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+{"id": "5877733", "url": null, "title": "Mike Fontenot", "text": "# Mike Fontenot\n\nMichael Eugene Fontenot Jr. (/\u02ccf\u0251\u02d0nt\u025bno\u028a/; born June 9, 1980) is an American former professional baseball infielder who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Chicago Cubs, San Francisco Giants, and Philadelphia Phillies. He batted left-handed and threw right-handed. Fontenot was commonly used at second base, shortstop, or third base during his career. He won a World Series with the Giants in 2010.\n\nFontenot grew up in Louisiana. He attended Louisiana State University (LSU) and was a member of the LSU Tigers team that won the 2000 College World Series. After two years of college baseball, he was a first round draft pick of the Baltimore Orioles in 2002. Named the organization's Minor League Player of the Year in 2003, Fontenot never played in the major leagues for Baltimore, as he was included in a 2005 trade with the Cubs that sent Sammy Sosa to Baltimore. Fontenot debuted briefly with the Cubs in 2005, but it was not until 2007 that he reached the major leagues full time. He batted .305 while primarily used as a bench player in 2008 and began 2009 as the Cubs' starting second baseman. However, Fontenot lost the role after batting only .230 through August 7. He was traded to the Giants in 2010, becoming part of the team's first World Series victory since 1954.\n\nIn 2011, Fontenot was receiving starting time in May due to an injury to Pablo Sandoval, but he missed a few weeks himself with a left groin injury. He was released by the Giants before the 2012 season but was signed by the Phillies. Joining the team in May, he batted .289 in 47 games before getting released in August. He spent 2013 and 2014 with the Durham Bulls, the Triple-A affiliate of the Tampa Bay Rays.\n\n## Early life\n\nMichael Eugene Fontenot Jr., was born on June 9, 1980, in Slidell, Louisiana, where he grew up. He was the oldest of four children of Mike Sr. and Lisa Lauren Fontenot. Two of his younger siblings, Christopher and Seth, are brothers, and the third is his younger sister, Jennifer. According to Fontenot, his father was the person who most influenced him as an athlete.\n\nFontenot was a standout for Salmen High School in Slidell, Louisiana, lettering in baseball in each of his four years there. He made the 1st All-State Team each of those years, as well as the All-Metro team. In his freshman year (1996), he batted .445 as Salmen won the state championship. As a senior, he batted .556, recording 38 runs scored, 13 doubles, two triples, 13 home runs, 42 runs batted in (RBIs), and 18 stolen bases. For his efforts, he was named the most valuable player (MVP) of the St. Tammany Parish, the district, and the All-Metro region. His four-year totals with Salmen included a .535 batting average, 139 runs scored, 35 doubles, 11 triples, 30 home runs, 128 RBIs, and 57 stolen bases. In addition to baseball, Fontenot played football, lettering twice. He was used on the gridiron as a return specialist, defensive back, and wide receiver.\n\nAfter his senior year, Fontenot was drafted in the 21st round (625th overall) of the 1999 Major League Baseball (MLB) Draft by the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, but chose to attend Louisiana State University (LSU) on a baseball scholarship instead of going professional.\n\n## College career\n\nAs a freshman at LSU, Fontenot was the everyday second baseman for the Tigers. He batted .353 with 93 runs scored, 103 hits, 13 doubles, three triples, 17 home runs, 64 RBIs, and eight stolen bases. At the time, the 17 home runs were the most by an LSU freshman, breaking Blair Barbier's 1997 record of 15. For his contributions, Fontenot was named the National Freshman of the Year by the Southeastern Conference; The Sporting News; and Collegiate Baseball, which declared him a co-winner. Baseball America named him a First-Team Freshman All-American.\n\nFontenot was a part of the NCAA team that played well enough during the season to advance to the Baton Rouge Regional. He batted .400 with five runs scored, two doubles, one home run, and five RBIs, earning all-tournament team honors as one of the best ballplayers in the regional. Along with future Chicago Cubs teammate Ryan Theriot, Fontenot was a member of the LSU Tigers baseball team that won the 2000 College World Series. In the NCAA Baseball Tournament, Fontenot recorded a team-high batting average of .432 with four doubles, two home runs, and nine RBIs. LSU advanced to the College World Series, and Fontenot again led the team in average (.462), also recording two doubles, one home run, two RBIs, and six runs scored as the Tigers won the championship. For his efforts, Fontenot was selected to the College World Series all-tournament team.\n\nIn 2000, between his freshman and sophomore seasons, he played collegiate summer baseball with the Wareham Gatemen of the Cape Cod Baseball League, and was named the league's MVP.\n\nBefore Fontenot's sophomore season of 2001, Baseball America named him one of the top prospects in the country, and the Southeastern Conference named him a pre-season All-Star. Fontenot was the First-Team All Southeastern Conference (SEC) selection at second base. He batted .339 for the Tigers with 64 runs scored, 13 doubles, 14 home runs, and 50 RBIs. Behind his contributions, the Tigers posted a team batting average of .318, tops in the SEC. Though they did not win the College World Series this time, they did win an SEC Western Division title.\n\n## Professional career\n\n### Draft and minor leagues\n\nThough he had only played two years of college baseball, Fontenot's age made him eligible for the 2001 MLB Draft. Deciding to enter it, Fontenot was chosen in the first round (19th overall) by the Baltimore Orioles. He signed with the team and was given a \\$1,300,000.00 signing bonus.\n\nFontenot began his minor league career with the Frederick Keys of the Single-A advanced Carolina League in 2002. In 122 games, he batted .264 with 127 hits, eight home runs, and 53 RBIs. In 2003, he played for the Bowie Baysox of the Double-A Eastern League. In 126 games, he batted .325 (second in the league to Alex R\u00edos's .352) with 146 hits (ninth), 12 home runs, and 66 RBIs. He was named the Orioles' Minor League Player of the Year, in addition to being named an Eastern League postseason All-Star.\n\nPromoted to Triple-A in 2004, Fontenot played for the Ottawa Lynx of the International League. In 136 games (tied with Earl Snyder for fourth in the league behind Bry Nelson's 142, V\u00edctor D\u00edaz's 141, and Jhonny Peralta's 138), he batted .279 with 146 hits, eight home runs, 49 RBIs, and 10 triples (tied for second in the league with John Rodriguez and Pete Orr behind Mark Budzinski's 15).\n\nEntering the 2005 season, Baseball America ranked Fontenot the seventh-best prospect in the Orioles' organization. However, Fontenot would never play a game for the Orioles. On February 3, 2005, he was traded to the Chicago Cubs along with second baseman/outfielder Jerry Hairston Jr. and right-handed pitcher Dave Crouthers for outfielder Sammy Sosa.\n\nFontenot started the 2005 season with the Iowa Cubs of the Triple-A Pacific Coast League, but he was called up to the major leagues on April 11 after Todd Walker went on the disabled list due to a sprained left knee.\n\n### Chicago Cubs (2005, 2007\u20132010)\n\nHe made his major league debut in the first game of a doubleheader on April 13, 2005, pinch-running for Aramis Ram\u00edrez and scoring a run in the team's 8\u20133 loss to the San Diego Padres. Fontenot played in four games with the club (pinch-hitting in the other three) before getting sent back to Iowa on April 23 to make room for Ben Grieve on the roster. He was also called up on May 13 and played three further games for Chicago, pinch-hitting in two and pinch-running in one, before getting sent back to Iowa on May 20 when pitcher Joe Borowski came off the disabled list. In seven games with Chicago in 2005, he had no hits in two at bats (0-for-2) with two walks and four runs scored. At Iowa, he played 111 games, batting .272 with 60 runs scored, 103 hits, six home runs, and 39 RBIs. In 2006, Fontenot spent the entire season with Iowa, batting .296 with 107 hits, eight home runs, and 36 RBIs in 111 games.\n\nChicago did not invite Fontenot to spring training in 2007, and he started the year with Iowa once again. He did not return to the Cubs until May 15, 2007, when he was promoted from Iowa to replace relief pitcher Rocky Cherry. Pinch-hitting against the New York Mets on May 15, he got his first major league hit, a double against Ambiorix Burgos in Chicago's 10\u20131 triumph. He also pinch-hit against the Mets on May 17 before getting sent back to Iowa the following day to make room for Carlos M\u00e1rmol on the roster. In 55 games for Iowa in 2007, he batted .336 with 46 runs scored, 71 hits, six home runs, and 34 RBIs.\n\nFontenot received more playing time on his next callup. After Aramis Ram\u00edrez suffered left patellar tendonitis in June, Fontenot was called up on June 9 (his birthday) to become Chicago's everyday second baseman, as Mark DeRosa moved over to third base to replace Ram\u00edrez. He hit his first major league home run against Buddy Carlyle on June 10, in a 5\u20134 loss to the Atlanta Braves. On June 24, Fontenot had five hits in five at bats in Chicago's 10\u20139 victory over the Colorado Rockies. The next day, he had hits in his first two at bats, tying Sammy Sosa's Chicago record of most consecutive at bats with a hit. Fontenot had hits in 19 of the 20 games he played in June, leading National League (NL) players with a .397 average for the month and finishing second in the NL Rookie of the Month voting to Ryan Braun. After the month of June, he only batted .214 for the rest of the season, losing the starting second base job to DeRosa in mid-August. In 86 games (234 at bats) his rookie year, Fontenot batted .278 with 32 runs scored, 65 hits, three home runs, and 29 RBIs. Winners of the NL Central, the Cubs faced the Arizona Diamondbacks in the NL Division Series (NLDS). Fontenot pinch-hit twice in the series, going hitless as the Diamondbacks swept the Cubs in three games.\n\nThough used mostly as a bench player in 2008, Fontenot also started 49 games, many of which were in June and July while Alfonso Soriano was on the disabled list. On May 3, he had three hits and set a career high with four RBIs, including a three-run home run against Kyle Lohse in a 9\u20133 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals. He made it to first base in 14 straight games from June 25 through July 18. Fontenot hit home runs in consecutive games against the Cincinnati Reds on July 8 and 10. Following the All-Star Break, Fontenot batted .360. He had the first pinch-hit home run of his career on August 28 against Ryan Madson, starting a five-run rally for the Cubs in their eventual 6\u20134 triumph over the Philadelphia Phillies. In 119 games (243 at bats), he batted .305 with 42 runs scored, 74 hits, nine home runs, and 40 RBIs. For the second year in a row, the Cubs won the NL Central. This time, Fontenot played every game of the NLDS against the Los Angeles Dodgers, even starting at second base in Game 3. He had two hits in six at bats, but the Cubs were swept by the Dodgers.\n\nEntering the 2009 season, the Cubs traded DeRosa and signed infielder Aaron Miles to a two-year contract. However, manager Lou Piniella named Fontenot the team's starting second baseman on March 14 during spring training. Though Fontenot began the year at second base, he also started several games at third base while Ram\u00edrez was recovering from various injuries. On April 8, he had four RBIs, including a three-run home run against Russ Ortiz in an 11\u20136 victory over the Houston Astros. He hit home runs in consecutive games against the Diamondbacks on April 27 and 28. On his birthday (June 9), he had a season-high four hits and an RBI in a 7\u20131 victory over the Astros. After batting .230 through August 7, Fontenot lost his position as the Cubs everyday second baseman, splitting time with Jeff Baker for the rest of the year. Though not a starter in September, he batted .317, his highest average of any month. The 2009 season was a year of career highs for Fontenot in games (135), at bats (377), hits (89), home runs (nine, same as in 2008), and RBIs (43). He also scored 38 runs. Though the Cubs had a winning record at 83\u201378, they finished second to the Cardinals in the NL Central, missing the playoffs. In addition serving as an infielder for the Cubs in 2009, Fontenot played himself in the TBS comedy My Boys. He appeared in the final episode of the show's third season, entitled \"Spring Training.\"\n\nAfter the 2009 season, Fontenot barely became eligible for salary arbitration. Under MLB's collective bargaining agreement, the 17 percent of players with the most playing time in at least two MLB seasons but not three full seasons were eligible. Fontenot was in a tie for the last spot with Adam Jones and Micah Owings, but he won the tiebreaker because he played more games in 2008 than the other two. Ultimately, Fontenot avoided arbitration by settling for a \\$1 million contract on January 19, 2010. He got the bulk of the starts at second base to begin the 2010 season. On May 7, Fontenot hit his first career grand slam against the Reds. It came in the eighth inning off the first pitch from Carlos Fisher, with the Cubs up 10\u20134. However, the Cubs called up shortstop prospect Starlin Castro from the minor leagues that day, and Fontenot's playing time became much scarcer as Ryan Theriot was shifted to second base to accommodate Castro. On August 11, Fontenot was traded to the San Francisco Giants for Evan Crawford. In 75 games (169 at bats) with the Cubs, he had batted .284 with 14 runs scored, 48 hits, one home run, and 20 RBIs.\n\n### San Francisco Giants (2010\u20132011)\n\nFontenot had little trouble joining his new team since the Cubs were already in San Francisco. He played the first two games of the series with the Cubs and the last one with the Giants. San Francisco wanted him because \u00c9dgar Renter\u00eda had just been placed on the disabled list with a left biceps strain. With his new team, Fontenot was used at second base, shortstop, and third base, serving as a pinch hitter as well. He appeared in 28 games (71 at bats) for San Francisco, batting .282 with 10 runs scored, 20 hits, no home runs, and five RBIs. In 103 games (240 at bats) combined between Chicago and San Francisco, he batted .283 with 24 runs scored, 68 hits, one home run, and 25 RBIs.\n\nAfter a one-year hiatus, Fontenot returned to the playoffs as part of a Giants team that won the NL West. After pinch-hitting in Game 2 of the NLDS against the Braves, he started Games 3 and 4 at third base. He had a triple against Tim Hudson to start the second inning of Game 3 and scored the Giants' first run in their eventual 3\u20132 victory. The Giants won the series in four games, advancing to the NL Championship Series (NLCS) against the Phillies. Fontenot started the first two games of the series at third base, but after only recording one hit in seven at bats, he was used merely as a pinch hitter in his other two appearances in the series. He got a hit in his only at bat of Game 6, a 3\u20132 series-clinching victory that sent the Giants to the World Series against the Texas Rangers. Fontenot had the unusual distinction of being credited with a game played in the World Series without recording a plate appearance or a play in the field. In the eighth inning of Game 2, the left-handed-hitting Fontenot was announced as a pinch-hitter with the Giants leading the Rangers, 6\u20130. The Rangers replaced right-handed pitcher Mark Lowe with the left-handed Michael Kirkman, prompting the Giants to replace Fontenot with the right-handed Aaron Rowand, who tripled. Fontenot went on to become a World Series champion as San Francisco won the series in five games, their first World Series victory since 1954.\n\nIn 2011, Fontenot received a slight raise in salary, earning \\$1.05 million. He began the season as a backup player. On April 13, Fontenot hit a go-ahead home run against Ted Lilly to help the Giants win 4\u20133 over the Dodgers. He took over as the Giants' everyday shortstop on April 30 after Pablo Sandoval was placed on the disabled list with a broken hamate bone and Miguel Tejada was shifted over to play third base. On May 7, he made a difficult play to rob Seth Smith of a hit in the top of the ninth inning against the Rockies, then ended the game in the bottom of the inning with a game-winning sacrifice fly against Franklin Morales. After suffering a left groin injury in late May, Fontenot was on the disabled list until July 8. He started several games at second base and shortstop for the rest of the season, with most of these starts coming in July and August. In 85 games (220 at bats), he batted .227 with 22 runs scored, 50 hits, four home runs, and 21 RBIs. He batted .154 in pinch-hitting situations.\n\nIn 2012 spring training, Fontenot found himself competing with Theriot for a spot on the Giants' roster. On March 30, Fontenot was released, just before \\$787,000 of his salary for the coming year would have become fully guaranteed.\n\n### Philadelphia Phillies (2012)\n\nOn April 13, 2012, the Philadelphia Phillies signed Fontenot to a minor league contract. He was assigned to the Lehigh Valley IronPigs of the International League, batting .308 with one home run and seven RBIs in 16 games with the club. On May 14, he was called up by the Phillies. He had a season-high three hits and an RBI on June 7 in an 8\u20133 loss to the Dodgers. Against the Orioles the next day, he hit his only home run of the year, a two-run shot against Jake Arrieta in a 9\u20136 victory over the Orioles. On August 1, Fontenot was designated for assignment by the Phillies. Fontenot had recorded a .289 batting average, a.343 on-base percentage, and a .340 on-base plus slugging percentage in 47 games, but he had only recorded one hit in 15 at bats against left-handed pitchers. Michael Mart\u00ednez was recalled to take his place. Fontenot was released by the Phillies four days later.\n\n### Tampa Bay Rays\n\nThe Tampa Bay Rays signed Fontenot to a minor league contract on November 29, 2012. He spent the 2013 season playing for the Durham Bulls of the International League. In 120 games (417 at bats), he batted .264 with 53 runs scored, 110 hits, four home runs, and 42 RBIs. Though he played 82 games at second base, Fontenot also made 15 appearances at shortstop and 13 appearances at third base, serving as a designated hitter, pinch hitter, or pinch runner in his other appearances. He became a free agent after the season.\n\nOn January 8, 2014, Fontenot signed a minor league contract with the Washington Nationals. He was released on March 26 after hitting just .105 in spring training. The Rays signed him again two days later, and Fontenot played with Durham for the second year in a row. He was again primarily used as a second baseman (82 games), also making seven appearances at third base and serving as a designated hitter, pinch hitter, or pinch runner in his other appearances. In 113 games (398 at bats), he batted .276 with 35 runs scored, 110 hits, three home runs, and 48 RBIs. He became a free agent after the season and has not played professional baseball since.\n\n## Career statistics\n\nIn 582 games (1,143 at bats), Fontenot batted .265 with 175 runs scored, 374 hits, 27 home runs, and 163 RBIs. He played 303 games as a second baseman, 89 games as a third baseman, and 50 games at shortstop. He played 422 games with the Cubs, 113 with the Giants, and 47 with the Phillies.\n\n## Personal life\n\nFontenot is good friends with Ryan Theriot, his teammate at LSU, and with the Cubs. It was through Theriot's wife that Fontenot met his wife, Ashley.", "revid": "1172111883", "description": "American baseball player (born 1980)", "categories": ["1980 births", "American expatriate baseball players in Canada", "Baseball players from Louisiana", "Bowie Baysox players", "Cajun sportspeople", "Chicago Cubs players", "Durham Bulls players", "Frederick Keys players", "Fresno Grizzlies players", "Iowa Cubs players", "LSU Tigers baseball players", "Lehigh Valley IronPigs players", "Living people", "Major League Baseball second basemen", "Ottawa Lynx players", "People from Slidell, Louisiana", "Philadelphia Phillies players", "San Francisco Giants players", "Sportspeople from St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana", "Wareham Gatemen players"]}
+{"id": "58512469", "url": null, "title": "Crown Jewel (2018)", "text": "# Crown Jewel (2018)\n\nThe 2018 Crown Jewel was the inaugural Crown Jewel professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) and livestreaming event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event took place on November 2, 2018, at the King Saud University Stadium in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.\n\nIt was the second event WWE held in Saudi Arabia under a 10-year partnership in support of Saudi Vision 2030, after the Greatest Royal Rumble in April, and it hosted the first ever WWE World Cup tournament. The event also marked the final match of Shawn Michaels, who had retired from active in-ring competition at WrestleMania XXVI in 2010, though returned for this match, as well as the return of Hulk Hogan\u2014who had not appeared on WWE programming since a 2015 scandal\u2014who served as the event's host.\n\nTwelve matches were contested at the event, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, D-Generation X (Triple H and Shawn Michaels) defeated The Brothers of Destruction (The Undertaker and Kane). In the penultimate match, Shane McMahon defeated Dolph Ziggler to win the WWE World Cup. In other prominent matches, The Bar (Cesaro and Sheamus) retained the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The New Day (represented by Big E and Kofi Kingston), AJ Styles defeated Samoa Joe to retain SmackDown's WWE Championship, and Brock Lesnar defeated Braun Strowman to win Raw's vacant Universal Championship.\n\nDue to the controversy surrounding the killing of Jamal Khashoggi as well as accusations against Saudi Arabia for severe human rights abuses, leading a war of attrition in Yemen and suppressing women's rights, WWE faced harsh criticism for producing the event and was asked to stop its business ventures in Saudi Arabia by multiple parties. The controversy also led to the company's top babyfaces at the time, John Cena and Daniel Bryan, boycotting the show. The event itself met with generally negative reviews, especially the main event, the Universal Championship match, and the World Cup final.\n\n## Production\n\n### Background\n\nIn early 2018, the American professional wrestling promotion WWE began a 10-year strategic multiplatform partnership with the General Sports Authority in support of Saudi Vision 2030, Saudi Arabia's social and economic reform program. The first pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event under this partnership, the Greatest Royal Rumble, was held at the King Abdullah Sports City's King Abdullah International Stadium in Jeddah on April 27. On September 17, 2018, a follow-up titled Crown Jewel was announced to take place on November 2 and feature wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands. It was originally to take place at the King Fahd International Stadium in Riyadh, but was later changed to the King Saud University Stadium, also in Riyadh.\n\nIn 2015, WWE terminated Hulk Hogan's contract due to a report by the National Enquirer and Radar Online of a partially racist rant made by Hogan on his controversial leaked sex tape; he was heard expressing disgust with the notion of his daughter dating black men, referenced by the repeated use of the racial slur \"nigger\". On July 15, 2018, after a three-year suspension, the company reinstated Hogan into the WWE Hall of Fame, and on October 31, it was announced that Hogan would be the host of Crown Jewel.\n\n### Storylines\n\nThe event comprised 12 matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, Monday Night Raw and SmackDown Live.\n\nAt SummerSlam, Brock Lesnar defended the Universal Championship against Roman Reigns. Before the match began, Braun Strowman came out and announced that he would be cashing in his Money in the Bank contract on the winner. During the match, however, Strowman was incapacitated by Lesnar, preventing him from cashing in. The distraction allowed Reigns to defeat Lesnar and win the championship, ending Lesnar's 504-day reign. The following night on Raw, Raw General Manager Kurt Angle told Lesnar's advocate Paul Heyman that although Lesnar had a contractual rematch, it would not occur for an indefinite period of time, as he preferred a fighting champion like Reigns. The following week, Strowman announced that he would be cashing in against Reigns at Hell in a Cell inside the namesake structure. At the event, Lesnar interfered in the match by kicking in the cell door and attacking both men, rendering them unable to continue, thus ruling the match a no contest and Reigns retained the championship. The following night on Raw, both Reigns and Strowman called out Lesnar, resulting in Acting Raw General Manager Baron Corbin scheduling a triple threat match between Reigns, Strowman, and Lesnar for the Universal Championship at Crown Jewel. On the October 22 episode of Raw, however, Reigns relinquished the title after announcing that his leukemia, which had been in remission since late 2008, had legitimately relapsed. This turned the scheduled triple threat match into a singles match between Lesnar and Strowman for the now vacant title. In February 2019, Fightful reported that prior to his leukemia diagnosis, Reigns had informed Vince McMahon and WWE officials that he would not be taking part in the Crown Jewel PPV due to the controversy surrounding the event.\n\nOn September 17, WWE scheduled the WWE World Cup for Crown Jewel, an eight-man tournament to \"determine the best in the world\" with four wrestlers representing Raw and SmackDown each, all from the United States of America. On the October 8 episode of Raw, for his accomplishments in WWE, John Cena was announced as the first entrant to represent Raw, despite being a non-exclusive wrestler who could appear on Raw and SmackDown. That same episode, a 10-man battle royal commenced where the winner would be added to the tournament. Acting Raw General Manager Baron Corbin took part with nine local competitors, but was lastly eliminated by a returning Kurt Angle, disguised as The Conquistador, thus Angle won the battle royal to qualify for the tournament. Two more qualifiers were decided on the October 9 episode of SmackDown, where Jeff Hardy and Randy Orton qualified for the tournament by defeating Samoa Joe and Big Show, respectively. Raw's final two qualifiers were decided on the October 15 episode of Raw, where Seth Rollins and Dolph Ziggler qualified by defeating Drew McIntyre and Dean Ambrose, respectively. SmackDown's final two qualifiers were decided on the SmackDown 1000 special, where The Miz and Rey Mysterio, the latter making his full-time WWE return, qualified for the tournament by defeating Rusev and Shinsuke Nakamura, respectively. On the October 29 episode of Raw, Acting Raw General Manager Baron Corbin replaced Cena with Bobby Lashley after praising Lashley's post-match attack on Finn B\u00e1lor earlier that night. In storyline, Corbin replaced Cena as he did not technically qualify for the tournament. In reality, Cena legitimately refused to participate due to the controversy surrounding the event. On the October 30 episode of SmackDown, SmackDown Commissioner Shane McMahon gave his four participants an ultimatum: if their finalist were to lose, they would be fired from SmackDown.\n\nAt Super Show-Down, AJ Styles defeated Samoa Joe by submission in a no countout, no disqualification match to retain the WWE Championship, while Daniel Bryan defeated The Miz to earn a future WWE Championship match. Following Bryan's win, SmackDown General Manager Paige announced that he would receive his title match against Styles at Crown Jewel. However, after the two had a heated exchange on the October 30 episode of SmackDown, Commissioner Shane McMahon announced that their championship match would take place that night, where Styles successfully retained after submitting Bryan with the \"Calf Crusher\". Moments after the match concluded, Joe attacked both men, choking each out with the \"Coquina Clutch\". Enraged, Styles demanded to face Joe at Crown Jewel with the title on the line, and Paige reluctantly made it official. In reality, Bryan had also legitimately refused to work Crown Jewel due to the controversy surrounding the event, so WWE moved his championship match up to the October 30 episode of SmackDown.\n\nAt Super Show-Down, Triple H defeated The Undertaker in a no disqualification match. After the match, Triple H and Undertaker, along with Shawn Michaels and Kane, who were in the respective corners of Triple H and Undertaker, showed mutual respect for one another until Undertaker and Kane attacked Triple H and Michaels. On the following Raw, Triple H and Michaels formally rechristened themselves as D-Generation X, challenging The Brothers of Destruction to a tag team match at Crown Jewel, marking Michaels' first match since The Undertaker retired Michaels at WrestleMania XXVI in March 2010.\n\nOn the SmackDown 1000 special on October 16, The Bar (Cesaro and Sheamus) defeated The New Day (represented by Big E and Xavier Woods) to win the SmackDown Tag Team Championship, with help from their new ally Big Show. A rematch for the titles was scheduled for Crown Jewel.\n\nOn November 1, it was announced that Shinsuke Nakamura would defend the United States Championship against Rusev on the event's Kickoff pre-show.\n\n## Event\n\n### Pre-show\n\nDuring the Crown Jewel Kickoff pre-show, Shinsuke Nakamura defended the United States Championship against Rusev. After connecting with a \"Matchka Kick\" early in the match, Rusev applied his \"Accolade\" submission hold twice on the champion. In the climax, following a low blow to break free from the hold, Nakamura pinned Rusev to retain the title.\n\n### Preliminary matches\n\nThe actual pay-per-view opened with Rey Mysterio facing Randy Orton in SmackDown's first WWE World Cup quarterfinal match. During the match, Orton attempted to remove Mysterio's mask. Orton countered a \"619\" attempt from Mysterio into an elevated DDT from the rope. In the end, Mysterio countered an \"RKO\" attempt into a roll-up pin to win the match and advance to the semi-finals. After the match, Orton attacked Mysterio and threw Mysterio on top of the Arabic announce table.\n\nNext, The Miz faced Jeff Hardy in SmackDown's second WWE World Cup quarterfinal match. During the match, Miz applied a figure-four leglock, which Hardy countered into a near fall. In the climax, Miz countered a submission hold and performed the \"Skull Crushing Finale\" on Hardy to win the match and advance to the semi-finals.\n\nAfter that, Seth Rollins faced Bobby Lashley (with Lio Rush) in Raw's first WWE World Cup quarterfinal match. As Lashley attempted to perform a spear in Rollins, Rollins leaped over Lashley and then performed \"The Stomp\" on Lashley to win the match and advance to the semi-finals.\n\nIn the fourth match, Kurt Angle faced Dolph Ziggler (accompanied by Drew McIntyre) in Raw's second and the final WWE World Cup quarterfinal match. Angle performed a trio of suplexes on Ziggler for a near fall. Angle countered a sleeper hold by Ziggler with more suplexes. Ziggler performed a DDT on Angle for a near fall of his own. Angle performed an Angle Slam on Ziggler, countering for another near fall. Angle applied the ankle lock on Ziggler, however, Ziggler countered. In the climax, Ziggler performed a \"Zig-Zag\" on Angle to win the match and advance to the semi-finals.\n\nFollowing the conclusion of all World Cup quarterfinals, The Bar (Cesaro and Sheamus) (accompanied by Big Show) defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The New Day (Big E and Kofi Kingston) (accompanied by Xavier Woods). After Kingston and Big E took down Sheamus, Cesaro broke up the pin to void the pinfall. In the end, Sheamus countered an attack from Big E and shoved him into Show, who was standing on the ring apron. While the referee was distracted, Show performed a knockout punch on Big E, and Sheamus performed a \"Brogue Kick\" on Big E to retain the titles.\n\nAfter that, The Miz faced Rey Mysterio in SmackDown's WWE World Cup semi-final match. Throughout the match, Mysterio sold the injuries sustained by Orton's previous assault. Miz countered a splash from Mysterio into a roll-up to win the match earning a spot in the finals.\n\nNext, Seth Rollins faced Dolph Ziggler (accompanied by Drew McIntyre) in Raw's WWE World Cup semi-final match. Rollins and Ziggler exchanged a number of roll-ups for near falls. Rollins performed a suicide dive on Ziggler. Ziggler performed a \"Famouser\" on Rollins for a near fall. Ziggler countered a superplex combination into a \"Zig-Zag\" on Rollins for a near fall. Finally, as Rollins attempted a splash on Ziggler, McIntyre pushed Rollins from the top rope and Ziggler performed a Superkick on Rollins to win the match to advance and the finals.\n\nIn the ninth match, AJ Styles defended the WWE Championship against Samoa Joe. Joe dominated Styles early in the match and began to target Styles' knee, who in turn focused on Joe's injured knee himself. Joe performed a suicide dive on Styles outside the ring, sending Styles into the commentary desk. Inside the ring, Styles performed the \"Calf Crusher\" on Joe's injured leg but Joe reached the ropes. After that, Joe caught Styles in his \"Coquina Clutch\" submission hold. In the end, Styles performed the Phenomenal Forearm on Joe and pinned him to retain the title.\n\nFollowing this, Braun Strowman faced Brock Lesnar (accompanied by Paul Heyman) for the vacant Universal Championship. Acting Raw General Manager Baron Corbin came out to present the title to the winner of the match. Before the match began, Corbin attacked Strowman with the title belt. Lesnar then attacked Strowman with three \"F-5s\", however, all three resulted in near falls. Lesnar performed another \"F-5\" on Strowman to the outside of the ring, forcing Strowman to beat a countout. Lesnar performed a fifth \"F-5\" on Strowman to win the vacant title. With this win, Lesnar became the first two-time Universal Champion.\n\nThe penultimate match was the final of the WWE World Cup tournament between The Miz and Dolph Ziggler. Ziggler arrived at ringside with Drew McIntyre, who was immediately removed from ringside. The Miz used this to get an advantage over Ziggler, however, he received a kayfabe injury which led to him unable to compete. This led to SmackDown Commissioner Shane McMahon taking Miz's place in the match. As the match officially began, Shane attacked Ziggler, however, Acting Raw General Manager Baron Corbin interfered only to get ejected himself. Ziggler then performed a \"Zig-Zag\" for a near-fall. In the end, Shane pinned Ziggler following a \"Coast-to-Coast\" to win the match, the WWE World Cup, and trophy.\n\n### Main event\n\nIn the main event, D-Generation X (Triple H and Shawn Michaels) faced The Brothers of Destruction (The Undertaker and Kane) in Michaels' first match since 2010, as well as the first time that the two tag teams ever faced each other. Kane blocked a \"Sweet Chin Music\" attempt from Michaels and countered with a chokeslam. Later in the match, Michaels floored Taker with a successful \"Sweet Chin Music\". During the match, all four men brawled, leading to the outside ring area where Kane put Triple H through an announce table. Michaels performed a moonsault from the top rope on Undertaker and Kane outside the ring. Triple H performed \"The Pedigree\" on Taker, who countered into a submission hold. The end came when Michaels performed another \"Sweet Chin Music\" on Kane, followed by a \"Pedigree\" from Triple H, who pinned Kane to win the match. During the match, Triple H was legitimately injured, suffering a torn pectoral muscle.\n\n## Controversy\n\nAs had already been the case with the Greatest Royal Rumble, WWE came under scrutiny for catering to a state accused of severe human rights abuses, leading a war of attrition in Yemen and suppressing women's rights.\n\nDue to restrictions on women under Saudi Law, female wrestlers have not been allowed to perform at WWE's events in Saudi Arabia, although female commentator Renee Young did provide commentary at Crown Jewel. Prior to the announcement of Crown Jewel, WWE announced its first-ever all-women's pay-per-view event, Evolution, which took place on October 28, 2018. Triple H, WWE's Executive Vice President of Talent, Live Events and Creative, as well as a current wrestler, denied that Evolution was intended to be a counterpoint for the all-male Saudi Arabia events, explaining that WWE's female performers \"deserve[d] the opportunity\" for such a showcase, and that it \"was simply the right time for this to happen.\"\n\n### Killing of Jamal Khashoggi\n\nIn wake of the killing of Jamal Khashoggi at the hands of Saudi agents, WWE faced calls to cancel the event, with prominent U.S. Democratic and Republican politicians criticizing the company's endeavors in Saudi Arabia. Questions were raised whether because of the position of Administrator of the Small Business Administration Linda McMahon, who is the wife of WWE CEO Vince McMahon and a former WWE executive herself, WWE's endeavors in Saudi Arabia could still be viewed as a strictly private business enterprise. Due to this, Democratic Senator Bob Menendez urged the US government to pressure WWE into canceling the event, while Republican Lindsey Graham, among others, called for WWE to reconsider their business deal with the Saudi kingdom. English comedian and political commentator John Oliver also weighed in on the controversy on his show Last Week Tonight, criticizing WWE for what he saw as blatant pro-Saudi propaganda.\n\nKnox County Mayor and professional wrestler Kane, who was scheduled to compete in a tag team match, announced he would work at the event, contrasting reports that the majority of WWE's wrestlers felt uncomfortable working the show. Former WWE wrestler John Layfield spoke on Fox News in favor of the event in order to promote change, while current WWE wrestlers Randy Orton, Ronda Rousey, and Mark Henry had similar remarks when speaking with TMZ. On the other hand, John Cena, who was scheduled to participate in the WWE World Cup and had called it \"an honor and a privilege\" to compete in Saudi Arabia during the Greatest Royal Rumble, was replaced by Bobby Lashley, as he reportedly refused to work the show in wake of the Khashoggi murder. Daniel Bryan, who was scheduled to face AJ Styles for the WWE Championship, had his title match bumped up to the October 30 episode of SmackDown, and was replaced on the Crown Jewel card by Samoa Joe, as he too reportedly refused to work the show. In February 2019, Fightful reported that prior to his leukemia diagnosis, Roman Reigns, who was scheduled to defend the WWE Universal Championship, had also informed Vince McMahon and WWE officials that he would also refuse to work the show.