs berkeley picorv32 clifford wolf scr1 syntacore pulpino riscy zero-riscy eth zürich university bologna others three-stage sodor cpu appears apt small embedded cpu rocket may suit compact low-power intermediate computers personal devices boom uses much infrastructure created rocket may usable personal supercomputer warehouse-scale computers picorv scr1 32-bit microcontroller unit mcu class rv32imc implementations verilog cores pulpino implement simple rv32imc isa micro-controllers zero-riscy powerful rv32imfc isa custom dsp extensions embedded signal processing design software includes design compiler chisel reduce designs verilog use devices website includes verification data testing core implementations available risc-v software tools include gnu compiler collection gcc toolchain gdb debugger llvm toolchain ovpsim simulator library risc-v fast processor models spike simulator simulator qemu operating system support exists linux kernel freebsd netbsd supervisor-mode instructions unstandardized prior june 2019 support provisional preliminary freebsd port risc-v architecture upstreamed february 2016 shipped freebsd 11.0 ports debian fedora stabilizing port das u-boot exists uefi spec v2.7 defined risc-v binding tianocore port done hpe engineers expected upstreamed preliminary port sel4 microkernel simulator exists run risc-v linux system web browser using javascript hex five released first secure iot stack risc-v freertos support also see comparison real-time operating systems risc-v modular design consisting alternative base parts added optional extensions isa base extensions developed collective effort industry research community educational institutions base specifies instructions encoding control flow registers sizes memory addressing logic i.e. integer manipulation ancillaries base alone implement simplified general-purpose computer full software support including general-purpose compiler standard extensions specified work standard bases without conflict many risc-v computers might implement compact extension reduce power consumption code size memory use also future plans support hypervisors virtualization together supervisor instruction set extension rvgc defines instructions needed conveniently support operating system unix-style portable operating system interface posix tame combinations functionality may implemented nomenclature defined specify instruction set base specified first coding risc-v register bit-width variant e.g. rv64i rv32e follows letters specifying implemented extensions canonical order base extended integer floating point calculations synchronisation primitives multi-core computing base extensions mafd considered necessary general-purpose computation thus shorthand g. small 32-bit computer embedded system might rv32ec large 64-bit computer might rv64gc i.e. shorthand rv64imafdc naming scheme zxxx standard extensions yxxx non-standard vendor-specific extensions proposed example ztso extension total store ordering alternative memory consistency model weak memory ordering discussion risc-v 32 16 embedded variant integer registers floating-point extension implemented 32 floating-point registers except memory access instructions instructions address registers first integer register zero register remainder general-purpose registers store zero register effect read always provides 0 using zero register placeholder makes simpler instruction set control status registers exist user-mode programs access used performance measurement floating-point management instructions exist save restore multiple registers thought needless complex perhaps slow like many risc designs risc-v load–store architecture instructions address registers load store instructions conveying memory load store instructions include 12-bit offset two register identifiers one register base register register source write destination read offset added base register get address forming address base register plus offset allows single instructions access data structures example base register points top stack single instructions access subroutine local variables stack likewise load store instructions access record-style structure memory-mapped i/o device using constant zero register base address allows single instructions access memory around address zero memory addressed 8-bit bytes words little-endian order words register size accessed load store instructions accessed memory addresses need aligned word-width accesses aligned addresses may faster example simple cpus may implement unaligned accesses slow software emulation driven alignment failure interrupt risc-v manages memory systems shared cpus threads ensuring thread execution always sees memory operations programmed order threads i/o devices risc-v simplified n't guarantee order memory operations except specific instructions instruction guarantees results predecessor operations visible successor operations threads i/o devices guarantee order combinations memory memory-mapped i/o operations e.g separate memory read write operations without affecting i/o operations system operate i/o devices parallel memory n't force wait one cpu one thread may decode like many risc instruction sets complex instruction set computer cisc instruction sets x86 ibm system/360 families risc-v lacks address-modes write back registers example auto-increment risc-v little-endian resemble familiar successful computers example x86 also reduces cpu complexity costs slightly reads sizes words order example risc-v instruction set decodes starting lowest-addressed byte instruction specification leaves open possibility non-standard big-endian bi-endian systems risc cpus mips powerpc dlx berkeley risc-i place 16 bits offset loads stores set upper 16 bits load upper word instruction permits upper-halfword values set easily without shifting bits however use upper half-word instruction makes 32-bit constants like addresses risc-v uses sparc-like combination 12-bit offsets 20-bit set upper instructions smaller 12-bit offset helps compact 32-bit load store instructions select two 32 registers yet still enough bits support risc-v variable-length instruction coding risc-v handles 32-bit constants addresses instructions set upper 20 bits 32-bit register load upper immediate loads 20 bits bits 31 12 second instruction set bottom 12 bits method extended permit position-independent