Overhaul

app.py

@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import faiss
 import gradio as gr
 from transformers import pipeline
 import numpy as np
+from sentence_transformers import CrossEncoder
 
 # ------------------------------
 # Configuration
@@ -13,6 +14,7 @@ import numpy as np
 INDEX_URL = "https://huggingface.co/LoneWolfgang/abalone-index/resolve/main/index.faiss"
 DOCSTORE_URL = "https://huggingface.co/LoneWolfgang/abalone-index/resolve/main/docstore.pkl"
 INDEX_DIR = "data/index"
+SBERT = "all-MiniLM-L12-v2"
 
 # ------------------------------
 # Ensure data folder exists
@@ -23,15 +25,13 @@ os.makedirs(INDEX_DIR, exist_ok=True)
 # Download helper
 # ------------------------------
 def download_file(url, dest_path):
-    if not os.path.exists(dest_path):
-        print(f"Downloading {url} ...")
-        r = requests.get(url)
-        r.raise_for_status()
-        with open(dest_path, "wb") as f:
-            f.write(r.content)
+    print(f"Downloading {url} ...")
+    r = requests.get(url)
+    r.raise_for_status()
+    with open(dest_path, "wb") as f:
+        f.write(r.content)
         print(f"Saved to {dest_path}")
-    else:
-        print(f"{dest_path} already exists, skipping download.")
+
 
 # Download index + docstore
 download_file(INDEX_URL, os.path.join(INDEX_DIR, "index.faiss"))
@@ -41,86 +41,135 @@ download_file(DOCSTORE_URL, os.path.join(INDEX_DIR, "docstore.pkl"))
 # Retriever
 # ------------------------------
 class Retriever:
-    def __init__(self, index_dir, sbert_model="all-MiniLM-L12-v2"):
-        self.index = faiss.read_index(os.path.join(index_dir, "index.faiss"))
-        with open(os.path.join(index_dir, "docstore.pkl"), "rb") as f:
-            self.segments = pickle.load(f)
-        self.sbert = sentence_transformers.SentenceTransformer(sbert_model)
 
+    def __init__(
+            self, 
+            index_dir, 
+            cross_encoder_model="cross-encoder/ms-marco-MiniLM-L-6-v2"
+            ):
+        index, segments = self._load_index(index_dir)
+        self.index = index
+        self.segments = segments
+        
+        # bi-encoder
+        self.sbert = sentence_transformers.SentenceTransformer(SBERT)
+
+        # cross-encoder
+        self.cross = CrossEncoder(cross_encoder_model)
+
+    def _load_index(self, index_dir):
+        index = faiss.read_index(os.path.join(index_dir, "index.faiss"))
+        with open(os.path.join(index_dir, "docstore.pkl") , "rb") as f:
+            segments = pickle.load(f)
+        return index, segments
+    
     def preprocess_query(self, query):
         embedding = self.sbert.encode([query]).astype("float32")
         faiss.normalize_L2(embedding)
         return embedding
 
     def _cosine_similarity(self, a, b):
-        """Compute cosine similarity between two 1D numpy arrays."""
         return np.dot(a, b) / (np.linalg.norm(a) * np.linalg.norm(b))
 
-    def retrieve(self, query, k=1):
+    def retrieve(self, query, k=50):
+        """
+        1. Retrieve top-k segments using bi-encoder (FAISS)
+        2. Re-rank segments using cross-encoder on segment['text']
+        3. Re-score each sentence inside chosen segment using cross-encoder
+        4. Highlight the best sentence
+        """
+        # ---------- Stage 1: Bi-Encoder Retrieval ----------
         embedding = self.preprocess_query(query)
         D, I = self.index.search(embedding, k)
-        results = []
+
+        candidates = []
+        ce_pairs_segments = []   # (query, segment_text)
 
         for idx in I[0]:
-            segment = self.segments[idx]
-            sent_embeddings = segment["sentence_embeddings"]
-            sentences = segment["sentences"]
+            seg = self.segments[idx]
+            candidates.append(seg)
+            ce_pairs_segments.append([query, seg["text"]])
+
+        # ---------- Stage 2: Cross-Encoder Re-Rank Segments ----------
+        segment_scores = self.cross.predict(ce_pairs_segments)
+        best_seg_idx = int(np.argmax(segment_scores))
+        best_segment = candidates[best_seg_idx]
+
+        # ---------- Stage 3: Cross-Encoder Sentence Ranking ----------
+        sentences = best_segment["sentences"]
+        ce_pairs_sentences = [[query, s] for s in sentences]
 
-            # Compute cosine similarity between query and each sentence
-            sims = [self._cosine_similarity(embedding.flatten(), s_emb) for s_emb in sent_embeddings]
-            best_idx = int(np.argmax(sims))
-            highlight = sentences[best_idx]
-            text = segment["text"].replace(highlight, f"***{highlight}***")
+        sentence_scores = self.cross.predict(ce_pairs_sentences)
+        best_sent_idx = int(np.argmax(sentence_scores))
 
-            results.append({
-                "text": text,
-                "url": segment.get("url"),
-                "document_id": segment.get("document_id")
-            })
+        best_sentence = sentences[best_sent_idx].strip()
 
-        return results, D[0]
+        # Highlight within full segment
+        highlighted_text = (
+            best_segment["text"]
+            .replace(best_sentence, f"**{best_sentence}**")
+            .replace("\n", " ")
+        )
+
+        # ---------- Result ----------
+        result = {
+            "text": highlighted_text,
+            "url": best_segment.get("url"),
+            "document_id": best_segment.get("document_id"),
+            "segment_score": float(segment_scores[best_seg_idx]),
+            "sentence_score": float(sentence_scores[best_sent_idx]),
+        }
+
+        return result
 
 
 # ------------------------------
 # Lightweight Generator
 # ------------------------------
-# FLAN-T5-base is small (~250M) and fast to run on CPU
+# Finetuned TinyLlama
 generator = pipeline(
-    "text2text-generation",
-    model="google/flan-t5-base",
-    tokenizer="google/flan-t5-base",
+    "text-generation",
+    model="LoneWolfgang/tinyllama-for-abalone-RAG",
     max_new_tokens=150,
     temperature=0.1,
 )
 