\n\nWWE continued to promote the show, but erased all references to Saudi Arabia as the event's location. On October 19, the day tickets were to go on sale, the Saudi government confirmed the death of Khashoggi within the consulate and WWE.com removed ticket information from the event page. On October 25, WWE confirmed the event would go on as planned, citing contractual obligations to the General Sports Authority. Speaking with Sky Sports on pushing forward with the event despite the murder, WWE CBO Stephanie McMahon spoke of \"an incredibly tough decision, given that heinous act\", but said that in the end it was strictly a business decision.\n\n## Reception\n\nThe show received generally negative reviews from critics, with Shane McMahon's participation in the finals of the World Cup, the Universal Championship match, and the main event tag team match in particular receiving criticism. Adam Silverstein of CBS Sports gave the event a \"C\u2212\" rating, describing that the show \"failed as a normal event but at least had enough to talk about afterward\", while finding the booking and WWE's long-term plans questionable. Bryan Rose of the Wrestling Observer described Crown Jewel as a show that ended \"mercifully\". Writing for Pro Wrestling Dot Net, Jason Powell viewed the event as a \"cash grab\" by WWE, and said that \"Crown Jewel was gross for all the obvious reasons, including Vince McMahon doubling down on the controversy by bringing back Hulk Hogan.\" He did also note that the kickoff show had a quality match between Rusev and Shinsuke Nakamura.\n\nSilverstein said that the main event tag team match between D-Generation X and The Brothers of Destruction offered \"effort and nostalgia ... but not much more\" given the wrestlers' age, resulting in them \"operating at 50 percent of their prior capacity\". Rose said that although Crown Jewel's main event was better than that of Super Show-Down's, which featured the same four men, Crown Jewel's main event was still \"very plodding\" and \"long\". Powell wrote that despite their efforts, \"everyone involved came up short regardless of how much gushing the broadcast team did afterward\", and the four veterans were instead \"stealing the spotlight from the deserving full-time stars of yet another generation\". In 2020, pro wrestler Chris Jericho named the match \"the worst match I have ever seen\".\n\nThe WWE World Cup Final was rated \"C+\" by Silverstein, who said it was \"creative though a bit confounding\". Powell felt that all of the tournament matches were \"basic and brief\", and that Shane McMahon had become \"yet another heel authority figure\" in WWE. In addition to the SmackDown Tag Team Championship match, Rose said that most of the tournament matches were \"paint by numbers\" or \"nothing special\", with only Ziggler-Angle \"decent\" and Ziggler-Rollins \"pretty good\". He also said that Ziggler-McMahon \"couldn't be more destructive towards people that need a boost the most\" \u2013 a sentiment he also felt about the Universal Championship match \u2013 while a \"McMahon winning [the WWE World Cup], which was to crown the best in the world, feels like an allegory for something.\"\n\nFor the two world championship matches, Silverstein gave the Universal Championship match a \"D+\" rating. They said that Brock Lesnar's win was a positive, but it was wholly outweighed by \"no offense from [Braun] Strowman\". Powell was positive of the match, stating that it was a good decision to not rush Strowman into winning a world title. For the WWE Championship match between AJ Styles and Samoa Joe, Silverstein and Jorgensen gave it a \"C+\" rating for being \"relatively slow\". Rose said that it \"was good while it lasted, but they've had better matches.\"\n\nCrown Jewel was awarded WrestleCrap's Gooker Award, an annual booby prize for the worst gimmick, storyline, or event in wrestling. In their induction, the website stated that the event \"was a bad idea from day one\". The site also noted that if were not for the final three matches, Crown Jewel \"would have been a passable, if completely tasteless, pay-per-view event\". The event received awards in three negative categories at the annual Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards. The event itself was named Worst Major Wrestling Show, while the main event between The Brothers of Destruction and D-Generation X was named Worst Match of the Year. Furthermore, the business ties between Saudi Arabia and the WWE were recognized as the Most Disgusting Promotional Tactic of the year. Shawn Michaels described the event as a \"glorified house show\" that was, in his opinion, insignificant.\n\n## Aftermath\n\nAfter his interference in the Universal Championship match, Braun Strowman sought revenge against Baron Corbin. After chasing him through the arena during the next Raw episode, Stephanie McMahon struck a bargain with him a week later: if he ceased attacking Corbin until after Survivor Series and led \"Team Raw\" to victory, he would be granted a match against Corbin and another Universal Championship match against Brock Lesnar, and could freely determine the stipulations in either match. At Survivor Series, Strowman eliminated four of the five members of \"Team SmackDown\", leading his team to a decisive victory. On the following Raw, he was granted his match against Corbin at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs, which he chose would be the namesake match. If Strowman won, he would be granted another Universal title match against Brock Lesnar at the Royal Rumble and Corbin would be stripped of all authority, but if Corbin won, he would become the permanent Raw General Manager. At TLC, an injured Strowman defeated Corbin with the assistance of Heath Slater, Apollo Crews, Finn B\u00e1lor, Bobby Roode, Chad Gable, and Kurt Angle, to challenge Lesnar again at the Royal Rumble and stripping Corbin of all authoritative power. However, as punishment for damaging Vince McMahon's limousine, he was stripped of his title opportunity, which was largely caused by Corbin, leading to a match at Elimination Chamber, which Corbin won thanks to assistance from Drew McIntyre and Bobby Lashley.\n\nThe involvement of Shane McMahon in the WWE World Cup final was used as a build-up towards Survivor Series. It drew heavy kayfabe criticism from various wrestlers on the Raw roster. Acting Raw General Manager Baron Corbin accused Shane of stealing the World Cup from Raw and of having massively abused his power. The same statements were reiterated by Dolph Ziggler, who called Shane's actions a conspiracy, and his partner Drew McIntyre. Both wrestlers proclaimed Ziggler to be the \"true best in the world\". Furthermore, Stephanie McMahon called her brother's actions \"an insult to the entire Raw locker room.\"\n\nAs The Miz had originally qualified for the final, he took credit for Shane's victory and subsequently demanded to captain \"Team SmackDown\" at Survivor Series, to which Shane McMahon and Paige obliged, naming him co-captain along with Daniel Bryan. Bryan and Miz then named Shane as part of \"Team SmackDown\" on the grounds of him winning the World Cup; Bryan was then removed from the match after winning the WWE Championship from AJ Styles. During the men's Survivor Series match, Shane eliminated Ziggler, who kept on referring to himself as the \"best in the world\", but could not help his team overcome Braun Strowman, who almost single-handedly eliminated most of his team. Altogether, SmackDown suffered a clean sweep on the pay-per-view, only winning the tag team match on the pre-show.\n\nThe Miz also began a pursuit to form a tag team with Shane McMahon, again painting Shane's win of the WWE World Cup as a team effort. However, their tag team, branded by Miz as \"The Best Team in the World\", lost its debut match to a duo of local competitors after a roll-up to Miz. At the Royal Rumble, Shane and Miz defeated The Bar (Cesaro and Sheamus) to win the SmackDown Tag Team Championship, holding the titles for three weeks, before losing to The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso) at the Elimination Chamber pay-per-view. After failing to recapture the tag team championship the following month at Fastlane, Shane attacked The Miz, thus ending their partnership and turning heel for the first time since returning to WWE in 2016. Shane incorporated the \"Best in the World\" moniker and trophy as an integral part of his heel gimmick. The two fought at WrestleMania 35 in a falls count anywhere match and again at Money in the Bank in a Steel Cage match, in which Shane narrowly won both.\n\n## Results\n\n### WWE World Cup\n\nThe WWE World Cup was an eight-man single-elimination tournament to determine the \"best in the world\". Four participants came from Raw and four participants came from SmackDown. Participants from Raw and SmackDown faced opponents of their own brand until one member of their brand was left, after which, the finalist from Raw faced the finalist from SmackDown. John Cena was originally announced as a direct participant on account of his previous achievements in WWE, but was replaced by Bobby Lashley after he legitimately refused to work the show in wake of the Khashoggi incident.\n\n## See also\n\n- 2018 in professional wrestling", "revid": "1173236157", "description": "WWE pay-per-view and livestreaming event", "categories": ["2018 WWE Network events", "2018 WWE pay-per-view events", "2018 in Saudi Arabia", "Entertainment events in Saudi Arabia", "November 2018 events in Saudi Arabia", "Professional wrestling controversies", "WWE Crown Jewel", "Wrestling Observer Newsletter award winners"]}
+{"id": "2165269", "url": null, "title": "Paranthropus robustus", "text": "# Paranthropus robustus\n\nParanthropus robustus is a species of robust australopithecine from the Early and possibly Middle Pleistocene of the Cradle of Humankind, South Africa, about 2.27 to 0.87 (or, more conservatively, 2 to 1) million years ago. It has been identified in Kromdraai, Swartkrans, Sterkfontein, Gondolin, Cooper's, and Drimolen Caves. Discovered in 1938, it was among the first early hominins described, and became the type species for the genus Paranthropus. However, it has been argued by some that Paranthropus is an invalid grouping and synonymous with Australopithecus, so the species is also often classified as Australopithecus robustus.\n\nRobust australopithecines\u2014as opposed to gracile australopithecines\u2014are characterised by heavily built skulls capable of producing high stresses and bite forces, as well as inflated cheek teeth (molars and premolars). Males had more heavily built skulls than females. P. robustus may have had a genetic susceptibility for pitting enamel hypoplasia on the teeth, and seems to have had a dental cavity rate similar to non-agricultural modern humans. The species is thought to have exhibited marked sexual dimorphism, with males substantially larger and more robust than females. Based on 3 specimens, males may have been 132 cm (4 ft 4 in) tall and females 110 cm (3 ft 7 in). Based on 4 specimens, males averaged 40 kg (88 lb) in weight and females 30 kg (66 lb). The brain volume of the specimen SK 1585 is estimated to have been 476 cc, and of DNH 155 about 450 cc (for comparison, the brain volume of contemporary Homo varied from 500 to 900 cc). P. robustus limb anatomy is similar to that of other australopithecines, which may indicate a less efficient walking ability than modern humans, and perhaps some degree of arboreality (movement in the trees).\n\nP. robustus seems to have consumed a high proportion of C<sub>4</sub> savanna plants. In addition, it may have also eaten fruits, underground storage organs (such as roots and tubers), and perhaps honey and termites. P. robustus may have used bones as tools to extract and process food. It is unclear if P. robustus lived in a harem society like gorillas or a multi-male society like baboons. P. robustus society may have been patrilocal, with adult females more likely to leave the group than males, but males may have been more likely to be evicted as indicated by higher male mortality rates and assumed increased risk of predation to solitary individuals. P. robustus contended with sabertooth cats, leopards, and hyenas on the mixed, open-to-closed landscape, and P. robustus bones probably accumulated in caves due to big cat predation. It is typically found in what were mixed open and wooded environments, and may have gone extinct in the Mid-Pleistocene Transition characterised by the continual prolonging of dry cycles and subsequent retreat of such habitat.\n\n## Taxonomy\n\n### Research history\n\n#### Discovery\n\nThe first remains, a partial skull including a part of the jawbone (TM 1517), were discovered in June 1938 at the Kromdraai cave site, South Africa, by local schoolboy Gert Terblanche. He gave the remains to South African conservationist Charles Sydney Barlow, who then relayed them to South African palaeontologist Robert Broom. Broom began investigating the site, and, a few weeks later, recovered a right distal humerus (the lower part of the upper arm bone), a proximal right ulna (upper part of a lower arm bone) and a distal phalanx bone of the big toe, all of which he assigned to TM 1517. He also identified a distal toe phalanx which he believed belonged to a baboon, but has since been associated with TM 1517. Broom noted the Kromdraai remains were especially robust compared to other hominins. In August 1938, Broom classified the robust Kromdraai remains into a new genus, as Paranthropus robustus. \"Paranthropus\" derives from the Ancient Greek \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1 para, beside or alongside; and \u03ac\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 \u00e1nthropos, man.\n\nAt this point in time, Australian anthropologist Raymond Dart had made the very first claim (quite controversially at the time) of an early ape-like human ancestor in 1924 from South Africa, Australopithecus africanus, based on the Taung child. In 1936, Broom had described \"Plesianthropus transvaalensis\" (now synonymised with A. africanus) from the Sterkfontein Caves only 2 km (1.2 mi) west from Kromdraai. All these species dated to the Pleistocene and were found in the same general vicinity (now called the \"Cradle of Humankind\"). Broom considered them evidence of a greater diversity of hominins in the Pliocene from which they and modern humans descended, and consistent with several hominin taxa existing alongside human ancestors.\n\nThe Kromdraii taxon, classified as Paranthropus robustus, was later discovered at the nearby Swartkrans Cave in 1948. P. robustus was only definitively identified at Kromdraai and Swartkrans until around the turn of the century when the species was reported elsewhere in the Cradle of Humankind at Sterkfontein, Gondolin, Cooper's, and Drimolen Caves. The species has not been found outside this small area.\n\n#### \"P. crassidens\"\n\nIn 1948, at the nearby Swartkrans Cave, Broom described \"P. crassidens\" (distinct from P. robustus) based on a subadult jaw, SK 6, because Swartkrans and Kromdraai clearly dated to different time intervals based on the diverging animal assemblages in these caves. At this point in time, humans and allies were classified into the family Hominidae, and non-human great apes into \"Pongidae\"; in 1950, Broom suggested separating early hominins into the subfamilies Australopithecinae (Au. africanus and \"Pl. transvaalensis\"), \"Paranthropinae\" (Pa. robustus and \"Pa. crassidens\"), and \"Archanthropinae\" (\"Au. prometheus\"). This scheme was widely criticised for being too liberal in demarcating species. Further, the remains were not firmly dated, and it was debated if there were indeed multiple hominin lineages or if there was only a single one leading to humans. Most prominently, Broom and South African palaeontologist John Talbot Robinson continued arguing for the validity of Paranthropus.\n\nAnthropologists Sherwood Washburn and Bruce D. Patterson were the first to recommend synonymising Paranthropus with Australopithecus in 1951, wanting to limit hominin genera to only that and Homo, and it has since been debated whether or not Paranthropus is a junior synonym of Australopithecus. In the spirit of tightening splitting criteria for hominin taxa, in 1954, Robinson suggested demoting \"P. crassidens\" to subspecies level as \"P. r. crassidens\", and also moved the Indonesian Meganthropus into the genus as \"P. palaeojavanicus\". Meganthropus has since been variously reclassified as a synonym of the Asian Homo erectus, \"Pithecanthropus dubius\", Pongo (orangutans), and so on, and in 2019 it was again argued to be a valid genus.\n\nIn 1949, also in Swartkrans Cave, Broom and Robinson found a mandible which they preliminary described as \"intermediate between one of the ape-men and true man,\" classifying it as a new genus and species \"Telanthropus capensis\". Most immediate reactions favoured synonymising \"T. capensis\" with \"P. crassidens\", whose remains were already abundantly found in the cave. In 1957, though, Italian biologist Alberto Simonetta moved it to the genus \"Pithecanthropus\", and Robinson (without a specific reason why) decided to synonymise it with H. erectus (African H. erectus are sometimes called H. ergaster today). In 1965, South African palaeoanthropologist Phillip V. Tobias questioned whether this classification is completely sound or not.\n\nBy the 21st century, \"P. crassidens\" had more or less fallen out of use in favour of P. robustus. American palaeoanthropologist Frederick E. Grine is the primary opponent of synonymisation of the two species.\n\n#### Gigantopithecus\n\nIn 1939, Broom hypothesised that P. robustus was closely related to the similarly large-toothed ape Gigantopithecus from Asia (extinct apes were primarily known from Asia at the time) believing Gigantopithecus to have been a hominin. Primarily influenced by the mid-century opinions of Jewish German anthropologist Franz Weidenreich and German-Dutch palaeontologist Ralph von Koenigswald that Gigantopithecus was, respectively, the direct ancestor of the Asian H. erectus or closely related, much debate followed over whether Gigantopithecus was a hominin or a non-human ape.\n\nIn 1972, Robinson suggested including Gigantopithecus in \"Paranthropinae\", with the Miocene Pakistani \"G. bilaspurensis\" (now Indopithecus) as the ancestor of Paranthropus and the Chinese G. blacki. He also believed that they both had a massive build. In contrast, he reported a very small build for A. africanus (which he referred to as \"Homo\" africanus) and speculated it had some cultural and hunting abilities, being a member of the human lineage, which \"paranthropines\" lacked. With the popularisation of cladistics by the late 1970s to 1980s, and better resolution on how Miocene apes relate to later apes, Gigantopithecus was entirely removed from Homininae, and is now placed in the subfamily Ponginae with orangutans.\n\n#### P. boisei\n\nIn 1959, another and much more robust australopithecine was discovered in East Africa, P. boisei, and in 1975, the P. boisei skull KNM-ER 406 was demonstrated to have been contemporaneous with the H. ergaster/H. erectus skull KNM ER 3733 (which is considered a human ancestor). This is generally taken to show that Paranthropus was a sister taxon to Homo, both developing from some Australopithecus species, which at the time only included A. africanus.\n\nIn 1979, a year after describing A. afarensis from East Africa, anthropologists Donald Johanson and Tim D. White suggested that A. afarensis was instead the last common ancestor between Homo and Paranthropus, and A. africanus was the earliest member of the Paranthropus lineage or at least was ancestral to P. robustus, because A. africanus inhabited South Africa before P. robustus, and A. afarensis was at the time the oldest known hominin species at roughly 3.5 million years old. Now, the earliest-known South African australopithecine (\"Little Foot\") dates to 3.67 million years ago, contemporaneous with A. afarensis. The matter is still debated.\n\nIt was long assumed that if Paranthropus is a valid genus then P. robustus was the ancestor of P. boisei, but in 1985, anthropologists Alan Walker and Richard Leakey found that the 2.5-million-year-old East African skull KNM WT 17000\u2014which they assigned to a new species A. aethiopicus\u2014was ancestral to A. boisei (they considered Paranthropus synonymous with Australopithecus), thus establishing the boisei lineage as beginning long before robustus had existed.\n\n### Classification\n\nThe genus Paranthropus (otherwise known as \"robust australopithecines\", in contrast to the \"gracile australopithecines\") now also includes the East African P. boisei and P. aethiopicus. It is still debated if this is a valid natural grouping (monophyletic) or an invalid grouping of similar-looking hominins (paraphyletic). Because skeletal elements are so limited in these species, their affinities with each other and with other australopithecines are difficult to gauge with accuracy. The jaws are the main argument for monophyly, but jaw anatomy is strongly influenced by diet and environment, and could have evolved independently in P. robustus and P. boisei. Proponents of monophyly consider P. aethiopicus to be ancestral to the other two species, or closely related to the ancestor. Proponents of paraphyly allocate these three species to the genus Australopithecus as A. boisei, A. aethiopicus, and A. robustus. In 2020, palaeoanthropologist Jesse M. Martin and colleagues' phylogenetic analyses reported the monophyly of Paranthropus, but also that P. robustus had branched off before P. aethiopicus (that P. aethiopicus was ancestral to only P. boisei). The exact classification of Australopithecus species with each other is quite contentious.\n\nIn 2023, fragmentary genetic material belonging to this species was reported from 2 million year-old teeth, being the oldest genetic evidence to be retrieved from a human.\n\n## Anatomy\n\n### Head\n\n#### Skull\n\nTypical of Paranthropus, P. robustus exhibits post-canine megadontia with enormous cheek teeth but human-sized incisors and canines. The premolars are shaped like molars. The enamel thickness on the cheek teeth is relatively on par with that of modern humans, though australopithecine cheek tooth enamel thickens especially at the tips of the cusps, whereas in humans it thickens at the base of the cusps.\n\nP. robustus has a tall face with slight prognathism (the jaw jutted out somewhat). The skulls of males have a well-defined sagittal crest on the midline of the skullcap and inflated cheek bones, which likely supported massive temporal muscles important in biting. The cheeks project so far from the face that, when in top-view, the nose appears to sit at the bottom of a concavity (a dished face). This displaced the eye sockets forward somewhat, causing a weak brow ridge and receding forehead. The inflated cheeks also would have pushed the masseter muscle (important in biting down) forward and pushed the tooth rows back, which would have created a higher bite force on the premolars. The ramus of the jawbone, which connects the lower jaw to the upper jaw, is tall, which would have increased lever arm (and thereby, torque) of the masseter and medial pterygoid muscles (both important in biting down), further increasing bite force.\n\nThe well-defined sagittal crest and inflated cheeks are absent in the presumed-female skull DNH-7, so Keyser suggested that male P. robustus may have been more heavily built than females (P. robustus was sexually dimorphic). The Drimolen material, being more basal, is comparatively more gracile and consequently probably had a smaller bite force than the younger Swartkrans and Kromdraii P. robustus. The brows of the former also are rounded off rather than squared, and the sagittal crest of the presumed-male DNH 155 is more posteriorly (towards the back of the head) positioned.\n\nThe posterior semicircular canals in the inner ear of SK 46 and SK 47 are unlike those of the apelike Australopithecus or Homo, suggesting different locomotory and head movement patterns, since inner ear anatomy affects the vestibular system (sense of balance). The posterior semicircular canals of modern humans are thought to aid in stabilisation while running, which could mean P. robustus was not an endurance runner.\n\n#### Brain\n\nUpon describing the species, Broom estimated the fragmentary braincase of TM 1517 as 600 cc, and he, along with South African anthropologist Gerrit Willem Hendrik Schepers, revised this to 575\u2013680 cc in 1946. For comparison, the brain volume of contemporary Homo varied from 500 to 900 cc. A year later, British primatologist Wilfrid Le Gros Clark commented that, since only a part of the temporal bone on one side is known, brain volume cannot be accurately measured for this specimen. In 2001, Polish anthropologist Katarzyna Kaszycka said that Broom quite often artificially inflated brain size in early hominins, and the true value was probably much lower.\n\nIn 1972, American physical anthropologist Ralph Holloway measured the skullcap SK 1585, which is missing part of the frontal bone, and reported a volume of about 530 cc. He also noted that, compared to other australopithecines, Paranthropus seems to have had an expanded cerebellum like Homo, echoing what Tobias said while studying P. boisei skulls in 1967. In 2000, American neuroanthropologist Dean Falk and colleagues filled in frontal bone anatomy of SK 1585 using the P. boisei specimens KNM-ER 407, OH 5, and KNM-ER 732, and recalculated the brain volume to about 476 cc. They stated overall brain anatomy of P. robustus was more like that of non-human apes.\n\nIn 2020, the nearly complete skull DNH 155 was discovered and was measured to have had a brain volume of 450 cc.\n\n#### Blood vessels\n\nIn 1983, while studying SK 1585 (P. robustus) and KNM-ER 407 (P. boisei, which he referred to as robustus), French anthropologist Roger Saban stated that the parietal branch of the middle meningeal artery originated from the posterior branch in P. robustus and P. boisei instead of the anterior branch as in earlier hominins, and considered this a derived characteristic due to increased brain capacity. It has since been demonstrated that, at least for P. boisei, the parietal branch could originate from either the anterior or posterior branches, sometimes both in a single specimen on opposite sides of the skull.\n\nRegarding the dural venous sinuses, in 1983, Falk and anthropologist Glenn Conroy suggested that, unlike A. africanus or modern humans, all Paranthropus (and A. afarensis) had expanded occipital and marginal (around the foramen magnum) sinuses, completely supplanting the transverse and sigmoid sinuses. They suggested the setup would have increased blood flow to the internal vertebral venous plexuses or internal jugular vein, and was thus related to the reorganisation of the blood vessels supplying the head as an immediate response to bipedalism, which relaxed as bipedalism became more developed. In 1988, Falk and Tobias demonstrated that early hominins (at least A. africanus and P. boisei) could have both an occipital/marginal and transverse/sigmoid systems concurrently or on opposite halves of the skull.\n\n### Torso\n\nFew vertebrae are assigned to P. robustus. The only thoracolumbar series (thoracic and lumbar series) preserved belongs to the juvenile SKW 14002, and either represents the 1st to the 4th lumbar vertebrae, or the 2nd to the 5th. SK 3981 preserves a 12th thoracic vertebra (the last in the series), and a lower lumbar vertebra. The 12th thoracic vertebra is relatively elongated, and the articular surface (where it joins with another vertebra) is kidney-shaped. The T12 is more compressed in height than that of other australopithecines and modern apes. Modern humans who suffer from spinal disc herniation often have vertebrae that are more similar to those of chimpanzees than healthy humans. Early hominin vertebrae are similar to those of a pathological human, including the only other 12th thoracic vertebra known for P. robustus, the juvenile SK 853. Conversely, SK 3981 is more similar to those of healthy humans, which could be explained as: SK 3981 is abnormal, the vertebrae took on a more humanlike condition with maturity, or one of these specimens is assigned to the wrong species. The shape of the lumbar vertebrae is much more similar to that of Turkana Boy (H. ergaster/H. erectus) and humans than other australopithecines. The pedicles (which jut out diagonally from the vertebra) of the lower lumbar vertebra are much more robust than in other australopithecines and are within the range of humans, and the transverse processes (which jut out to the sides of the vertebra) indicate powerful iliolumbar ligaments. These could have bearing on the amount of time spent upright compared to other australopithecines.\n\nThe pelvis is similar to the pelvises of A. africanus and A. afarensis, but it has a wider iliac blade and smaller acetabulum and hip joint. Like modern humans, the ilium of P. robustus features development of the surface and thickening of the posterior superior iliac spine, which are important in stabilising the sacrum, and indicates lumbar lordosis (curvature of the lumbar vertebrae) and thus bipedalism. The anatomy of the sacrum and the first lumbar vertebra (at least the vertebral arch), preserved in DNH 43, are similar to those of other australopithecines. The pelvis seems to indicate a more-or-less humanlike hip joint consistent with bipedalism, though differences in overall pelvic anatomy may indicate P. robustus used different muscles to generate force and perhaps had a different mechanism to direct force up the spine. This is similar to the condition seen in A. africanus. This could potentially indicate the lower limbs had a wider range of motion than those of modern humans.\n\n### Limbs\n\nThe distal (lower) humerus of P. robustus falls within the variation of both modern humans and chimps, as the distal humerus is quite similar between humans and chimpanzees. The radius of P. robustus is comparable in form to Australopithecus species. The wrist joint had the same maneuverability as that of modern humans rather than the greater flexion achieved by non-human apes, but the head of radius (the elbow) seems to have been quite capable of maintaining stability when the forearm was flexed like non-human apes. It is possible this reflects some arboreal activity (movement in the trees) as is controversially postulated in other australopithecines. SKX 3602 exhibits robust radial styloid processes near the hand which indicate strong brachioradialis muscles and extensor retinaculae. Like humans, the finger bones are uncurved and have weaker muscle attachment than non-human apes, though the proximal phalanges are smaller than in humans. The intermediate phalanges are stout and straight like humans, but have stouter bases and better developed flexor impressions. The distal phalanges seem to be essentially humanlike. These could indicate a decreased climbing capacity compared to non-human apes and P. boisei. The P. robustus hand is consistent with a humanlike precision grip which would have made possible the production or usage of tools requiring greater motor functions than non-human primate tools.\n\nThe femur, as in P. boisei and H. habilis, is flattened anteroposteriorly (on the front and back side). This may indicate a walking gait more similar to early hominins than to modern humans (less efficient gait). Four femora assigned to P. robustus\u2014SK 19, SK 82, SK 97, and SK 3121\u2014exhibit an apparently high anisotropic trabecular bone (at the hip joint) structure, which could indicate reduced mobility of the hip joint compared to non-human apes, and the ability to produce forces consistent with humanlike bipedalism. The femoral head StW 311, which either belongs to P. robustus or early Homo, seems to have habitually been placed in highly flexed positions based on the wearing patterns, which would be consistent with frequent climbing activity. It is unclear if frequent squatting could be a valid alternative interpretation. The textural complexity of the kneecap SKX 1084, which reflects cartilage thickness and thus usage of the knee joint and bipedality, is midway between modern humans and chimps. The big toe bone of P. robustus is not dextrous, which indicates a humanlike foot posture and range of motion, but the more distal ankle joint would have inhibited the modern human toe-off gait cycle. P. robustus and H. habilis may have achieved about the same grade of bipedality.\n\n### Size\n\nBroom had noted that the ankle bone and humerus of the holotype TM 1517 were about the same dimensions as that of a modern San woman, and so assumed humanlike proportions in P. robustus. In 1972, Robinson estimated Paranthropus as having been massive. He calculated the humerus-to-femur ratio of P. robustus by using the presumed female humerus of STS 7 and comparing it with the presumed male femur of STS 14. He also had to estimate the length of the humerus using the femur assuming a similar degree of sexual dimorphism between P. robustus and humans. Comparing the ratio to humans, he concluded that P. robustus was a heavily built species with a height of 140\u2013150 cm (4 ft 7 in \u2013 4 ft 11 in) and a weight of 68\u201391 kg (150\u2013201 lb). Consequently, Robinson had described its locomotory habits as, \"a compromise between erectness and facility for quadrupedal climbing.\" In contrast, he estimated A. africanus (which he called \"H.\" africanus) to have been 1.2\u20131.4 m (4\u20134.5 ft) tall and 18\u201327 kg (40\u201360 lb) in weight, and to have also been completely bipedal.\n\nRobinson's estimation of P. robustus size was soon challenged in 1974 by American palaeontologist Stephen Jay Gould and English palaeoanthropologist David Pilbeam, who guessed from the available skeletal elements a weight of about 40.5 kg (89 lb). Similarly, in 1988, American anthropologist Henry McHenry reported much lighter weights as well as notable sexual dimorphism for Paranthropus. McHenry plotted body size vs. the cross sectional area of the femoral head for a sample of just humans and a sample with all great apes including humans, and calculated linear regressions for each one. Based on the average of these two regressions, he reported an average weight of 47.1 kg (104 lb) for P. robustus using the specimens SK 82 and SK 97. In 1991, McHenry expanded his sample size, and also estimated the living size of Swartkrans specimens by scaling down the dimensions of an average modern human to meet a preserved leg or foot element (he considered the arm measurements too variable among hominins to give accurate estimates). At Members 1 and 2, about 35% of the P. robustus leg or foot specimens were the same size as those in a 28 kg (62 lb) human, 22% in a 43 kg (95 lb) human, and the remaining 43% bigger than the former but less than a 54 kg (119 lb) human except for KNM\u2010ER 1464 (an ankle bone). At Member 3, all individuals were consistent with a 45 kg (99 lb) human. Smaller adults thus seem to have been more common. McHenry also estimated the living height of 3 P. robustus specimens (male SK 82, male SK 97, and female or subadult SK 3155), by scaling down an average human to meet the estimated size of the preserved femur, as 126 cm (4 ft 2 in), 137 cm (4 ft 6 in), and 110 cm (3 ft 7 in), respectively. Based on just these three, he reported an average height of 132 cm (4 ft 4 in) for P. robustus males and 110 cm (3 ft 7 in) for females.\n\nIn 2001, palaeoanthropologist Randall L. Susman and colleagues, using two recently discovered proximal femoral fragments from Swartkrans, estimated an average of 42 kg (93 lb) for males and 30 kg (66 lb) for females. If these four proximal femur specimens\u2014SK 82, SK 97, SKW 19, and SK 3121\u2014are representative of the entire species, they said that this degree of sexual dimorphism is greater than what is exhibited in humans and chimpanzees, but less than orangutans and gorillas. Female P. robustus were about the same estimated weight as female H. ergaster/H. erectus in Swartkrans, but they estimated male H. ergaster/H. erectus as much bigger at 55 kg (121 lb). In 2012, American anthropologist Trenton Holliday, using the same equation as McHenry on 3 specimens, reported an average of 37 kg (82 lb) with a range of 30\u201343 kg (66\u201395 lb). In 2015, biological anthropologist Mark Grabowski and colleagues, using 9 specimens, estimated an average of 32.3 kg (71 lb) for males and 24 kg (53 lb) for females.\n\n## Palaeobiology\n\n### Diet\n\nIn 1954, Robinson suggested that the heavily built skull of P. robustus and resultantly exorbitant bite force was indicative of a specialist diet adapted for frequently cracking hard foods such as nuts. Because of this, the predominant model of Paranthropus extinction for the latter half of the 20th century was that they were unable to adapt to the volatile climate of the Pleistocene, unlike the much more adaptable Homo. Subsequent researchers reinforced this model studying the musculature of the face, dental wearing patterns, and primate ecology. In 1981, English anthropologist Alan Walker, while studying the P. boisei skulls KNM-ER 406 and 729, pointed out that bite force is a measure of not only the total pressure exerted but also the surface area of the tooth over which the pressure is being exerted, and Paranthropus teeth are 4\u20135 times the size of modern human teeth. Because the chewing muscles are arranged the same way, Walker postulated that the heavy build was instead an adaptation to chew a large quantity of food at the same time. He also found that microwearing on 20 P. boisei molar specimens were indistinguishable from patterning recorded in mandrills, chimps, and orangutans. Despite subsequent arguments that Paranthropus were not specialist feeders, the predominant consensus in favour of Robinson's initial model did not change for the remainder of the 20th century.\n\nIn 2004, in their review of Paranthropus dietary literature, anthropologists Bernard Wood and David Strait concluded that Paranthropus were most definitely generalist feeders, and that P. robustus was an omnivore. They found that the microwear patterns in P. robustus suggest hard food was infrequently consumed, and therefore the heavy build of the skull was only relevant when eating less desirable fallback foods. Such a strategy is similar to that used by modern gorillas, which can sustain themselves entirely on lower quality fallback foods year-round, as opposed to lighter built chimpanzees (and presumably gracile australopithecines) which require steady access to high quality foods. In 1980, anthropologists Tom Hatley and John Kappelman suggested that early hominins (convergently with bears and pigs) adapted to eating abrasive and calorie-rich underground storage organs (USOs), such as roots and tubers. Since then, hominin exploitation of USOs has gained more support. In 2005, biological anthropologists Greg Laden and Richard Wrangham proposed that Paranthropus relied on USOs as a fallback or possibly primary food source, and noted that there may be a correlation between high USO abundance and hominin occupation.