code adding instruction generates 20 upper address bits adding offset program counter storing result base register permits program generate 32-bit addresses relative program counter base register often used as-is 12-bit offsets loads stores needed set lower 12-bits register 64-bit 128-bit isas sign-extend result get larger address fast cpus may interpret combinations instructions single fused instructions may good candidates fuse loads stores risc-v subroutine call jump link places return address register faster many computer designs saves memory access compared systems push return address directly stack memory 20-bit signed 2 complement offset offset multiplied 2 added pc generate relative address 32-bit instruction result 32-bit address i.e. evenly divisible 4 cpu may force exception risc-v cpus jump calculated addresses using jump link-register instruction similar gets destination address adding 12-bit offset base register contrast adds larger 20-bit offset pc bit format like register-relative loads stores like used instructions set upper 20 bits base register make 32-bit branches either absolute address using pc-relative one using position-independent code using constant zero base address allows single-instruction calls small offset fixed positive negative address risc-v recycles get unconditional 20-bit pc-relative jumps unconditional register-based 12-bit jumps jumps make linkage register 0 return address saved risc-v also recycles return subroutine base register set linkage register saved offset zero linkage register zero offset return address saved like many risc designs subroutine call risc-v compiler must use individual instructions save registers stack start restore stack exit risc-v save multiple restore multiple register instructions thought make cpu complex possibly slow take code space designers planned reduce code size library routines save restore registers risc-v condition code register carry bit designers believed condition codes make fast cpus complex forcing interactions instructions different stages execution choice makes multiple-precision arithmetic complex also numerical tasks need energy instead risc-v short branches perform comparisons equal not-equal less-than unsigned less-than greater-than equal unsigned greater-than equal ten comparison-branch operations implemented six instructions reversing order operands assembler example branch greater done less-than reversed order operands comparing branches twelve-bit signed range jump relative pc risc-v isa requires default branch predictions cpus backward conditional branches predicted taken forward conditional branches predict taken predictions easy decode pipelined cpu branch addresses signed numbers added pc backward branches negative two complement addresses thus one significant bit address forward branches zero significant bit fixed location operation code speed pipeline complex cpus add branch predictors work well even unusual data situations isa manual recommends software optimized avoid branch stalls using default branch predictions reuses significant bit signed relative address hint bit tell whether conditional branch taken hint bits needed operation codes risc-v branches makes bits available branch operation codes simple inexpensive cpus merely follow default predictions still perform well optimizing compilers compilers still perform statistical path optimization desired avoid needless loading branch prediction electronics thus needless pipeline stalls comparing branch codes never used unconditional jumps risc-v support predication conditional execution instructions designers claim cpus without predication easier design optimizing compilers less likely mistakenly use predication used designers claim fast out-of-order cpu designs predication anyway comparison branch conditional code parallel discarding unused path effects also claim even simpler cpus predication less valuable branch prediction prevent stalls associated conditional branches code without predication larger branches also claim compressed instruction set risc-v set c solves problem cases many risc designs included branch delay slot position branch instruction filled instruction executed whether branch taken feature improve performance pipelined cpus absorbing time wasted cpu mispredicts operation conditional branch cpu pipeline stalls risc-v omits branch delay slot complicates multicycle cpus superscalar cpus long pipelines dynamic branch predictors succeeded well enough reduce need delayed branches risc-v segregates math minimal set integer instructions set add subtract shift bit-wise logic comparing-branches simulate risc-v instruction sets software atomic instructions notable exception risc-v currently lacks count leading zero bit-field operations normally used speed software floating-point pure-integer processor integer multiplication instructions set includes signed unsigned multiply divide double-precision integer multiplies divides included multiplies divides produce high word result isa document recommends implementors cpus compilers fuse standardized sequence high low multiply divide instructions one operation possible floating-point instructions set f includes single-precision arithmetic also comparison-branches similar integer arithmetic requires additional set 32 floating-point registers separate integer registers double-precision floating point instructions set generally assume floating-point registers 64-bit i.e. double-width f subset coordinated set quad-precision 128-bit floating-point isa q also defined risc-v computers without floating-point use floating-point software library risc-v cause exceptions arithmetic errors including overflow underflow subnormal divide zero instead integer floating-point arithmetic produce reasonable default values set status bits divide-by-zero discovered one branch division status bits tested operating system periodic interrupt risc-v supports computers share memory multiple cpus threads risc-v standard memory consistency model release consistency loads stores may generally reordered loads may designated acquire operations must precede later memory accesses stores may designated release operations must follow earlier memory accesses base instruction set includes minimal support form instruction enforce memory ordering although sufficient provides acquire provides