+
 # ------------------------------
 # Combined function: retrieve → generate
 # ------------------------------
 retriever = Retriever(INDEX_DIR)
 
 def answer_query(query):
-    docs, scores = retriever.retrieve(query, k=1)
-    record = docs[0]
-    url = record["url"]
-    context = record["text"]
-
-    prompt = (
-        f"Answer the following question based on the context.\n\n"
-        f"Context:\n{context}\n\n"
-        f"Question: {query}\nAnswer:"
-    )
-    result = generator(prompt)[0]["generated_text"]
+    doc = retriever.retrieve(query)
+
+    url = doc["url"]
+    context = doc["text"].replace("\n", " ")
+
+    prompt = f"""
+    <|system|>
+    You answer questions strictly using the provided context.
+    <|user|>
+    Context: {context}
 
-    return f"""
-### Response  
-{result}  
+    Question: {query}
+    <|assistant|>
+    """
 
----
-### Context  
-{context}
-  
-**[Source]({url})**
-"""
+    result = generator(prompt)[0]["generated_text"]
+
+    # Keep only model completion after the assistant token
+    result = result.split("<|assistant|>")[-1].strip()
+
+    return (
+        f"#### Response\n\n"
+        f"{result}\n\n"
+        f"---\n"
+        f"#### Context\n\n"
+        f"{context}\n\n"
+        f"---\n"
+        f"[Source]({url})"
+    )
 
 # ------------------------------
 # Gradio UI
@@ -129,9 +178,8 @@ demo = gr.Interface(
     fn=answer_query,
     inputs=gr.Textbox(label="Enter your question"),
     outputs=gr.Markdown(label="Answer"),
-    title="Abalone RAG",
-    description="FAISS + SBERT Indexing & Retrieval. FLAN-T5 Generates.",
-    theme="soft",
+    title="Abalone RAG Demo",
+    description="This RAG system uses SBERT + Cross-Encoders for Retrieval with TinyLlama finetuned on responses from GPT5."
 )
 
 if __name__ == "__main__":

data/index/docstore.pkl

@@ -1,3 +0,0 @@
-version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1
-oid sha256:a52b6497983a6193c3ff62664c43282aaa78925310f1f36a97795a13591c2de3
-size 1160440