\n\nA 2006 carbon isotope analysis suggested that P. robustus subsisted on mainly C<sub>4</sub> savanna plants or C<sub>3</sub> forest plants depending on the season, which could indicate either seasonal shifts in diet or seasonal migration from forest to savanna. H. ergaster/H. erectus appears to have consumed about the same proportion of C<sub>3</sub> to C<sub>4</sub> based foods as P. robustus. P. robustus likely also commonly cracked hard foods such as seeds or nuts, as it had a moderate tooth-chipping rate (about 12% in a sample of 239 individuals, as opposed to little to none for P. boisei). A high cavity rate could indicate honey consumption. Juvenile P. robustus may have relied more on tubers than adults, given the elevated levels of strontium compared to adults in teeth from Swartkrans Cave, which, in the area, was most likely sourced from tubers. Dentin exposure on juvenile teeth could indicate early weaning, or a more abrasive diet than adults which wore away the cementum and enamel coatings, or both. It is also possible juveniles were instead less capable of removing grit from dug-up food rather than purposefully seeking out more abrasive foods.\n\n### Social structure\n\nGiven the marked anatomical and physical differences with modern great apes, there may be no modern analogue for australopithecine societies, so comparisons drawn with modern primates are highly speculative.\n\nIn 2007, anthropologist Charles Lockwood and colleagues pointed out that P. robustus appears to have had pronounced sexual dimorphism, with males notably larger than females. This is commonly correlated with a male-dominated polygamous society, such as the harem society of modern forest-dwelling silverback gorillas where one male has exclusive breeding rights to a group of females. Estimated male-female size disparity in P. robustus is comparable to gorillas (based on facial dimensions), and younger males were less robust than older males (delayed maturity is also exhibited in gorillas). Because the majority of sexed P. robustus specimens are male (or at least presumed male), males seem to have had a higher mortality rate than females. In a harem society, males are more likely to be evicted from the group given higher male\u2013male competition over females, and lone males may have been put at a higher risk of predation. By this hypothesis, a female moving out of her birth group may have spent little time alone and transferred immediately to another established group.\n\nHowever, in 2011, palaeoanthropologist Sandi Copeland and colleagues studied the strontium isotope ratio of P. robustus teeth from the dolomite Sterkfontein Valley, and found that like other hominins, but unlike other great apes, P. robustus females were more likely to leave their place of birth (patrilocal). This discounts the plausibility of a harem society, which would have resulted in a matrilocal society due to heightened male\u2013male competition. Males did not seem to have ventured very far from the valley, which could either indicate small home ranges, or that they preferred dolomitic landscapes due to perhaps cave abundance or factors related to vegetation growth. Similarly, in 2016, Polish anthropologist Katarzyna Kaszycka rebutted that, among primates, delayed maturity is also exhibited in the rhesus monkey which has a multi-male society, and may not be an accurate indicator of social structure. If P. robustus preferred a savanna habitat, a multi-male society would have been more conducive in defending the troop from predators in the more exposed environment, much like baboons which live in the savanna. Even in a multi-male society, it is still possible that males were more likely to be evicted, explaining male-skewed mortality with the same mechanism.\n\nIn 2017, anthropologist Katharine Balolia and colleagues postulated that, because male non-human great apes have a larger sagittal crest than females (particularly gorillas and orangutans), the crest may be influenced by sexual selection in addition to supporting chewing muscles. Further, the size of the sagittal crest (and the gluteus muscles) in male western lowland gorillas has been correlated with reproductive success. Balolia et al. extended their interpretation of the crest to the males of Paranthropus species, with the crest and resultantly larger head (at least in P. boisei) being used for some kind of display. This contrasts with other primates which flash the typically enlarged canines in agonistic display (Paranthropus likely did not do this as the canines are comparatively small), though it is also possible that the crest is only so prominent in male gorillas and orangutans because they require larger temporalis muscles to achieve a wider gape to better display the canines.\n\n### Technology\n\nCave sites in the Cradle of Humankind often have stone and bone tools, with the former attributed to early Homo and the latter generally to P. robustus, as bone tools are most abundant when P. robustus remains far outnumber Homo remains. Australopithecine bone technology was first proposed by Dart in the 1950s with what he termed the \"osteodontokeratic culture\", which he attributed to A. africanus at Makapansgat dating to 3\u20132.6 million years ago. These bones are no longer considered to have been tools, and the existence of this culture is not supported. The first probable bone tool was reported by Robinson in 1959 at Sterkfontein Member 5. Excavations led by South African palaeontologist Charles Kimberlin Brain at Swartkrans in the late 1980s and early 1990s recovered 84 similar bone tools, and excavations led by Keyser at Drimolen recovered 23. These tools were all found alongside Acheulean stone tools, except for those from Swartkrans Member 1 which bore Oldowan stone tools. Thus, there are 108 bone tool specimens from the region in total, and possibly an additional two from Kromdraai B. The two stone tools (either \"Developed Oldowan\" or \"Early Acheulean\") from Kromdraai B could possibly be attributed to P. robustus, as Homo has not been confidently identified in this layer, though it is possible that the stone tools were reworked (moved into the layer after the inhabitants had died). Bone tools may have been used to cut or process vegetation, process fruits (namely marula fruit), strip tree bark, or dig up tubers or termites. The form of P. robustus incisors appears to be intermediate between H. erectus and modern humans, which could possibly mean it did not have to regularly bite off mouthfuls of a large food item due to preparation with simple tools. The bone tools were typically sourced from the shaft of long bones from medium- to large-sized mammals, but tools sourced from mandibles, ribs, and horn cores have also been found. They were not manufactured or purposefully shaped for a task, but since they display no weathering, and there is a preference displayed for certain bones, raw materials were likely specifically hand picked. This contrasts with East African bone tools which appear to have been modified and directly cut into specific shapes before using.\n\nIn 1988, Brain and South African archaeologist A. Sillent analysed the 59,488 bone fragments from Swartkrans Member 3, and found that 270 had been burnt, mainly belonging to medium-sized antelope, but also zebra, warthog, baboon, and P. robustus. They were found across the entire depth of Member 3, so fire was a regular event throughout its deposition. Based on colour and structural changes, they found that 46 were heated to below 300 \u00b0C (572 \u00b0F), 52 to 300\u2013400 \u00b0C (572\u2013752 \u00b0F), 45 to 400\u2013500 \u00b0C (752\u2013932 \u00b0F), and 127 above this. They concluded that these bones were, \"the earliest direct evidence of fire use in the fossil record,\" and compared the temperatures with those achieved by experimental campfires burning white stinkwood which commonly grows near the cave. Though some bones had cut marks consistent with butchery, they said it was also possible hominins were making fire to scare away predators or for warmth instead of cooking. Because both P. robustus and H. ergaster/H. erectus were found in the cave, they were unsure which species to attribute the fire to. As an alternative to hominin activity, because the bones were not burnt inside the cave, it is possible that they were naturally burnt in cyclically occurring wildfires (dry savanna grass as well as possible guano or plant accumulation in the cave may have left it susceptible to such a scenario), and then washed into what would become Member 3. The now-earliest claim of fire usage is 1.7 million years ago at Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa, made by South African archaeologist Peter Beaumont in 2011, which he attributed to H. ergaster/H. erectus.\n\n### Development\n\nAustralopithecines are generally considered to have had a faster, apelike growth rate than modern humans largely due to dental development trends. Broadly speaking, the emergence of the first permanent molar in early hominins has been variously estimated anywhere from 2.5 to 4.5 years, which all contrast markedly with the modern human average of 5.8 years. The 1st permanent molar of SK 63, which may have died at 3.4\u20133.7 years of age, possibly erupted at 2.9\u20133.2 years. In modern apes (including humans), dental development trajectory is strongly correlated with life history and overall growth rate, but it is possible that early hominins simply had a faster dental trajectory but a slower life history due to environmental factors, such as early weaning age as is exemplified in modern indriid lemurs. In TM 1517, fusion of the elements of the distal humerus (at the elbow joint) occurred before the fusion of the elements in the distal big toe phalanx, much like in chimps and bonobos, but unlike humans, which could also indicate an apelike growth trajectory.\n\nWhile growing, the front part of the jaw in P. robustus is depository (so it grows) whereas the sides are resorptive (so they recede). For comparison, chimp jaws are generally depository reflecting prognathism, and modern humans resorptive reflecting a flat face. In Paranthropus, this may have functioned to thicken the palate. Unlike other apes and gracile australopithecines, but like humans, the premaxillary suture between the premaxilla and the maxilla (on the palate) formed early in development. At early stages, the P. robustus jawbone was somewhat similar to that of modern humans, but the breadth grew in P. robustus, as to be expected from its incredible robustness in adulthood. By the time the first permanent molar erupts, the body of the mandible and the front jaw broadened, and the ramus of the mandible elongated, diverging from the modern human trajectory. Because the ramus was so tall, it is suggested that P. robustus experienced more anterior face rotation than modern humans and apes. Growth was most marked between the eruptions of the first and second permanent molars, most notably in terms of the distance from the back of the mouth to the front of the mouth, probably to make room for the massive postcanine teeth. Like humans, jaw robustness decreased with age, though it decreased slower in P. robustus. Regardless if P. robustus followed a human or non-human ape dental development timeframe, the premolars and molars would have had an accelerated growth rate to achieve their massive size. In contrast, the presence of perikymata on the incisors and canines (growth lines which typically are worn away after eruption) could indicate these teeth had a reduced growth rate. The tooth roots of P. robustus molars may have grown at a faster rate than gracile australopithecines; the root length of SK 62's 1st molar, which was reaching emergence from the dental alveolus, is about 6 mm (0.24 in). In contrast, those of other hominins reach 5\u20136 mm (0.20\u20130.24 in) after the tooth has emerged not only from the gums (a later stage of dental development). SK 62's growth trajectory is more similar to that of gorillas, whose roots typically measure 7 mm (0.28 in) when emerging from the gums.\n\nFemales may have reached skeletal maturity by the time the third molar erupted, but males appear to have continued growing after reaching dental maturity, during which time they become markedly more robust than females (sexual bimaturism). Similarly, male gorillas complete dental development about the same time as females, but continue growing for up to 5 or 6 years; and male mandrills complete dental development before females, but continue growing for several years more. It is debated whether or not P. robustus had a defined growth spurt in terms of overall height during adolescence, an event unique to humans among modern apes.\n\n### Life history\n\nIn 1968, American anthropologist Alan Mann, using dental maturity, stratified P. robustus specimens from Swartkrans into different ages, and found an average of 17.2 years at death (they did not necessarily die from old age), and the oldest specimen was 30\u201335 years old. He also reported an average of 22.2 years for A. africanus. Using these, he argued these hominins had a humanlike prolonged childhood. In response, in 1971, biologist Kelton McKinley repeated Mann's process with more specimens, and (including P. boisei) reported an average of 18 years. McKinley agreed with Mann that P. robustus may have had a prolonged childhood. McKinley also speculated that sexual maturity was reached at approximately 11 years because it is about halfway between the averages for chimps (9 years) and humans (13). Based on this, he concluded babies were birthed at intervals of 3 to 4 years using a statistical test to maximise the number of children born.\n\nIn 1972, after estimating a foetal size of 1,230\u20131,390 g (2.7\u20133.1 lb) based on an adult female weight of 50 kg (110 lb), anthropologist Walter Leutenegger estimated foetal head size at about 110\u2013160 cc (6.7\u20139.8 cu in), similar to a chimp. In 1973, using this and an equation between foetal head size and gestation (assuming foetal growth rate of 0.6 for all mammals), biologist John Frazer estimated a gestation of 300 days for P. robustus. In response, Leutenegger pointed out that apes have highly variable foetal growth rates, and \"estimates on gestation periods based on this rate and birth weight are useless.\"\n\nIn 1985, British biologists Paul H. Harvey and Tim Clutton-Brock came up with equations relating body size to life history events for primates, which McHenry applied to australopithecines in 1994. For P. robustus, he reported newborn brain size of 175 cc and weight of 1.9 kg (4.2 lb), gestation 7.6 months, weaning after 30.1 months of age, maturation age 9.7 years, breeding age 11.4 years, birth interval 45 months, and lifespan 43.3 years. These roughly aligned with other australopithecines and chimps. However, for chimps, he got strongly inaccurate results when compared to actual data for newborn brain size, weaning age, and birth interval, and for humans all metrics except birth interval.\n\n### Pathology\n\nBased on a sample of 402 teeth, P. robustus seems to have had a low incidence rate of about 12\u201316% for tertiary dentin, which forms to repair tooth damage caused by excessive wearing or dental cavities. This is similar to what was found for A. africanus and H. naledi (all three inhabited the Cradle of Humankind at different points in time). In contrast, chimpanzees have an incidence rate of 47%, and gorillas as much as 90%, probably due to a diet with a much higher content of tough plants.\n\nP. robustus seems to have had notably high rates of pitting enamel hypoplasia (PEH), where tooth enamel formation is spotty instead of mostly uniform. In P. robustus, about 47% of baby teeth and 14% of adult teeth were affected, in comparison to about 6.7% and 4.3%, respectively, for the combined teeth of A. africanus, A. sediba, early Homo, and H. naledi. The condition of these holes covering the entire tooth is consistent with the modern human ailment amelogenesis imperfecta. Since circular holes in enamel coverage are uniform in size, only present on the molar teeth, and have the same severity across individuals, the PEH may have been a genetic condition. It is possible that the coding region concerned with thickening enamel also increased the risk of developing PEH.\n\nAs many as four P. robustus individuals have been identified as having had dental cavities, indicating a rate similar to non-agricultural modern humans (1\u20135%). This is odd as P. robustus is thought to have had a diet high in gritty foods, and gritty foods should decrease cavity incidence rate, so P. robustus may have often consumed high-sugar cavity-causing foods. PEH may have also increased susceptibility to cavities. A molar from Drimolen showed a cavity on the tooth root, a rare occurrence in fossil great apes. In order for cavity-creating bacteria to reach this area, the individual would have also presented either alveolar resportion, which is commonly associated with gum disease; or super-eruption of the tooth which occurs when it becomes worn down and has to erupt a bit more in order to maintain a proper bite, exposing the root in the process. The latter is most likely, and the exposed root seems to have caused hypercementosis to anchor the tooth in place. The cavity seems to have been healing, possibly due to a change in diet or mouth microbiome, or the loss of the adjacent molar.\n\nIn a sample of 15 P. robustus specimens, all of them exhibited mild to moderate alveolar bone loss resulting from periodontal disease (the wearing away of the bone which supports the teeth due to gum disease). In contrast, in a sample of 10 A. africanus specimens, three exhibited no pathologies of the alveolar bone. Measuring the distance between the alveolar bone and the cementoenamel junction, P. robustus possibly suffered from a higher rate of tooth-attachment loss, unless P. robustus had a higher cervical height (the slightly narrowed area where the crown meets the root) in which case these two species had the same rate of tooth-attachment loss. If the former is correct, then the difference may be due to different dietary habits, chewing strategies, more pathogenic mouth microflora in P. robustus, or some immunological difference which made P. robustus somewhat more susceptible to gum disease.\n\nWhile removing the matrix encapsulating TM 1517, Schepers noted a large rock, which would have weighed 75 g (2.6 oz), which had driven itself into the braincase through the parietal bone. He considered this evidence that another individual had killed TM 1517 by launching the rock as a projectile in either defense or attack, but the most parsimonious explanation is that the rock was deposited during the fossilisation process after TM 1517 had died. In 1961, science writer Robert Ardrey noted two small holes about 2.5 cm (an inch) apart on the child skullcap SK 54, and believed this individual had been killed by being struck twice on the head in an assault; in 1970, Brain reinterpreted this as evidence of a leopard attack.\n\n## Palaeoecology\n\nThe Pleistocene Cradle of Humankind was mainly dominated by the springbok Antidorcas recki, but other antelope, giraffes, and elephants were also seemingly abundant megafauna. The carnivore assemblage comprises the sabertoothed cats Dinofelis spp. and Megantereon spp., and the hyena Lycyaenops silberbergi. Overall, the animal assemblage of the region broadly indicates a mixed, open-to-closed landscape featuring perhaps montane grasslands and shrublands. Australopithecines and early Homo likely preferred cooler conditions than later Homo, as there are no australopithecine sites that were below 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in elevation at the time of deposition. This would mean that, like chimps, they often inhabited areas with an average diurnal temperature of 25 \u00b0C (77 \u00b0F), dropping to 10 or 5 \u00b0C (50 or 41 \u00b0F) at night.\n\nP. robustus also cohabited the Cradle of Humankind with H. ergaster/H. erectus. In addition, these two species resided alongside Australopithecus sediba which is known from about 2 million years ago at Malapa. The most recent A. africanus specimen, Sts 5, dates to about 2.07 million years ago, around the arrival of P. robustus and H. erectus. It has been debated whether or not P. robustus would have had symbiotic, neutral, or antagonist relations with contemporary Australopithecus and Homo. It is possible that South Africa was a refugium for Australopithecus until about 2 million years ago with the beginning of major climatic variability and volatility, and potentially competition with Homo and Paranthropus.\n\n### Fossil-bearing deposits\n\nSwartkrans\n\nAt Swartkrans, P. robustus has been identified from Members 1\u20133. Homo is also found in these deposits, but species identification in Members 1 and 2 is debated between H. ergaster/H. erectus, H. habilis, H. rudolfensis, or multiple species. In total, over 300 P. robustus specimens representing over 130 individuals, predominantly isolated teeth, have been recovered from Swartkrans.\n\nMember 1 and Member 3 have several mammal species in common, making dating by animal remains (biostratigraphy) yield overlapping time intervals. Like the East African Olduvai Bed I (2.03\u20131.75 million years ago) and Lower Bed II (1.75\u20131.70 million years ago), Member 1 preserved the antelope Parmularius angusticornis, the wildebeest, and the Cape buffalo. The presence of the Hamadryas baboon and Dinopithecus could mean Members 1\u20133 were deposited 1.9\u20131.65 million years ago, though the presence of warthogs suggests some sections of the deposits could date to after 1.5 million years ago. Uranium\u2013lead dating reports intervals of 3.21\u20130.45 million years ago for Member 1 (a very large error range), 1.65\u20131.07 million years ago for Member 2, and 1.04\u20130.62 million years ago for Member 3, though more likely the younger side of the estimate; this could mean P. robustus outlived P. boisei.\n\nCosmogenic nuclide geochronology has reported much more constrained dates of 2.2\u20131.8 million years ago for Member 1, and 0.96 million years ago for Member 3. No suitable section of Member 2 could be identified to date.\n\nSterkfontein\n\nAt Sterkfontein, only the specimens StW 566 and StW 569 are firmly assigned to P. robustus, coming from the \"Oldowan infill\" dating to 2\u20131.7 million years ago in a section of Member 5. Earlier members yielded A. africanus. In 1988, palaeoanthropologist Ronald J. Clarke suggested StW 505 from the earlier Member 4 was an ancestor to P. robustus. The specimen is still generally assigned to A. africanus, though the Sterkfontein hominins are known to have an exceedingly wide range of variation, and it is debated whether or not the materials represent multiple species instead of just A. africanus.\n\nThe appearance of the baboon Theropithecus oswaldi, zebras, lions, ostriches, springhares, and several grazing antelope in Member 5 indicates the predominance of open grasslands, but sediment analysis indicates the cave opening was moist during deposition, which could point to a well-watered wooded grassland.\n\nKromdraai\n\nAt Kromdraai, P. robustus has been unearthed at Kromdraai B, and almost all P. robustus fossils discovered in the cave have been recovered from Member 3 (out of 5 members). A total of 31 specimens representing at least 17 individuals have been recovered. The only potential Homo specimen from Member 3 is KB 5223, but its classification is debated. The ear bones of the juvenile KB 6067 from Member 3 is consistent with that of P. robustus, but the dimensions of the cochlea and oval window better align with the more ancient StW 53 from Sterkfontein Member 4 with undetermined species designation. KB 6067, therefore, may possibly be basal to (more ancient than) other P. robustus specimens, at least those for which ear morphology is known.\n\nPalaeomagnetism suggests Member 3 may date to 1.78\u20131.6 million years ago, Member 2 to before 1.78 million years ago, and Member 1 to 2.11\u20131.95 million years ago.\n\nThe animal remains of Kromdraai A suggest deposition occurred anywhere between 1.89 and 1.63 million years ago, and the presence of Oldowan or Achulean tools indicates early Homo activity. The biostratigraphic dating of Kromdraai B is less clear as there are no animal species which are known to have existed in a narrow time interval, and many non-hominin specimens have not been assigned to a species (left at genus level). About 75% of mammalian remains other than P. robustus are monkeys, including leaf-eating colobine monkeys, possibly the earliest record of the Hamadryas baboon, Gorgopithecus, and Papio angusticeps in South Africa. The absence of the baboons T. oswaldi and Dinopithecus could potentially mean Member 3 is older than Sterkfontein Member 5 and Swartkrans Member 1; which, if correct, would invalidate the results from palaeomagnetism, and make these specimens among the oldest representatives of the species.\n\nGondolin Cave\n\nGondolin Cave has yielded 3 hominin specimens: a right third premolar assigned to early Homo (G14018), a partial left gracile australopithecine first or second molar (GDA-1), and a robust australopithecine second molar (GDA-2). The first hominin specimen (G14018) was found by German palaeontologist Elisabeth Vrba in 1979, and the other two specimens were recovered in 1997 by, respectively, South African palaeoanthropologist Andre Keyser and excavator L. Dihasu. GDA-2\u2014measuring 18.8 mm \u00d7 18.1 mm (0.74 in \u00d7 0.71 in), an area of 340 mm<sup>2</sup> (0.53 sq in)\u2014is exceptionally large for P. robustus, which has a recorded maximum of 290 mm<sup>2</sup> (0.45 sq in). This falls within the range of P. boisei 278\u2013378 mm<sup>2</sup> (0.431\u20130.586 sq in), so the discoverers assigned it to an indeterminate species of Paranthropus rather than P. robustus.\n\nGDA-2 was found alongside the pig Metridiochoerus andrewsi, which means the tooth must be 1.9\u20131.5 million years old. Using this and palaeomagnetism, it may date to roughly 1.8 million years ago.\n\nCooper's Cave\n\nCooper's Cave was first reported to yield P. robustus remains in 2000 by South African palaeoanthropologists Christine Steininger and Lee Rogers Berger. Specimens include a crushed partial right face (COB 101), three isolated teeth, a juvenile jawbone, and several skull fragments.\n\nThe animal remains in the hominin-bearing deposit are similar to those of Swartkrans and Kromdraai A, so the Cooper's Cave deposits may date to 1.87\u20131.56 million years ago.\n\nDrimolen Cave\n\nDrimolen Cave was first discovered to have yielded hominin remains by Keyser in 1992, who, in eight years, oversaw the recovery of 79 P. robustus specimens. Among these are the most complete P. robustus skulls: the presumed female DNH-7 (which also preserved articulated jawbone with almost all the teeth), and presumed male DNH 155. It was also associated with the H. ergaster/H. erectus skull DNH 134. The Drimolen material preserves several basal characteristics relative to the Swartkrans and Kromdraai remains (meaning it may be older).\n\nThe site is thought to be roughly 2\u20131.5 million years old based on animal remains which have also been recovered from Swartkrans Member 1. The animal assemblage is broadly similar to that of Cooper's Cave, meaning they probably are about the same age. In 2020, DNH 152 was palaeomagnetically dated to 2.04\u20131.95 million years ago, making it the oldest identified P. robustus specimen.\n\n### Predation\n\nAustralopithecine bones may have accumulated in caves due to large carnivores dragging in carcasses, which was first explored in detail by Brain in his 1981 book The Hunters or the Hunted?: An Introduction to African Cave Taphonomy. The juvenile P. robustus skullcap SK 54 has two puncture marks consistent with the lower canines of the leopard specimen SK 349 from the same deposits. Brain hypothesised that Dinofelis and perhaps also hunting hyenas specialised on killing australopithecines, but carbon isotope analysis indicates these species predominantly ate large grazers, while the leopard, the sabertoothed Megantereon, and the spotted hyena were more likely to have regularly consumed P. robustus. Brain was unsure if these predators actively sought them out and brought them back to the cave den to eat, or inhabited deeper recesses of caves and ambushed them when they entered. Modern-day baboons in this region often shelter in sinkholes especially on cold winter nights, though Brain proposed that australopithecines seasonally migrated out of the Highveld and into the warmer Bushveld, only taking up cave shelters in spring and autumn.\n\nAs an antipredator behaviour, baboons often associate themselves with medium-to-large herbivores, most notably impalas, and it is possible that P. robustus as well as other early hominins which lived in open environments did so also, given they are typically associated with an abundance of medium-to-large bovid and horse remains.\n\n### Extinction\n\nThough P. robustus was a rather hardy species with a tolerance for environmental variability, it seems to have preferred wooded environments, and similarly most P. robustus remains date to a wet period in South Africa 2\u20131.75 million years ago conducive to such biomes. The extinction of P. robustus coincided with the Mid-Pleistocene Transition, and the doubling of glacial cycle duration. During glacial events, with more ice locked up at the poles, the tropical rain belt contracted towards the equator, subsequently causing the retreat of wetland and woodland environments. Before the transition, P. robustus populations possibly contracted to certain wooded refuge zones over 21,000-year cycles, becoming regionally extinct in certain areas until the wet cycle whereupon it would repopulate those zones. The continual prolonging of dry cycles may have caused its extinction, with the last occurrence in the fossil record 1\u20130.6 million years ago (though more likely 0.9 million years ago). Homo possibly was able to survive by inhabiting a much larger geographical range, more likely to find a suitable refuge area during unfavourable climate swings.\n\nHowever, the geographical range of P. robustus in the fossil record is roughly 500 km<sup>2</sup> (190 sq mi), whereas the critically endangered eastern gorilla (with the smallest range of any African ape) inhabits 70,000 km<sup>2</sup> (27,000 sq mi), the critically endangered western gorilla 700,000 km<sup>2</sup> (270,000 sq mi), and the endangered chimpanzee 2.6 million km<sup>2</sup> (1 million sq mi). Therefore, fossil distribution very unlikely represents the true range of the species; consequently, P. robustus possibly went extinct much more recently somewhere other than the Cradle of Humankind (Signor\u2013Lipps effect).\n\n## See also", "revid": "1172547481", "description": "Extinct species of hominin of South Africa", "categories": ["Fossil taxa described in 1938", "Paranthropus", "Pleistocene mammals of Africa", "Pleistocene primates", "Pleistocene species extinctions", "Pliocene primates", "Prehistoric South Africa"]}
+{"id": "2162222", "url": null, "title": "The Miz", "text": "# The Miz\n\nMichael Gregory Mizanin (born October 8, 1980) is an American professional wrestler, actor, and television personality. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand under the ring name The Miz.\n\nMizanin first gained fame as a reality television participant, appearing on The Real World: Back to New York in 2001 and its spin-off, Real World/Road Rules Challenge, from 2002 to 2005. He won Battle of the Seasons and The Inferno II. He reached the final of Battle of the Network Reality Stars, and won a Reality Stars-themed episode of Fear Factor in 2006. After finishing as runner-up in the fourth season of Tough Enough and subsequently launching his wrestling career, Mizanin appeared on Diva Search, Total Divas, Tough Enough, and hosted several seasons of The Challenge. He also stars in the reality television series Miz & Mrs. alongside his wife, Maryse Ouellet, and has starred in films produced by WWE Studios, namely The Marine franchise, Christmas Bounty (2013), and Santa's Little Helper (2015).\n\nMizanin signed with WWE in 2004, and debuted on the main roster in 2006. He has won the WWE Championship twice, the Intercontinental Championship eight times, the United States Championship twice, as well as a total of eight tag team championships, giving him 20 overall championships in WWE. As a result, he became WWE's 25th Triple Crown Champion and 14th Grand Slam Champion, as well as the first wrestler to accomplish the latter twice under the revised 2015 format. He also won the 2010 Money in the Bank ladder match. Mizanin is also the only WWE Triple Crown and Grand Slam champion to have won the Deep South Wrestling Heavyweight Championship, doing so while the promotion was WWE's developmental territory. Among WWE's most prolific pay-per-view event performers, Mizanin headlined WrestleMania XXVII in 2011, and was ranked No. 1 on Pro Wrestling Illustrated's annual PWI 500 list that same year.\n\n## Early life\n\nMichael Gregory Mizanin was born in Parma, Ohio, on October 8, 1980. His parents are divorced; he has a step-father and two half-siblings. He attended Normandy High School, where he was the captain of the basketball and cross country teams, participated in swimming, was a member of the student government, and edited the yearbook. He then attended Miami University, where he was a member of the Theta Chi fraternity and studied business at the Richard T. Farmer School of Business before being chosen as a cast member on The Real World (2001).\n\n## Television career\n\n### Reality television\n\n#### Rise to fame\n\nMizanin dropped out of college, where he was pursuing a degree in business, in order to appear on the 10th season of MTV's reality television program The Real World in 2001. He went on to appear in multiple seasons of its spin-off series, Real World/Road Rules Challenge, along with contestants from both Road Rules and The Real World, including Battle of the Seasons, The Gauntlet, The Inferno, Battle of the Sexes 2 and The Inferno 2. Except for Battle of the Sexes 2, Mizanin made it to the end of all the Challenges on which he competed and won both Battle of the Seasons and The Inferno 2.\n\nIt was during an episode of The Real World that Mizanin first displayed an alter ego known as The Miz. In contrast to Mizanin's usually placid demeanor, The Miz was angry, combative and headstrong. Mizanin later realized that The Miz would make an excellent professional wrestling gimmick.\n\nIn 2004, he appeared on the Bravo reality show Battle of the Network Reality Stars, in which his team finished second. Mizanin was also a contestant in the \"Reality Stars\" episode of Fear Factor. His partner was his former girlfriend and castmate, Trishelle Cannatella, and the two won the competition. In April 2007, he appeared on the game show Identity, where he appeared as a stranger, and contestant John Kim correctly identified his identity as a professional wrestler by the odd way he added \"Miz-\" before most words. On October 5, 2011, Miz starred in an episode of H8R.\n\n#### Return to MTV\n\nAfter a seven-year-long absence from The Challenge, Mizanin returned to the reality show on April 4, 2012, as the host of The Battle of the Exes season finale event and reunion special. It marked the first time The Miz appeared on the series since becoming a main-event WWE Superstar. Since then, he had become a mainstay reunion host as well as the host of The Challenge: Champs vs. Stars mini-series.\n\n#### USA Network\n\nIn 2018, Mizanin and his wife Maryse began starring in a USA Network reality television series titled Miz & Mrs.. In 2020, he starred on a second show on USA, serving as host of the reality game show Cannonball.\n\n### Other television appearances\n\nIn 2008, Mizanin appeared on the Sci Fi reality series Ghost Hunters Live as a guest investigator. In 2009, Mizanin appeared on two episodes of Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader?, which were both aired on September 29. He appeared on an episode of Destroy Build Destroy on March 3, 2010. He also appeared as a guest star in a March 2012 episode of Psych. On March 31, Mizanin appeared in the first ever Slime Wrestling World Championship at the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards, losing to Big Show and therefore being thrown into a tub of slime. In 2012, Mizanin appeared on the Disney XD show Pair of Kings as a guest star. In 2013, Miz along with Francia Raisa, were in a movie together called Christmas Bounty.\n\nIn September 2021, Mizanin was announced as one of the celebrities competing on the thirtieth season of Dancing with the Stars. He and his partner Witney Carson were the seventh couple to be eliminated, ultimately placing 9th. In 2022, Mizanin was briefly featured in archival footage in the Netflix docuseries Trainwreck: Woodstock '99.\n\nOn May 1, 2023, Mizanan appeared as part of a team with Alexa Bliss on the American show That's My Jam on NBC hosted by Jimmy Fallon. They won the final round, therefore the game and the monies were donated to children's charities.\n\n## Professional wrestling career\n\n### Ultimate Pro Wrestling (2003\u20132004)\n\nPursuing the goal of becoming a professional wrestler, Mizanin joined Ultimate Pro Wrestling (UPW), where he trained in the Ultimate University. He made his in-ring debut in 2003 as The Miz. During his time with UPW, The Miz competed in UPW's Mat War's tournament, making it to the finals before losing to Tony Stradlin.\n\n### World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE (2004\u2013present)\n\n#### Tough Enough and developmental territories (2004\u20132006)\n\nIn October 2004, Mike Mizanin entered the fourth season of Tough Enough, a televised competition which awarded the winner a World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) contract and US\\$1,000,000. Despite coming last in an arm wrestling tournament on November 25, Mizanin outlasted six other wrestlers and reached the final round. At Armageddon on December 12, Mizanin faced the other remaining entrant, Daniel Puder, in a three-round \"Dixie Dogfight\" (boxing match). Neither man achieved a knockout, and the contest was awarded to Puder on the basis of crowd reaction. On the December 16 episode of SmackDown!, Puder was declared as the winner of Tough Enough by head trainer Al Snow. Despite coming up short on Tough Enough, Mizanin had piqued the interest of WWE and he was eventually offered a developmental contract.