release combined operations efficient atomic memory operation extension supports two types atomic memory operations release consistency first provides general purpose load-reserved store-conditional instructions performs load tries reserve address thread later store-conditional reserved address performed reservation broken intervening store another source store succeeds zero placed register failed non-zero value indicates software needs retry operation either case reservation released second group atomic instructions perform read-modify-write sequences load optionally load-acquire destination register operation loaded value source register store result may optionally store-release making memory barriers optional permits combining operations optional operations enabled acquire release bits present every atomic instruction risc-v defines nine possible operations swap use source register value directly add bitwise exclusive-or signed unsigned minimum maximum system design may optimize combined operations example destination register swap constant zero load may skipped value stored unmodified since load store may skipped ibm system/370 successors including z/architecture x86 implement compare-and-swap instruction tests conditionally updates location memory location contains expected old value replaces given new value returns indication whether made change however simple load-type instruction usually performed fetch old value classic problem thread reads loads value calculates new value c uses replace c way know whether concurrent activity another thread replaced value b restored algorithms e.g. ones values memory pointers dynamically allocated blocks aba problem lead incorrect results common solution employs double-wide instruction update pointer adjacent counter unfortunately instruction requires special instruction format specify multiple registers performs several reads writes complex bus operation alternative efficient usually requires one memory load minimizing slow memory operations desirable also exact controls accesses memory cell rather assuring bit pattern however unlike permit livelock two threads repeatedly cause instructions fail risc-v guarantees forward progress livelock code follows rules timing sequence instructions 1 must use subset 2 prevent repetitive cache misses code including retry loop must occupy 16 consecutive instructions 3 must include system fence instructions taken backward branches 4 backward branch retry loop must original sequence specification gives examples use subset lock data structure standard risc-v isa specifies instructions 32 bits makes particularly simple implementation like risc processors instruction encoding results larger code size instruction sets compensate risc-v 32-bit instructions actually 30 bits opcode space reserved optional recommended variable-length compressed instruction set rvc includes 16-bit instructions like arm thumb mips16 compressed instructions simply aliases subset larger instructions unlike arm thumb mips compressed set space reserved beginning separate operating mode standard compressed instructions may intermixed freely letter c like thumb-1 mips16 compressed instructions simply alternate encodings aliases selected subset larger instructions compression implemented assembler essential compiler even know prototype rvc tested 2011 prototype code 20 smaller x86 pc mips compressed code 2 larger arm thumb-2 code also substantially reduced needed cache memory estimated power use memory system researcher intended reduce code binary size small computers especially embedded computer systems prototype included 33 frequently used instructions recoded compact 16-bit formats using operation codes previously reserved compressed set compression done assembler changes compiler compressed instructions omitted fields often zero used small immediate values accessed subsets 16 8 registers common often compressible much difference size compared arm thumb set occurred risc-v prototype instructions save restore multiple registers instead compiler generated conventional instructions access stack prototype rvc assembler often converted compressed forms half size however still took code space arm instructions save restore multiple registers researcher proposed modify compiler call library routines save restore registers routines would tend remain code cache thus run fast though probably fast save-multiple instruction standard rvc requires occasional use 32-bit instructions several nonstandard rvc proposals complete requiring 32-bit instructions said higher densities standard rvc another proposal builds claims use less coding range well instruction set smallest embedded cpus set e reduced ways 16 32-bit integer registers supported floating-point instructions supported specification forbids uneconomical floating-point software library must used compressed set c recommended privileged instruction set supports machine mode user mode memory schemes use base-and-bound address relocation discussion occurred microcontroller profile risc-v ease development deeply embedded systems centers faster simple c-language support interrupts simplified security modes simplified posix application binary interface correspondents also proposed smaller non-standard 16-bit rv16e isas several serious proposal would use 16-bit c instructions 8 × 16-bit registers april fools joke proposed practical arrangement utilize 16 × 16-bit integer registers standard eimc isas including 32-bit instructions joke propose bank-switching registers 32-bit cpu would clearly superior risc-v isa includes separate privileged instruction set specification version 1.11 ratified foundation version 1.11 specification supports several types computer systems correspond roughly systems four rings privilege security machine hypervisor supervisor user layer also expected thin layer standardized supporting software communicates more-privileged layer hardware overall plan isa make hypervisor mode orthogonal user supervisor modes basic feature configuration bit either permits supervisor-level code access hypervisor registers causes interrupt accesses bit lets supervisor mode directly handle hardware needed hypervisor simplifies type 2 hypervisor hosted operating system popular mode run warehouse-scale computers support type 1 unhosted hypervisors bit cause accesses interrupt