data/txt/abaloneranching.txt

@@ -1,80 +0,0 @@
-https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2007.01801.x?saml_referrer
-
-Abstract
-Haliotis L. (abalone) is an economically important genus comprising approximately 14 species with commercial value. Unfortunately, due to habitat destruction, overfishing and illegal harvesting, this wild resource is being depleted to unrecoverable status worldwide. To supply the world demand, abalone are cultured in artificial hatchery environments. In the past few decades, attention has been paid to use these artificial environments to the benefit of the species by implementing abalone ranching or reseeding. This is done in an attempt to rebuild the collapsed populations and to prevent further declines in fished stocks. In various countries in which commercial production is in operation, this has been attempted with various levels of success. For ranching to be successful, various factors, however, need to be considered, one of the most important probably being the correct genetic management of such a ranching programme. Genetic management should include using broodstock that are representatives of natural populations, minimizing the effects of hatchery practices on the genetic make-up of the animals to be released and investigating the genetic impacts of this practice on wild populations. In this review, the genetic management and the effects if management is not implemented are discussed as well as the potential of molecular markers to be used as genetic tags in identifying hatchery-reared animals.
-
-Introduction
-Abalone (genus Haliotis) is a genus of large marine snails comprising approximately 56 species (Geiger 2000). Many of the commercial species in this genus [e.g. Haliotis asinina L. (Donkey's ear abalone), H. discus Reeve (Japanese abalone), H. fulgens Philippi (Green abalone), H. iris Gmelin (Paua), H. laevigata Donovan (Greenlip abalone), H. midae L. (Perlemoen), H. rubra Leach (Greenlip abalone), H. rufescens Swainson (Red abalone), H. tuberculata L. (European abalone)] are highly sought after as seafood species internationally, and wholesale at between US$ 80 and 100 kg−1 for frozen, shucked product, particularly in the Far East. With natural abalone fisheries diminishing due to legal (overfishing) and illegal (poaching) harvesting as well as habitat disturbances, the farming of abalone in controlled environments has been established in a number of countries. With the abalone fisheries being such a lucrative commercial venture, there is considerable interest in attempting to rebuild collapsed natural populations.
-
-Ranching
-In the last few decades, processes such as stock enhancement and sea ranching have been recognized for their potential of not only increasing but also sustaining coastal fisheries (Oshima 1984; Bartley 1999; Liao 1999). Several terms are usually used to describe the means and strategies of stock increase in marine animals of commercial importance. The most commonly used terms include ‘stock enhancement’, ‘reseeding’, ‘hatchery enhancement’, ‘sea ranching’, ‘marine ranching’, ‘ocean ranching’, ‘culture-based fisheries’ and ‘sea farming’. Although some authors prefer certain terms, most of these are synonymously used (Mustafa 2003).
-
-Marine ranching utilizes the release of juvenile hatchery-reared individuals (larvae or spat) into the sea for subsequent harvest at a later stage (Jia & Chen 2001; Mustafa 2003; Leber, Kitada, Blankenship & Svasand 2004; Bell, Rothlisberg, Munro, Loneragan, Nash, Ward & Andrew 2005). During the process of ranching, the natural attributes of the marine environment in the region of release are combined with various levels of technology. The released animals fend for themselves and exploit the resources for food and other requirements of life, and can be caught when marketable (Mustafa 2003).
-
-Abalone ranching
-Owing largely to natural population declines and with the aim of rehabilitation and increasing natural production, abalone ranching has been implemented, with varying levels of success, by various countries including the United States, Mexico, Japan, New Zealand, Australia, Canada and South Africa (Tegner 2000).
-
-Owing to shortages of land on shore to farm abalone and increased declines in wild catches, Japan was the first country to initiate abalone stock enhancement efforts in the 1960s (Momma 1972; Tegner & Butler 1989) and has had success in reseeding various species including H. discus and H. diversicolor Reeve (variously coloured abalone) (Inoue 1976; Saito 1979, 1984; Takeichi 1988; Yanagisawa, Yoshimura, Kawai & Mizuno 1988; Uki 1989a, b, c; Zhao, Yamada, Hirayama & Yamada 1991; Kanamaru, Ariyoshi & Noda 1993; Kojima 1995; Masuda & Tsukamoto 1998; Seki & Sano 1998; Lapota, Rosen, Chock & Liu 2000; Seki & Taniguchi 2000; JASFA 2002; Gallardo, Garcia, Hurtado, Marte & Buen-Ursua 2006 (Thailand); Hara & Onoue 2006; Horii & Kawamura 2006; Kawamura, Horii & Takami 2006). Some reported estimates of the recapture rates of abalone reared in hatcheries ranged from 8% to 38% for H. discus discus (Yanagisawa et al. 1988; Kanamaru et al. 1993; Tachiyama & Futashima 1993) and from 17% to 22% for H. discus hannai (Takeichi 1988; Kanamaru et al. 1993). In a study by Kojima (1995), the estimated recapture rates of planted H. discus discus off Abu varied between 12% and 51% in the period 1980–1985 and he also found that larger release sizes led to higher survival rates. The survival rate of hatchery-reared abalone is affected by many factors, including availability of suitable habitats, predators and release size (Momma 1972; Kojima 1981; Tegner & Butler 1985a). Tegner and Butler (1989) suggested that the high survival rates of reseeded abalone in Japan (as mentioned in some studies above) are caused by intense fishing pressure on abalone predators, thereby allowing the abalone to survive longer. Lapota et al. (2000) reported on projects in Japan where success rates of 12–51% were reached for small abalone (12–40 mm) and up to 70% survival for larger abalone (larger than 70 mm). Even though reported survival rates are high in this region, Kawamura et al. (2006) and Horii and Kawamura (2006) concluded that the abalone reseeding in the last 30 years has not contributed to stock rebuilding. They advocated appropriate stock management for successful reproduction and that stock recovery could be achieved by maintaining dense adult communities and if there were increases in natural recruitment.
-
-In America, stock enhancement programmes have been carried out for several years, especially in central Baja California, with the seeding of hatchery-reared juvenile red and green abalone as well as H. corrugata Wood (pink abalone) (Butler 1979; Tegner & Butler 1985a, b, 1989; Henderson, Parker & Haaker 1988; Tegner 1992, 2000; Mazón-Suástegui, Muciño & Bazúa 1996; Rogers-Bennett & Pearse 1998; Burton & Tegner 2000; Gonzalez-Aviles 2000; Lapota et al. 2000; Gutierrez-Gonzalez & Perez-Enriquez 2005). Several of the above-mentioned studies (Tegner & Butler 1985a, b, 1989; Burton & Tegner 2000; Tegner 2000) reported that most seeding experiments in this region had not produced encouraging results. Gutierrez-Gonzalez and Perez-Enriquez (2005) also reported low recovery of seeded juveniles after recapture at 6 and 12 months and attributed this to larval dispersal and increased mortality at this early life stage. Lapota et al. (2000) reported on the results of several large-scale seed plantings of H. rufescens and H. fulgens, with success rates ranging from 1% to 9% in Santa Barbara County and the Palos Verdes Peninsula. Rogers-Bennett and Pearse (1998) reported recoveries of <1% from an experimental release of juvenile H. rufescens in California.
-
-Successful seeding of hatchery-produced juvenile abalone of H. laevigata and H. rubra has been achieved in Australia (Preece, Shepherd, Clark & Keesing 1997; Heasman, Savva & Kamarudin 1998; Andrew 1999; Shepherd, Preece & White 2000; Heasman, Chick, Savva, Worthington, Brand, Gibson & Diemar 2004; Maynard, Hanna & Benzie 2004; Dixon, Day, Huchette & Shepherd 2006; Goodsell, Underwood, Chapman & Heasman 2006; Heasman 2006), and stock enhancement of H. iris was successfully conducted at several sites in New Zealand (Tong, Moss & Illingworth 1987; Schiel 1992, 1993, 1997; Osumi 1999; Cooper & Hill 2006; Keys 2006). Larvae of both H. rubra and H. laevigata were released at different densities in South Australia by Preece et al. (1997). Generally low survival rates ranging from 0.02% to 7.8% occurred 6–7 days after settlement. In the study by Dixon et al. (2006), hatchery-produced H. laevigata, 18 months of age with a mean size of 28±3 mm, were released at eight sites in South Australia. The estimated minimum survival rate after 9 months was poor at two sites (0% and 23%) but at six sites survival ranged from 47% to 57%. The poor survival at the two sites was attributed to the presence of a large number of predators soon after seeding. Cooper and Hill (2006) report on a 15% survival rate of outplanted paua juveniles in Chatham Island. In a release-recapture study of H. iris, Tong et al. (1987) emphasized that the survival rate is higher when the organisms are released at larger sizes. Schiel (1993) reported a site-specific variation in survival from seeding 80 000 paua at several sites in New Zealand. His results showed that survival at one site increased from 19% to 54% from 1 to 2 years after seeding and he also recommended using larger animals for reseeding.