\n\nMizanin was sent to Deep South Wrestling (DSW) to train under Bill DeMott, relocating to McDonough, Georgia in the process. In July 2005, he wrestled two dark matches for WWE, teaming with former Tough Enough champion Matt Cappotelli to face The Highlanders (Robbie and Rory McAllister). On December 1, Mizanin defeated Mike Knox in the finals of a tournament to determine the inaugural Deep South Heavyweight Champion. He continued his partnership with Matt Cappotelli throughout the second half of 2005 in WWE dark matches and house shows until Cappotelli, nominally of Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW), was diagnosed with a brain tumor after an injury at a taping in December 2005. After Cappotelli's death from brain cancer in June 2018, Miz revealed they were to be called up to the SmackDown roster as a tag team known as Reality Check in 2005, but these plans were halted due to Cappotelli's cancer diagnosis.\n\nOn January 3, 2006, it was reported that Mizanin had been transferred to OVW. On the January 18, 2006 OVW TV show, Mizanin made his debut as Miz with a Miz TV segment, where he was shown talking backstage. On the January 28 episode of the OVW television show, The Miz wrestled his first singles match against Ren\u00e9 Dupr\u00e9e, but lost by countout.\n\nAt the February 8 OVW TV taping, Miz and Chris Cage captured the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship, defeating Chet the Jett and Seth Skyfire. On March 19, Deuce Shade defeated Miz in a singles contest to win the championship for his team The Untouchables (Deuce Shade and Domino).\n\n#### Main roster beginnings (2006\u20132007)\n\nFrom March 7 onwards, a video on WWE's website and vignettes on SmackDown! heralded The Miz debuting on the SmackDown! brand. When Mizanin actually attempted to make his debut on the April 21 episode of SmackDown!, he was in storyline banned from entering the arena by network executive Palmer Canon who told him that he had been \"cancelled\" before having security escort him from the premises.\n\nThe Miz debuted as the host of SmackDown! on June 2, hyping up the crowd at the top of the show. Other duties included backstage interviews and hosting a bikini contest. Starting in July, Miz, along with Ashley Massaro, hosted the annual Diva Search competition.\n\nAfter the end of the Diva Search competition, The Miz began wrestling as a villain, making his in-ring debut with a win over Tatanka on the September 1 episode of SmackDown!. Over the next three months, The Miz remained undefeated, defeating such wrestlers as Matt Hardy, Funaki and Scotty 2 Hotty. At the same time he began a feud with Diva Search winner Layla El, who spurned his advances on more than one occasion, leading to Miz helping Kristal defeat her in various competitions. However, Miz and Kristal soon found themselves being stalked by The Boogeyman. This began a feud in which the Boogeyman ended The Miz's winning streak on December 17 at Armageddon.\n\nAt Royal Rumble on January 28, 2007, The Miz entered in the Royal Rumble match as the 29th entrant, but only lasted seven seconds before being eliminated by The Great Khali. On the February 2 episode of SmackDown, Miz defeated Matt Hardy once again with assistance from Joey Mercury. Following a brief absence from television, The Miz returned on the March 9 episode of SmackDown! to host an interview segment named Miz TV. After the unsuccessful segment, The Miz returned to in-ring competition with a more intense style and began to pick up wins once again.\n\nMiz was drafted to the ECW brand on June 17 as part of the 2007 supplemental draft. He was absent from the first few weeks of ECW, though he was the subject of backstage mentions between matches and had several short Miz TV Crashes ECW video segments. He made his debut on the July 10 episode of ECW in a match against Nunzio, which he won.\n\nSoon after, The Miz found new managers in Kelly Kelly, Layla El and Brooke Adams. He then began a feud with Balls Mahoney after Kelly Kelly began to fall in love with Mahoney on screen. On the October 2 episode of ECW, it was revealed that Miz owned the contracts of Kelly Kelly, Layla and Brooke Adams; and he used this excuse to stop Kelly from going out with Mahoney. He was nominated at Cyber Sunday on October 28 to face CM Punk for the ECW Championship. He won the vote, but lost the match. Later that month, he formed a tag team with Johnny Nitro.\n\n#### Teaming with John Morrison (2007\u20132009)\n\nOn the November 16 episode of SmackDown!, The Miz became one half of the WWE Tag Team Champions with John Morrison (the former Johnny Nitro) when they defeated Matt Hardy and Montel Vontavious Porter, giving Miz his first championship within the company. At Survivor Series two days later, Miz and Morrison competed in a triple threat match for the ECW Championship, with the champion CM Punk retaining.\n\nIn February 2008, Miz and Morrison were given a streaming segment on the WWE website named The Dirt Sheet in which they mocked other wrestlers and facets of pop culture, showing off their promo skills. Morrison and The Miz co-wrote each episode of The Dirt Sheet each week. Miz competed in a battle royal on the pre-show of WrestleMania XXIV on March 30 but was unsuccessful in winning after being eliminated by Jamie Noble. Miz and Morrison retained the titles against Kane and CM Punk at Judgment Day on May 18 and Finlay and Hornswoggle at Night of Champions on June 29, before dropping the championship to Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder at the Great American Bash on July 20 in a fatal four-way match which also involved Jesse and Festus, ending their reign at 250 days. Neither Miz nor Morrison were pinned as Hawkins pinned Jesse to win the titles. Miz and Morrison soon followed a feud with Cryme Tyme (Shad Gaspard and JTG) as a battle of their webshows, Word Up and The Dirt Sheet. They were voted into a match with, and defeated Cryme Tyme on October 26 at Cyber Sunday. The team also feuded with D-Generation X (Triple H and Shawn Michaels). On the 800th episode of Raw, Miz and Morrison competed in a match against DX, and were defeated. On December 13, Miz and Morrison defeated Kofi Kingston and CM Punk to win the World Tag Team Championship during a WWE house show in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.\n\nIn February 2009, the team engaged themselves in a feud with The Col\u00f3ns (Carlito and Primo). In a dark match at WrestleMania 25 on April 5, they lost the World Tag Team Championship to The Col\u00f3ns in a lumberjack match to unify the World Tag Team and the WWE Tag Team titles. On the April 13 episode of Raw, The Miz lost a match to Kofi Kingston due to Morrison accidentally getting Miz disqualified, which gave the Raw brand a draft pick in the 2009 WWE draft. The pick was then revealed to be The Miz and retaliated by subsequently attacking Morrison, ending their partnership and thus turning John Morrison into a fan favorite.\n\n#### United States Champion (2009\u20132010)\n\nMiz challenged John Cena to a match on the April 27 episode of Raw, but as Cena was out due to injury, Miz claimed an unofficial win via forfeit and continued to do this over the following weeks, until Cena returned and defeated him in a singles match at The Bash in June. On the August 3 episode of Raw, The Miz lost to Cena in a lumberjack match, which meant that, in storyline, he was banned from the Staples Center, the Raw brand and SummerSlam. The following week on August 10, Miz competed under a mask as The Calgary Kid and won a Contract on Pole match against Eugene, earning a contract in storyline, and revealing himself by removing his mask afterwards. He then debuted his new finisher, the Skull-Crushing Finale, and used it on Eugene. After removing the mask to reveal himself, he cut a promo and debuted his catchphrase: \"Because I'm The Miz... and I'm awesome\".\n\nAfter changing his in-ring attire from shorts to trunks, Miz would then set his sights on the United States Championship, held by Kofi Kingston. He unsuccessfully challenged for the championship at the Night of Champions on July 26, Breaking Point on September 13 and Hell in a Cell on October 4, before he won the championship on the October 5 episode of Raw his first singles championship in WWE. At Bragging Rights on October 25, Miz was inserted into an interpromotional match against SmackDown's Intercontinental Champion, Miz's erstwhile tag team partner John Morrison, whom he defeated. On November 22 at Survivor Series, Miz captained a team of five wrestlers against Team Morrison in a five-on-five Survivor Series elimination match and once again bested his former partner surviving with Sheamus and Drew McIntyre.\n\nDuring this time, he gained a new entrance theme \"I Came to Play\", performed by the band Downstait. The Miz soon began a rivalry with MVP that began with a critically well-received verbal exchange between the two. The two met in an unadvertised match for the United States Championship at the Royal Rumble on January 31, 2010, with Miz retaining his title, but in the Royal Rumble match itself MVP eliminated both himself and The Miz. Also around this time, Miz formed a tag team with Big Show \u2014 later dubbed \"ShoMiz\" \u2014 and on the February 8 episode of Raw the two defeated D-Generation X (DX) and The Straight Edge Society to become the Unified WWE Tag Team Champions, making Miz the first wrestler in WWE history to hold three championships at the same time (United States, World Tag Team and WWE Tag Team Champion). At Elimination Chamber on February 21, Miz again successfully defended his United States Championship against MVP after interference from Big Show, ending their feud. At WrestleMania XXVI on March 28, ShoMiz defeated John Morrison and R-Truth to retain the title again. However, on the April 26 episode of Raw, ShoMiz lost the championship to The Hart Dynasty (David Hart Smith and Tyson Kidd), and Big Show would attack Miz after the match, bringing an end to the team.\n\nOn the May 17 episode of Raw, Miz lost the United States Championship to Bret Hart, despite Chris Jericho, William Regal and Vladimir Kozlov attempting to interfere on The Miz's behalf, ending his reign at 224 days. At Over the Limit on May 23, Miz and Jericho challenged The Hart Dynasty for the tag team championship, but lost. On the June 14 episode of Raw, The Miz defeated R-Truth, John Morrison and Zack Ryder in a fatal four-way match to win back the United States Championship for the second time. He retained the championship against R-Truth on June 20 at the Fatal 4-Way pay-per-view.\n\n#### WWE Champion (2010\u20132011)\n\nOn July 18 at Money in the Bank, The Miz won Raw's Money in the Bank ladder match to win a contract for a WWE Championship match that he could utilize at any time. Over the next few weeks, The Miz made various, unsuccessful attempts at cashing in his Money in the Bank contract on the WWE Champion Sheamus. At SummerSlam on August 15, Miz began a rivalry with his NXT rookie Daniel Bryan, which resulted in a United States Championship match between the two at the Night of Champions event on September 19 which Miz lost. At Hell in a Cell on October 3, Miz failed to regain the championship in a triple threat match also including John Morrison. At Bragging Rights on October 24, Miz led Team Raw (which also included R-Truth, Morrison, Santino Marella, Sheamus, CM Punk and Ezekiel Jackson), but they were defeated by Team SmackDown.\n\nOn the November 22 episode of Raw, he cashed in his Money in the Bank contract following a successful WWE Championship defense by Randy Orton against Wade Barrett to become the new WWE Champion. The following week, Miz made his first successful title defense, defeating Jerry \"The King\" Lawler in a Tables, Ladders and Chairs match after interference from Michael Cole. He successfully defended the championship at the TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs pay-per-view on December 19 by defeating Orton in a tables match following interference from Alex Riley. Miz retained the championship against Orton again at Royal Rumble on January 30, 2011 (after interference from CM Punk) and Lawler on February 20 at Elimination Chamber. On the Raw after Elimination Chamber, The Miz and John Cena were paired together by the Anonymous Raw General Manager to challenge The Corre (Justin Gabriel and Heath Slater) for the WWE Tag Team Championship. The Miz and Cena were successful in winning the titles, but lost them back to Corre immediately afterward in a rematch after The Miz turned on Cena. This made their 9-minute reign the shortest in the championship's history. The following week, The Miz lost Riley as his apprentice after Cena defeated Riley in a steel cage match with the stipulation that if Cena won, Riley was fired from his job. However Riley would be re-hired in mid-March, this time as Miz's \"Vice President of Corporate Communications\". In the main event of WrestleMania XXVII on April 3, The Miz successfully defended the WWE Championship against Cena, following interference from The Rock, who then attacked Miz afterwards.\n\nAt Extreme Rules on May 1, The Miz lost the WWE Championship to Cena in a triple threat steel cage match, also involving John Morrison, ending his reign at 160 days. He then failed to regain the championship from Cena again in an \"I Quit\" match at Over the Limit on May 22, after failed interference from Riley. The following night on Raw, the Anonymous Raw General Manager denied The Miz's request for another WWE Championship match; Miz blamed Riley for being unable to regain the championship. Riley then attacked him, turning Riley into a fan favorite. At Capitol Punishment on June 19, Miz lost to Riley. The Miz also failed to win Raw's Money in the Bank ladder match at the titular event on July 17. After the WWE Championship was declared vacant by Vince McMahon, Miz would enter into a tournament to crown a new champion, defeating Riley and Kofi Kingston to advance to the finals, where he lost to Rey Mysterio. At SummerSlam on August 14, Miz, R-Truth, and Alberto Del Rio lost to Mysterio, Kingston and Morrison.\n\n#### The Awesome Truth (2011\u20132012)\n\nOn the August 22 episode of Raw, Miz and R-Truth attacked Santino Marella before his match. They then cut a promo agreeing there was a conspiracy in the WWE keeping both of them out of the main event picture, and declared they would, together, seize any future opportunity. They began referring to themselves as \"The Awesome Truth\". At Night of Champions on September 18, after the referee was distracted while The Miz attempted a pin, Miz assaulted him, causing Awesome Truth to lose a WWE Tag Team Championship match to Air Boom (Kofi Kingston and Evan Bourne) by disqualification. Seeking retribution, Miz and Truth later attacked both Triple H and CM Punk during their No Disqualification match in the main event. Because of their actions from the previous night, R-Truth and The Miz were fired by Triple H on the September 19 episode of Raw. At the conclusion of the main event match on October 2 at Hell in a Cell, R-Truth and The Miz jumped the barricade wearing black hooded sweatshirts and entered the cell as it was being raised. They then used weapons to attack Alberto Del Rio, Punk, John Cena, the Referee and camera men while the cell was again lowered. After this, the entire WWE roster led by Triple H came out to find a way into the cell, before New Orleans Police Department officers were able to get the door open and arrest them. The two later posted a video on YouTube apologizing to the fans for their actions. The Miz and R-Truth were reinstated by John Laurinaitis on the October 10 episode of Raw. At Vengeance on October 23, Miz and R-Truth defeated CM Punk and Triple H after interference from Triple H's long time friend Kevin Nash. Later that night they assaulted John Cena during his WWE Championship match with Alberto Del Rio. At Survivor Series on November 20, The Awesome Truth lost to Cena and The Rock. On the November 21 episode of Raw, Cena instigated an argument between R-Truth and Miz, which resulted in Miz performing a Skull Crushing Finale on the stage on R-Truth. This was a pretext to explain R-Truth's absence during his suspension as a result of his violating of the Wellness Policy.\n\nOn the November 28 episode of Raw, Miz defeated John Morrison in a Falls Count Anywhere match after a Skull Crushing Finale on the stage. On the December 5 episode of Raw, Miz qualified for a triple threat Tables, Ladders and Chairs match against Alberto Del Rio and CM Punk at the TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs pay-per-view for the WWE Championship on December 18 after a win over Randy Orton via countout, but lost. Miz would be the first entrant in the 2012 Royal Rumble match on January 29, eliminating Alex Riley and R-Truth and lasting over 45 minutes before he was eliminated by Big Show. At Elimination Chamber on February 19, Miz competed for the WWE Championship in the titular match, and would last until the end of the match before being eliminated by CM Punk.\n\nDesperate for a spot on the card for the upcoming WrestleMania XXVIII event on April 1, he later joined John Laurinaitis' team for the 12-man tag team match after saving Laurinaitis from Santino Marella. Miz picked up the win for Team Johnny after pinning Zack Ryder with the help of Eve, ending his twenty-match losing streak dating back to 2011. He followed this up by losing a battle royal and a match against Brodus Clay on May 20 at Over the Limit.\n\n#### Intercontinental Champion (2012\u20132013)\n\nAfter a two-month absence, The Miz returned at Money in the Bank on July 15 as a last-minute participant in the WWE Championship Money in the Bank contract match, won by John Cena. At Raw 1000, Miz defeated Christian to win his first Intercontinental Championship, becoming the 25th Triple Crown Champion and a Grand Slam Champion in the process. Miz successfully defended his championship against Rey Mysterio at SummerSlam on August 19, and in a fatal four-way match against Cody Rhodes, Mysterio, and Sin Cara at Night of Champions on September 16, before losing the championship to Kofi Kingston on the October 17 episode of Main Event ending his reign at 85 days. Miz failed to regain the title from Kingston in two rematches\u2014at Hell in a Cell on October 28 and on the November 6 episode of SmackDown.\n\nOn the November 12 episode of Raw, Miz turned face for the first time since 2006 when he quit CM Punk's team and joined Mick Foley's team at Survivor Series after confronting Paul Heyman. At Survivor Series on November 18, he eliminated Wade Barrett before he was eliminated by Alberto Del Rio; his team went on to lose the match. The Miz then began a feud with United States Champion Antonio Cesaro. During this feud, Ric Flair became his mentor and Miz adopted the figure-four leglock from Flair as a new finisher. The Miz challenged for Cesaro's United States Championship at the Royal Rumble pre-show on January 27, on February 17 at Elimination Chamber and on the March 1, 2013 episode of SmackDown, but was unsuccessful each time.\n\nMiz next sought Wade Barrett's Intercontinental Championship. He lost a triple threat match against Barrett and Chris Jericho on the March 18 episode of Raw, but defeated Barrett in a non-title match the following week to earn another shot at the title. He captured the title by defeating Barrett at the WrestleMania 29 pre-show on April 7, only to lose the title back to him the following night on Raw. Miz failed to recapture the title on June 16 at Payback and Money in the Bank on July 14.\n\n#### Hollywood A-Lister (2013\u20132016)\n\nOn August 18, he was the host of SummerSlam, during which he had a run-in with Fandango, beginning a feud between the two. Miz defeated Fandango on the September 2 episode of Raw and on September 15 at Night of Champions. The following night on Raw, Miz was assaulted by Randy Orton in front of his parents, resulting in a storyline injury. When Miz returned in October, he quickly lost to Orton. Miz started a feud with Kofi Kingston, defeating him on the Survivor Series pre-show on November 24, but losing a no-disqualification match at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs on December 15 to end their feud. At WrestleMania XXX on April 6, 2014, he participated in the Andr\u00e9 the Giant Memorial Battle Royal, but was eliminated by Santino Marella.\n\nAfter a two-month hiatus filming The Marine 4: Moving Target, The Miz returned on the June 30 episode of Raw and immediately began to insult the crowd and taking on the gimmick of a movie star, turning heel for the first time since 2012. At Battleground on July 20, Miz won a battle royal by lastly eliminating Dolph Ziggler to win the Intercontinental Championship for the third time. At SummerSlam on August 17, Ziggler defeated Miz to recapture the title. Later that month, Damien Sandow began appearing with Miz as his \"stunt double\" (mimicking all of Miz's moves and mannerisms) and was subsequently billed as Damien Mizdow. At Night of Champions on September 21, Miz defeated Ziggler to regain the Intercontinental Championship, only to lose the title to Ziggler in a rematch the following night. After defeating Sheamus several times with the help of Mizdow, Miz challenged him for the United States Championship at Hell in a Cell on October 26, but he was unsuccessful.\n\nAt Survivor Series on November 23, Miz and Mizdow won the WWE Tag Team Championship by winning a fatal four-way match against defending champions Gold and Stardust, The Usos and Los Matadores. At TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs on December 14, Miz and Mizdow lost by disqualification against The Usos after Miz hit Jimmy Uso with a Slammy Award. On the December 29 episode of Raw, Miz and Mizdow lost the titles to The Usos. Miz and Mizdow were unsuccessful in regaining the at the Royal Rumble on January 25, 2015. Miz was the first entrant in the Royal Rumble match later that night but was eliminated by Bubba Ray Dudley. After Mizdow began to get more attention from the audience, Miz relegated Mizdow to his personal assistant out of spite. Miz and Mizdow then competed in the Andr\u00e9 the Giant Memorial Battle Royal at WrestleMania 31 on March 29, which Miz failed to win after being eliminated by Mizdow, dissolving their partnership. On the April 20 episode of Raw, Miz defeated Mizdow in a match where the winner retained the Miz brand, with help from Summer Rae.\n\nAt SummerSlam on August 23, Miz competed for the Intercontinental Championship in a triple threat match also involving Big Show and Ryback, but lost. At Survivor Series on November 22, Miz competed in a traditional five-on-five elimination tag-team match alongside The Cosmic Wasteland (Stardust and The Ascension) and Bo Dallas in a losing effort against The Dudley Boyz, Goldust, Neville and Titus O'Neil. At Royal Rumble on January 24, 2016, Miz competed in the 2016 Royal Rumble match, entering at number 25 and lasting nearly 9 minutes before being eliminated by Roman Reigns. On April 3, at WrestleMania 32, Miz wrestled in a seven-man ladder match for the Intercontinental Championship, which was won by Zack Ryder.\n\n#### Multiple championship reigns (2016\u20132018)\n\nOn the Raw episode post-WrestleMania 32, Miz won the Intercontinental Championship for the fifth time, after his wife Maryse made her return to WWE and distracted Zack Ryder by slapping his father, thus becoming his manager in the process, where the two then became an on-screen power couple. In the weeks following, Miz and Maryse then began to cut various promos during the Miz TV segments, while calling themselves the \"it\" couple. At Payback on May 1, Miz defeated Cesaro to retain his championship after Cesaro was distracted by Kevin Owens and Sami Zayn brawling on the apron, leading to a feud over the Intercontinental Championship between the four men. At Extreme Rules on May 22, Miz successfully retained the championship against Cesaro, Zayn and Owens in a highly acclaimed fatal four-way match, when Miz pinned Cesaro. The following night on Raw, Miz failed to qualify for the 2016 Money in the Bank ladder match when he was defeated by Cesaro, setting up another championship match between the two set for the week's SmackDown, which Miz won. Following this, he and Maryse began filming The Marine 5: Battleground, taking them out of action. Both returned on the June 27 episode of Raw, where he lost to Kane in a championship match via countout. At Battleground on July 24, the Intercontinental Championship match between Miz and Darren Young ended in a double disqualification after The Miz pushed Bob Backlund (Darren Young's mentor) and Young attacked him. On July 19 at the 2016 WWE draft, Miz, along with Maryse was drafted to the SmackDown brand, with the Intercontinental Championship becoming exclusive to that brand. At SummerSlam on August 21, Miz successfully defended the championship against Apollo Crews.\n\nOn the August 23 episode of Talking Smack, The Miz went on a highly praised tirade against SmackDown General Manager Daniel Bryan for calling him a coward, with Miz calling Bryan a \"coward\" for not returning to the ring when he promised the fans he would, before telling him to \"go back to the bingo halls with your indie friends\". At Backlash on September 11, Miz successfully defended the title against Dolph Ziggler after Maryse sprayed an unknown substance at Ziggler while the referee was distracted. Afterwards, The Miz continued to blame Bryan and vowed not to defend his Intercontinental Championship on any show until he was granted a contract \"renegotiation\". At No Mercy on October 9, Miz lost the Intercontinental Championship to Ziggler in a title vs career match after Maryse and The Spirit Squad (Kenny and Mikey), were ejected from ringside, ending Miz's reign at 188 days. On the 900th episode of SmackDown on November 15, Maryse helped Miz to win the championship for the sixth time. Miz successfully defended the title against Raw's Sami Zayn at Survivor Series on November 20, after Maryse prematurely rang the bell, causing a distraction. Miz faced Ziggler once more in a ladder match at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs on December 4, which Miz won to end their feud.\n\nOn December 6 episode of SmackDown, Miz successfully defended the title against Dean Ambrose after interference from Maryse and distraction from James Ellsworth. Two weeks later on SmackDown, Miz successfully defended the championship against Apollo Crews. After the match, Miz was interviewed by Renee Young, where Miz sarcastically responded by revealing Young and Ambrose's real life relationship, prompting her to slap Miz. On the January 3, 2017 episode of SmackDown, Miz lost the Intercontinental Championship to Ambrose despite interference from Maryse. On January 29, Miz entered the 2017 Royal Rumble match at number 15 and lasted 32 minutes until he was eliminated by The Undertaker.\n\nOn January 31 episode of SmackDown, Miz was revealed as one of the participants of the Elimination Chamber match for the WWE Championship which took place on February 12, where Miz lost after John Cena eliminated him. On the February 21 episode of SmackDown, Miz participated in a ten-man battle royal to determine the challenger for the Bray Wyatt's WWE Championship, but was eliminated by Cena. On the February 28 episode of SmackDown, Miz and Maryse made a special edition of Miz TV to critique Cena's powers on the backstage environment before Maryse slapped Cena and Nikki Bella\u2014Cena's girlfriend\u2014came to save him. On the March 14 episode of SmackDown, after a showdown between Miz and Maryse against Cena and Nikki, SmackDown General Manager Daniel Bryan scheduled a mixed tag team match at WrestleMania 33 on April 2, which Miz and Maryse lost.\n\nOn April 10, Miz was drafted to the Raw brand along with Maryse as part of the Superstar Shake Up, where they made their debut on the same night dressed as Cena and Nikki, before being confronted by the Intercontinental Champion Dean Ambrose, who was also drafted to Raw in the Superstar Shake-up. At Extreme Rules on June 4, Miz defeated Ambrose to win the Intercontinental Championship for the seventh time.\n\nOn the June 19 episode of Raw, Miz allied himself with Bo Dallas and Curtis Axel, a team which would later be dubbed \"The Miztourage\". Miz successfully defended the Intercontinental Championship against Dean Ambrose at Great Balls of Fire on July 9, due to interference from the Miztourage. At the SummerSlam pre-show on August 20, Miz and The Miztourage defeated Jason Jordan and The Hardy Boyz (Jeff Hardy and Matt Hardy) in a six-man tag-team match. In September, Miz began a feud with Jordan after he was declared number one contender to Miz's championship. At No Mercy on September 25, Miz successfully retained the championship against Jordan.\n\nThe following month, he allied himself with Cesaro and Sheamus in order to take on the reformed Shield faction (Ambrose, Seth Rollins and Roman Reigns). Miz teamed with Cesaro, Sheamus, Kane and Braun Strowman against Ambrose, Rollins and Kurt Angle (who replaced Reigns after he was not medically cleared to compete) in a 5-on-3 handicap Tables, Ladders and Chairs match at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs on October 22 in a losing effort. On November 19, Miz faced SmackDown's United States Champion Baron Corbin at Survivor Series in an interbrand champion vs. champion match, which he lost. The following night on Raw, Miz lost to Roman Reigns in an Intercontinental Championship match, ending his title reign at 169 days.\n\nAfter taking a hiatus, Miz returned in January 2018, and won the Intercontinental Championship back from Reigns during the 25th Anniversary of Raw, beginning his eighth reign with the championship. Miz then participated in the 2018 Royal Rumble match on January 28, but he failed to win the match after being eliminated by the combined effort of Rollins and Reigns. At the Elimination Chamber event on February 25, Miz competed in an Elimination Chamber match to determine the number one contender for the Universal Championship, but he was the first participant eliminated, by Braun Strowman. Also around this time, Miz took part in the Mixed Match Challenge tournament, with Asuka as his partner. They defeated the teams of Big E and Carmella, Finn B\u00e1lor and Sasha Banks and Braun Strowman and Alexa Bliss, before defeating Bobby Roode and Charlotte Flair in the finals to win the tournament and earn \\$100,000 for the charity of their choice. At WrestleMania 34 on April 8, Miz lost the Intercontinental title to Seth Rollins in a triple threat match also involving Finn B\u00e1lor, suffering his first pinfall loss at WrestleMania.\n\n#### Feuds with Daniel Bryan and Shane McMahon (2018\u20132020)\n\nOn April 16, during the Superstar Shake-up, Miz was traded to the SmackDown brand. Later that night in his final match for Raw, Miz teamed with The Miztourage, Kevin Owens and Sami Zayn against Seth Rollins, Finn B\u00e1lor, Braun Strowman, Bobby Roode and Bobby Lashley in a ten-man tag team match; his team lost after The Miztourage walked out on him, officially ending their partnership. Miz would fail to regain the Intercontinental Championship from Rollins in a ladder match also involving B\u00e1lor and Samoa Joe at the Greatest Royal Rumble event on April 27, and subsequently in a singles match on May 6 at Backlash. On the May 8 episode of SmackDown Live, Miz defeated United States Champion Jeff Hardy to qualify for the men's Money in the Bank ladder match at the namesake event. At the event on June 17, Miz failed to win the ladder match.\n\nThroughout July and August, Miz would taunt and goad long-time rival Daniel Bryan. Despite initially backing down from his Bryan's challenge for a match at SummerSlam on August 20, he reconsidered and accepted it. Miz defeated Bryan after pinning him following the undetected use of a pair of brass knuckles. Following SummerSlam, it was announced that Miz and Maryse would be facing Bryan and his wife Brie Bella at Hell in a Cell. At the event on September on September 16, Miz and Maryse won after Maryse pinned Bella. In October, Miz and Bryan were announced to be facing each other once more at the Super Show-Down event with the winner getting a future WWE Championship match against AJ Styles. At the event on October 6, Miz lost to Bryan.\n\nOn the 1000th episode of SmackDown on October 16, Miz defeated Rusev to qualify for the WWE World Cup tournament to determine the \"Best Wrestler in the World\" at Crown Jewel event. At the event on November 2, Miz defeated Jeff Hardy and Rey Mysterio to advance to the finals against Dolph Ziggler, but injured his knee before the match, rendering him unable to compete. SmackDown Commissioner Shane McMahon replaced him and defeated Ziggler, winning the World Cup. On the following episode of SmackDown, Bryan and Miz were announced as co-captain of the Men's Survivor Series match at the Survivor Series pay-per-view, however, SmackDown General Manager Paige removed Bryan from the match the following week and replaced him with Jeff Hardy, leaving Miz as the sole captain of Team SmackDown for the event. At the event on November 18, Team SmackDown lost to Team Raw.\n\nMiz would begin to pursue a partnership with McMahon, with the promise of becoming the \"best tag team in the world\". McMahon would finally agree to the team proposal in December, turning Miz into a fan favorite for the first time since June 2014. The duo would then challenge SmackDown Tag Team Champions Cesaro and Sheamus to a title match at the 2019 Royal Rumble pay-per-view on January 27, 2019, in which Miz and McMahon would defeat the duo to become the new champions. However, at Elimination Chamber on February 17, Miz and McMahon lost the titles to The Usos, ending their reign at 21 days. The duo failed to regain the titles from the Usos at Fastlane on March 10. After the loss, McMahon turned on Miz by attacking both him and his father at ringside, turning McMahon heel. This led to a falls count anywhere match at WrestleMania 35 on April 7, which Miz lost. On April 15, Miz was drafted to Raw as part of the 2019 WWE Superstar Shake-up. Upon his acquisition, he would attack McMahon with a steel chair. Subsequently, Miz would challenge McMahon to a steel cage match at Money in the Bank. At the event on May 19, Miz was again narrowly defeated. On June 7 at Super ShowDown, Miz competed in the 51-man battle royal, but did not win.\n\nIn July, Miz restarted his feud with Dolph Ziggler after a confrontation on Miz TV. A match between the two was arranged for SummerSlam, however during the contract signing on the August 5 episode of Raw, Miz revealed that he was not Ziggler's opponent, instead it was the returning Goldberg who would take Miz's place in the match. He stated in an interview: \u201cI'll have many other opportunities at SummerSlam, but this might be Goldberg's last.\u201d On the Raw after SummerSlam, Miz defeated Ziggler to end their feud. Miz then competed in the 2019 King of the Ring, but was eliminated in the first round by Baron Corbin. Miz then unsuccessfully challenged for Shinsuke Nakamura's Intercontinental Championship at Clash of Champions on September 15, after interference from Nakamura's manager Sami Zayn.\n\nAs part of the 2019 draft, Miz was drafted to the SmackDown brand. During the November 1 episode of SmackDown, NXT wrestler Tommaso Ciampa disrupted an edition of Miz TV to air his grievances towards Miz, accusing him of being self-centered. He subsequently challenged Ciampa to a match, which he would lose via pinfall. The following month, Miz began a feud with Universal Champion Bray Wyatt, who, under his sinister alter ego \"The Fiend\", proclaimed he wanted to become part of Miz's family. He would later attack Miz backstage. Subsequently, a non-title match between Miz and Wyatt was arranged for the TLC pay-per-view on December 15, which Miz lost.\n\n#### Reunion with John Morrison (2020\u20132021)\n\nOn the January 3, 2020 episode of SmackDown, Miz blindsided Kofi Kingston after being defeated in a match against him and subsequently lashed out at the audience after being booed, turning heel for the first time since 2018. Later that night, he reunited with his former tag team partner John Morrison, who made his return to WWE. Miz participated in the 2020 Royal Rumble match but was eliminated by the eventual winner Drew McIntyre in 30 seconds. After winning a title shot on the January 31, episode of SmackDown, Miz and Morrison won the SmackDown Tag Team Championship from The New Day at Super ShowDown. At Elimination Chamber on March 8, Miz and Morrison retained the championship over The New Day, The Usos, Heavy Machinery (Otis and Tucker), Lucha House Party (Gran Metalik and Lince Dorado) and Dolph Ziggler and Robert Roode in a tag team Elimination Chamber match. Miz and Morrison were originally set to defend the championship in a triple threat tag team ladder match against The New Day and The Usos at WrestleMania 36, but Miz pulled out of the event due to concerns arising from the COVID-19 pandemic. Instead, Morrison individually defended the championship in a triple threat ladder match against Kofi Kingston of The New Day and Jimmy Uso of The Usos, which Morrison won. On the April 17 episode of SmackDown, the duo lost the titles back to The New Day after Miz unsuccessfully defended the titles by himself in a triple threat match against Big E and Jey Uso ending their reign at 50 days. At Money in the Bank on May 10, Miz and Morrison unsuccessfully attempted to regain the championship in a fatal four-way tag team match also involving Lucha House Party (Gran Metalik and Lince Dorado) and The Forgotten Sons (Steve Cutler and Wesley Blake). Next, Miz and Morrison started a rivalry with Universal Champion Braun Strowman. At Backlash on June 14, the duo competed for Strowman's title in a two-on-one handicap match, but lost.\n\nMiz and Morrison then began feuding with Otis and Tucker in pursuit of Otis' Money in the Bank contract. During the 2020 WWE Draft in October, Miz and Morrison were drafted to the Raw brand. At Hell in a Cell on October 25, Miz defeated Otis to win the Money in the Bank contract, becoming the second person not to do so in the Money in the Bank ladder match, and the third person to hold the contract more than once. Miz cashed in his Money in the Bank contract on December 20 at the TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs event during a TLC match between AJ Styles and the WWE Champion Drew McIntyre, making the match a triple threat in the process, but was unsuccessful as McIntyre retained his title. However, on the December 28 episode of Raw, Miz had the contract returned to him as the cash-in at TLC was ruled invalid due to Morrison cashing in the contract on his behalf (as only the contract holder himself can cash it in). Miz entered the Royal Rumble match on January 31, 2021, but he was quickly eliminated by the debuting Damian Priest. At Elimination Chamber on February 21, Miz would successfully cash his Money in the Bank contract on WWE Champion Drew McIntyre, after McIntyre was assaulted by Bobby Lashley, starting his second reign with the WWE Championship which made him the first ever two-time WWE Grand Slam champion. Miz would go on to lose the championship to Lashley on the March 1 episode of Raw, ending his reign at only eight days.