hypervisor bit simplifies nesting hypervisors hypervisor runs hypervisor also said simplify supervisor code letting kernel use hypervisor features kernel code result hypervisor form isa supports five modes machine supervisor user supervisor-under-hypervisor user-under-hypervisor privileged instruction set specification explicitly defines hardware threads harts multiple hardware threads common practice more-capable computers one thread stalled waiting memory others often proceed hardware threads help make better use large number registers execution units fast out-of-order cpus finally hardware threads simple powerful way handle interrupts saving restoring registers required simply executing different hardware thread however hardware thread required risc-v computer thread zero existing control status register definitions support risc-v error memory exceptions small number interrupts systems interrupts specification also defines interrupt controller interrupts always start highest-privileged machine level control registers level explicit forwarding bits route interrupts less-privileged code example hypervisor need include software executes interrupt forward interrupt operating system instead set-up set bits forward interrupt several memory systems supported specification physical-only suited simplest embedded systems also three unix-style virtual memory systems memory cached mass-storage systems virtual memory systems three sizes addresses sized 32 39 48-bits virtual memory systems support 4 kib pages multilevel page-table trees use similar algorithms walk page table trees designed either hardware software page-table walking optionally reduce cost page table walks super-sized pages may leaf pages higher levels system page table tree sv32 two layer page table tree supports 4 mib superpages sv39 three level page table supports 2 mib superpages 1 gib gigapages sv48 required support sv39 also 4-level page table supports 2 mib superpages 1 gib gigapages 512 gib terapages superpages aligned page boundaries next-lowest size page substantial work done produce preliminary though unapproved bit-manipulation b isa risc-v done well bit-manipulation subset aid cryptographic graphic mathematical operations criteria inclusion documented draft compliance rv5 philosophies isa formats substantial improvements code density speed i.e. least 3-for-1 reduction instructions substantial real-world applications including preexisting compiler support version 0.37 included uncontroversial instructions count leading zeros count one bits perform complement shift ones rotate generalized bit-reverse shuffle byte swaps bit extracts deposits bit-manipulation additions compressed set also includes controversial proposal bit-field extract place using nonstandard 48-bit instruction format simple cost-reduced risc-v systems proposal use floating-point registers bits perform parallel single instruction multiple data simd sub-word arithmetic widely used accelerate multimedia digital signal processing isa undefined could resemble pa-risc multimedia instructions multimedia acceleration extensions besides native 64-bit math pa-risc max2 cpu could arithmetic four 16-bit subwords several overflow methods also could move subwords different positions pa-risc max2 intentionally simplified lacked support 8-bit 32-bit subwords 16-bit subword size chosen support digital signal processing tasks instructions inexpensive design build however increased cpu performance digital signal processing tasks 48-fold enabling practical real-time video codecs 1995 proposed vector-processing instruction set may make packed simd set obsolete designers hope enough flexibility cpu implement vector instructions standard processor registers would enable minimal implementations similar performance multimedia isa however true vector coprocessor could execute code higher performance vector-processing proposal conservative flexible design general-purpose mixed-precision vector processor suitable execute compute kernels code would port easily cpus differing vector lengths ideally without recompiling contrast short-vector simd extensions less convenient used x86 arm pa-risc change word-width forces change instruction set expand vector registers case x86 64-bit mmx registers 128-bit streaming simd extensions sse 256-bit advanced vector extensions avx avx-512 result growing instruction set need port working code new instructions risc-v vector isa rather fix vector length architecture instruction available takes requested size sets vector length minimum hardware limit requested size risc-v proposal like cray long-vector design vector 32 vectors length application specifies total vector width requires processor determines vector length provide available on-chip resources takes form instruction four immediate operands specifying number vector registers available width needed total must addressable limit 32 may less application require vector length limited available on-chip storage divided number bytes storage needed entry added hardware limits may also exist turn may permit simd-style implementations outside vector loops application request zero-vector registers saving operating system work preserving context switches vector length architecturally variable designed vary run time also achieve flexibility instruction set likely use variable-width data paths variable-type operations using polymorphic overloading plan reduce size complexity isa compiler recent experimental vector processors variable-width data paths also show profitable increases operations per second speed area lower cost watt longer battery life unlike typical modern graphics processing unit plans provide special hardware support branch predication instead lower cost compiler-based predication used preliminary specification risc-v hardware-assisted debugger debugger use transport system joint test action group jtag universal serial bus usb access debug registers standard hardware debug interface may support either standardized abstract interface instruction feeding exact form abstract interface remains undefined proposals include memory mapped system standardized addresses registers debug devices command register data register accessible communication system correspondents claim similar systems used freescale background debug mode interface bdm cpus arm openrisc aeroflex