-
-In Canada, after initial reseeding efforts of pinto abalone (H. kamtschatskana Jonas) (Emmett & Jamieson 1989; Marriott 1993), renewed attempts at rebuilding abalone stocks were conducted based on the findings of a workshop in February 1999 (Campbell 2000).
-
-Attempts to introduce hatchery-cultured seed of H. discus hannai Ino into areas off mainland China; however, have had limited success (Qing Nie 1992; Wang, Wu, Fang & Wang 2006).
-
-Research on abalone ranching has been conducted in South Africa since the mid-1990s with experiments along the Western, South Western and Eastern Cape coasts (Tarr 1986; Sweijd 1995; Sweijd, Snethlage, Harvey & Cook 1998; Cook & Sweijd 1999; De Waal & Cook 2001a, b; De Waal 2002; De Waal, Branch & Navarro 2003; Godfrey 2003). To date, only Port Nolloth Sea Farms has been granted a full commercial license to conduct abalone ranching on the Namaqualand coast. Although the region falls beyond the natural range of H. midae (Muller 1986; Cook 1998) fossil deposits of an extinct species, H. saldanhae are found in this region (Kensley & Pether 1986) and the kelp bed environment (Eekhout, Raubenheimer, Branch, Bosman & Bergh 1992) made it possible to successfully introduce H. midae in this region. In their experimental release study at sites beyond the natural range of the species, Sweijd et al. (1998) and Cook and Sweijd (1999) reported 30% survival rates at 6 months after release and growth rates similar to naturally occurring populations. The authors proposed that sea urchins, Parechinus angulosus, provided protection from predators. Further experiments by De Waal and Cook (2001a, b), however, showed that the presence of suitable boulder habitat and the release size of abalone were important for survival, rather than the protection provided by sea urchins.
-
-Seeding experiments with abalone have obtained mixed results, with some relatively high survival rates (South Africa) and some nearly complete failures (America). According to Lapota et al. (2000), important factors that have to be considered for reseeding to have any chance of succeeding include: a suitable geographic location and habitat, efficient techniques of seed placement, an abundance of kelp, consideration of the temperature requirement of the species being seeded, sufficient size of the seed or juveniles being planted and the absence of potential predators at the site.
-
-Genetic considerations
-In countries where release of hatchery-reared abalone larvae to the wild is conducted on a large scale, concerns over the genetic impacts of this practice need to be addressed. While the aim of ranching is to increase abalone numbers, this should be attempted with minimal or no harmful effect on the local gene pool into which the hatchery-reared seed are released. Various hatchery practices can, however, have deleterious effects on the genetic make-up of the stock to be released, with resultant negative effects on the wild population. These effects can range from mild to severe (Ward 2006).
-
-First and foremost, natural populations need to be examined genetically both before and after the release of hatchery-reared juveniles. The genetic structure of the wild population is fundamental in identifying the most suitable population to provide hatchery broodstock (Ward 2006) that need to be genetically representative of the natural population and harbour enough genetic variation. If the initial sampling for broodstock fails to capture a sufficient range of heritable phenotypic variability available within the source population, the cultured stocks will be genetically under-represented (Leary, Allendorf & Sage 1995).
-
-Phenomena that might occur within the hatchery environment and could lead to a reduction in genetic variation in these populations include reduction in the effective population size, genetic drift, artificial selection and inbreeding (Hindar, Ryman & Utter 1991; Ryman 1991). Some genetic effects caused by such a reduction in genetic diversity have already been observed in abalone (Smith & Conroy 1992; Mgaya, Gosling, Mercer & Donlon 1995; Evans, Bartlett, Sweijd, Cook & Elliott 2004; Li, Park, Endo & Kijima 2004).
-
-Limited effective population size
-Artificial seeding is usually performed using a relatively small number of broodstock individuals. This is due to the high fecundity of most fin- and shellfish species (Taniguchi 2004) as is the case for mature abalone (>1 million eggs per female). An artificially high survival rate of juvenile abalone in a culture environment furthermore ensures that sufficient seed for each year's production may result from only a small number of parents (Evans et al. 2004). When a small number of animals are used to establish a new hatchery population, random changes in allelic and genotypic frequencies (known as genetic drift) (e.g. Hansen, Mensberg, Rasmussen & Simonsen 1997; Koskinen, Sundell, Piironen & Primmer 2002) and reduced levels of genetic variation may be expected in cultured stocks (Hedgecock & Sly 1990; Bartley, Kent & Drawbridge 1995; Clifford, McGinnity & Ferguson 1998) compared with the source population in the wild. The small initial sample size phenomenon is known as a genetic bottleneck or founder effect.
-
-In a population in which the founder effect is found, the gene pool of the commercial population eventually comprising thousands of individuals will actually only be as genetically diverse as the few initial founders (Mustafa, Ransangan & Stephen 2000). As offspring are used for ranching, founder effects will reduce the fitness of the wild population into which the hatchery-bred individuals are released. In abalone, a loss of genetic variation caused by this bottleneck effect has been reported in farmed H. discus hannai (Li et al. 2004).
-
-The risk may, however, be managed by using a high number of contributing broodstock (Utter 1998; Miller & Kapuscinski 2003). The genetically effective population size is a key parameter because the rate of inbreeding, and thereby also the rate at which genetic heterozygosity is lost, is proportional to the inverse of the effective number (Crow & Kimura 1970). Theory suggests that most (>99%) genetic variability will be preserved if the effective size of broodstock is larger than 50 (assuming equal sex ratios and equal contribution of individuals to progeny) (Allendorf & Ryman 1987; Gall 1987). By maintaining at least 50 animals in the broodstock pool, and in effect a larger effective breeding number, phenomena such as inbreeding, genetic drift, genetic erosion and the founder effect will be minimized (Doyle, Perez-Enriquez, Takagi & Taniguchi 2001; Liao, Su & Leaño 2003).
-
-In abalone, the influence of small effective population sizes and its consequences are recorded for H. rubra and H. midae in a study by Evans et al. (2004) using microsatellite markers. In H. midae, a loss of genetic diversity in terms of a loss in alleles was also detected with the subdivision of the broodstock (Slabbert 2004) based on five microsatellite markers. In H. rubra and H. midae (Evans et al. 2004) and H. discus hannai (Li et al. 2004), a small effective population size resulted in a loss in the observed number of alleles between the wild and farmed F1 populations. The results for average expected heterozygosity, however, differed between studies. In H. discus hannai, there were significant differences between wild and farmed populations while no differences in expected heterozygosity were observed between wild and farmed populations of H. rubra or H. midae (Evans et al. 2004). The loss in the number of alleles without an accompanying loss in heterozygosity could be explained by the loss of low-frequency alleles that typically results during a population bottleneck as would occur when a commercial population is created (Nei, Maruyama & Chakraborty 1975; Nei 2005). Even if loss in heterozygosity is evident, the reduction in the number of alleles is more meaningful because the loss of alleles (particularly rare) may be more detrimental to a population than a lowered heterozygosity (Vuorinen 1984). This is because heterozygosity is insensitive to the substantial genetic changes that may occur within the first generations of aquaculture cultivation (Hedgecock & Sly 1990). In the study on H. fulgens by Gutierrez-Gonzalez and Perez-Enriquez (2005), the observed heterozygosity and mean number of alleles were also slightly reduced from broodstock to F1 offspring but only significantly for heterozygosity.