\n\nAfter this, Miz and Morrison feuded with Damian Priest and rapper Bad Bunny. On the first night of WrestleMania 37 on April 10, Miz and Morrison were defeated by Bad Bunny and Priest. At WrestleMania Backlash on May 16, Miz lost to Priest. After the match, Miz was seemingly \"eaten\" by zombies as a way to cross-promote Army of the Dead. During the match, Miz suffered the first legitimate injury in his WWE career after tearing his ACL, taking him out of action indefinitely. Despite his injury, Miz would continue appearing television in a wheelchair accompanying Morrison in his matches. Miz returned from injury on the August 16 episode of Raw, losing to Damian Priest. The next week on Raw, Miz attacked Morrison, ending their partnership. Afterwards, Miz took time off to compete on the thirtieth season of Dancing with the Stars.\n\n#### Various storylines (2021\u2013present)\n\nMiz, along with Maryse, returned on the November 29 episode of Raw, where he confronted Edge. The following week on Raw, after another heated verbal exchange between the two during a Miz TV segment, Miz challenged Edge to a match at Day 1, which Edge accepted. At Day 1 on January 1, 2022, Edge defeated Miz. On the following episode of Raw, Miz accepted a challenge by Edge and Beth Phoenix for a mixed tag team match at Royal Rumble on January 29 between him and Maryse, which Edge and Phoenix won.\n\nOn the first night of WrestleMania 38 on April 2, Miz and social media star Logan Paul defeated The Mysterios. After the match, Miz performed his finishing maneuver, the Skull Crushing Finale, on Logan Paul, subsequently turning on him. On the July 4 episode of Raw, The Miz gained a new ally in Tommaso Ciampa, joining forces to attack AJ Styles. Meanwhile, Miz and Paul began a feud which led to a match between the two at SummerSlam on July 30, which Paul won. On the August 22 episode of Raw, Miz was kidnapped by Dexter Lumis, who continued to attack him and stalk him over the following weeks. It was later revealed by Johnny Gargano that The Miz had been paying Lumis to stage these attacks to gain Miz publicity. Miz then stopped paying Lumis, and the attacks became real. On the November 28 episode to Raw, Miz lost to Lumis in an Anything Goes match where Lumis earned a WWE contract. On the December 19 episode of Raw, Miz defeated Lumis in a Winner Takes All Ladder Match of prize money after interference from the returning Bronson Reed, ending their feud. Miz then embarked upon a losing streak.\n\nAt the Royal Rumble on January 28, 2023, Miz entered the titular match, but was eliminated by Sheamus. On the February 20 episode of Raw, during the celebration of their anniversary, Maryse handed Miz an envelope with Miz promising to reveal its contents on the following episode of \u201cRaw\u201d. This led to Miz being named the official host of WrestleMania 39. At WrestleMania, Miz lost impromptu matches against Pat McAfee and Snoop Dogg, the latter replacing an legitimately injured Shane McMahon early in the bout. On the June 19 episode of Raw, Ciampa returned to answer Miz's open challenge, which Ciampa won, thus ending their alliance. On the July 11 episode of Raw, Miz gets first win of 2023, defeating Ciampa in a No Disqualification match with the help of Bronson Reed.\n\n## Professional wrestling style and persona\n\nThe Miz's finisher, per the reality television and Hollywood tie-ins to his character, is a full nelson facebuster dubbed the Skull Crushing Finale. He originally performed a swinging neckbreaker dubbed Mizard of Oz that he developed into a running knee lift followed by a neckbreaker slam, named the Reality Check, before abandoning both and adopting his current finisher in mid-2009.\n\nHaving been associated with Ric Flair, The Miz occasionally performs Flair's submission hold, the figure-four leg lock. Since his storyline with Daniel Bryan, The Miz incorporated several of Bryan's moves, like the Yes! Kicks, which he nicknames the It Kicks.\n\nCriticism has been focused on the booking of The Miz's character. When he became a heroic character in late-2012, his turn was not well received by critics, who commented that Miz as a fan favorite was too similar to his villainous character because he was \"still cocky, arrogant, and egotistical\" while \"pivoted toward calling out established heels\" (villains). Other criticisms were that Miz was \"juvenile\", lacking of depth, \"grating and not endearing to the audience\" and that \"there was not that moment when he officially turned and aligned his values with the audience's\". After The Miz won the WWE Championship for the second time in February 2021, Zack Heydorn for Pro Wrestling Torch questioned the decision to give him the championship, writing that he had not been presented as \"a credible professional wrestler in the ring\", and complained his recent booking had not made him believable contender for a world championship. He then concluded by saying that he \"should be far away from the WWE Championship picture.\" Ryan Byers of 411Mania considered Miz to be a poor world champion, stating that he was \"booked ridiculously weakly\". Despite this disapproval towards his character, Miz has received praise for his promos and speaking ability.\n\n## Other media\n\nIn 2008, Miz made his first WWE video game appearance in WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2009 and appears in every WWE video game since, with his latest appearance being WWE 2K Battlegrounds. In 2012, Miz also appeared in the WWE Studios and Kare Prod project Les reines du ring (Queens of the Ring), alongside Eve Torres and CM Punk, and on MDA Show of Strength with Maryse and other celebrities. In March 2013, he attended the Kids Choice Awards with Maryse and The Rock.\n\nMizanin played a small role in the film The Campaign in 2012. In 2013, The Miz starred in WWE Studios film The Marine 3: Homefront, replacing fellow wrestler Randy Orton, who was dropped from the role due to his bad conduct discharge from the Marine Corps.\n\nMizanin starred in the ABC Family television film Christmas Bounty, which premiered in December 2013. In 2015, he starred in the WWE Studios Christmas film Santa's Little Helper.\n\nIn 2016, Mizanin guest-starred in Supernatural as a wrestler named Shawn Harley in an organization targeted by a demon.\n\nIn 2018, Mizanin and his wife Maryse starred in a USA Network reality television series titled Miz & Mrs. In 2020, he starred on a second show on USA, serving as host of the game show Cannonball.\n\n## Personal life\n\nMizanin married his longtime girlfriend, French-Canadian fellow WWE wrestler Maryse Ouellet, in The Bahamas on February 20, 2014. Their first daughter, Monroe Sky Mizanin, was born on March 27, 2018. Shortly thereafter, the family moved to Austin, Texas. During WWE's Elimination Chamber event in February 2019, the couple announced that they were expecting their second child in September. In August 2019, they moved permanently to Thousand Oaks, California. Their second daughter, Madison Jade Mizanin, was born on September 20, 2019.\n\n## Filmography\n\n### Film\n\n### Television\n\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr class=\"header\">\n<th><p>Year</p></th>\n<th><p>Title</p></th>\n<th><p>Role</p></th>\n<th><p>Notes</p></th>\n<th><p>Ref(s)</p></th>\n</tr>\n</thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"odd\">\n<td><p>2001</p></td>\n<td><p>'</p></td>\n<td><p>Himself</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"even\">\n<td><p>2002\u201305<br />\n2012<br />\n2017\u201319</p></td>\n<td><p>The Challenge</p></td>\n<td><p>As participant:<br />\nBattle of the Seasons (2002, winner)<br />\nThe Gauntlet (2003\u201304)<br />\nThe Inferno (2004)<br />\nBattle of the Sexes 2 (2004\u201305)<br />\nThe Inferno II (2005, winner)<br />\nAs host:<br />\nBattle of the Exes (2012, reunion show)<br />\nInvasion of the Champions (2017, reunion show)<br />\nXXX: Dirty 30 (2017, reunion show)<br />\nChamps vs. Stars (2017\u201318)<br />\nVendettas (2018, reunion show)<br />\nWar of the Worlds (2019, reunion show)</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"odd\">\n<td><p>2004<br />\n2011<br />\n2015</p></td>\n<td><p>WWE Tough Enough</p></td>\n<td><p>2004: participant<br />\n2011: coach<br />\n2015: talk host (ep. 1\u20135), judge (ep. 6\u201310)</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"even\">\n<td><p>2005</p></td>\n<td><p>Battle of the Network Reality Stars</p></td>\n<td><p>Winner</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"odd\">\n<td><p>2006</p></td>\n<td><p>Fear Factor</p></td>\n<td><p>Winner</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"even\">\n<td><p>2007</p></td>\n<td><p>Identity</p></td>\n<td><p>Episode 11</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"odd\">\n<td><p>2008</p></td>\n<td><p>Ghost Hunters</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"even\">\n<td><p>2009</p></td>\n<td><p>Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader?</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"odd\">\n<td><p>Dinner: Impossible</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"even\">\n<td><p>2010</p></td>\n<td><p>Destroy Build Destroy</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"odd\">\n<td><p>2011</p></td>\n<td><p>H8R</p></td>\n<td><p>Episode 4</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"even\">\n<td><p>2012</p></td>\n<td><p>Psych</p></td>\n<td><p>Mario</p></td>\n<td><p>Episode 91 (\"Shawn and the Real Girl\")</p></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"odd\">\n<td><p>Pair of Kings</p></td>\n<td><p>Damone</p></td>\n<td><p>Episode 56 (\"I'm Gonna Git You, Sponge Sucka\")</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"even\">\n<td><p>2014</p></td>\n<td><p>Deal With It</p></td>\n<td><p>Himself</p></td>\n<td><p>Episode 18</p></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"odd\">\n<td><p>Oh My English!</p></td>\n<td><p>Season 3, episode 22</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"even\">\n<td><p>Family Game Night</p></td>\n<td><p>Guest celebrity</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"odd\">\n<td><p>2015</p></td>\n<td><p>Sirens</p></td>\n<td><p>Lance</p></td>\n<td><p>Episode 9 (\"Transcendual\")</p></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"even\">\n<td><p>2016</p></td>\n<td><p>Supernatural</p></td>\n<td><p>Shawn Harley</p></td>\n<td><p>Episode 233 (\"Beyond the Mat\")</p></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"odd\">\n<td><p>Celebs React</p></td>\n<td><p>Himself</p></td>\n<td><p>1 episode</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"even\">\n<td><p>Hell's Kitchen</p></td>\n<td><p>Uncredited guest diner; Episode: \"Let the Catfights Begin\"</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"odd\">\n<td><p>2016\u20132018</p></td>\n<td><p>Total Divas</p></td>\n<td><p>Recurring (season 6\u20137)<br />\nGuest (season 8): 21 episodes</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"even\">\n<td><p>2018</p></td>\n<td><p>Total Bellas</p></td>\n<td><p>Episode: \"What Comes Up, Must Go Down\"</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"odd\">\n<td><p>2018\u2013present</p></td>\n<td><p>Miz &amp; Mrs</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"even\">\n<td><p>2020</p></td>\n<td><p>Cannonball</p></td>\n<td><p>Host</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"odd\">\n<td><p>2021</p></td>\n<td><p>Dancing with the Stars</p></td>\n<td><p>Contestant</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"even\">\n<td><p>Side Hustle</p></td>\n<td><p>Clint Kickwood</p></td>\n<td><p>Episode: \"Room for Munchy\"</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"odd\">\n<td><p>2022</p></td>\n<td><p>Trainwreck: Woodstock '99</p></td>\n<td><p>Himself</p></td>\n<td><p>Uncredited; archival footage</p></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"even\">\n<td><p>The Challenge: Untold History</p></td>\n<td><p>Documentary series</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n<tr class=\"odd\">\n<td><p>2023</p></td>\n<td><p>That's My Jam</p></td>\n<td><p>Episode: \"The Miz|Mike \"The Miz\" &amp; Alexa Bliss vs. Diallo Riddle &amp; Bashir Salahuddin\"</p></td>\n<td></td>\n<td></td>\n</tr>\n</tbody>\n</table>\n\n## Championships and accomplishments\n\n- The Baltimore Sun\n  - Most Improved Wrestler of the Year (2009)\n  - Tag Team of the Year (2008) \u2013 with John Morrison\n- Deep South Wrestling\n  - DSW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)\n- Ohio Valley Wrestling\n  - OVW Southern Tag Team Championship (1 time) \u2013 with Chris Cage\n- Pro Wrestling Illustrated\n  - Most Hated Wrestler of the Year (2011)\n  - Most Improved Wrestler of the Year (2016)\n  - Ranked No. 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2011\n- Rolling Stone\n  - Ranked No. 8 of the 10 best WWE wrestlers of 2016\n  - WWE Wrestler of the Year (2017)\n- World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE\n  - WWE Championship (2 times)\n  - WWE Intercontinental Championship (8 times)\n  - WWE United States Championship (2 times)\n  - WWE Tag Team Championship (4 times) \u2013 with John Morrison (1), Big Show (1), John Cena (1) and Damien Mizdow (1)\n  - WWE SmackDown Tag Team Championship (2 times) \u2013 with Shane McMahon (1) and John Morrison (1)\n  - World Tag Team Championship (2 times) \u2013 with John Morrison (1) and Big Show (1)\n  - Mixed Match Challenge (Season 1) \u2013 with Asuka\n  - Money in the Bank (Raw 2010)\n  - 25th Triple Crown Champion\n  - Fifth Grand Slam Champion (under the current format, 14th overall)\n  - First two-time Grand Slam Champion\n  - Slammy Award (2 times)\n    - Best WWE.com Exclusive (2008) The Dirt-Sheet \u2013 with John Morrison\n    - Tag Team of the Year (2008) \u2013 with John Morrison\n- Wrestling Observer Newsletter'''\n  - Most Improved (2008, 2009)\n  - Tag Team of the Year (2008) \u2013 with John Morrison\n  - Worst Feud of the Year (2022) vs. Dexter Lumis\n  - Worst Match of the Year (2021) vs. Damian Priest at WrestleMania Backlash", "revid": "1173024585", "description": "American wrestler and media personality (born 1980)", "categories": ["1980 births", "21st-century American male actors", "21st-century professional wrestlers", "American male professional wrestlers", "American television hosts", "Living people", "Masked wrestlers", "Miami University alumni", "Money in the Bank winners", "NWA/WCW/WWE United States Heavyweight Champions", "People from Parma, Ohio", "Professional wrestlers from California", "Professional wrestlers from Ohio", "Sportspeople from Cuyahoga County, Ohio", "Sportspeople from Los Angeles", "The Challenge (TV series) contestants", "The Real World (TV series) cast members", "Tough Enough contestants", "WWE Champions", "WWE Grand Slam champions", "WWF/WWE Intercontinental Champions", "World Tag Team Champions (WWE)"]}
+{"id": "98301", "url": null, "title": "Joker (character)", "text": "# Joker (character)\n\nThe Joker is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character was created by Bill Finger, Bob Kane, and Jerry Robinson, and first appeared in the debut issue of the comic book Batman on April 25, 1940. Credit for the Joker's creation is disputed; Kane and Robinson claimed responsibility for the Joker's design while acknowledging Finger's writing contribution. Although the Joker was planned to be killed off during his initial appearance, he was spared by editorial intervention, allowing the character to endure as the archenemy of the superhero Batman.\n\nIn his comic book appearances, the Joker is portrayed as a criminal mastermind. Introduced as a psychopath with a warped, sadistic sense of humor, the character became a mostly harmless, comical prankster in the late 1950s in response to regulation by the Comics Code Authority, before returning to his darker roots during the early 1970s (although some of his more comedic characterization was kept for many incarnations of the character). As Batman's nemesis, the Joker has been part of the superhero's defining stories, including the murder of Jason Todd\u2014the second Robin and Batman's ward\u2014and the paralysis of one of Batman's allies, Barbara Gordon. The Joker has had various possible origin stories during his decades of appearances. The most common story involves him falling into a tank of chemical waste that bleaches his skin white and turns his hair green and lips bright red; the resulting disfigurement drives him insane. The antithesis of Batman in personality and appearance, the Joker is considered by critics to be his perfect adversary.\n\nThe Joker possesses no superhuman abilities, instead using his expertise in chemical engineering to develop poisonous or lethal concoctions and thematic weaponry, including razor-tipped playing cards, deadly joy buzzers, and acid-spraying lapel flowers. The Joker sometimes works with other Gotham City supervillains, such as the Penguin and Two-Face, and groups like the Injustice Gang and Injustice League, but these relationships often collapse due to the Joker's desire for unbridled chaos. The 1990s introduced a romantic interest for the Joker in his former psychiatrist, Harley Quinn, who became his criminal sidekick and girlfriend before finally escaping their abusive relationship. Although his primary obsession is Batman, the Joker has also fought other heroes, including Superman and Wonder Woman.\n\nOne of the most iconic characters in popular culture, the Joker has been listed among the greatest comic book villains and fictional characters ever created. The character's popularity has seen him appear on a variety of merchandise, such as clothing and collectible items, inspire real-world structures (such as theme park attractions), and be referenced in a number of media. The Joker has been adapted in live-action, animated, and video game incarnations, including the 1960s Batman television series played by Cesar Romero and in films by Jack Nicholson in Batman (1989), Heath Ledger in The Dark Knight (2008), Jared Leto in the DC Extended Universe (2016\u20132021), and Joaquin Phoenix in Joker (2019\u2013present); Ledger and Phoenix each earned an Academy Award for their portrayals. Mark Hamill among others have provided the character's voice in media ranging from animation to video games.\n\n## Creation and development\n\n### Concept\n\nBill Finger, Bob Kane, and Jerry Robinson are credited with creating the Joker, but their accounts of the character's conception differ, each providing his own version of events. Finger's, Kane's, and Robinson's versions acknowledge that Finger produced an image of actor Conrad Veidt in character as Gwynplaine (a man whose mouth is disfigured into a perpetual grin) in the 1928 film The Man Who Laughs as an inspiration for the Joker's appearance, and Robinson produced a sketch of a joker playing card.\n\nRobinson stated that it was his 1940 card sketch that served as the character's concept, and Finger associated that image with Veidt in the film. Kane hired the 17-year-old Robinson as an assistant in 1939, after he saw Robinson in a white jacket decorated with his own illustrations. Beginning as a letterer and background inker, Robinson quickly became primary artist for the newly created Batman comic book series. In a 1975 interview in The Amazing World of DC Comics, Robinson said he wanted a supreme arch-villain who could test Batman, not a typical crime lord or gangster designed to be easily disposed of. He wanted an exotic, enduring character as an ongoing source of conflict for Batman, designing a diabolically sinister, but clownish, villain. Robinson was intrigued by villains; he believed that some characters are made up of contradictions, leading to the Joker's sense of humor. He said that the name came first, followed by an image of a playing card from a deck he often had at hand: \"I wanted somebody visually exciting. I wanted somebody that would make an indelible impression, would be bizarre, would be memorable like the Hunchback of Notre Dame or any other villains that had unique physical characters.\" He told Finger about his concept by telephone, later providing sketches of the character and images of what would become his iconic Joker playing-card design. Finger thought the concept was incomplete, providing the image of Veidt with a ghastly, permanent rictus grin.\n\nKane countered that Robinson's sketch was produced only after Finger had already shown the Gwynplaine image to Kane, and that it was only used as a card design belonging to the Joker in his early appearances. Finger said that he was also inspired by the Steeplechase Face, an image in Steeplechase Park at Coney Island that resembled a Joker's head, which he sketched and later shared with future editorial director Carmine Infantino. In a 1994 interview with journalist Frank Lovece, Kane stated his position:\n\n> Bill Finger and I created the Joker. Bill was the writer. Jerry Robinson came to me with a playing card of the Joker. That's the way I sum it up. [The Joker] looks like Conrad Veidt \u2013 you know, the actor in The Man Who Laughs, [the 1928 movie based on the novel] by Victor Hugo. ... Bill Finger had a book with a photograph of Conrad Veidt and showed it to me and said, 'Here's the Joker.' Jerry Robinson had absolutely nothing to do with it, but he'll always say he created it till he dies. He brought in a playing card, which we used for a couple of issues for him [the Joker] to use as his playing card.\n\nRobinson credited himself, Finger, and Kane for the Joker's creation. He said he created the character as Batman's larger-than-life nemesis when extra stories were quickly needed for Batman \\#1, and he received credit for the story in a college course:\n\n> In that first meeting when I showed them that sketch of the Joker, Bill said it reminded him of Conrad Veidt in The Man Who Laughs. That was the first mention of it ... He can be credited and Bob himself, we all played a role in it. The concept was mine. Bill finished that first script from my outline of the persona and what should happen in the first story. He wrote the script of that, so he really was co-creator, and Bob and I did the visuals, so Bob was also.\n\nFinger provided his own account in 1966:\n\n> I got a call from Bob Kane.... He had a new villain. When I arrived he was holding a playing card. Apparently Jerry Robinson or Bob, I don't recall who, looked at the card and they had an idea for a character ... the Joker. Bob made a rough sketch of it. At first it didn't look much like the Joker. It looked more like a clown. But I remembered that Grosset & Dunlap formerly issued very cheap editions of classics by Alexandre Dumas and Victor Hugo ... The volume I had was The Man Who Laughs \u2014 his face had been permanently operated on so that he will always have this perpetual grin. And it looked absolutely weird. I cut the picture out of the book and gave it to Bob, who drew the profile and gave it a more sinister aspect. Then he worked on the face; made him look a little clown-like, which accounted for his white face, red lips, green hair. And that was the Joker!\n\nAlthough Kane adamantly refused to share credit for many of his characters, and refuted Robinson's claim for the rest of his life, many comic historians credit Robinson with the Joker's creation and Finger with the character's development. By 2011, Finger, Kane, and Robinson had died, leaving the story unresolved.\n\n### Golden Age\n\nThe Joker debuted in Batman \\#1 (April 1940) as the eponymous character's first villain, about a year after Batman's debut in Detective Comics \\#27 (May 1939). The Joker initially appeared as a remorseless serial killer and jewel thief, modeled after a joker playing card with a mirthless grin, who killed his victims with \"Joker venom,\" a toxin that left their faces smiling grotesquely. The character was intended to be killed in his second appearance in Batman \\#1, after being stabbed in the heart. Finger wanted the Joker to die because of his concern that recurring villains would make Batman appear inept, but was overruled by then-editor Whitney Ellsworth; a hastily drawn panel, indicating that the Joker was still alive, was added to the comic. The Joker went on to appear in nine of Batman's first 12 issues.\n\nThe character's regular appearances quickly defined him as the archenemy of the Dynamic Duo, Batman and Robin; he killed dozens of people, and even derailed a train. By issue \\#13, Kane's work on the syndicated Batman newspaper strip left him little time for the comic book; artist Dick Sprang assumed his duties, and editor Jack Schiff collaborated with Finger on stories. Around the same time, DC Comics found it easier to market its stories to children without the more mature pulp elements that had originated many superhero comics. During this period, the first changes in the Joker began to appear, portraying him as a wacky but harmless prankster; in one story, the Joker kidnaps Robin and Batman pays the ransom by check, meaning that the Joker cannot cash it without being arrested. Comic book writer Mark Waid suggests that the 1942 story \"The Joker Walks the Last Mile\" was the beginning point for the character's transformation into a more goofy incarnation, a period that Grant Morrison considered to have lasted the following 30 years.\n\nThe 1942 cover of Detective Comics \\#69, known as \"Double Guns\" (with the Joker emerging from a genie's lamp, aiming two guns at Batman and Robin), is considered one of the greatest superhero comic covers of the Golden Age and is the only image from that era of the character using traditional guns. Robinson said that other contemporary villains used guns, and the creative team wanted the Joker\u2014as Batman's adversary\u2014to be more resourceful.\n\n### Silver Age\n\nThe Joker was one of the few popular villains continuing to appear regularly in Batman comics from the Golden Age into the Silver Age, as the series continued during the rise in popularity of mystery and romance comics. In 1951, Finger wrote an origin story for the Joker in Detective Comics \\#168, which introduced the characteristic of him formerly being the criminal Red Hood, and his disfigurement the result of a fall into a chemical vat.\n\nBy 1954, the Comics Code Authority had been established in response to increasing public disapproval of comic book content. The backlash was inspired by Frederic Wertham, who hypothesized that mass media (especially comic books) was responsible for the rise in juvenile delinquency, violence and homosexuality, particularly in young males. Parents forbade their children from reading comic books, and there were several mass burnings. The Comics Code banned gore, innuendo and excessive violence, stripping Batman of his menace and transforming the Joker into a goofy, thieving trickster without his original homicidal tendencies.\n\nThe character appeared less frequently after 1964, when Julius Schwartz (who disliked the Joker) became editor of the Batman comics. The character risked becoming an obscure figure of the preceding era until this goofy prankster version of the character was adapted into the 1966 television series Batman, in which he was played by Cesar Romero. The show's popularity compelled Schwartz to keep the comics in a similar vein. As the show's popularity waned, however, so did that of the Batman comics. After the TV series ended in 1969, the increase in public visibility had not stopped the comic's sales decline; editorial director Carmine Infantino resolved to turn things around, moving stories away from child-friendly adventures. The Silver Age introduced several of the Joker's defining character traits: lethal joy buzzers, acid-squirting flowers, trick guns, and goofy, elaborate crimes.\n\n### Bronze Age\n\nIn 1973, after a four-year disappearance, the Joker was revived (and revised) by writer Dennis O'Neil and artist Neal Adams. Beginning with Batman \\#251's \"The Joker's Five-Way Revenge\", the character returns to his roots as a homicidal maniac who matches wits with Batman. This story began a trend in which the Joker was used, sparingly, as a central character. O'Neil said his idea was \"simply to take it back to where it started. I went to the DC library and read some of the early stories. I tried to get a sense of what Kane and Finger were after.\" O'Neil's 1973 run introduced the idea of the Joker being legally insane, to explain why the character is sent to Arkham Asylum (introduced by O'Neil in 1974 as Arkham Hospital) instead of to prison. Adams modified the Joker's appearance, changing his more average figure by extending his jaw and making him taller and leaner.\n\nDC Comics was a hotbed of experimentation during the 1970s, and in 1975 the character became the first villain to feature as the title character in a comic book series, The Joker. The series followed the character's interactions with other supervillains, and the first issue was written by O'Neil. Stories balanced between emphasizing the Joker's criminality and making him a likable protagonist whom readers could support. Although he murdered thugs and civilians, he never fought Batman; this made The Joker a series in which the character's villainy prevailed over rival villains, instead of a struggle between good and evil. Because the Comics Code Authority mandated punishment for villains, each issue ended with the Joker being apprehended, limiting the scope of each story. The series never found an audience, and The Joker was canceled after nine issues (despite a \"next issue\" advertisement for an appearance by the Justice League). The complete series became difficult to obtain over time, often commanding high prices from collectors. In 2013, DC Comics reissued the series as a trade paperback.\n\nWhen Jenette Kahn became DC editor in 1976, she redeveloped the company's struggling titles; during her tenure, the Joker would become one of DC's most popular characters. While O'Neil and Adams' work was critically acclaimed, writer Steve Englehart and penciller Marshall Rogers's eight-issue run in Detective Comics \\#471\u2013476 (August 1977\u2013April 1978) defined the Joker for decades to come with stories emphasizing the character's insanity. In \"The Laughing Fish\", the Joker disfigures fish with a rictus grin resembling his own (expecting copyright protection), and is unable to understand that copyrighting a natural resource is legally impossible. Englehart's and Rogers' work on the series influenced the 1989 film Batman, and was adapted for 1992's Batman: The Animated Series. Rogers expanded on Adams' character design, drawing the Joker with a fedora and trench coat. Englehart outlined how he understood the character by saying that the Joker \"was this very crazy, scary character. I really wanted to get back to the idea of Batman fighting insane murderers at 3 a.m. under the full moon, as the clouds scuttled by.\"\n\n### Modern Age\n\nYears after the end of the 1966 television series, sales of Batman continued to fall and the title was nearly cancelled. Although the 1970s restored the Joker as Batman's insane, lethal archenemy, it was during the 1980s that the Batman series started to turn around and the Joker came into his own as part of the \"Dark Age\" of comics, with mature tales of death and destruction. The shift was criticized for moving away from tamer superheroes (and villains), but comic audiences were no longer primarily children. Several months after Crisis on Infinite Earths launched the era by killing off Silver Age icons such as the Flash and Supergirl and undoing decades of continuity, Frank Miller's The Dark Knight Returns (1986) re-imagined Batman as an older, retired hero and the Joker as a lipstick-wearing celebrity who cannot function without his foe. The late 1980s saw the Joker exert a significant impact on Batman and his supporting cast. In the 1988\u201389 story arc \"A Death in the Family\", the Joker murders Batman's sidekick (the second Robin, Jason Todd). Todd was unpopular with fans; rather than modify his character, DC opted to let them vote for his fate and a 72-vote plurality had the Joker beat Todd to death with a crowbar. This story altered the Batman universe: instead of killing anonymous bystanders, the Joker murdered a core character; this had a lasting effect on future stories. Written at the height of tensions between the United States and Iran, the story's conclusion had Iranian leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini appoint the Joker his country's ambassador to the United Nations (allowing him to temporarily escape justice).\n\nAlan Moore and Brian Bolland's 1988 graphic novel The Killing Joke expands on the Joker's origins, describing the character as a failed comedian who adopts the identity of the Red Hood to support his pregnant wife. Unlike The Dark Knight Returns, The Killing Joke takes place in mainstream continuity. The novel is described by critics as one of the greatest Joker stories ever written, influencing later comic stories (including the forced retirement of then-Batgirl, Barbara Gordon, after she is paralyzed by the Joker) and films such as 1989's Batman and 2008's The Dark Knight. Grant Morrison's 1989 Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth explores the psychoses of Batman, the Joker and other rogues in the eponymous facility.\n\nThe 1992 animated series introduced the Joker's female sidekick: Harley Quinn, a psychiatrist who falls for\u2014and ends up in an abusive relationship with\u2014the Joker, becoming his supervillain accomplice. The character was popular, and was adapted into the comics as the Joker's romantic interest in 1999. In the same year, Alan Grant and Norm Breyfogle's comic book Anarky concluded with the revelation that the titular character was the Joker's son. Breyfogle conceived the idea as a means to expand on Anarky's characterization, but O'Neil (by then the editor for the Batman series of books) was opposed to it, and only allowed it to be written under protest, and with a promise that the revelation would eventually be revealed incorrect. However, the Anarky series was cancelled before the rebuttal could be published. The Joker's first major storyline in The New 52, DC Comics' 2011 reboot of story continuity, was 2012's \"Death of the Family\" by writer Scott Snyder and artist Greg Capullo. The story arc explores the symbiotic relationship between the Joker and Batman, and sees the villain shatter the trust between Batman and his adopted family. Capullo's Joker design replaced his traditional outfit with a utilitarian, messy, and disheveled appearance to convey that the character was on a mission; his face (surgically removed in 2011's Detective Comics (vol. 2) \\#1) was reattached with belts, wires, and hooks, and he was outfitted with mechanics overalls. The Joker's face was restored in Snyder's and Capullo's \"Endgame\" (2014), the concluding chapter to \"Death of the Family\".\n\nThe conclusion of the 2020 \"Joker War\" storyline by writer James Tynion IV and artist Jorge Jim\u00e9nez sees the Joker leave Gotham after Batman chooses to let him die. This led to a second ongoing Joker series, beginning in March 2021 with Tynion writing and Guillem March providing art.\n\n## Character biography\n\nThe Joker has undergone many revisions since his 1940 debut. The most common interpretation of the character is that of a man who, while disguised as the criminal Red Hood, is pursued by Batman and falls into a vat of chemicals that bleaches his skin, colors his hair green and his lips red, and drives him insane. The reasons why the Joker was disguised as the Red Hood and his identity before his transformation have changed over time.\n\nThe character was introduced in Batman \\#1 (1940), in which he announces that he will kill three of Gotham's prominent citizens. Although the police protect his first announced victim, millionaire Henry Claridge, the Joker had poisoned him before making his announcement and Claridge dies with a ghastly grin on his face. Batman eventually defeats him, sending him to prison. The Joker commits crimes ranging from whimsical to brutal, for reasons that, in Batman's words, \"make sense to him alone\". Detective Comics \\#168 (1951) introduced the Joker's first origin story as the former Red Hood: a masked criminal who, during his final heist, vanished after leaping into a vat of chemicals to escape Batman. His resulting disfigurement drove him insane and led him to adopt the name \"Joker\", from the playing card figure he came to resemble. The Joker's Silver Age transformation into a figure of fun was established in 1952's \"The Joker's Millions\". In this story, the Joker is obsessed with maintaining his illusion of wealth and celebrity as a criminal folk hero, afraid to let Gotham's citizens know that he is penniless and was tricked out of his fortune. The 1970s redefined the character as a homicidal sociopath. \"The Joker's Five-Way Revenge\" has the Joker taking violent revenge on the former gang members who betrayed him, while \"The Laughing Fish\" portrays him chemically disfiguring fish so they will share his trademark grin, hoping to profit from a copyright, and killing bureaucrats who stand in his way.\n\nBatman: The Killing Joke (1988) built on the Joker's 1951 origin story, portraying him as a failed comedian who participates in a robbery as the Red Hood to support his pregnant wife. Batman arrives to stop the robbery, provoking the terrified comedian into jumping into a vat of chemicals, which dyes his skin chalk-white, his hair green, and his lips bright red. His disfigurement, combined with the trauma of his wife's earlier accidental death, drives him insane, and results in the birth of the Joker. However, the Joker says that this story may not be true; he admits that he does not remember exactly what drove him insane, and says that he prefers his past to be \"multiple choice\". In this graphic novel, the Joker shoots and paralyzes Barbara Gordon, the former Batgirl, and tortures her father, Commissioner James Gordon, to prove that it only takes \"one bad day\" to drive a normal man insane. After Batman rescues Gordon and subdues the Joker, he offers to rehabilitate his old foe and end their rivalry. Although the Joker refuses, he shows his appreciation by sharing a joke with Batman. Following the character's maiming of Barbara, she became a more important character in the DC Universe: the Oracle, a data gatherer and superhero informant, who has her revenge in Birds of Prey by shattering the Joker's teeth and destroying his smile.\n\nIn the 1988 story \"A Death in the Family\", the Joker beats Jason Todd, the second Robin, with a crowbar and leaves him to die in an explosion. Todd's death haunts Batman, and for the first time he seriously considers killing the Joker. The Joker temporarily escapes justice when Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini appoints him the Iranian ambassador to the United Nations, giving him diplomatic immunity; however, when he tries to poison the U.N. membership, he is defeated by Batman and Superman.\n\nIn the 1999 \"No Man's Land\" storyline, the Joker murders Commissioner Gordon's second wife, Sarah, as she shields a group of infants. He taunts Gordon, who shoots him in the kneecap. The Joker, lamenting that he may never walk again, collapses with laughter when he realizes that the commissioner has avenged Barbara's paralysis.