leon instruction feeding cpu process debug exception execute individual instructions written register may supplemented data-passing register module directly access memory instruction feeding lets debugger access computer exactly software would also minimizes changes cpu adapts many types cpu said especially apt risc-v designed explicitly many types computers data-passing register allows debugger write data-movement loop ram execute loop move data computer speed near maximum speed debug system data channel correspondents say similar systems used mips technologies mips intel quark tensilica xtensa freescale power isa cpus background debug mode interface bdm Target text information: trusted_execution_environment.trusted execution environment trusted execution environment tee secure area main processor guarantees code data loaded inside protected respect confidentiality integrity tee isolated execution environment provides security features isolated execution integrity applications executing tee along confidentiality assets general terms tee offers execution space provides higher level security rich operating system os functionality 'secure element se open mobile terminal platform omtp first defined tee advanced trusted environment omtp tr1 standard defining set hardware software components providing facilities necessary support applications meet requirements one two defined security levels first security level profile 1 targeted software attacks profile 2 targeted software hardware attacks commercial tee solutions based arm trustzone technology conformed tr1 standard trusted foundations developed trusted logic later launched work omtp standards ended mid 2010 group transitioned wholesale applications community wac omtp standards including defining tee hosted gsma tee isolated environment runs parallel operating system providing security rich environment intended secure user-facing os offers higher level performance functionality secure element se using hybrid approach utilizes hardware software protect data therefore offers level security sufficient many applications trusted applications running tee access full power device main processor peripherals memory hardware isolation protects user installed apps running main operating system software cryptographic isolation inside tee protect trusted applications contained within service providers mobile network operators mno operating system developers application developers device manufacturers platform providers silicon vendors main stakeholders contributing standardization efforts around tee prevent simulation hardware user-controlled software so-called hardware root trust used set private keys so-called endorsement keys provisioned secrets embedded directly chip manufacturing one-time programmable memory efuses usually used despite large area chip take changed whose public counterparts reside manufacturer database together non-secret hash public key belonging trusted party usually chip vendor used sign trusted firmware alongside circuits cryptographic operations controlling access hardware designed way prevents software signed trusted party key accessing privileged features public key vendor provided runtime hashed hash compared one embedded chip hash matches public key used verify digital signature trusted vendor-controlled firmware chain bootloaders android devices 'architectural enclaves sgx trusted firmware used implement remote attestation untrusted component application required attested loads trusted one memory trusted application protected modification untrusted components hardware nonce requested untrusted party verifier server used part cryptographic authentication protocol proving integrity trusted application proof passed verifier verifies valid proof computed simulated hardware i.e qemu order construct access keys baked hardware required trusted firmware access keys and/or keys derived obtained using platform owner meant access data recorded foundry verifying party must interact service set vendor scheme implemented improperly chip vendor track applications used chip selectively deny service returning message indicating authentication passed simulate hardware way enables pass remote authentication attacker would extract keys hardware costly equipment reverse-engineering skills required focused ion beam scanning electron microscope microprobing decapsulation even impossible hardware designed way reverse-engineering destroys keys cases keys unique piece hardware key extracted one chip useless another ones though deprivation ownership inherent property tees possible design system way allows user obtained ownership device first control system practice systems consumer electronics intentionally designed allow chip manufacturers control access attestation algorithms allows manufacturers grant access tees software developers usually commercial business agreement manufacturer enable use cases tivoization drm number use cases tee though possible use cases exploit deprivation ownership tee usually used exactly note much tee literature covers topic definition premium content protection preferred nomenclature many copyright holders premium content protection specific use case digital rights management drm controversial among communities free software foundation .it widely used copyrights holders restrict ways end users consume content 4k high definition films tee suitable environment protecting digitally encoded information example hd films audio connected devices smart phones tablets hd televisions suitability comes ability tee deprive owner device reading stored secrets fact often protected hardware path tee display and/or subsystems devices tee used protect content device content protected transmission streaming use encryption tee protects content decrypted device ensuring decrypted content exposed environment approved app developer platform vendor mobile commerce applications mobile wallets peer-to-peer payments contactless payments using mobile device point sale pos terminal often well-defined security requirements tees used often conjunction near field communication nfc ses trusted backend systems provide security required enable financial transactions take place scenarios interaction end user required may require user expose sensitive information pin password biometric identifier mobile os means authenticating