-
-Smith and Conroy (1992) observed genetic differences between samples of hatchery-produced H. iris seed and samples of corresponding wild paua based on allozyme studies. They observed a significant change in allele frequency, a loss of rare alleles and a reduction in heterozygosity at a phosphoglucomutase locus between wild and hatchery samples. The reduction in heterozygosity results from the loss of common alleles. At the superoxide dismutase (SOD) locus, there was also a comparative loss of genetic variation, and hatchery-produced seed was fixed for the common wild allele, indicating either that the effective number of hatchery parents was less than the number of spawners set up, or there was strong selection in the hatchery against certain SOD alleles. Decreased variability in hatchery Pacific abalone was also detected using 18 polymorphic allozyme loci (Kijima, Ikeda & Fujio 1992). Six groups of wild abalone from the coastal waters of Japan were also investigated in their study. The mean number of alleles per locus and the average expected heterozygosity were lower in the farmed than the wild populations. These values were, however, not significantly different between hatchery and wild abalone as allozyme data are not as sensitive as for example microsatellite analyses in detecting variation between wild and hatchery abalone stocks. Other studies utilizing allozyme electrophoresis (H. tuberculata– three allozyme loci; Mgaya et al. 1995; H. rufescens– four allozyme loci; Gaffney, Rubin, Hedgecock, Powers, Morris & Hereford 1996– but see Burton & Tegner 2000) also reported the extinction of rare wild alleles from first generation hatchery stocks of abalone.
-
-A small effective breeding number can also result in inbreeding, the mating of related individuals. Inbreeding renders organisms more homozygous and has negative effects by exposing recessive, often deleterious genes to selection or by eliminating increased fitness arising from over-dominance (heterozygote advantage). Severe reductions in heterozygosity may lead to reductions in individual fitness, thereby lowering mean population fitness (Tringali 2003). Like most sexual organisms, fin- and shellfish populations also contain rare recessive alleles that can be regarded as a ‘hidden’ genetic variation (Launey & Hedgecock 2001). Harmful (and even lethal) recessive alleles can also endure in a gene pool despite natural selection acting in on the population because these alleles are ‘protected’ in the heterozygous state (also referred to as the genetic load of the species). Inbreeding in a hatchery setting can bring deleterious, partially recessive alleles together in homozygous genotypes, thereby exposing them to greater selective forces. This may lead to a form of reduced fitness known as inbreeding depression (Lynch 1991; Crnokrak & Roff 1999). Inbreeding depression reduces the fitness of the juveniles and is reflected by high mortality, poor growth, developmental aberrations, poor physiological adaptation and low reproductive output or success (Mustafa et al. 2000). When the genetic load resulting from the fixed deleterious alleles reaches a certain level, small populations are expected to enter into a progressively degenerative state known as a ‘mutational meltdown’ (Lynch, Conery & Bürger 1995). This could lead, in severe cases, to extinction but is not regarded as a likely outcome (Gilligan, Woodworth, Montgomery, Briscoe & Frankham 1997; Frankham 1999).
-
-Even if the minimum effective number of individuals are used in setting up a hatchery population, hatchery stock can still become inbred if not all or most of the broodstock individuals contribute to the next generation (Ward 2006). This has been observed in various marine species for example Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) (Sekino, Hara & Taniguchi 2002; Hara & Sekino 2003; Sekino, Saitoh, Yamada, Kumagai, Hara & Yamashitu 2003); red sea bream (Pagrus major) (Perez-Enriquez, Takagi & Taniguchi 1999); rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) (Herbinger, Doyle, Pitman, Paquet, Mesa, Morris, Wright & Cook 1995); and common carp (Cyrinus caprio) (Vandeputte, Kocour, Mauger, Dupont-Nivet, De Guerry, Rodina, Gela, Vallod, Chevassus & Linhart 2004). In hatcheries, broodstock may not contribute due to a variety of factors: the animals may not be adapted to breeding in a captive environment, the broodstock may be too old and thereby not be reproductively active any more or they may be exposed to physiological stresses. Other factors that might explain the differential contribution include differences in sperm quality, genetic incompatibility between the gametes and varying genetic quality of gametes or differential embryonic or larval survival (Selvamani, Degnan & Degnan 2001; Boudry, Collet, Cornette, Hervouet & Bonhomme 2002). Having only a few parents contributing to the offspring acts in reducing the population size and this can subsequently lead to a loss in diversity by creating a small population in which genetic drift can occur (Li, Park & Kijima 2003). As mentioned earlier, genetic drift is random fluctuations in gene frequencies and could lead to the fixation of certain alleles. Using three microsatellite markers for H. midae, parentage assignment indicated differential parental contribution (Slabbert 2004). In H. asinina, parentage assignment with five microsatellite markers indicated the same trend as observed for H. midae. To ensure that the genetic diversity of populations produced for aquaculture is maintained at the level of diversity of the original broodstock, highly controlled breeding practices are therefore required (Selvamani et al. 2001).
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-Adaptation to hatchery environment
-Stocks that have been maintained in hatchery environments for more than one generation will have been subjected to the effects of artificial selection due to domestication. This implies that even if animals were originally collected from the local stock to be supplemented, shifts in gene frequency may result, leading to reduced fitness in these populations (Doyle et al. 2001; Reed & Frankham 2003). Not only are shifts in gene frequencies experienced but potentially detrimental genetic changes within cultured stocks may arise through the processes of artificial selection or domestication in the hatchery (Kohane & Parsons 1988). Artificial selection results in the change in a trait under selection such as faster growth or earlier maturity (Tave 1993) and although domestication may not always be intended, it can inadvertently occur and is characterized by changes in traits that are more selectively advantageous in captive environments – e.g., changes in reproductive biology or growth and survival (Huntingford 2004; Thorpe 2004). These inadvertent developmental and genetic adaptations of the hatchery environment can be deleterious in the wild populations (Utter 1998; Price 2002; Miller & Kapuscinski 2003).
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-Genetic hazards to wild stocks
-With any release programme, management strategies must be developed that will minimize any detrimental genetic effects on the wild stock. If the genetic diversity of the hatchery-reared organisms is low, their release will put the genetic variability of the wild population at risk through inbreeding (FAO 1993). In spite of the importance of monitoring the composition and genetic diversity of hatchery-reared organisms, there are only a few of these types of studies on abalone (Smith & Conroy 1992; Mgaya et al. 1995; Selvamani et al. 2001; Gutierrez-Gonzalez & Perez-Enriquez 2005; Sekino, Saido, Fujita, Kobayashi & Takami 2005).
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-Various studies investigating the effects of inbreeding and small population size on fitness components on commercial aquatic species have documented that decreases in population genetic diversity can decrease the genetic fitness of that population in for example traits important for survival of the population over ecological or evolutionary time (e.g. reproductive capability and survival rate). Thus, preserving the genetic diversity of species can not only have less severe effects on the recipient population but will also enhance adaptation to fluctuating environmental conditions and thereby also influence their survival (Levin 1995; Meffe & Carroll 1997).