\n\nThe 2000s began with the crossover story \"Emperor Joker\", in which the Joker steals Mister Mxyzptlk's reality-altering power and remakes the universe in his image (torturing and killing Batman daily, before resurrecting him). When the supervillain then tries to destroy the universe, his reluctance to eliminate Batman makes him lose control, and Superman defeats him. Broken by his experience, Batman's experiences of death are transferred to Superman by the Spectre so he can heal mentally. In Joker: Last Laugh (2001), the doctors at Arkham Asylum convince the character that he is dying in an attempt to rehabilitate him. Instead, the Joker (flanked by an army of \"Jokerized\" supervillains) launches a final crime spree. Believing that Robin (Tim Drake) has been killed in the chaos, Dick Grayson beats the Joker to death (although Batman revives his foe to keep Grayson from becoming a murderer), and the villain succeeds in making a member of the Bat-family break their rule against killing.\n\nIn \"Under the Hood\" (2005), a resurrected Todd tries to force Batman to avenge his death by killing the Joker. Batman refuses, arguing that if he allowed himself to kill the Joker, he would not be able to stop himself from killing other criminals. The Joker kills Alexander Luthor, Jr. in Infinite Crisis (2005) for excluding him from the Secret Society of Super Villains, which considers him too unpredictable for membership. In Morrison's \"Batman and Son\" (2006), a deranged police officer who impersonates Batman shoots the Joker in the face, scarring and disabling him. The supervillain returns in \"The Clown at Midnight\" (2007) as an enigmatic force who awakens and tries to kill Harley Quinn to prove to Batman that he has become more than human. In the 2008 story arc \"Batman R.I.P.\" the Joker is recruited by the Black Glove to destroy Batman, but betrays the group, killing its members one by one. After Batman's apparent death in Final Crisis (2008), Grayson investigates a series of murders (which leads him to a disguised Joker). The Joker is arrested, and then-Robin Damian Wayne beats him with a crowbar, paralleling Todd's murder. When the Joker escapes, he attacks the Black Glove, burying its leader Simon Hurt alive after the supervillain considers him a failure as an opponent; the Joker is then defeated by the recently returned Batman.\n\nIn DC's The New 52, a 2011 relaunch of its titles following Flashpoint, the Joker has his own face cut off. He disappears for a year, returning to launch an attack on Batman's extended family in \"Death of the Family\" so he and Batman can be the best hero and villain they can be. At the end of the storyline, the Joker falls off a cliff into a dark abyss. The Joker returns in the 2014 storyline \"Endgame\" in which he brainwashes the Justice League into attacking Batman, believing he has betrayed their relationship. The story implies that the Joker is immortal\u2014having existed for centuries in Gotham as a cause of tragedy after exposure to a substance the Joker terms \"dionesium\"\u2014and is able to regenerate from mortal injuries. \"Endgame\" restores the Joker's face, and also reveals that he knows Batman's secret identity. The story ends with the apparent deaths of Batman and the Joker at each other's hands, though it is revealed that they were both resurrected in a life-restoring Lazarus Pit, without their memories.\n\nDuring the \"Darkseid War\" (2015\u20132016) storyline, Batman uses Metron's Mobius Chair to find out the Joker's real name; the chair's answer leaves Batman in disbelief. In the DC Universe: Rebirth (2016) one-shot, Batman informs Hal Jordan that the chair told him there were three individual Jokers, not just one. This revelation was the basis for the miniseries Batman: Three Jokers (2020), written by Geoff Johns with art by Jason Fabok. Three Jokers reveals that the three Jokers, who work in tandem, include \"The Criminal\", a methodical mastermind based on the Golden Age Joker; \"The Clown\", a goofy prankster based on the Silver Age Joker; and \"The Comedian\", a sadistic psychopath based on the Modern Age Joker. The Comedian orchestrates the deaths of the other two Jokers and reveals himself as the original. The miniseries ends with the revelation that Batman knows the Joker's true identity.\n\n### Origins\n\nAlthough a number of backstories have been given, a definitive one has never been established for the Joker. An unreliable narrator, the character is uncertain of who he was before and how he became the Joker: \"Sometimes I remember it one way, sometimes another ...if I'm going to have a past, I prefer it to be multiple choice!\" A story about the Joker's origin appeared in Detective Comics \\#168 (February 1951), more than decade after the character's debut. Here, the character is a laboratory worker who becomes the Red Hood (a masked criminal) to steal \\$1 million and retire. He falls into a vat of chemical waste when his heist is thwarted by Batman, emerging with bleached white skin, red lips, green hair and a permanent grin.\n\nThis story was the basis for the most often-cited origin tale, Moore's one-shot The Killing Joke. The man who will become the Joker quits his job as a lab assistant in order to fulfill his dream of being a stand-up comedian, only to fail miserably. Desperate to support his pregnant wife, he agrees to help two criminals commit a robbery as the Red Hood. The heist goes awry; the comedian leaps into a chemical vat to escape Batman, surfacing disfigured. This, combined with the earlier accidental death of his wife and unborn child, drives the comedian insane, turning him into the Joker. This version has been cited in many stories, including Batman: The Man Who Laughs (in which Batman deduces that the Red Hood survived his fall and became the Joker), Batman \\#450 (in which the Joker dons the Red Hood to aid his recovery after the events in \"A Death in the Family\", but finds the experience too traumatic), Batman: Shadow of the Bat \\#38 (in which Joker's failed stand-up performance is shown), \"Death of the Family\", and Batman: Three Jokers (which asserts that it is the canon origin story). Other stories have expanded on this origin; \"Pushback\" suggests that the Joker's wife was murdered by a corrupt policeman working for the mobsters, and \"Payback\" gives the Joker's first name as \"Jack\". The ending of Batman: Three Jokers establishes that the Joker's wife did not actually die\u2014rather, she fled to Alaska with the help of Gotham police and Batman because she feared her husband would be an abusive father; the police then told the Joker a story about her dying to protect her. The miniseries also reveals that Batman knows the Joker's identity, and has kept it secret in order to protect the criminal's wife and son.\n\nHowever, the Joker's unreliable memory has allowed writers to develop other origins for the character. \"Case Study\", a Paul Dini-Alex Ross story, describes the Joker as a sadistic gangster who creates the Red Hood identity because he misses the thrill of committing robberies. He has his fateful first meeting with Batman, which results in his disfigurement. It is suggested that the Joker is sane, and researches his crimes to look like the work of a sick mind in order to avoid the death penalty. In Batman Confidential \\#7\u201312, the character, Jack, is a career criminal who is bored with his work. He encounters (and becomes obsessed with) Batman during a heist, embarking on a crime spree to attract the Caped Crusader's attention. After Jack injures Batman's girlfriend, Batman scars Jack's face with a permanent grin and betrays him to a group of mobsters, who torture him in a chemical plant. Jack escapes, but falls into an empty vat as gunfire punctures chemical tanks above him. The flood of chemicals (used in anti-psychotic medication) alters his appearance and completes his transformation. In The Brave and the Bold \\#31, the superhero Atom enters the Joker's mind and sees the criminal's former self - a violent sociopath who tortures animals, murders his own parents, and kills for fun while committing robberies. Snyder's \"Zero Year\" (2013) suggests that the pre-disfigured Joker was a criminal mastermind leading a gang of Red Hoods.\n\nThe Joker has claimed a number of origins, including being the child of an abusive father who broke his nose, and the long-lived jester of an Egyptian pharaoh. As Batman says: \"Like any other comedian, he uses whatever material will work.\"\n\n## Characterization\n\nRenowned as Batman's greatest enemy, the Joker is known by a number of nicknames, including the Clown Prince of Crime, the Harlequin of Hate, the Ace of Knaves, and the Jester of Genocide. During the evolution of the DC Universe, interpretations and versions of the Joker have taken two main forms. The original, dominant image is that of a psychopath with genius-level intelligence and a warped, sadistic sense of humor. The other version, popular in comic books from the late 1940s to the 1960s and in the 1960s television series, is an eccentric, harmless prankster and thief. Like other long-lived characters, the Joker's character and cultural interpretations have changed with time; however, unlike other characters who may need to reconcile or ignore previous versions to make sense, more than any other comic book character, the Joker thrives on his mutable and irreconcilable identities. The Joker is typically seen in a purple suit with a long-tailed, padded-shoulder jacket, a string tie, gloves, striped pants and spats on pointed-toe shoes (sometimes with a wide-brimmed hat). This appearance is such a fundamental aspect of the character that when the 2004 animated series The Batman placed the Joker in a straitjacket, it quickly redesigned him in his familiar suit.\n\nThe Joker is obsessed with Batman, the pair representing a yin-yang of opposing dark and light force; although it is the Joker who represents humor and color and Batman who dwells in the dark. No crime \u2013 including murder, theft, and terrorism \u2013 is beyond the Joker, and his exploits are theatrical performances that are funny to him alone. Spectacle is more important than success for the Joker, and if it is not spectacular it is boring. Although the Joker claims indifference to everything, he secretly craves Batman's attention and validation. The character was described as having killed over 2,000 people in The Joker: Devil's Advocate (1996). Despite this body count, he is always found not guilty by reason of insanity and sent to Arkham Asylum, avoiding the death penalty. Many of the Joker's acts attempt to force Batman to kill; to the Joker, the greatest victory would be to make Batman become like him. The Joker displays no instinct for self-preservation, and is willing to die to prove his point that anyone could become like him after \"one bad day\". The Joker is the \"personification of the irrational,\" and represents \"everything Batman [opposes].\"\n\n### Personality\n\nThe Joker's main characteristic is his apparent insanity, although he is not described as having any particular psychological disorder. Like a psychopath, he lacks empathy, a conscience, and concern over right and wrong. In Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth, the Joker is described as capable of processing outside sensory information only by adapting to it. This enables him to create a new personality every day (depending on what would benefit him) and explains why, at different times, he is a mischievous clown or a psychopathic killer. In \"The Clown at Midnight\" (Batman \\#663 (April 2007)), the Joker enters a meditative state where he evaluates his previous selves to consciously create a new personality, effectively modifying himself for his needs.\n\nThe Killing Joke (in which the Joker is the unreliable narrator) explains the roots of his insanity as \"one bad day\": losing his wife and unborn child and being disfigured by chemicals, paralleling Batman's origin in the loss of his parents. He tries (and fails) to prove that anyone can become like him after one bad day by torturing Commissioner Gordon, physically and psychologically. Batman offers to rehabilitate his foe; the Joker apologetically declines, believing it too late for him to be saved. Other interpretations show that the Joker is fully aware of how his actions affect others and that his insanity as merely an act. Comics scholar Peter Coogan describes the Joker as trying to reshape reality to fit himself by imposing his face on his victims (and fish) in an attempt to make the world comprehensible by creating a twisted parody of himself. Englehart's \"The Laughing Fish\" demonstrates the character's illogical nature: trying to copyright fish that bear his face, and not understanding why threatening the copyright clerk cannot produce the desired result.\n\nThe Joker is alternatively depicted as sexual and asexual. In The Dark Knight Returns and Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth, the Joker is seductive toward Batman; it is uncertain if their relationship has homoerotic undertones or if the Joker is simply trying to manipulate his nemesis. Frank Miller interpreted the character as fixated on death and uninterested in sexual relationships, while Robinson believed that the Joker is capable of a romantic relationship. His relationship with Harley Quinn is abusively paradoxical; although the Joker keeps her at his side, he heedlessly harms her (for example, throwing her out a window without seeing if she survives). Harley loves him, but the Joker does not reciprocate her feelings, chiding her for distracting him from other plans.\n\nSnyder's \"Death of the Family\" describes the Joker as in love with Batman, although not in a traditionally romantic way. The Joker believes that Batman has not killed him because he makes Batman better and he loves the villain for that. Batman comic book writer Peter Tomasi concurred, stating that the Joker's main goal is to make Batman the best that he can be. The Joker and Batman represent opposites: the extroverted Joker wears colorful clothing and embraces chaos, while the introverted, monochromatic Batman represents order and discipline. The Joker is often depicted as defining his existence through his conflict with Batman. In 1994's \"Going Sane\", the villain tries to lead a normal life after Batman's (apparent) death, only to become his old self again when Batman reappears; in \"Emperor Joker\", an apparently omnipotent Joker cannot destroy Batman without undoing himself. Since the Joker is simply \"the Joker\", he believes that Batman is \"Batman\" (with or without the costume) and has no interest in what is behind Batman's mask, ignoring opportunities to learn Batman's secret identity. Given the opportunity to kill Batman, the villain demurs; he believes that without their game, winning is pointless. The character has no desire for typical criminal goals like money or power; his criminality is designed only to continue his game with Batman.\n\nThe Joker is portrayed as having no fear; when fellow supervillain Scarecrow doses him with fear toxin in Knightfall (1993), the Joker merely laughs and says \"Boo!\" The villain has been temporarily rendered sane by several means, including telepathic manipulation by the Martian Manhunter and being resurrected in a Lazarus Pit (an experience typically inducing temporary insanity in the subject). At these moments, the Joker is depicted as expressing remorse for his crimes; however, during a medically induced period of partial sanity in Batman: Cacophony, he tells Batman, \"I don't hate you 'cause I'm crazy. I'm crazy 'cause I hate you,\" and confirms that he will only stop killing when Batman is dead.\n\n### Skills and equipment\n\nThe Joker has no inherent superhuman abilities. He commits crimes with a variety of weaponized thematic props such as a deck of razor-tipped playing cards, rolling marbles, jack-in-the-boxes with unpleasant surprises and exploding cigars capable of leveling a building. The flower in his lapel sprays acid, and his hand often holds a lethal joy buzzer conducting a million volts of electricity, although both items were introduced in 1952 as harmless joke items. However, his chemical genius provides his most-notable weapon: Joker venom, a liquid or gaseous toxin that sends its targets into fits of uncontrollable laughter; higher doses can lead to paralysis, coma or death, leaving its victim with a ghoulish, pained rictus grin. The Joker has used venom since his debut; only he knows the formula, and is shown to be gifted enough to manufacture the toxin from ordinary household chemicals. Another version of the venom (used in Joker: Last Laugh) makes its victims resemble the Joker, susceptible to his orders. The villain is immune to venom and most poisons; in Batman \\#663 (April 2007), Morrison writes that being \"an avid consumer of his own chemical experiments, the Joker's immunity to poison concoctions that might kill another man in an instant has been developed over years of dedicated abuse.\"\n\nThe character's arsenal is inspired by his nemesis' weaponry, such as batarangs. In \"The Joker's Utility Belt\" (1952), he mimicked Batman's utility belt with non-lethal items, such as Mexican jumping beans and sneezing powder. In 1942's \"The Joker Follows Suit\", the villain built his versions of the Batplane and Batmobile, the Jokergyro and Jokermobile (the latter with a large Joker face on its hood), and created a Joker-signal with which criminals could summon him for their heists. The Jokermobile lasted for several decades, evolving with the Batmobile. His technical genius is not limited by practicality, allowing him to hijack Gotham's television airwaves to issue threats, transform buildings into death traps, launch a gas attack on the city and rain poisoned glass shards on its citizens from an airship.\n\nThe Joker is portrayed as skilled in melee combat, from his initial appearances when he defeats Batman in a sword fight (nearly killing him), and others when he overwhelms Batman but declines to kill him. He is talented with firearms, although even his guns are theatrical; his long-barreled revolver often releases a flag reading \"Bang\", and a second trigger-pull launches the flag to skewer its target. Although formidable in combat, the Joker's chief asset is his mind.\n\n### Relationships\n\nThe Joker's unpredictable, homicidal nature makes him one of the most feared supervillains in the DC Universe; the Trickster says in the 1995 miniseries Underworld Unleashed, \"When super-villains want to scare each other, they tell Joker stories.\" Gotham's villains also feel threatened by the character; depending on the circumstances, he is as likely to fight with his rivals for control of the city as he is to join them for an entertaining outcome. The Joker interacts with other supervillains who oppose Batman, whether he is on the streets or in Arkham Asylum. He has collaborated with criminals like the Penguin, the Riddler, and Two-Face, although these partnerships rarely end well due to the Joker's desire for unbridled chaos, and he uses his stature to lead others (such as Killer Croc and the Scarecrow). The Joker's greatest rival is the smartest man in the world, Lex Luthor. Although they have a friendly partnership in 1950's World's Finest Comics \\#88, later unions emphasized their mutual hostility and clashing egos.\n\nDespite his tendency to kill subordinates on a whim, the Joker has no difficulty attracting henchmen with a seemingly infinite cash supply and intimidation; they are too afraid of their employer to refuse his demands that they wear red clown noses or laugh at his macabre jokes. Even with his unpredictability and lack of superhuman powers, the 2007 limited series Salvation Run sees hundreds of villains fall under his spell because they are more afraid of him than Lex Luthor. Batman \\#186 (1966) introduced the Joker's first sidekick: the one-shot character Gaggy Gagsworthy, who is short and dressed like a clown; the character was later resurrected as an enemy of his replacement, Harley Quinn. Introduced in the 1992 animated series, Quinn is the Joker's former Arkham psychiatrist who develops an obsessive infatuation with him and dons a red-and-black harlequin costume to join him as his sidekick and on-off girlfriend. They have a classic abusive relationship; even though the Joker constantly insults, hurts, and even tries to kill Harley, she always returns to him, convinced that he loves her. The Joker is sometimes shown to keep spotted hyenas as pets; this trait was introduced in the 1977 animated series The New Adventures of Batman. A 1976 issue of Batman Family introduced Duela Dent as the Joker's daughter, though her parentage claim was later proven to be false.\n\nAlthough his chief obsession is Batman, the character has occasionally ventured outside Gotham City to fight Batman's superhero allies. In \"To Laugh and Die in Metropolis\" (1987) the character kidnaps Lois Lane, distracting Superman with a nuclear weapon. The story is notable for the Joker taking on a (relative) god and the ease with which Superman defeats him\u2014it took only 17 pages. Asked why he came to Metropolis, the Joker replies simply: \"Oh Superman, why not?\" In 1995, the Joker fought his third major DC hero: Wonder Woman, who drew on the Greek god of trickery to temper the Joker's humor and shatter his confidence. The character has joined supervillain groups like the Injustice Gang and the Injustice League to take on superhero groups like the Justice League.\n\n## Alternative versions\n\nA number of alternate universes in DC Comics publications allow writers to introduce variations on the Joker, in which the character's origins, behavior, and morality differ from the mainstream setting. The Dark Knight Returns depicts the final battle between an aged Batman and Joker; others portray the aftermath of the Joker's death at the hands of a number of characters, including Superman. Still others describe distant futures in which the Joker is a computer virus or a hero trying to defeat the era's tyrannical Batman. In some stories, the Joker is someone else entirely; Flashpoint portrays Batman's mother Martha Wayne becoming the Joker after being driven mad by her son's murder, and in Superman: Speeding Bullets, Lex Luthor becomes the Joker in a world where Superman is Batman.\n\n### Amalgam Comics\n\nAmalgam Comics is a 1997\u201398 shared imprint of DC Comics and Marvel Comics, which features characters that are composites of DC and Marvel characters. The Hyena (Creed H. Quinn) is a composite of DC's Joker and Marvel's Sabretooth. He is the nemesis of the Dark Claw (Logan Wayne), a composite of Batman and Marvel's Wolverine. Hyena, like Wayne, is a mutant with the ability to rapidly heal injuries. The two were both subjects of the Weapon X program, an attempt to create \"living weapons\". Hyena used his enhancements to become a psychopathic killer. The Hyena first appeared in Legends of the Dark Claw \\#1 (April 1996).\n\n### Batman Beyond\n\nIn the timeline of Batman Beyond, set in the DC animated universe after the events of the film Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker, the Joker remains deceased. In the Justice League Beyond arc \"Flashdrive\" his corpse appears in a flashback, set immediately after his death at the hands of Tim Drake in Return of the Joker, being buried beneath Arkham Asylum by Batman and James Gordon. The Joker's death is shown to be the catalyst for Barbara Gordon's retirement as Batgirl besides Drake's eventual retirement as Robin.\n\n### Batman/Judge Dredd\n\nBatman/Judge Dredd featured the Joker character as a member of the Dark Judges, in the original miniseries Batman and Judge Dredd: Die Laughing \\#1\u20132 (1998). The Joker helped free the original Dark Judges in exchange for immortality. He received his payment by having his spirit merged into a corpse (which was not quite the \"immortality\" he had sought), creating \"Judge Joker\". As a Dark Judge, the Joker could kill masses of people with his laugh, which caused human heads to explode.\n\nHis tenure was a brief one, as he quickly became bored with slaughter simply for its own sake and did not share the original Dark Judges' fanatical zeal for their \"sacred mission\" of purging all life. The Joker was restored to his normal, mortal form upon returning to Gotham City via a defective dimensional jump device.\n\n### Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles\n\nDuring Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles the Joker is first seen mocking one of Arkham's psychiatrists, earning him a dose of medication. The Joker is also mutated into a king cobra in style of naga. Despite almost killing Batman, he is quickly knocked out by Donatello.\n\n### Batman: Damned\n\nIn the miniseries Batman: Damned, printed under the DC Black Label, the Joker's death is the center of the story. The circumstances are left unclear, though it occurred after a confrontation with Batman led to both of them tumbling over a bridge. The Joker's body is later discovered by police, having washed up on shore, while Batman is severely injured and disoriented. Harley Quinn snaps completely and performs surgery on herself to resemble the Joker, before leading his henchmen on a revenge mission.\n\n### Batman: Earth One\n\nThe Joker is introduced towards the end of Volume Three of the graphic novel series Batman: Earth One. In this version, he is suggested to be the one responsible for the Flying Graysons' demise, and frees Toyman from police custody in order to enlist him for his future plans.\n\n### Batman: White Knight\n\nIn this alternate reality, the Joker mocks Batman's attitude towards his \"crusade\" for justice, claiming that Batman's actions amount to nothing but an attempt to control his world and the Joker simply gives him the opportunity to express this rage. Disgusted at this claim, Batman force-feeds the Joker a bottle of pills that the villain had just stolen, but the overdose has the unexpected side effect of restoring the Joker to sanity, as well as remembering his former identity of Jack Napier, prompting him to \"order\" the GCPD to either charge Batman for assault, or he would sue the department for complicity in Batman's abuse of prisoners. Napier's case against the department continues as he states that the GCPD locked him up as a major criminal on minimal evidence, and even finds himself reforming Harley Quinn as he reveals that he drove the true Doctor Harleen Quinzell away a long time ago and the Harley he has been working with was another madwoman. He reinforces his vendetta against Batman by discovering records of the cost of building insurance to compensate for all the damage caused by Batman's actions, as well as taking control of several other villains by adapting the technology used by the Mad Hatter to take control of Clayface and then expose the others to samples of Clayface, allowing him to control them by proxy.\n\n### Captain Carrot and His Amazing Zoo Crew\n\nThe 1980s series Captain Carrot and His Amazing Zoo Crew presented the parallel Earth of \"Earth-C\", a world populated by talking animal superheroes. Captain Carrot, in his secret identity of Roger Rodney Rabbit, is the creator of the superhero comic Just'a Lotta Animals (a cartoon-animal version of the Justice League of America). Captain Carrot and the Zoo eventually discover the characters in Rodney's comics actually live on \"Earth-C-Minus\", in yet another alternate universe. There, the Porker, a pig analog of the Joker, is the nemesis of the Batmouse. A poster of the Porker (drawn in a style resembling Alex Ross's version of the Joker) is later seen at a comic book convention on Earth-C.\n\n### DC/Marvel crossovers\n\n- In the 1981 story Batman and the Incredible Hulk: The Monster and the Madman, the Shaper of Worlds loses control of his powers after passing through a unique field of radiation. He makes contact with the Joker to steal gamma ray equipment from Wayne Enterprises that can treat his condition. Despite the intervention of the Hulk, the Joker manages to escape with the equipment by tricking the Hulk into fighting Batman. The stolen ray proves ineffective, but exposure to the Hulk's unique gamma radiation cures the Shaper instead. As part of a deal with the Joker, the Shaper agrees to make the Joker's dreams real, but Batman and the Hulk are able to trick him into overloading his ability to dream.\n- Carnage teams up with the Joker in Spider-Man and Batman: Disordered Minds \\#1 (1995). The two meet when behavioral psychiatrist Cassandra Briar attempts to use the two killers as tests for a chip that will \"lobotomise\" their homicidal instincts. The Carnage symbiote neutralizes Kasady's chip after it is implanted, with Kasady pretending that the chip had worked so that he could meet the Joker. After Carnage removes the Joker's chip, the two's mutual psychoses lead them into a brief alliance before their differing methods of murder cause a clash; Carnage favors numbers and actually seeing the death of his victims of his murder sprees close-up, while the Joker prefers the artistry of his usual traps and tricks, Carnage dismissing the Joker's methods as slow, while Joker sees Carnage as an amateur as anyone can just go out and kill people. The Joker tries to kill Carnage with a bomb, but Carnage drapes a piece of symbiote over a corpse to fake his death. Batman and Spider-Man uncover the trick, and Batman is subsequently engulfed in Carnage's symbiote tendrils. Carnage proposes to kill Batman, but the Joker threatens to set off a bomb to destroy Gotham, himself and Carnage, rather than see Carnage kill Batman. As Batman battles Carnage, Spider-Man follows the Joker. The Joker defiantly dares Spider-Man to kill him, however, Spider-Man is unable to stoop to his level, electing instead to apprehend the Joker in classic hero style.\n- In the 1997 DC/Marvel special Batman/Captain America, the Red Skull hires the Joker to steal an atomic bomb during World War II. Joker evades Batman, Cap, Bucky, and Robin and delivers it to the Skull, but is horrified when he learns that the Skull is a Nazi (saying \"I may be a criminal lunatic but I'm an American criminal lunatic!\"). When the Skull threatens to drop the bomb on Washington D.C., the Joker attacks him in the plane's cargo bay. While Captain America and Batman fly the plane over the ocean, the two villains are dropped out with the bomb just before it explodes. Both Captain America and Batman are convinced that the two are still alive somehow.\n\n### Earth-Two\n\nJoker's history on Earth-Two is the same as his Golden Age history.\n\nKing Kull later recruited Joker of Earth-Two to assist Weeper II of Earth-S, Doctor Light of Earth-One, and Shade of Earth-One in order to trap one side of Earth-S in darkness. Joker did show Weeper II how he commits his crimes on Earth-Two. Their plot was defeated by Batman and Robin of Earth-Two, Mr. Scarlet and Pinky the Whiz Kid of Earth-S, and Hawkman and Hawkgirl of Earth-One.\n\nAfter Batman had died from terminal cancer, Joker refused to believe that his archenemy is dead. Dick Grayson posed as Batman to mesmerize Joker enough for Huntress to apprehend him.\n\nWhen Nicholas Lucien came out of a coma following his last fight with Batman, he found himself incarcerated at Gotham State Penitentiary where Joker became his cellmate. Lucien planned to have his revenge on Batman only to be told by Joker that Batman is dead.\n\n### Earth-2\n\nThe Joker of the Post-52 Earth-2 is depicted as an old man, frail and wheelchair-reliant after a lifetime of exposure to deadly chemicals, and ironically unable to laugh without hurting himself. After disfiguring the Huntress's boyfriend, Harry Simms, in an attempt to create a replacement for the deceased Two-Face, he is tracked down by the vengeful heroine. The Joker attempts to kill the Huntress with a lethal joy buzzer, but the attack is intercepted by Power Girl, and the Joker is himself electrocuted as a result.\n\n### Earth-3\n\nThe Joker of Earth-3 is a hero operating under the alias of the Jokester, and first appeared in Countdown \\#32 (Sep 2007). He is the nemesis of Owlman, a villainous version of Batman. Jokester and his daughter Duela Dent are killed by the rogue Monitor Solomon.\n\n### Earth-9\n\nThe Joker of Earth-9 in the DC Comics imprint Tangent Comics is a female hero who uses her array of jokes and comical devices to mock the evil tyrant Superman's authority. She first appears in Tangent Comics/The Joker \\#1 (Dec. 1997). This Joker is actually three women: student Mary Marvel, entrepreneur Christie Xanadu, and reporter Lori Lemaris, all of whom take turns wearing the Joker costume. Mary is captured by the Tangent Superman and tortured into revealing the identities of the other two before she is killed. Lemaris is sent to prison and Christina's fate is left unknown. Lemaris is later re-offered the Joker mantle, but instead chooses to take up that of her fallen comrade, Manhunter.\n\n### Earth-16\n\nOn this alternate Earth, the children of metahuman heroes and villains have been forced into apparent retirement due to the efficiency of Superman robots. Amongst these individuals is Duela Dent/the Joker's Daughter, friends with Alexis Luthor, daughter of Lex Luthor.\n\n### Earth-23\n\nIn the timeline of Batman: The Brave and the Bold, set outside the DC animated universe, the character operates as the hero the Red Hood, escaping the clutches of the villainous Batman counterpart Owlman.\n\n### Earth -22\n\nOn Earth -22 of the Dark Multiverse, the Joker discovers Batman's secret identity. He slaughters most of Batman's other rogues, as well as Commissioner Gordon, and then infects a sizeable portion of Gotham's population with the same chemicals that transformed him, subsequently killing several parents in front of their children with the goal of creating a gathering of children that were essentially a combination of himself and Batman. As Batman grapples with the Joker, the Joker finally dies from the chemicals that had originally transformed him. As he dies, his decaying body infects Batman with a virus that gradually transforms him into a new Joker. By the time the Batman realizes this, the process is too advanced for him to find a cure. Batman kills most of his allies and transforms Damian into a mini-Joker before turning on the rest of the Justice League and then conquering the world. Although the Batman Who Laughs successfully leads the other Dark Knights in a large-scale assault on the prime DC Universe on behalf of Barbatos, he is finally defeated by Batman and the Joker of the prime Earth. The Joker mockingly notes that even an insane Batman can only plan for scenarios that he believes are possible, and an alliance between the Joker and the Batman is the one thing the Batman Who Laughs could never have considered.\n\n### Earth 2\n\nIn 2011, \"The New 52\" rebooted the DC continuity. On Earth 2, Joker is a dangerous criminal who is imprisoned in a stasis chamber at Arkham Base. When Batman entered Arkham base to look for inmates to aid him, he shot Joker in the head.\n\n### Elseworlds\n\nElseworlds titles are stories that take place in their own separate continuities and often feature different interpretations of mainstream continuity characters.\n\n#### Batman: Bloodstorm (1994)\n\nIn Batman: Bloodstorm, a sequel to Batman & Dracula: Red Rain, the Joker becomes the leader of a group of vampires after the death of their original leader, Dracula. Although he successfully coordinates their efforts to take control of Gotham's major crime families, the now-vampire Batman aided by were-cat Selina Kyle is able to destroy the Joker's minions. Unfortunately, Selina is killed in the final battle with the Joker's vampires, with her death causing Batman to succumb to his lust for blood and drink from the Joker. Although he stakes his foe to prevent him from coming back as a vampire, Batman is left tormented by the knowledge that the Joker won their long conflict by driving him to kill, often reflecting that he is damned by Dracula's bite and the Joker's blood in equal measure as he surrenders to his vampire side and turns on his old enemies.\n\n#### Batman: In Darkest Knight (1994)\n\nIn Batman: In Darkest Knight, a Joker/Two-Face analog character is created when Sinestro absorbs the mind of Joe Chill, driving him insane and resulting in his taking on Joker's iconic purple suit and warped sense of humor (as well as a state resembling multiple personality disorder). The classic Joker origin (as depicted in The Killing Joke) is referenced, but averted by Green Lantern Bruce Wayne; after being arrested, the Red Hood says he has \"had a really bad day\", and Bruce counters by saying that that is no excuse, because everyone has terrible days, which shames the Hood into apologizing.\n\n#### Batman: Leatherwing (1994)\n\nIn Batman: Leatherwing, the Joker is represented as the \"Laughing Man\", the deformed and insane pirate captain of the ship Pescador. He is the adversary of Captain Leatherwing, a Batman analogue.\n\n#### Batman: Nosferatu (1999)\n\nIn Batman: Nosferatu, the Joker appears as the Laughing Man, a monstrous cyborg created by the experiments of the depraved Dr. Arkham, who uses him as an assassin. This version of the Joker ironically ends up creating this world's Batman after an assassination attempt on Bruce Wayne's counterpart.\n\n#### Batman: Two Faces (1998)\n\nIn Batman: Two Faces, the Joker is not an independent entity, but a shared identity created when a potion created by Bruce Wayne to give himself superhuman strength also creates a new personality, Bruce alternating randomly between himself and the Joker, his Batman identity fighting crime, while the Joker commits murders. After he realizes the truth and confesses to his allies, Bruce, unable to cure himself, allows himself to fall off a building to stop the Joker once and for all.\n\n#### Gotham by Gaslight (1989)\n\nThe Joker cameos in Gotham by Gaslight as a serial killer who, having married and poisoned at least 10 women, tries to commit suicide with strychnine when he is caught, leaving him with a permanent grin.\n\n#### JLA: The Nail (1998)\n\nIn JLA: The Nail, the Joker is provided with Kryptonian gauntlets and launches an attack on Arkham Asylum, forcing most of the inmates to fight each other before brutally murdering Batgirl and Robin while forcing Batman to watch. Catwoman distracts Joker long enough for Batman to escape, but the traumatised Batman subsequently kills the Joker in a rage. During JLA: Another Nail (2004), Batman encounters the Joker in the afterlife when dimensional anomalies allow him to escape from Hell, briefly attempting to sacrifice himself to ensure that the Joker will remain trapped, but Robin and Batgirl's spirit halts Batman's attempted sacrifice and gives him the strength to move on from his guilt.