user tee optionally offers trusted user interface used construct user authentication mobile device tee well-suited supporting biometric id methods facial recognition fingerprint sensor voice authorization may easier use harder steal pins passwords authentication process generally split three main stages tee good area within mobile device house matching engine associated processing required authenticate user environment designed protect data establish buffer non-secure apps located mobile os additional security may help satisfy security needs service providers addition keeping costs low handset developers tee used governments enterprises cloud service providers enable secure handling confidential information mobile devices server infrastructure tee offers level protection software attacks generated mobile os assists control access rights achieves housing sensitive ‘ trusted ’ applications need isolated protected mobile os malicious malware may present utilizing functionality security levels offered tee governments enterprises assured employees using devices secure trusted manner likewise server-based tees help defend internal external attacks backend infrastructure rise software assets reuses modular programming productive process design software architecture decoupling functionalities small independent modules module contains everything necessary execute desired functionality tee allows organize complete system featuring high level reliability security preventing module vulnerabilities others order modules communicate share data tee provide means securely payloads sent/received modules using mechanisms objects serialization conjunction proxies see component-based software engineering following hardware technologies used support tee implementations I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	4	Computer Security	wikics	7,936	none
1-hop neighbor's text information: query_language.query language query languages data query languages dqls computer languages used make queries databases information systems broadly query languages classified according whether database query languages information retrieval query languages difference database query language attempts give factual answers factual questions information retrieval query language attempts find documents containing information relevant area inquiry examples include 1-hop neighbor's text information: haskell_(programming_language).haskell programming language haskell statically typed purely functional programming language type inference lazy evaluation type classes enable type-safe operator overloading originated haskell main implementation glasgow haskell compiler named logician haskell curry haskell based semantics syntax miranda programming language served focus efforts initial haskell working group haskell used widely academia industry latest standard haskell haskell 2010. haskell committee working next standard haskell 2020 following release miranda research software ltd. 1985 interest lazy functional languages grew 1987 dozen non-strict purely functional programming languages existed miranda widely used proprietary software conference functional programming languages computer architecture fpca '87 portland oregon strong consensus committee formed define open standard languages committee purpose consolidate existing functional languages common one serve basis future research functional-language design first version haskell haskell 1.0 defined 1990 committee efforts resulted series language definitions 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 late 1997 series culminated haskell 98 intended specify stable minimal portable version language accompanying standard library teaching base future extensions committee expressly welcomed creating extensions variants haskell 98 via adding incorporating experimental features february 1999 haskell 98 language standard originally published haskell 98 report january 2003 revised version published haskell 98 language libraries revised report language continues evolve rapidly glasgow haskell compiler ghc implementation representing current de facto standard early 2006 process defining successor haskell 98 standard informally named haskell prime began intended ongoing incremental process revise language definition producing new revision per year first revision named haskell 2010 announced november 2009 published july 2010 haskell 2010 incremental update language mostly incorporating several well-used uncontroversial features previously enabled via compiler-specific flags haskell features lazy evaluation lambda expressions pattern matching list comprehension type classes type polymorphism purely functional language means functions generally side effects distinct construct exists represent side effects orthogonal type functions pure function return side effect subsequently executed modeling impure functions languages haskell strong static type system based hindley–milner type inference principal innovation area type classes originally conceived principled way add overloading language since finding many uses construct represents side effects example monad monads general framework model different kinds computation including error handling nondeterminism parsing software transactional memory monads defined ordinary datatypes haskell provides syntactic sugar use haskell open published specification multiple implementations exist main implementation glasgow haskell compiler ghc interpreter native-code compiler runs platforms ghc noted rich type system incorporating recent innovations generalized algebraic data types type families computer language benchmarks game also highlights high-performance implementation concurrency parallelism active growing community exists around language 5,400 third-party open-source libraries tools available online package repository hackage hello world program haskell last line strictly necessary factorial function haskell defined different ways integer type arbitrary-precision code compute values codice_10 456,574-digit number loss precision implementation algorithm similar quick sort lists first element taken pivot haskell logo top page generated haskell code listed implementations distributed open source licenses implementations fully nearly comply haskell 98 standard include implementations longer actively maintained include