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-With natural selection operating on the genetic variation present in wild populations, selection for particular genotypes and gene complexes that maximize the fitness of individuals in a specific environment will occur. Co-adapted genotypes will arise, and these genotypes are likely to differ from population to population. Local adaptation implies that introduced individuals from a genetically divergent population (such as the hatchery population) of the same species are generally expected to be less fit in the recipient population than native populations, and if the introduced individuals breed with native populations, then the newly formed hybrid population is expected to be less fit than the original natural population (e.g. Hindar et al. 1991; Tringali 2003). This latter effect is termed outbreeding depression (Lynch 1991). This reflects the breakdown of local adaptations through two mechanisms; the introgression of maladapted alleles and the disruption of co-adapted genomes. Maladapted alleles are those at a particular locus that will convey to an individual a lower probability of survival and reproduction in a given environment. Genomic co-adaptation results from selection of specific genetic combinations (Templeton 1986). As the genetic distance between parents increases the severity of outbreeding depression is also expected to increase (Leary et al. 1995). This phenomenon may not always be apparent in the F1 generation, which can sometimes show hybrid vigour, but may materialize in the F2 and later generations (Emlen 1991; Lynch 1991; Falconer & Mackay 1996).
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-Not only is it therefore essential to have a good understanding of genetic population structure before carrying out any restocking or stock enhancement project where supplementation from a hatchery-bred population is considered, but equally important is genetic monitoring in the hatchery environment and the genetic analysis of the populations after enhancement to ensure genetic viability.
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-Molecular markers
-Underlying ranching and the effective genetic management of such programmes, is knowledge of genetic population structure. Many molecular genetics techniques appropriate for studies of genetic diversity exist. Of the vast array of available molecular (genetic) markers, microsatellite markers are generally considered to be one of the most sensitive for population studies (Goldstein & Pollack 1997). Population-level microsatellite DNA genotype frequencies generally conform to Hardy–Weinberg expectations and can be used to study genetic variation, population structure and subdivision, gene flow and inter-specific hybridization. They can also serve as markers to detect selection against hybrid individuals and in determining pedigrees (Bert, Seyoum, Tringali & McMillen-Jackson 2002).
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-To determine the impact of stock enhancement activities on wild populations, it remains important to investigate genetic variation in the population from which the broodstock are sourced and monitor the genetic diversity and pedigrees in hatchery-reared organisms (Selvamani et al. 2001; Evans et al. 2004; Gutierrez-Gonzalez & Perez-Enriquez 2005; Sekino et al. 2005). Microsatellite markers have also been been recommended to follow up on the efficiency of ranching by investigating the percentage in the wild population of stocked animals after release. To this extent, microsatellites could be useful as genetic tags for abalone.
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-Genetic tags
-Differentiating stocked animals from their wild counterparts is a key issue in the assessment and monitoring of stock-enhancement efforts and their possible effects (Bartley 1999; Laurec 1999). Effective physical tagging in abalone, for example tags attached with adhesive to the shells or attached through the respiratory pore (pers. obs.), however, remains problematic. The diet of abalone might serve as an alternative with the food algae (brown- and green-algae, and diatoms; Sakai 1962) used as juvenile feed in most abalone hatcheries resulting in a green colouration called a green mark on the shell surface. This green mark is retained for a number of years and could serve as a biological tag by which hatchery-produced abalone can be differentiated from wild ones (Gallardo, Bautista-Teruel, Fermin & Marte 2003; Sekino et al. 2005), although increased encrustation in the wild could render this problematic in later years.
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-The use of genetic tagging methods has attracted attention as a substitute for physical marking methods. Genetic monitoring is able to fulfil a number of applications, including the identification of released individuals and the effects of interaction between seeded and natural stocks (Carvalho & Cross 1998). The reduced costs and relative ease of these genetic markers also make them particularly attractive (Shaklee & Bentzen 1998). As no long-term physical tag is currently available for Haliotis, genetic methods can and will be increasingly used to investigate the survival of stocked animals as well as their effect on natural populations.
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-Abalone can easily be sampled in a non-destructive manner by epipodial clippings. Using genetic markers, multilocus genotypes (e.g. using various microsatellite markers) of individuals can be compiled. With genetic tagging, offspring are produced from random individuals and the offspring are then traced back to these broodstock parents by means of parentage assignment. This is possible with microsatellite markers as they are hypervariable enough and if combined in sufficient numbers, produces a unique genotype suitable for parentage assignment (Bravington & Ward 2004).
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-In abalone, the allozyme markers, glucose phosphate isomerase, phosphoglucomutase, aspartate aminotransferase and malate dehydrogenase, were used by Gaffney et al. (1996) to show an enhancement effect of seeded H. rufescens, although this result has been called into question by Tegner (2000) based on allozyme and mitochondrial analyses. For H. fulgens, Gutierrez-Gonzalez and Perez-Enriquez (2005) demonstrated the power of only two microsatellites as genetic markers for parentage assignment and distinguishing organisms captured in the wild as being of hatchery origin. The use of two markers was, however, not sufficient for a 100% parental assignment and was based on a limited number of potential parents (16 and 22, respectively, in two different spawning events). Similar results were obtained previously by Selvamani et al. (2001) for H. asinina using two loci, but they were able to assign up to 100% of the offspring to the correct parents using three microsatellites. This was, however, again only for assignment to one female and two males in cross A, to two females and two males in cross B and to one female and four males in cross C. The use of more loci will render a lower probability of identity, which will increase the precision of individual identification (Perez-Enriquez & Taniguchi 1999). In H. discus hannai the reproductive contribution of released abalone to natural resources was studied with nine polymorphic microsatellite loci (Sekino et al. 2005). They found evidence of non-random mating in three populations, which they concluded could possibly be caused by the cumulative effect of stocking on the genetic make-up.
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-Conclusions
-The possible genetic effects of marine ranching have been discussed. Negative effects can be minimized by (1) using large numbers of broodstock, thereby avoiding swamping the population with large numbers of a few closely related genotypes, (2) using broodstock representative of the genetic diversity in the natural population and (3) monitoring hatchery practices, and thereby avoiding adaptation to the cultivated environment. These genetic management strategies should ensure the retention and maintenance of genetic heterogeneity within the cultured and wild populations. Ranching programmes should also be monitored to determine the effect of ranching on the genetic structure of the recipient population. The reproductive success of the released juveniles by contributing to next generations should also be studied. This can be done successfully by means of genetic tagging in which molecular markers, specifically a number of microsatellites, can be used to compile a fingerprint characteristic of hatchery-originated animals. Dependent on the number of possible parents, the number of loci to be used needs to be optimized. Reseeding projects can only become fundamental in abalone restoration programmes if the genetic impacts of artificial propagation form part of the management strategy of these programmes.