\n\n#### Superman & Batman: Generations (1999)\n\nIn the Superman & Batman: Generations miniseries, the DC characters are shown to age at a normal rate, with Batman and Superman beginning their careers in 1939. In 1949, the Joker and Lex Luthor kidnap a pregnant Lois Lane and expose her to gold kryptonite; this renders her first-born child a normal human. In 1969, the now-elderly Joker secretly escapes Arkham Asylum and poses as 'Joker Junior', claiming to be the original's prot\u00e9g\u00e9. The Joker kills the second Batman (an adult Dick Grayson) before revealing his true identity to the police as he gloats about how he has finally killed Batman, but Bruce Junior, Bruce Wayne's son and Grayson's Robin, manages to switch costumes with his mentor to create the impression that the Joker killed Robin rather than Batman. In 1975, Grayson's spirit attacks the Joker in an attempt to kill him, but the spirit of the deceased Alfred Pennyworth convinces Grayson to pass on as the Joker can be no threat to anyone. Learning that his enemy is about to die of old age, the now-retired Bruce Wayne dons the cape and cowl for a final visit to the Joker's deathbed. Batman rejects the Joker's request to learn his true identity, on the grounds that the Joker is the last man that he would want to bring peace to.\n\n#### Superman: Speeding Bullets (1993)\n\nThis Elseworlds story Superman: Speeding Bullets is set on an Earth where baby Kal-El was adopted by Thomas and Martha Wayne and raised as Bruce Wayne. When Bruce's parents are killed, he becomes the ruthless vigilante Batman. Batman's nemesis is Lex Luthor who, in this reality, was injured in the same type of chemical accident that created the main universe Joker. The accident also drives Luthor insane, and he attempts to destroy Gotham City with an army of thugs, but is stopped by Batman.\n\n#### Thrillkiller and Thrillkiller '62\n\nIn the Elseworlds miniseries Batman: Thrillkiller (Jan.-March 1997), the Joker is gangster Bianca Steeplechase, and the nemesis of Batgirl and Robin. Steeplechase poisons Robin, masquerades as the mayor's wife, abducts and tortures Bruce Wayne, and is in a lesbian relationship with Earth-37's Harley Quinn. Bianca is killed by Batgirl, drowning in the Gotham River.\n\n### Flashpoint\n\nIn the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint event, Martha Wayne is the Joker (and even resembles Heath Ledger's portrayal as seen in The Dark Knight). After Bruce Wayne is shot and killed by Joe Chill, Martha is unable to cope with her loss, so she cuts open her cheeks to create a faux smile.\n\nAs the Joker, she is the nemesis of Batman and uses Yo-Yo as a henchman. She kidnaps Harvey Dent's son and daughter. The Joker kills James Gordon after she tricks Gordon into shooting Harvey's daughter (disguised as the Joker). After Dent's son and daughter are saved, Batman confronts the Joker about their son's death. As Batman has recently met Barry Allen, Martha learns that there is a way to rewrite history where Bruce will live, although they will die. Realizing that her son will be Batman in that timeline, Martha flees in horror, falling to her death in the caverns below Wayne Manor.\n\n### Injustice: Gods Among Us comic\n\nIn this spin-off of the online game, the Joker tires of his unsuccessful fight with Batman, and decides to attack Superman. He and Harley Quinn kill Jimmy Olsen and abduct Lois Lane (who is pregnant with Superman's child). They place a stolen nuclear warhead within Metropolis with a deadman switch wired to Lois. After exposing Superman to kryptonite-laced fear toxin (stolen from the Scarecrow), Superman mistakes Lois for Doomsday and kills her. Metropolis is destroyed in the subsequent nuclear detonation. A grief-stricken and vengeful Superman confronts the captured Joker, who states that he will just escape to commit more crimes and taunts Superman about not finding love and happiness again, saying he will take it again from him. Enraged beyond words, Superman kills the Joker and establishes the Regime, intent on eliminating crime through any means necessary.\n\nIn the Year Three comic series, Superman is placed into a magical sleep where he imagines events playing out differently. He is able to break free of the fear toxin in time to save Lois, their child, and Metropolis. Before an angry Superman can attack the Joker, Batman takes the Joker away. When the Joker confesses to Batman that he would try to kill Lois again, Batman kills the Joker and is imprisoned as a result. With the tragedy averted, Superman is able to live a happy life with his wife and child. Superman is eventually woken from his dream and forced to contend with a world where the Joker bested him much to his agonizing fury.\n\nIn Year Four it is revealed that the Joker's name is used by the Joker Underground, a large group of people who oppose Superman's Regime and see the Joker as a symbol of freedom. This catches Batwoman and Harley Quinn's eyes and they convince the protestors to use a different system. The Underground agree, but shortly after the two depart an enraged Superman shows up, furious they are using the Joker as a symbol. He then kills the Underground, including over 200 people, as punishment. This results in others continuing to use the Joker's name as a symbol, in response to the fact that Superman showed he is willing to murder those who had already agreed to stop using the Joker's name as their symbol, resulting in the Underground being temporarily co-opted by the Joker of an alternate universe.\n\n### Joker (2008)\n\nAnother graphic novel, called simply Joker, focuses on the character in a more gritty, realistic version of the Batman mythos.\n\n### Planetary/Batman\n\nPlanetary/Batman presents the Joker as a field agent for Planetary named Jasper, working under Richard Grayson. He is apparently harmless and has a habit of giggling when he is nervous. Elijah Snow mentions not liking the way Jasper \"kept hugging himself\" when looking at pictures of homicides.\n\n### Smallville\n\nIn a comic book miniseries based on the television series Smallville, an interpretation of the Joker made his debut in Smallville: Alien \\#3 (February 2014). He is the Earth-13 version of Batman and incorporates an element of the Crime Syndicate/Society character, Owlman in addition to pale skin and green hair of Joker.\n\n### Possible futures\n\n#### Batman: Digital Justice\n\nIn the 1990 graphic novel Batman: Digital Justice created by Pepe Moreno, an artificial intelligence calling itself the \"Joker Virus\" takes over a futuristic, technology-dependent Gotham City in the late 21st century and claims to be the reincarnation of its creator, the original Joker. Batman, in this version the grandson of Commissioner James W. Gordon, stops the virus with help from another A.I.: the Batcomputer, as programmed by the long-dead Bruce Wayne.\n\n#### Dark Knight universe\n\n- In the alternative future of The Dark Knight Returns (1986), the Joker has been catatonic since Batman's retirement but regains consciousness after seeing a news story about his nemesis' reemergence. He manipulates his psychiatrist into declaring him cured, and hires a publicist to book him on a late night talk show. He then embarks on a killing spree, drawing Batman out into the open. Batman pursues him into the Tunnel of Love at a carnival, where he fractures the Joker's neck in a fit of rage, but cannot bring himself to kill his old foe. The Joker then commits suicide by twisting his fractured neck until it breaks completely, thus framing Batman as a murderer. His body is soon found by the police before it abruptly bursts into flame, Batman having rigged the corpse to create a distraction.\n- In The Dark Knight Strikes Again (2001), the sequel to The Dark Knight Returns, a man resembling the Joker with supernatural powers and a healing factor kills numerous superheroes under orders from Lex Luthor to foil Batman's superhero revolution against Luthor's dictatorial regime. Despite his appearance, several heroes insist that he cannot be the deceased Joker. In the climax, he is revealed to be Dick Grayson, who had been fired and abandoned by Batman many years ago. Grayson targeted Batman's partner Carrie Kelley specifically because of his jealousy of the girl. Grayson's disguise as the Joker is shown to have been a ploy to taunt Batman emotionally before taking his revenge. Dick is killed after a final confrontation with Batman.\n- In All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder, the prequel to The Dark Knight Returns (1986), the Joker is revealed to be the man responsible for the death of Grayson's parents, having hired \"Jocko-Boy\" Vanzetti to murder them during a circus act.\n- In the one-shot Dark Knight Returns: The Last Crusade, the Joker is revealed to be responsible for the death of Jason Todd, by having ordered his men to brutally beat the new Robin to death in retaliation of his last defeat by the Dynamic Duo.\n- In Dark Knight Returns: The Golden Child (2019), the sequel to The Dark Knight III: The Master Race, another Joker is seen working alongside Darkseid and campaigning to be President of the United States while his henchmen cause chaos in the streets of Gotham before he is defeated by Carrie Kelley as Batwoman. While the identity of this Joker is never revealed in story, the character notes in the deluxe edition of the comic by the artist, Rafael Gramp\u00e1, for the character seems to suggest that the Joker who appears in The Golden Child is in fact the original Joker from The Dark Knight Returns, and that Frank Miller didn't want to explain how or why the Joker was alive again after his death, as such Gramp\u00e1 explains in the character notes he decided to draw the Joker to look as if he had plastic surgery \"Since the last time we saw him in the Dark Knight saga, where he was burnt!\"\n\n### Superman/Batman (2008)\n\nA \"Super deformed\" version of the Justice League of America and some villains (the Joker among them) appeared in Superman/Batman \\#51 and \\#52. In Grant Morrison's 2014\u201315 miniseries The Multiversity, this alternate Earth is given the designation Earth-42.\n\n### The People's Joker\n\nA 2022 film from Vera Drew, starring a version of The Joker.\n\n## Literary analysis\n\nSince the Bronze Age of Comics, the Joker has been interpreted as an archetypal trickster, displaying talents for cunning intelligence, social engineering, pranks, theatricality, and idiomatic humor. Like the trickster, the Joker alternates between malicious violence and clever, harmless whimsy. He is amoral and not driven by ethical considerations, but by a shameless and insatiable nature, and although his actions are condemned as evil, he is necessary for cultural robustness. The trickster employs amoral and immoral acts to destabilize the status quo and reveal cultural, political, and ethical hypocrisies that society attempts to ignore. However, the Joker differs in that his actions typically only benefit himself. The Joker possesses abnormal body imagery, reflecting an inversion of order. The trickster is simultaneously subhuman and superhuman, a being that indicates a lack of unity in body and mind. In Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth, the Joker serves as Batman's trickster guide through the hero's own psyche, testing him in various ways before ultimately offering to cede his rule of the Asylum to Batman.\n\nRather than the typical anarchist interpretation, others have analysed the character as a Marxist (opposite to Batman's capitalist), arguing that anarchism requires the rejection of all authority in favor of uncontrolled freedom. The Joker rejects most authority, but retains his own, using his actions to coerce and consolidate power in himself and convert the masses to his own way of thinking, while eliminating any that oppose him. In The Killing Joke, the Joker is an abused member of the underclass who is driven insane by failings of the social system. The Joker rejects material needs, and his first appearance in Batman \\#1 sees him perpetrate crimes against Gotham's wealthiest men and the judge who had sent him to prison. Batman is wealthy, yet the Joker is able to triumph through his own innovations.\n\nRyan Litsey described the Joker as an example of a \"Nietzschean Superman,\" arguing that a fundamental aspect of Friedrich Nietzsche's Superman, the \"will to power,\" is exemplified in all of the Joker's actions, providing a master morality to Batman's slave morality. The character's indomitable \"will to power\" means he is never discouraged by being caught or defeated and he is not restrained by guilt or remorse. Joker represents the master, who creates rules and defines them, who judges others without needing approval, and for whom something is good because it benefits him. He creates his own morality and is bound only by his own rules without aspiring to something higher than himself, unlike Batman, the slave, who makes a distinction between good and evil, and is bound to rules outside of himself (such as his avoidance of killing) in his quest for justice. The Joker has no defined origin story that requires him to question how he came to be, as like the Superman he does not regret or assess the past and only moves forward.\n\nThe Joker's controlling and abusive relationship with Harley Quinn has been analyzed as a means of the Joker reinforcing his own belief in his power in a world where he may be killed or neutralized by another villain or Batman. Joker mirrors his identity through Harley in her appearance, and even though he may ignore or act indifferent towards her, he continues to try to subject her to his control. When Harley successfully defeats Batman in Mad Love (1994), the Joker, emasculated by his own failure, severely injures her out of fear of what the other villains will think of him; however, while Harley recovers, the Joker sends her flowers, which she accepts, reasserting his control over her.\n\nHarley's co-creator, Paul Dini, describes their relationship as Harley being someone who makes the Joker feel better about himself, and who can do the work that he does not want to do himself. In the 1999 one-shot comic Batman: Harley Quinn, the Joker decides to kill Harley, after admitting that he does care for her, that their relationship is romantic, and that these feelings prevent him from fulfilling his purpose. Removing the traditional male-female relationship, such as in the Batman: Thrillkiller storyline where the Joker (Bianca Steeplechase) is a female and involved in a lesbian relationship with Harley, their relationship lacks any aspects of violence or subjugation.\n\n## Cultural impact and legacy\n\nThe Joker is considered one of the most recognizable and iconic fictional characters in popular culture, one of the best comic villains, and one of the greatest villains of all time. The character was well-liked following his debut, appearing in nine out of the first 12 Batman issues, and remained one of Batman's most popular foes throughout his publication. The character is considered one of the four top comic book characters, alongside Batman, Superman, and Spider-Man. Indeed, when DC Comics released the original series of Greatest Stories Ever Told (1987\u20131988) featuring collections of stories about heroes like Batman and Superman, the Joker was the only villain included alongside them. The character has been the focus of ethical discussion on the desirability of Batman (who adheres to an unbreakable code forbidding killing) saving lives by murdering the Joker (a relentless dealer of death). These debates weigh the positive (stopping the Joker permanently) against its effect on Batman's character and the possibility that he might begin killing all criminals.\n\nIn 2006, the Joker was number one on Wizard magazine's \"100 Greatest Villains of All Time.\" In 2008 Wizard's list of \"200 Greatest Comic Book Characters of All Time\" placed the Joker fifth, and the character was eighth on Empire's list of \"50 Greatest Comic Book Characters\" (the highest-ranked villain on both lists). In 2009, the Joker was second on IGN's list of \"Top 100 Comic Book Villains,\" and in 2011, Wired named him \"Comics' Greatest Supervillain.\" Complex, CollegeHumor, and WhatCulture named the Joker the greatest comic book villain of all time while IGN listed him the top DC Comics villain in 2013, and Newsarama as the greatest Batman villain.\n\nThe Joker's popularity (and his role as Batman's enemy) has involved the character in most Batman-related media, from television to video games. These adaptations of the character have been received positively on film, television, and in video games. As in the comics, the character's personality and appearance shift; he is campy, ferocious or unstable, depending on the author and the intended audience.\n\nThe character inspired theme-park roller coasters (The Joker's Jinx, The Joker in Mexico and California, and The Joker Chaos Coaster), and featured in story-based rides such as Justice League: Battle for Metropolis. The Joker is one of the few comic book supervillains to be represented on children's merchandise and toys, appearing on items including action figures, trading cards, board games, money boxes, pajamas, socks, and shoes. The Jokermobile was a popular toy; a Corgi die-cast metal replica was successful during the 1950s, and in the 1970s a Joker-styled, flower power-era Volkswagen microbus was manufactured by Mego. In 2015, The Joker: A Serious Study of the Clown Prince of Crime became the first academic book to be published about a supervillain.\n\n### Online phenomena\n\nSince 2012\u20132013, the Joker has inspired a large number of internet memes, often focused on the character's portrayal in films (see below). According to Steven T. Wright of The Outline, the character \"came to symbolize the archetype of the 'edgelord,' a vapid, self-styled provocateur who prides himself in his ability to 'trigger' those who hold progressive viewpoints.\"\n\nThe phrase \"We live in a society\" is commonly associated with the Joker in memes, especially after the release of the trailers of the 2019 film Joker. The line garnered particular notoriety after a trailer for the film Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) featured Joker saying the line.\n\nThe Joker is often featured as part of the \"Gang Weed\" meme, a satirical take on incels, \"neckbeards\" and \"nice guys\", as well as cannabis and gamer culture.\n\n### In other media\n\nThe Joker has appeared in a variety of media, including television series, animated and live-action films. WorldCat (a catalog of libraries in 170 countries) records over 250 productions featuring the Joker as a subject, including films, books, and video games, and Batman films which feature the character are typically the most successful. The character's earliest on-screen adaptation was in the 1966 television series Batman and its film adaptation Batman, in which he was played as a cackling prankster by Cesar Romero (reflecting his contemporary comic counterpart). The Joker then appeared in the animated television series The Adventures of Batman (1968, voiced by Larry Storch), The New Adventures of Batman (1977, voiced by Lennie Weinrib) and The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guardians (1985, voiced by Frank Welker).\n\nA version of the Joker named Jack Napier (played by Jack Nicholson) made his film debut in 1989's Batman, which earned over \\$400 million at the worldwide box office. The role was a defining performance in Nicholson's career and was considered to overshadow Batman's, with film critic Roger Ebert saying that the audience must sometimes remind themselves not to root for the Joker. Batman's success led to the 1992 television series, Batman: The Animated Series. Voiced by Mark Hamill, the Joker retained the darker tone of the comics in stories acceptable for young children. Hamill's Joker is considered a defining portrayal, and he voiced the character in spin-off films (1993's Batman: Mask of the Phantasm and 2000's Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker), video games (2001's Batman: Vengeance), related series (1996's Superman: The Animated Series, 2000's Static Shock and 2001's Justice League), action figures, toys and amusement-park voiceovers. A redesigned Joker, voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson, appeared in 2004's The Batman; Richardson was the first African-American to play the character.\n\nAfter Christopher Nolan's successful 2005 Batman film reboot, Batman Begins, which ended with a teaser for the Joker's involvement in a sequel, the character appeared in 2008's The Dark Knight, played by Heath Ledger as an avatar of anarchy and chaos. While Batman Begins earned a worldwide total of \\$370 million; The Dark Knight earned over \\$1 billion and was the highest-grossing film of the year, setting several contemporary box-office records (including highest-grossing midnight opening, opening day and opening weekend). Ledger won a posthumous Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance, the first acting Oscar ever won for a superhero film. The Joker has featured in a number of animated projects, such as 2009's Batman: The Brave and the Bold (voiced by Jeff Bennett) and 2011's Young Justice (voiced by Brent Spiner). In comic book adaptations, the character has been voiced by John DiMaggio in 2010's Batman: Under the Red Hood and 2020's Batman: Death in the Family, and by Michael Emerson in 2012's two-parter The Dark Knight Returns.\n\nThe television series Gotham (2014\u20132019) explores the mythology of the Joker through twin brothers Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska, played by Cameron Monaghan. Jared Leto portrays the Joker in the DC Extended Universe, beginning with Suicide Squad (2016); Leto reprised the role in Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021). Zach Galifianakis voiced the character in The Lego Batman Movie (2017). The 2019 film Joker focuses on the origins of the Joker (named Arthur Fleck) as portrayed by Joaquin Phoenix. Although the film was controversial for its violence and portrayal of mental illness, Phoenix's performance received widespread acclaim. Like The Dark Knight before it, Joker grossed over \\$1 billion at the box office, breaking contemporary financial records, and earned numerous awards including an Academy Award for Best Actor for Phoenix. Barry Keoghan makes a cameo appearance as the Joker in Matt Reeves' film The Batman (2022), where he is credited as \"Unseen Arkham Prisoner\".\n\nThe Joker has also been featured in video games. Hamill returned to voice the character in 2009's critically acclaimed Batman: Arkham Asylum, its equally praised 2011 sequel Batman: Arkham City and the multiplayer DC Universe Online. Hamill was replaced by Troy Baker for the 2013 prequel, Batman: Arkham Origins, and the Arkham series' animated spin-off Batman: Assault on Arkham, while Hamill returned for the 2015 series finale, Batman: Arkham Knight. Richard Epcar has voiced the Joker in a series of fighting games including, Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe (2008), Injustice: Gods Among Us (2013), its sequel Injustice 2 (2017), and Mortal Kombat 11 (2019). The character also appeared in Lego Batman: The Videogame (2008), Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes (2012) and its animated adaptation, and Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham (2014) (the latter three voiced by Christopher Corey Smith), as well as Lego DC Super-Villains (2018), with the role reprised by Hamill. Anthony Ingruber voices the Joker in Batman: The Telltale Series (2016) and its sequel Batman: The Enemy Within (2017).", "revid": "1172532438", "description": "Fictional character in the DC Universe", "categories": ["Action film villains", "Animated human characters", "Batman characters", "Characters created by Bill Finger", "Characters created by Bob Kane", "Characters created by Jerry Robinson", "Chemical war and weapons in popular culture", "Comics characters introduced in 1940", "DC Comics film characters", "DC Comics male supervillains", "DC Comics scientists", "DC Comics television characters", "Fictional American people in comics", "Fictional bank robbers", "Fictional career criminals", "Fictional characters who have made pacts with devils", "Fictional characters with disfigurements", "Fictional characters without a name", "Fictional chemists", "Fictional clowns", "Fictional comedians", "Fictional crime bosses", "Fictional domestic abusers", "Fictional engineers", "Fictional kidnappers", "Fictional mass murderers", "Fictional murderers of children", "Fictional nihilists", "Fictional pranksters", "Fictional rampage and spree killers", "Fictional serial killers", "Fictional torturers", "Fighting game characters", "Golden Age supervillains", "Joker (character)", "Male characters in film", "Male characters in television", "Male film villains", "Mortal Kombat guest characters", "Red Hood", "Spike Video Game Award winners", "Supervillains with their own comic book titles", "Video game bosses", "Villains in animated television series"]}
+{"id": "5962", "url": null, "title": "Comet", "text": "# Comet\n\nA comet is an icy, small Solar System body that warms and begins to release gases when passing close to the Sun, a process called outgassing. This produces an extended, gravitationally unbound atmosphere or coma surrounding the nucleus, and sometimes a tail of gas and dust gas blown out from the coma. These phenomena are due to the effects of solar radiation and the outstreaming solar wind plasma acting upon the nucleus of the comet. Comet nuclei range from a few hundred meters to tens of kilometers across and are composed of loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles. The coma may be up to 15 times Earth's diameter, while the tail may stretch beyond one astronomical unit. If sufficiently close and bright, a comet may be seen from Earth without the aid of a telescope and can subtend an arc of up to 30\u00b0 (60 Moons) across the sky. Comets have been observed and recorded since ancient times by many cultures and religions.\n\nComets usually have highly eccentric elliptical orbits, and they have a wide range of orbital periods, ranging from several years to potentially several millions of years. Short-period comets originate in the Kuiper belt or its associated scattered disc, which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune. Long-period comets are thought to originate in the Oort cloud, a spherical cloud of icy bodies extending from outside the Kuiper belt to halfway to the nearest star. Long-period comets are set in motion towards the Sun by gravitational perturbations from passing stars and the galactic tide. Hyperbolic comets may pass once through the inner Solar System before being flung to interstellar space. The appearance of a comet is called an apparition.\n\nExtinct comets that have passed close to the Sun many times have lost nearly all of their volatile ices and dust and may come to resemble small asteroids. Asteroids are thought to have a different origin from comets, having formed inside the orbit of Jupiter rather than in the outer Solar System. However, the discovery of main-belt comets and active centaur minor planets has blurred the distinction between asteroids and comets. In the early 21st century, the discovery of some minor bodies with long-period comet orbits, but characteristics of inner solar system asteroids, were called Manx comets. They are still classified as comets, such as C/2014 S3 (PANSTARRS). Twenty-seven Manx comets were found from 2013 to 2017.\n\nAs of November 2021, there are 4,584 known comets. However, this represents a very small fraction of the total potential comet population, as the reservoir of comet-like bodies in the outer Solar System (in the Oort cloud) is about one trillion. Roughly one comet per year is visible to the naked eye, though many of those are faint and unspectacular. Particularly bright examples are called \"great comets\". Comets have been visited by uncrewed probes such as NASA's Deep Impact, which blasted a crater on Comet Tempel 1 to study its interior, and the European Space Agency's Rosetta, which became the first to land a robotic spacecraft on a comet.\n\n## Etymology\n\nThe word comet derives from the Old English cometa from the Latin com\u0113ta or com\u0113t\u0113s. That, in turn, is a romanization of the Greek \u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03ae\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 'wearing long hair', and the Oxford English Dictionary notes that the term (\u1f00\u03c3\u03c4\u1f74\u03c1) \u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03ae\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 already meant 'long-haired star, comet' in Greek. \u039a\u03bf\u03bc\u03ae\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 was derived from \u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u1fb6\u03bd (koman) 'to wear the hair long', which was itself derived from \u03ba\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7 (kom\u0113) 'the hair of the head' and was used to mean 'the tail of a comet'.\n\nThe astronomical symbol for comets (represented in Unicode) is , consisting of a small disc with three hairlike extensions.\n\n## Physical characteristics\n\n### Nucleus\n\nThe solid, core structure of a comet is known as the nucleus. Cometary nuclei are composed of an amalgamation of rock, dust, water ice, and frozen carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, and ammonia. As such, they are popularly described as \"dirty snowballs\" after Fred Whipple's model. Comets with a higher dust content have been called \"icy dirtballs\". The term \"icy dirtballs\" arose after observation of Comet 9P/Tempel 1 collision with an \"impactor\" probe sent by NASA Deep Impact mission in July 2005. Research conducted in 2014 suggests that comets are like \"deep fried ice cream\", in that their surfaces are formed of dense crystalline ice mixed with organic compounds, while the interior ice is colder and less dense.\n\nThe surface of the nucleus is generally dry, dusty or rocky, suggesting that the ices are hidden beneath a surface crust several metres thick. The nuclei contains a variety of organic compounds, which may include methanol, hydrogen cyanide, formaldehyde, ethanol, ethane, and perhaps more complex molecules such as long-chain hydrocarbons and amino acids. In 2009, it was confirmed that the amino acid glycine had been found in the comet dust recovered by NASA's Stardust mission. In August 2011, a report, based on NASA studies of meteorites found on Earth, was published suggesting DNA and RNA components (adenine, guanine, and related organic molecules) may have been formed on asteroids and comets.\n\nThe outer surfaces of cometary nuclei have a very low albedo, making them among the least reflective objects found in the Solar System. The Giotto space probe found that the nucleus of Halley's Comet (1P/Halley) reflects about four percent of the light that falls on it, and Deep Space 1 discovered that Comet Borrelly's surface reflects less than 3.0%; by comparison, asphalt reflects seven percent. The dark surface material of the nucleus may consist of complex organic compounds. Solar heating drives off lighter volatile compounds, leaving behind larger organic compounds that tend to be very dark, like tar or crude oil. The low reflectivity of cometary surfaces causes them to absorb the heat that drives their outgassing processes.\n\nComet nuclei with radii of up to 30 kilometers (19 mi) have been observed, but ascertaining their exact size is difficult. The nucleus of 322P/SOHO is probably only 100\u2013200 meters (330\u2013660 ft) in diameter. A lack of smaller comets being detected despite the increased sensitivity of instruments has led some to suggest that there is a real lack of comets smaller than 100 meters (330 ft) across. Known comets have been estimated to have an average density of 0.6 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (0.35 oz/cu in). Because of their low mass, comet nuclei do not become spherical under their own gravity and therefore have irregular shapes.\n\nRoughly six percent of the near-Earth asteroids are thought to be the extinct nuclei of comets that no longer experience outgassing, including 14827 Hypnos and 3552 Don Quixote.\n\nResults from the Rosetta and Philae spacecraft show that the nucleus of 67P/Churyumov\u2013Gerasimenko has no magnetic field, which suggests that magnetism may not have played a role in the early formation of planetesimals. Further, the ALICE spectrograph on Rosetta determined that electrons (within 1 km (0.62 mi) above the comet nucleus) produced from photoionization of water molecules by solar radiation, and not photons from the Sun as thought earlier, are responsible for the degradation of water and carbon dioxide molecules released from the comet nucleus into its coma. Instruments on the Philae lander found at least sixteen organic compounds at the comet's surface, four of which (acetamide, acetone, methyl isocyanate and propionaldehyde) have been detected for the first time on a comet.\n\n### Coma\n\nThe streams of dust and gas thus released form a huge and extremely thin atmosphere around the comet called the \"coma\". The force exerted on the coma by the Sun's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous \"tail\" to form pointing away from the Sun.\n\nThe coma is generally made of water and dust, with water making up to 90% of the volatiles that outflow from the nucleus when the comet is within 3 to 4 astronomical units (450,000,000 to 600,000,000 km; 280,000,000 to 370,000,000 mi) of the Sun. The parent molecule is destroyed primarily through photodissociation and to a much smaller extent photoionization, with the solar wind playing a minor role in the destruction of water compared to photochemistry. Larger dust particles are left along the comet's orbital path whereas smaller particles are pushed away from the Sun into the comet's tail by light pressure.\n\nAlthough the solid nucleus of comets is generally less than 60 kilometers (37 mi) across, the coma may be thousands or millions of kilometers across, sometimes becoming larger than the Sun. For example, about a month after an outburst in October 2007, comet 17P/Holmes briefly had a tenuous dust atmosphere larger than the Sun. The Great Comet of 1811 had a coma roughly the diameter of the Sun. Even though the coma can become quite large, its size can decrease about the time it crosses the orbit of Mars around 1.5 astronomical units (220,000,000 km; 140,000,000 mi) from the Sun. At this distance the solar wind becomes strong enough to blow the gas and dust away from the coma, and in doing so enlarging the tail. Ion tails have been observed to extend one astronomical unit (150 million km) or more.\n\nBoth the coma and tail are illuminated by the Sun and may become visible when a comet passes through the inner Solar System, the dust reflects sunlight directly while the gases glow from ionisation. Most comets are too faint to be visible without the aid of a telescope, but a few each decade become bright enough to be visible to the naked eye. Occasionally a comet may experience a huge and sudden outburst of gas and dust, during which the size of the coma greatly increases for a period of time. This happened in 2007 to Comet Holmes.\n\nIn 1996, comets were found to emit X-rays. This greatly surprised astronomers because X-ray emission is usually associated with very high-temperature bodies. The X-rays are generated by the interaction between comets and the solar wind: when highly charged solar wind ions fly through a cometary atmosphere, they collide with cometary atoms and molecules, \"stealing\" one or more electrons from the atom in a process called \"charge exchange\". This exchange or transfer of an electron to the solar wind ion is followed by its de-excitation into the ground state of the ion by the emission of X-rays and far ultraviolet photons.\n\n### Bow shock\n\nBow shocks form as a result of the interaction between the solar wind and the cometary ionosphere, which is created by the ionization of gases in the coma. As the comet approaches the Sun, increasing outgassing rates cause the coma to expand, and the sunlight ionizes gases in the coma. When the solar wind passes through this ion coma, the bow shock appears.\n\nThe first observations were made in the 1980s and 1990s as several spacecraft flew by comets 21P/Giacobini\u2013Zinner, 1P/Halley, and 26P/Grigg\u2013Skjellerup. It was then found that the bow shocks at comets are wider and more gradual than the sharp planetary bow shocks seen at, for example, Earth. These observations were all made near perihelion when the bow shocks already were fully developed.\n\nThe Rosetta spacecraft observed the bow shock at comet 67P/Churyumov\u2013Gerasimenko at an early stage of bow shock development when the outgassing increased during the comet's journey toward the Sun. This young bow shock was called the \"infant bow shock\". The infant bow shock is asymmetric and, relative to the distance to the nucleus, wider than fully developed bow shocks.\n\n### Tails\n\nIn the outer Solar System, comets remain frozen and inactive and are extremely difficult or impossible to detect from Earth due to their small size. Statistical detections of inactive comet nuclei in the Kuiper belt have been reported from observations by the Hubble Space Telescope but these detections have been questioned. As a comet approaches the inner Solar System, solar radiation causes the volatile materials within the comet to vaporize and stream out of the nucleus, carrying dust away with them.\n\nThe streams of dust and gas each form their own distinct tail, pointing in slightly different directions. The tail of dust is left behind in the comet's orbit in such a manner that it often forms a curved tail called the type II or dust tail. At the same time, the ion or type I tail, made of gases, always points directly away from the Sun because this gas is more strongly affected by the solar wind than is dust, following magnetic field lines rather than an orbital trajectory. On occasions\u2014such as when Earth passes through a comet's orbital plane, the antitail, pointing in the opposite direction to the ion and dust tails, may be seen.\n\nThe observation of antitails contributed significantly to the discovery of solar wind. The ion tail is formed as a result of the ionization by solar ultra-violet radiation of particles in the coma. Once the particles have been ionized, they attain a net positive electrical charge, which in turn gives rise to an \"induced magnetosphere\" around the comet. The comet and its induced magnetic field form an obstacle to outward flowing solar wind particles. Because the relative orbital speed of the comet and the solar wind is supersonic, a bow shock is formed upstream of the comet in the flow direction of the solar wind. In this bow shock, large concentrations of cometary ions (called \"pick-up ions\") congregate and act to \"load\" the solar magnetic field with plasma, such that the field lines \"drape\" around the comet forming the ion tail.\n\nIf the ion tail loading is sufficient, the magnetic field lines are squeezed together to the point where, at some distance along the ion tail, magnetic reconnection occurs. This leads to a \"tail disconnection event\". This has been observed on a number of occasions, one notable event being recorded on 20 April 2007, when the ion tail of Encke's Comet was completely severed while the comet passed through a coronal mass ejection. This event was observed by the STEREO space probe.