implementations fully haskell 98 compliant using variant haskell language include several web frameworks written haskell including jan-willem maessen 2002 simon peyton jones 2003 discussed problems associated lazy evaluation also acknowledging theoretical motives addition purely practical considerations improved performance note addition adding performance overhead lazy evaluation makes difficult programmers reason performance code particularly space use bastiaan heeren daan leijen arjan van ijzendoorn 2003 also observed stumbling blocks haskell learners subtle syntax sophisticated type system haskell double edged sword – highly appreciated experienced programmers also source frustration among beginners since generality haskell often leads cryptic error messages address researchers utrecht university developed advanced interpreter called helium improved user-friendliness error messages limiting generality haskell features particular removing support type classes ben lippmeier designed disciple strict-by-default lazy explicit annotation dialect haskell type-and-effect system address haskell difficulties reasoning lazy evaluation using traditional data structures mutable arrays argues p. 20 destructive update furnishes programmer two important powerful tools ... set efficient array-like data structures managing collections objects ... ability broadcast new value parts program minimal burden programmer robert harper one authors standard ml given reasons using haskell teach introductory programming among difficulty reasoning resource use non-strict evaluation lazy evaluation complicates definition data types inductive reasoning inferiority haskell old class system compared ml module system haskell build tool cabal historically criticised poorly handling multiple versions library problem know cabal hell stackage server stack build tool made response criticisms.. clean close slightly older relative haskell biggest deviation haskell use uniqueness types instead monads i/o side-effects series languages inspired haskell different type systems developed including java virtual machine jvm based related languages include haskell served testbed many new ideas language design many haskell variants produced exploring new language ideas including haskell community meets regularly research development activities main events since 2006 series organized hackathons occurred hac series aimed improving programming language tools libraries 1-hop neighbor's text information: tads.tads text adventure development system tads prototype-based domain-specific programming language set standard libraries creating interactive fiction games original tads 1 released high energy software shareware 1988 followed tads 2 long early 1990s tads established number one development tool interactive fiction place simpler systems like agt adventure game toolkit late 1990s joined inform popular interactive fiction development language tads 2 syntax based c bits pascal tads 2 maintained updated regular intervals creator michael j. roberts even became freeware july 1996 graham nelson creator inform describes inform tads two systems ... widely used last half 1990s tads called second commonly used programming language today multimedia tads introduced 1998 allows games display graphics animation play sounds platform supports 2006 tads received major overhaul release tads 3 complete rewrite tads engine retaining platform-dependent code ease porting tads 3 uses language syntax resembles c++ java many new features efficient dynamic objects automatic garbage collection structured exceptions native utf-8 strings many useful function classes tads 3 compiler interpreter ported dos macintosh unix platforms several tads 3 games released games written tads compiled platform-independent format played computer suitable virtual machine vm exists virtual machines exist several platforms respect tads closely follows example original infocom z-machine well modern languages java c whereas tads 1 2 vms parse commands entered player sending results game tads 3 employs general-purpose virtual machine command-parsing done game code akin inform rationale easier customize parser Target text information: programming_paradigm.programming paradigm programming paradigms way classify programming languages based features languages classified multiple paradigms paradigms concerned mainly implications execution model language allowing side effects whether sequence operations defined execution model paradigms concerned mainly way code organized grouping code units along state modified code yet others concerned mainly style syntax grammar common programming paradigms include symbolic techniques reflection allow program refer might also considered programming paradigm however compatible major paradigms thus real paradigm right example languages fall imperative paradigm two main features state order operations occur constructs explicitly control order allow side effects state modified one point time within one unit code later read different point time inside different unit code communication units code explicit meanwhile object-oriented programming code organized objects contain state modified code part object object-oriented languages also imperative languages contrast languages fit declarative paradigm state order execute operations instead supply number operations available system along conditions allowed execute implementation language execution model tracks operations free execute chooses order comparison multi-paradigm programming languages software engineering process defined differing methodologies programming languages models computation defined differing paradigms languages designed support one paradigm smalltalk supports object-oriented programming haskell supports functional programming programming languages support multiple paradigms object pascal c++ java c scala visual basic common lisp scheme perl php python ruby wolfram language oz f example programs written c++ object pascal php purely procedural purely object-oriented contain elements paradigms software designers programmers decide use paradigm elements object-oriented programming programs treated set interacting objects functional programming programs treated sequence stateless function evaluations programming computers systems many processors process-oriented programming