data/txt/fisheriesnoaa.txt

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-https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/white-abalone
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-About the Species
-White abalone belong to a group of algae-eating marine snails that were once common in California. They once numbered in the millions off the California coast, but now they are endangered.
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-Before the time of commercial fisheries, native people along California’s coast ate abalone for thousands of years. Large groups of abalone shells indicating human settlement, or “middens,” date back 7,400 years. Abalone shells were also traded along routes starting in southern California and reaching east of the Mississippi River.
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-White abalone continue to live in the coastal waters of southern California and Mexico. They are “broadcast spawners,” releasing eggs and sperm into the water by the millions when environmental conditions are right. Their strong, muscular “foot” allows them to hold tightly to rocks and other hard surfaces while their oval-shaped shells protect them from predators. Although fishing for white abalone has been illegal in California since 1997, the high price of abalone meat makes them a target of poachers.
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-White abalone were listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act in 2001, and were the first marine invertebrate to be listed. White abalone are one of NOAA Fisheries' Species in the Spotlight—an initiative that includes animals considered most at risk for extinction and prioritizes their recovery efforts. The black abalone is also listed as endangered under the ESA.
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-NOAA Fisheries is dedicated to conserving and restoring white abalone. Our scientists use innovative techniques to study, protect, and restore their population. We also work with our partners to ensure that regulations and management plans are in place to reduce poaching and increase the wild abalone population.
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-Population Status
-Commercial fishing has severely reduced white abalone numbers from historical levels. Surveys in southern California show a 99 percent decrease in the number of white abalone since the 1970s. While there were once millions, the current population is likely less than one percent of historical numbers. One well-studied population of white abalone in southern California decreased by about 78 percent between 2002 and 2010 (from about 15,000 individuals to just 3,000).
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-California’s closure of the white abalone fishery in 1997 may have slowed the species’ decline, but likely not by enough to recover the population. The species now faces threats from low breeding rates and disease. For example, if that well-studied population in southern California is left alone, it will likely continue to decrease by about 10 percent per year.
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-But, while white abalone are close to extinction, efforts to breed them in captivity and reintroduce them to the wild could help the species recover.
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-Appearance
-White abalone have a thin, oval-shaped shell. The shell has a row of respiratory pores (holes) used to breathe, remove waste, and release gametes. The bottom of its foot—the muscle it uses to move and adhere to rocks—is orange in adult animals. It also has a mottled  tan-orange epipodium, an extension of the foot with tentacles used to sense the surrounding environment.
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-Behavior and Diet
-Abalone are slow-moving bottom dwellers. They adhere to rocks and other hard surfaces using their muscular foot and when disturbed they become difficult or impossible to remove. An abalone can also use its foot to move across surfaces.
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-Adults eat different types of algae. They can catch kelp drifting along the seabed or eat kelp still attached to rocks. The reddish-brown color of their shells shows that white abalone eat some types of red algae throughout their lives.
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-Where They Live
-White abalone live on low-relief rocky substrates, typically alongside sand channels, which tend to accumulate the algae they eat. They are usually found at depths of 50 to 180 feet, making them the deepest living abalone species. Historically, white abalone were found in the Pacific Ocean from Point Conception, California, to Punta Abreojos, Baja California, in Mexico. In California, they were most abundant at offshore islands (especially San Clemente and Santa Catalina Islands) and submerged banks (primarily Tanner and Cortes Banks). At the southern end of the range in Baja California, white abalone were often reported along the mainland coast, but were also found at many islands, including Isla Cedros, Isla Natividad, and Isla Guadalupe. Today, researchers have found extremely low numbers of white abalone along the mainland coast of southern California, and at a few of the offshore islands and banks. The status of the species in Mexico remains largely unknown. While there is little or no recent information from Baja California, commercial fishery data suggest that the population there is also depleted.
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-Global range map for white abalone showing range is in southwestern part of North America.
-World map providing approximate representation of the white abalone's range.
-Lifespan & Reproduction
-White abalone live about 35 to 40 years. Adults become sexually mature in the wild when they are four to six years old.
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-Abalone reproduce by broadcast spawning—releasing their eggs and sperm into the water. This means fertilization succeeds more often when groups of adult male and female abalone are close to each other when they spawn. Fertilized eggs hatch into swimming larvae, which settle to benthic habitats after ~7 days where theygrow into juveniles and adults.
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-Threats
-Overfishing
-Due to their need to be near others to successfully reproduce, white abalone can be depleted by intense fishing that targets groups of animals.
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-Commercial and recreational harvest of white abalone in California peaked in the 1970s, decreased in the late 1970s to early 1980s, and closed in 1997. The fishery used size limits and seasons to reduce the number of abalone caught. Even with these protections, the fishery greatly decreased the abalone populations and has had long-term effects on their recovery.
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-Low Reproduction Rates
-The most significant threat to white abalone recovery is low reproduction rates.
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-One adult female abalone can release over 10 million eggs at a time—but unless the eggs come in contact with sperm from spawning males, they cannot be fertilized. With their low population numbers, abalone are often found alone, without potential mates nearby. This makes spawning in the wild unlikely or impossible.
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-Wild abalone have produced few offspring since the late 1960s/early 1970s. Studies have found that abalone mortality exceeds reproduction in the wild. In a review of the status of white abalone in 2000, scientists estimated that the remaining wild white abalone would disappear without help from humans.
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-Disease
-Abalone are also threatened by disease. Withering syndrome, one common type of infection, is a fatal disease that affects the digestive organs of abalone. The pathogen that causes it is currently present in the coastal oceans of southern California. No wild white abalone have been found to have the fatal symptoms of withering syndrome, but captive abalone have died from the disease and wild white abalone are known to carry the pathogen that causes it. Although disease was not a threat to abalone in the past, withering syndrome now threatens the recovery of this species.