\n\nIn 2013, ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions.\"\n\n### Jets\n\nUneven heating can cause newly generated gases to break out of a weak spot on the surface of comet's nucleus, like a geyser. These streams of gas and dust can cause the nucleus to spin, and even split apart. In 2010 it was revealed dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide) can power jets of material flowing out of a comet nucleus. Infrared imaging of Hartley 2 shows such jets exiting and carrying with it dust grains into the coma.\n\n## Orbital characteristics\n\nMost comets are small Solar System bodies with elongated elliptical orbits that take them close to the Sun for a part of their orbit and then out into the further reaches of the Solar System for the remainder. Comets are often classified according to the length of their orbital periods: The longer the period the more elongated the ellipse.\n\n### Short period\n\nPeriodic comets or short-period comets are generally defined as those having orbital periods of less than 200 years. They usually orbit more-or-less in the ecliptic plane in the same direction as the planets. Their orbits typically take them out to the region of the outer planets (Jupiter and beyond) at aphelion; for example, the aphelion of Halley's Comet is a little beyond the orbit of Neptune. Comets whose aphelia are near a major planet's orbit are called its \"family\". Such families are thought to arise from the planet capturing formerly long-period comets into shorter orbits.\n\nAt the shorter orbital period extreme, Encke's Comet has an orbit that does not reach the orbit of Jupiter, and is known as an Encke-type comet. Short-period comets with orbital periods less than 20 years and low inclinations (up to 30 degrees) to the ecliptic are called traditional Jupiter-family comets (JFCs). Those like Halley, with orbital periods of between 20 and 200 years and inclinations extending from zero to more than 90 degrees, are called Halley-type comets (HTCs). As of 2023, 70 Encke-type comets, 100 HTCs, and 755 JFCs have been reported.\n\nRecently discovered main-belt comets form a distinct class, orbiting in more circular orbits within the asteroid belt.\n\nBecause their elliptical orbits frequently take them close to the giant planets, comets are subject to further gravitational perturbations. Short-period comets have a tendency for their aphelia to coincide with a giant planet's semi-major axis, with the JFCs being the largest group. It is clear that comets coming in from the Oort cloud often have their orbits strongly influenced by the gravity of giant planets as a result of a close encounter. Jupiter is the source of the greatest perturbations, being more than twice as massive as all the other planets combined. These perturbations can deflect long-period comets into shorter orbital periods.\n\nBased on their orbital characteristics, short-period comets are thought to originate from the centaurs and the Kuiper belt/scattered disc \u2014a disk of objects in the trans-Neptunian region\u2014whereas the source of long-period comets is thought to be the far more distant spherical Oort cloud (after the Dutch astronomer Jan Hendrik Oort who hypothesized its existence). Vast swarms of comet-like bodies are thought to orbit the Sun in these distant regions in roughly circular orbits. Occasionally the gravitational influence of the outer planets (in the case of Kuiper belt objects) or nearby stars (in the case of Oort cloud objects) may throw one of these bodies into an elliptical orbit that takes it inwards toward the Sun to form a visible comet. Unlike the return of periodic comets, whose orbits have been established by previous observations, the appearance of new comets by this mechanism is unpredictable. When flung into the orbit of the sun, and being continuously dragged towards it, tons of matter are stripped from the comets which greatly influence their lifetime; the more stripped, the shorter they live and vice versa.\n\n### Long period\n\nLong-period comets have highly eccentric orbits and periods ranging from 200 years to thousands or even millions of years. An eccentricity greater than 1 when near perihelion does not necessarily mean that a comet will leave the Solar System. For example, Comet McNaught had a heliocentric osculating eccentricity of 1.000019 near its perihelion passage epoch in January 2007 but is bound to the Sun with roughly a 92,600-year orbit because the eccentricity drops below 1 as it moves farther from the Sun. The future orbit of a long-period comet is properly obtained when the osculating orbit is computed at an epoch after leaving the planetary region and is calculated with respect to the center of mass of the Solar System. By definition long-period comets remain gravitationally bound to the Sun; those comets that are ejected from the Solar System due to close passes by major planets are no longer properly considered as having \"periods\". The orbits of long-period comets take them far beyond the outer planets at aphelia, and the plane of their orbits need not lie near the ecliptic. Long-period comets such as C/1999 F1 and C/2017 T2 (PANSTARRS) can have aphelion distances of nearly 70,000 AU (0.34 pc; 1.1 ly) with orbital periods estimated around 6 million years.\n\nSingle-apparition or non-periodic comets are similar to long-period comets because they have parabolic or slightly hyperbolic trajectories when near perihelion in the inner Solar System. However, gravitational perturbations from giant planets cause their orbits to change. Single-apparition comets have a hyperbolic or parabolic osculating orbit which allows them to permanently exit the Solar System after a single pass of the Sun. The Sun's Hill sphere has an unstable maximum boundary of 230,000 AU (1.1 pc; 3.6 ly). Only a few hundred comets have been seen to reach a hyperbolic orbit (e \\> 1) when near perihelion that using a heliocentric unperturbed two-body best-fit suggests they may escape the Solar System.\n\nAs of 2022, only two objects have been discovered with an eccentricity significantly greater than one: 1I/\u02bbOumuamua and 2I/Borisov, indicating an origin outside the Solar System. While \u02bbOumuamua, with an eccentricity of about 1.2, showed no optical signs of cometary activity during its passage through the inner Solar System in October 2017, changes to its trajectory\u2014which suggests outgassing\u2014indicate that it is probably a comet. On the other hand, 2I/Borisov, with an estimated eccentricity of about 3.36, has been observed to have the coma feature of comets, and is considered the first detected interstellar comet. Comet C/1980 E1 had an orbital period of roughly 7.1 million years before the 1982 perihelion passage, but a 1980 encounter with Jupiter accelerated the comet giving it the largest eccentricity (1.057) of any known solar comet with a reasonable observation arc. Comets not expected to return to the inner Solar System include C/1980 E1, C/2000 U5, C/2001 Q4 (NEAT), C/2009 R1, C/1956 R1, and C/2007 F1 (LONEOS).\n\nSome authorities use the term \"periodic comet\" to refer to any comet with a periodic orbit (that is, all short-period comets plus all long-period comets), whereas others use it to mean exclusively short-period comets. Similarly, although the literal meaning of \"non-periodic comet\" is the same as \"single-apparition comet\", some use it to mean all comets that are not \"periodic\" in the second sense (that is, to include all comets with a period greater than 200 years).\n\nEarly observations have revealed a few genuinely hyperbolic (i.e. non-periodic) trajectories, but no more than could be accounted for by perturbations from Jupiter. Comets from interstellar space are moving with velocities of the same order as the relative velocities of stars near the Sun (a few tens of km per second). When such objects enter the Solar System, they have a positive specific orbital energy resulting in a positive velocity at infinity ($v_{\\infty}\\!$) and have notably hyperbolic trajectories. A rough calculation shows that there might be four hyperbolic comets per century within Jupiter's orbit, give or take one and perhaps two orders of magnitude.\n\n### Oort cloud and Hills cloud\n\nThe Oort cloud is thought to occupy a vast space starting from between 2,000 and 5,000 AU (0.03 and 0.08 ly) to as far as 50,000 AU (0.79 ly) from the Sun. This cloud encases the celestial bodies that start at the middle of the Solar System\u2014the Sun, all the way to outer limits of the Kuiper Belt. The Oort cloud consists of viable materials necessary for the creation of celestial bodies. The Solar System's planets exist only because of the planetesimals (chunks of leftover space that assisted in the creation of planets) that were condensed and formed by the gravity of the Sun. The eccentric made from these trapped planetesimals is why the Oort Cloud even exists. Some estimates place the outer edge at between 100,000 and 200,000 AU (1.58 and 3.16 ly). The region can be subdivided into a spherical outer Oort cloud of 20,000\u201350,000 AU (0.32\u20130.79 ly), and a doughnut-shaped inner cloud, the Hills cloud, of 2,000\u201320,000 AU (0.03\u20130.32 ly). The outer cloud is only weakly bound to the Sun and supplies the long-period (and possibly Halley-type) comets that fall to inside the orbit of Neptune. The inner Oort cloud is also known as the Hills cloud, named after J. G. Hills, who proposed its existence in 1981. Models predict that the inner cloud should have tens or hundreds of times as many cometary nuclei as the outer halo; it is seen as a possible source of new comets that resupply the relatively tenuous outer cloud as the latter's numbers are gradually depleted. The Hills cloud explains the continued existence of the Oort cloud after billions of years.\n\n### Exocomets\n\nExocomets beyond the Solar System have been detected and may be common in the Milky Way. The first exocomet system detected was around Beta Pictoris, a very young A-type main-sequence star, in 1987. A total of 11 such exocomet systems have been identified as of 2013, using the absorption spectrum caused by the large clouds of gas emitted by comets when passing close to their star. For ten years the Kepler space telescope was responsible for searching for planets and other forms outside of the solar system. The first transiting exocomets were found in February 2018 by a group consisting of professional astronomers and citizen scientists in light curves recorded by the Kepler Space Telescope. After Kepler Space Telescope retired in October 2018, a new telescope called TESS Telescope has taken over Kepler's mission. Since the launch of TESS, astronomers have discovered the transits of comets around the star Beta Pictoris using a light curve from TESS. Since TESS has taken over, astronomers have since been able to better distinguish exocomets with the spectroscopic method. New planets are detected by the white light curve method which is viewed as a symmetrical dip in the charts readings when a planet overshadows its parent star. However, after further evaluation of these light curves, it has been discovered that the asymmetrical patterns of the dips presented are caused by the tail of a comet or of hundreds of comets.\n\n## Effects of comets\n\n### Connection to meteor showers\n\nAs a comet is heated during close passes to the Sun, outgassing of its icy components releases solid debris too large to be swept away by radiation pressure and the solar wind. If Earth's orbit sends it through that trail of debris, which is composed mostly of fine grains of rocky material, there is likely to be a meteor shower as Earth passes through. Denser trails of debris produce quick but intense meteor showers and less dense trails create longer but less intense showers. Typically, the density of the debris trail is related to how long ago the parent comet released the material. The Perseid meteor shower, for example, occurs every year between 9 and 13 August, when Earth passes through the orbit of Comet Swift\u2013Tuttle. Halley's Comet is the source of the Orionid shower in October.\n\n### Comets and impact on life\n\nMany comets and asteroids collided with Earth in its early stages. Many scientists think that comets bombarding the young Earth about 4 billion years ago brought the vast quantities of water that now fill Earth's oceans, or at least a significant portion of it. Others have cast doubt on this idea. The detection of organic molecules, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, in significant quantities in comets has led to speculation that comets or meteorites may have brought the precursors of life\u2014or even life itself\u2014to Earth. In 2013 it was suggested that impacts between rocky and icy surfaces, such as comets, had the potential to create the amino acids that make up proteins through shock synthesis. The speed at which the comets entered the atmosphere, combined with the magnitude of energy created after initial contact, allowed smaller molecules to condense into the larger macro-molecules that served as the foundation for life. In 2015, scientists found significant amounts of molecular oxygen in the outgassings of comet 67P, suggesting that the molecule may occur more often than had been thought, and thus less an indicator of life as has been supposed.\n\nIt is suspected that comet impacts have, over long timescales, delivered significant quantities of water to Earth's Moon, some of which may have survived as lunar ice. Comet and meteoroid impacts are thought to be responsible for the existence of tektites and australites.\n\n### Fear of comets\n\nFear of comets as acts of God and signs of impending doom was highest in Europe from AD 1200 to 1650. The year after the Great Comet of 1618, for example, Gotthard Arthusius published a pamphlet stating that it was a sign that the Day of Judgment was near. He listed ten pages of comet-related disasters, including \"earthquakes, floods, changes in river courses, hail storms, hot and dry weather, poor harvests, epidemics, war and treason and high prices\".\n\nBy 1700 most scholars concluded that such events occurred whether a comet was seen or not. Using Edmond Halley's records of comet sightings, however, William Whiston in 1711 wrote that the Great Comet of 1680 had a periodicity of 574 years and was responsible for the worldwide flood in the Book of Genesis, by pouring water on Earth. His announcement revived for another century fear of comets, now as direct threats to the world instead of signs of disasters. Spectroscopic analysis in 1910 found the toxic gas cyanogen in the tail of Halley's Comet, causing panicked buying of gas masks and quack \"anti-comet pills\" and \"anti-comet umbrellas\" by the public.\n\n## Fate of comets\n\n### Departure (ejection) from Solar System\n\nIf a comet is traveling fast enough, it may leave the Solar System. Such comets follow the open path of a hyperbola, and as such, they are called hyperbolic comets. Solar comets are only known to be ejected by interacting with another object in the Solar System, such as Jupiter. An example of this is Comet C/1980 E1, which was shifted from an orbit of 7.1 million years around the Sun, to a hyperbolic trajectory, after a 1980 close pass by the planet Jupiter. Interstellar comets such as 1I/\u02bbOumuamua and 2I/Borisov never orbited the Sun and therefore do not require a 3rd-body interaction to be ejected from the Solar System.\n\n### Volatiles exhausted\n\nJupiter-family comets and long-period comets appear to follow very different fading laws. The JFCs are active over a lifetime of about 10,000 years or \\~1,000 orbits whereas long-period comets fade much faster. Only 10% of the long-period comets survive more than 50 passages to small perihelion and only 1% of them survive more than 2,000 passages. Eventually most of the volatile material contained in a comet nucleus evaporates, and the comet becomes a small, dark, inert lump of rock or rubble that can resemble an asteroid. Some asteroids in elliptical orbits are now identified as extinct comets. Roughly six percent of the near-Earth asteroids are thought to be extinct comet nuclei.\n\n### Breakup and collisions\n\nThe nucleus of some comets may be fragile, a conclusion supported by the observation of comets splitting apart. A significant cometary disruption was that of Comet Shoemaker\u2013Levy 9, which was discovered in 1993. A close encounter in July 1992 had broken it into pieces, and over a period of six days in July 1994, these pieces fell into Jupiter's atmosphere\u2014the first time astronomers had observed a collision between two objects in the Solar System. Other splitting comets include 3D/Biela in 1846 and 73P/Schwassmann\u2013Wachmann from 1995 to 2006. Greek historian Ephorus reported that a comet split apart as far back as the winter of 372\u2013373 BC. Comets are suspected of splitting due to thermal stress, internal gas pressure, or impact.\n\nComets 42P/Neujmin and 53P/Van Biesbroeck appear to be fragments of a parent comet. Numerical integrations have shown that both comets had a rather close approach to Jupiter in January 1850, and that, before 1850, the two orbits were nearly identical.\n\nSome comets have been observed to break up during their perihelion passage, including great comets West and Ikeya\u2013Seki. Biela's Comet was one significant example when it broke into two pieces during its passage through the perihelion in 1846. These two comets were seen separately in 1852, but never again afterward. Instead, spectacular meteor showers were seen in 1872 and 1885 when the comet should have been visible. A minor meteor shower, the Andromedids, occurs annually in November, and it is caused when Earth crosses the orbit of Biela's Comet.\n\nSome comets meet a more spectacular end \u2013 either falling into the Sun or smashing into a planet or other body. Collisions between comets and planets or moons were common in the early Solar System: some of the many craters on the Moon, for example, may have been caused by comets. A recent collision of a comet with a planet occurred in July 1994 when Comet Shoemaker\u2013Levy 9 broke up into pieces and collided with Jupiter.\n\n## Nomenclature\n\nThe names given to comets have followed several different conventions over the past two centuries. Prior to the early 20th century, most comets were referred to by the year when they appeared, sometimes with additional adjectives for particularly bright comets; thus, the \"Great Comet of 1680\", the \"Great Comet of 1882\", and the \"Great January Comet of 1910\".\n\nAfter Edmond Halley demonstrated that the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682 were the same body and successfully predicted its return in 1759 by calculating its orbit, that comet became known as Halley's Comet. Similarly, the second and third known periodic comets, Encke's Comet and Biela's Comet, were named after the astronomers who calculated their orbits rather than their original discoverers. Later, periodic comets were usually named after their discoverers, but comets that had appeared only once continued to be referred to by the year of their appearance.\n\nIn the early 20th century, the convention of naming comets after their discoverers became common, and this remains so today. A comet can be named after its discoverers or an instrument or program that helped to find it. For example, in 2019, astronomer Gennadiy Borisov observed a comet that appeared to have originated outside of the solar system; the comet was named 2I/Borisov after him.\n\n## History of study\n\n### Early observations and thought\n\nFrom ancient sources, such as Chinese oracle bones, it is known that comets have been noticed by humans for millennia. Until the sixteenth century, comets were usually considered bad omens of deaths of kings or noble men, or coming catastrophes, or even interpreted as attacks by heavenly beings against terrestrial inhabitants.\n\nAristotle (384\u2013322 BC) was the first known scientist to use various theories and observational facts to employ a consistent, structured cosmological theory of comets. He believed that comets were atmospheric phenomena, due to the fact that they could appear outside of the zodiac and vary in brightness over the course of a few days. Aristotle's cometary theory arose from his observations and cosmological theory that everything in the cosmos is arranged in a distinct configuration. Part of this configuration was a clear separation between the celestial and terrestrial, believing comets to be strictly associated with the latter. According to Aristotle, comets must be within the sphere of the moon and clearly separated from the heavens. Also in the 4th century BC, Apollonius of Myndus supported the idea that comets moved like the planets. Aristotelian theory on comets continued to be widely accepted throughout the Middle Ages, despite several discoveries from various individuals challenging aspects of it.\n\nIn the 1st century AD, Seneca the Younger questioned Aristotle's logic concerning comets. Because of their regular movement and imperviousness to wind, they cannot be atmospheric, and are more permanent than suggested by their brief flashes across the sky. He pointed out that only the tails are transparent and thus cloudlike, and argued that there is no reason to confine their orbits to the zodiac. In criticizing Apollonius of Myndus, Seneca argues, \"A comet cuts through the upper regions of the universe and then finally becomes visible when it reaches the lowest point of its orbit.\" While Seneca did not author a substantial theory of his own, his arguments would spark much debate among Aristotle's critics in the 16th and 17th centuries.\n\nIn the 1st century, Pliny the Elder believed that comets were connected with political unrest and death. Pliny observed comets as \"human like\", often describing their tails with \"long hair\" or \"long beard\". His system for classifying comets according to their color and shape was used for centuries.\n\nIn India, by the 6th century astronomers believed that comets were celestial bodies that re-appeared periodically. This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the astronomers Var\u0101hamihira and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomer Bha\u1e6d\u1e6dotpala listed the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is not known how these figures were calculated or how accurate they were. In 1301, the Italian painter Giotto was the first person to accurately and anatomically portray a comet. In his work Adoration of the Magi, Giotto's depiction of Halley's Comet in the place of the Star of Bethlehem would go unmatched in accuracy until the 19th century and be bested only with the invention of photography.\n\nAstrological interpretations of comets proceeded to take precedence clear into the 15th century, despite the presence of modern scientific astronomy beginning to take root. Comets continued to forewarn of disaster, as seen in the Luzerner Schilling chronicles and in the warnings of Pope Callixtus III. In 1578, German Lutheran bishop Andreas Celichius defined comets as \"the thick smoke of human sins ... kindled by the hot and fiery anger of the Supreme Heavenly Judge\". The next year, Andreas Dudith stated that \"If comets were caused by the sins of mortals, they would never be absent from the sky.\"\n\n### Scientific approach\n\nCrude attempts at a parallax measurement of Halley's Comet were made in 1456, but were erroneous. Regiomontanus was the first to attempt to calculate diurnal parallax by observing the Great Comet of 1472. His predictions were not very accurate, but they were conducted in the hopes of estimating the distance of a comet from Earth.\n\nIn the 16th century, Tycho Brahe and Michael Maestlin demonstrated that comets must exist outside of Earth's atmosphere by measuring the parallax of the Great Comet of 1577. Within the precision of the measurements, this implied the comet must be at least four times more distant than from Earth to the Moon. Based on observations in 1664, Giovanni Borelli recorded the longitudes and latitudes of comets that he observed, and suggested that cometary orbits may be parabolic. Despite being a skilled astronomer, in his 1623 book The Assayer, Galileo Galilei rejected Brahe's theories on the parallax of comets and claimed that they may be a mere optical illusion, despite little personal observation. In 1625, Maestlin's student Johannes Kepler upheld that Brahe's view of cometary parallax was correct. Additionally, mathematician Jacob Bernoulli published a treatise on comets in 1682.\n\nDuring the early modern period comets were studied for their astrological significance in medical disciplines. Many healers of this time considered medicine and astronomy to be inter-disciplinary and employed their knowledge of comets and other astrological signs for diagnosing and treating patients.\n\nIsaac Newton, in his Principia Mathematica of 1687, proved that an object moving under the influence of gravity by an inverse square law must trace out an orbit shaped like one of the conic sections, and he demonstrated how to fit a comet's path through the sky to a parabolic orbit, using the comet of 1680 as an example. He describes comets as compact and durable solid bodies moving in oblique orbit and their tails as thin streams of vapor emitted by their nuclei, ignited or heated by the Sun. He suspected that comets were the origin of the life-supporting component of air. He pointed out that comets usually appear near the Sun, and therefore most likely orbit it. On their luminosity, he stated, \"The comets shine by the Sun's light, which they reflect,\" with their tails illuminated by \"the Sun's light reflected by a smoke arising from [the coma]\".\n\nIn 1705, Edmond Halley (1656\u20131742) applied Newton's method to 23 cometary apparitions that had occurred between 1337 and 1698. He noted that three of these, the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682, had very similar orbital elements, and he was further able to account for the slight differences in their orbits in terms of gravitational perturbation caused by Jupiter and Saturn. Confident that these three apparitions had been three appearances of the same comet, he predicted that it would appear again in 1758\u201359. Halley's predicted return date was later refined by a team of three French mathematicians: Alexis Clairaut, Joseph Lalande, and Nicole-Reine Lepaute, who predicted the date of the comet's 1759 perihelion to within one month's accuracy. When the comet returned as predicted, it became known as Halley's Comet.\n\nAs early as the 18th century, some scientists had made correct hypotheses as to comets' physical composition. In 1755, Immanuel Kant hypothesized in his Universal Natural History that comets were condensed from \"primitive matter\" beyond the known planets, which is \"feebly moved\" by gravity, then orbit at arbitrary inclinations, and are partially vaporized by the Sun's heat as they near perihelion. In 1836, the German mathematician Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, after observing streams of vapor during the appearance of Halley's Comet in 1835, proposed that the jet forces of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit, and he argued that the non-gravitational movements of Encke's Comet resulted from this phenomenon.\n\nIn the 19th century, the Astronomical Observatory of Padova was an epicenter in the observational study of comets. Led by Giovanni Santini (1787\u20131877) and followed by Giuseppe Lorenzoni (1843\u20131914), this observatory was devoted to classical astronomy, mainly to the new comets and planets orbit calculation, with the goal of compiling a catalog of almost ten thousand stars. Situated in the Northern portion of Italy, observations from this observatory were key in establishing important geodetic, geographic, and astronomical calculations, such as the difference of longitude between Milan and Padua as well as Padua to Fiume. Correspondence within the observatory, particularly between Santini and another astronomer Giuseppe Toaldo, mentioned the importance of comet and planetary orbital observations.\n\nIn 1950, Fred Lawrence Whipple proposed that rather than being rocky objects containing some ice, comets were icy objects containing some dust and rock. This \"dirty snowball\" model soon became accepted and appeared to be supported by the observations of an armada of spacecraft (including the European Space Agency's Giotto probe and the Soviet Union's Vega 1 and Vega 2) that flew through the coma of Halley's Comet in 1986, photographed the nucleus, and observed jets of evaporating material.\n\nOn 22 January 2014, ESA scientists reported the detection, for the first definitive time, of water vapor on the dwarf planet Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt. The detection was made by using the far-infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory. The finding is unexpected because comets, not asteroids, are typically considered to \"sprout jets and plumes\". According to one of the scientists, \"The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids.\" On 11 August 2014, astronomers released studies, using the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) for the first time, that detailed the distribution of HCN, HNC, H<sub>2</sub>CO, and dust inside the comae of comets C/2012 F6 (Lemmon) and C/2012 S1 (ISON).\n\n### Spacecraft missions\n\n- The Halley Armada describes the collection of spacecraft missions that visited and/or made observations of Halley's Comet 1980s perihelion. The space shuttle Challenger was intended to do a study of Halley's Comet in 1986, but exploded shortly after being launched.\n- Deep Impact. Debate continues about how much ice is in a comet. In 2001, the Deep Space 1 spacecraft obtained high-resolution images of the surface of Comet Borrelly. It was found that the surface of comet Borrelly is hot and dry, with a temperature of between 26 and 71 \u00b0C (79 and 160 \u00b0F), and extremely dark, suggesting that the ice has been removed by solar heating and maturation, or is hidden by the soot-like material that covers Borrelly. In July 2005, the Deep Impact probe blasted a crater on Comet Tempel 1 to study its interior. The mission yielded results suggesting that the majority of a comet's water ice is below the surface and that these reservoirs feed the jets of vaporized water that form the coma of Tempel 1. Renamed EPOXI, it made a flyby of Comet Hartley 2 on 4 November 2010.\n- Ulysses. In 2007, the Ulysses probe unexpectedly passed through the tail of the comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught) which was discovered in 2006. Ulysses was launched in 1990 and the intended mission was for Ulysses to orbit around the sun for further study at all latitudes.\n- Stardust. Data from the Stardust mission show that materials retrieved from the tail of Wild 2 were crystalline and could only have been \"born in fire\", at extremely high temperatures of over 1,000 \u00b0C (1,830 \u00b0F). Although comets formed in the outer Solar System, radial mixing of material during the early formation of the Solar System is thought to have redistributed material throughout the proto-planetary disk. As a result, comets contain crystalline grains that formed in the early, hot inner Solar System. This is seen in comet spectra as well as in sample return missions. More recent still, the materials retrieved demonstrate that the \"comet dust resembles asteroid materials\". These new results have forced scientists to rethink the nature of comets and their distinction from asteroids.\n- Rosetta. The Rosetta probe orbited Comet Churyumov\u2013Gerasimenko. On 12 November 2014, its lander Philae successfully landed on the comet's surface, the first time a spacecraft has ever landed on such an object in history.\n\n## Classification\n\n### Great comets\n\nApproximately once a decade, a comet becomes bright enough to be noticed by a casual observer, leading such comets to be designated as great comets. Predicting whether a comet will become a great comet is notoriously difficult, as many factors may cause a comet's brightness to depart drastically from predictions. Broadly speaking, if a comet has a large and active nucleus, will pass close to the Sun, and is not obscured by the Sun as seen from Earth when at its brightest, it has a chance of becoming a great comet. However, Comet Kohoutek in 1973 fulfilled all the criteria and was expected to become spectacular but failed to do so. Comet West, which appeared three years later, had much lower expectations but became an extremely impressive comet.\n\nThe Great Comet of 1577 is a well-known example of a great comet. It passed near Earth as a non-periodic comet and was seen by many, including well-known astronomers Tycho Brahe and Taqi ad-Din. Observations of this comet led to several significant findings regarding cometary science, especially for Brahe.\n\nThe late 20th century saw a lengthy gap without the appearance of any great comets, followed by the arrival of two in quick succession\u2014Comet Hyakutake in 1996, followed by Hale\u2013Bopp, which reached maximum brightness in 1997 having been discovered two years earlier. The first great comet of the 21st century was C/2006 P1 (McNaught), which became visible to naked eye observers in January 2007. It was the brightest in over 40 years.\n\n### Sungrazing comets\n\nA sungrazing comet is a comet that passes extremely close to the Sun at perihelion, generally within a few million kilometers. Although small sungrazers can be completely evaporated during such a close approach to the Sun, larger sungrazers can survive many perihelion passages. However, the strong tidal forces they experience often lead to their fragmentation.\n\nAbout 90% of the sungrazers observed with SOHO are members of the Kreutz group, which all originate from one giant comet that broke up into many smaller comets during its first passage through the inner Solar System. The remainder contains some sporadic sungrazers, but four other related groups of comets have been identified among them: the Kracht, Kracht 2a, Marsden, and Meyer groups. The Marsden and Kracht groups both appear to be related to Comet 96P/Machholz, which is the parent of two meteor streams, the Quadrantids and the Arietids.\n\n### Unusual comets\n\nOf the thousands of known comets, some exhibit unusual properties. Comet Encke (2P/Encke) orbits from outside the asteroid belt to just inside the orbit of the planet Mercury whereas the Comet 29P/Schwassmann\u2013Wachmann currently travels in a nearly circular orbit entirely between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. 2060 Chiron, whose unstable orbit is between Saturn and Uranus, was originally classified as an asteroid until a faint coma was noticed. Similarly, Comet Shoemaker\u2013Levy 2 was originally designated asteroid .\n\n### Largest\n\nThe largest known periodic comet is 95P/Chiron at 200 km in diameter that comes to perihelion every 50 years just inside of Saturn's orbit at 8 AU. The largest known Oort cloud comet is suspected of being Comet Bernardinelli-Bernstein at \u2248150 km that will not come to perihelion until January 2031 just outside of Saturn's orbit at 11 AU. The Comet of 1729 is estimated to have been \u2248100 km in diameter and came to perihelion inside of Jupiter's orbit at 4 AU.\n\n### Centaurs\n\nCentaurs typically behave with characteristics of both asteroids and comets. Centaurs can be classified as comets such as 60558 Echeclus, and 166P/NEAT. 166P/NEAT was discovered while it exhibited a coma, and so is classified as a comet despite its orbit, and 60558 Echeclus was discovered without a coma but later became active, and was then classified as both a comet and an asteroid (174P/Echeclus). One plan for Cassini involved sending it to a centaur, but NASA decided to destroy it instead.\n\n## Observation\n\nA comet may be discovered photographically using a wide-field telescope or visually with binoculars. However, even without access to optical equipment, it is still possible for the amateur astronomer to discover a sungrazing comet online by downloading images accumulated by some satellite observatories such as SOHO. SOHO's 2000th comet was discovered by Polish amateur astronomer Micha\u0142 Kusiak on 26 December 2010 and both discoverers of Hale\u2013Bopp used amateur equipment (although Hale was not an amateur).\n\n### Lost\n\nA number of periodic comets discovered in earlier decades or previous centuries are now lost comets. Their orbits were never known well enough to predict future appearances or the comets have disintegrated. However, occasionally a \"new\" comet is discovered, and calculation of its orbit shows it to be an old \"lost\" comet. An example is Comet 11P/Tempel\u2013Swift\u2013LINEAR, discovered in 1869 but unobservable after 1908 because of perturbations by Jupiter. It was not found again until accidentally rediscovered by LINEAR in 2001. There are at least 18 comets that fit this category.\n\n## In popular culture\n\nThe depiction of comets in popular culture is firmly rooted in the long Western tradition of seeing comets as harbingers of doom and as omens of world-altering change. Halley's Comet alone has caused a slew of sensationalist publications of all sorts at each of its reappearances. It was especially noted that the birth and death of some notable persons coincided with separate appearances of the comet, such as with writers Mark Twain (who correctly speculated that he'd \"go out with the comet\" in 1910) and Eudora Welty, to whose life Mary Chapin Carpenter dedicated the song \"Halley Came to Jackson\".\n\nIn times past, bright comets often inspired panic and hysteria in the general population, being thought of as bad omens. More recently, during the passage of Halley's Comet in 1910, Earth passed through the comet's tail, and erroneous newspaper reports inspired a fear that cyanogen in the tail might poison millions, whereas the appearance of Comet Hale\u2013Bopp in 1997 triggered the mass suicide of the Heaven's Gate cult.\n\nIn science fiction, the impact of comets has been depicted as a threat overcome by technology and heroism (as in the 1998 films Deep Impact and Armageddon), or as a trigger of global apocalypse (Lucifer's Hammer, 1979) or zombies (Night of the Comet, 1984). In Jules Verne's Off on a Comet a group of people are stranded on a comet orbiting the Sun, while a large crewed space expedition visits Halley's Comet in Sir Arthur C. Clarke's novel 2061: Odyssey Three.\n\n## In literature\n\nThe long-period comet first recorded by Pons in Florence on 15 July 1825 inspired Lydia Sigourney's humorous poem in which all the celestial bodies argue over the comet's appearance and purpose.\n\n## Gallery\n\nVideos\n\n## See also\n\n- The Big Splash\n- Comet vintages\n- List of impact craters on Earth\n- List of possible impact structures on Earth\n- Lists of comets", "revid": "1171748562", "description": "Natural object in space that releases gas", "categories": ["Articles containing video clips", "Astronomical objects", "Comets", "Concepts in astronomy", "Extraterrestrial water", "Ice"]}