programs treated sets concurrent processes act logical shared data structures many programming paradigms well known techniques forbid enable instance pure functional programming disallows use side-effects structured programming disallows use goto statement partly reason new paradigms often regarded doctrinaire overly rigid accustomed earlier styles yet avoiding certain techniques make easier understand program behavior prove theorems program correctness programming paradigms also compared programming models allow invoking execution model using api programming models also classified paradigms based features execution model parallel computing using programming model instead language common reason details parallel hardware leak abstractions used program hardware causes programmer map patterns algorithm onto patterns execution model inserted due leakage hardware abstraction consequence one parallel programming language maps well computation problems thus convenient use base sequential language insert api calls parallel execution models via programming model parallel programming models classified according abstractions reflect hardware shared memory distributed memory message passing notions place visible code forth considered flavors programming paradigm apply parallel languages programming models programming language researchers criticise notion paradigms classification programming languages e.g harper krishnamurthi argue many programming languages strictly classified one paradigm rather include features several paradigms see comparison multi-paradigm programming languages different approaches programming developed time identified either time retrospectively early approach consciously identified structured programming advocated since mid 1960s concept programming paradigm dates least 1978 turing award lecture robert w. floyd entitled paradigms programming cites notion paradigm used thomas kuhn structure scientific revolutions 1962 lowest-level programming paradigms machine code directly represents instructions contents program memory sequence numbers assembly language machine instructions represented mnemonics memory addresses given symbolic labels sometimes called first- second-generation languages 1960s assembly languages developed support library copy quite sophisticated conditional macro generation preprocessing abilities call subroutines external variables common sections globals enabling significant code re-use isolation hardware specifics via use logical operators read/write/get/put assembly still used time critical systems often embedded systems gives direct control machine next advance development procedural languages third-generation languages first described high-level languages use vocabulary related problem solved example languages follow procedural paradigm describe step step exactly procedure according particular programmer least followed solve specific problem efficacy efficiency solution therefore entirely subjective highly dependent programmer experience inventiveness ability following widespread use procedural languages object-oriented programming oop languages created simula smalltalk c++ c eiffel php java languages data methods manipulate kept one unit called object perfect encapsulation one distinguishing features oop way another object user would able access data via object methods thus inner workings object may changed without affecting code uses object still controversy raised alexander stepanov richard stallman programmers concerning efficacy oop paradigm versus procedural paradigm need every object associative methods leads skeptics associate oop software bloat attempt resolve dilemma came polymorphism object-oriented programming considered paradigm language possible create even object-oriented assembler language high level assembly hla example fully supports advanced data types object-oriented assembly language programming despite early origins thus differing programming paradigms seen rather like motivational memes advocates rather necessarily representing progress one level next precise comparisons efficacy competing paradigms frequently made difficult new differing terminology applied similar entities processes together numerous implementation distinctions across languages literate programming form imperative programming structures programs human-centered web hypertext essay documentation integral program program structured following logic prose exposition rather compiler convenience independent imperative branch declarative programming paradigms developed languages computer told problem solve problem program structured set properties find expected result procedure follow given database set rules computer tries find solution matching desired properties archetype declarative language fourth generation language sql family functional languages logic programming functional programming subset declarative programming programs written using paradigm use functions blocks code intended behave like mathematical functions functional languages discourage changes value variables assignment making great deal use recursion instead logic programming paradigm views computation automated reasoning body knowledge facts problem domain expressed logic formulas programs executed applying inference rules answer problem found set formulas proved inconsistent symbolic programming paradigm describes programs able manipulate formulas program components data programs thus effectively modify appear learn making suited applications artificial intelligence expert systems natural-language processing computer games languages support paradigm include lisp prolog differentiable programming structures programs differentiated throughout usually via automatic differentiation programming languages support one programming paradigm allow programmers use suitable programming style associated language constructs given job I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are: 0: Computational Linguistics 1: Databases 2: Operating Systems 3: Computer Architecture 4: Computer Security 5: Internet Protocols 6: Computer File Systems 7: Distributed Computing Architecture 8: Web Technology 9: Programming Language Topics Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.	9	Programming Language Topics	wikics	9,345	test

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