data/txt/marinebio.txt

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-https://www.marinebio.net/marinescience/06future/abintro.htm
-
-Abalone Introduction
-Abalone are found worldwide. They are a unique type of snail, classified in the class Gastropoda of the phylum Mollusca. This is where all the snails are grouped. Abalone are in the family Haliotidae and the genus Haliotis. ‘Haliotis’ means ‘sea ear’ – which refers to the flattened shape of the abalone shell. The common name, abalone, is probably from the Spanish term aulon or aulone.
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-Abalone shell outside
-Abalone shell, outside view, showing open holes and spiral (apex at top right of shell). (GA image)
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-Abalone shells are unique snail shells, having a single, flat shell with a wide opening for the body and a single row of holes along one side of the shell (the left side). The holes continue to be formed throughout the life of the abalone. As they grow, new holes are made and older holes are filled in. These holes are used in the respiration, sanitation, and reproduction of the abalone. The typical spiral part of the snail shell is reduced and very flat in the abalone (called the apex). It may even be hard to notice this spiral in older animals who may have other organisms growing on the shell or have had a lot of abrasion in this area.
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-Abalone shell inside
-Abalone shell, inside view, showing open holes, muscle scar (center), and apex (right, under shelf of shell). (GA image)
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-Abalone are permanently attached to their shell in the center at a location called the muscle attachment. Some species produce a scar here and others do not. The shell begins in the larval form and abalone can only add to an existing shell after their larval stage. If they are removed from their shell, without injury, they can remain alive but cannot make a new shell – nor can they reattach to their old shell if it has been removed. Abalone rely on their shells for protection, so an animal without a shell would be easily eaten by a predator in nature. Inside the shell, the location under the spiral is called the apex just as it is on the outside of the shell. It is under a small, hard shelf at the end of the shell. A portion of the abalone body rests in the apex but there is no substantial attachment here.
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-Abalone foot
-Abalone foot against an aquarium glass. The abalone is being held by its shell, pressing the foot against the glass. You can see the edge of the lobed epipodium and epipodial tentacles along the edge of the foot. (GA image)
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-The foot of the abalone takes up most of the space inside the abalone shell. It is a broad and flat strong muscle. This is what attaches the abalone to the environment (usually a rocky surface) and is how it crawls around in search of food. This muscular foot is what is the prized food item by humans. The strength of this foot is renowned - they are exceptionally hard to remove from wherever they are attached. Abalone hunters usually bring special tools (abalone irons) to help remove them.
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-Abalone iron
-Abalone iron used to 'pop' abalone from their substrate and remove them from their shells. This model was a new design, by Bob Evans (Force Fin designer), and easily doubles as an ice cream scoop. (GA image)
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-Abalone irons help to remove the abalone from its substrate and are also designed so that they do not cut the abalone's sensitive skin. When an abalone is relaxed it usually has its shell up, off the substrate so that the abalone iron can quickly be inserted and 'pop' the animal off of its attachment. It the abalone is disturbed then it will clamp down on the substrate and the abalone iron is no help. The rounded edges of abalone irons protect the abalone from cuts because abalone will bleed to death if they are cut. Abalone hunters may or may not keep every abalone they pop off the substrate so they are careful not to cut any of their prey.
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-Abalone epipodium and epipodial tentacles
-Abalone epipodium (lobed) and epipodial tentacles. (GA image)
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-An epipodium is found along the edge of the abalone foot. This is a ‘ruffle’ of tissue with sensory tentacles. The color and texture of the epipodium, along with the color of the epipodial tentacles, is one way to distinguish between the different species of abalone. The epipodium and epipodial tentacles are often sticking out all around the edge of the abalone shell in an animal that has not been disturbed. When an abalone is disturbed it will pull in its epipodium and epipodial tentacles using its strong foot to clamp its shell down. When it has pulled down like this it is nearly impossible to remove a large abalone from a rocky surface in the ocean – they are so incredibly strong.
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-Edge of inside of abalone shell showing mantle, epipodial tentacles, epipodium and foot 
-Edge of inside of abalone shell showing mantle, epipodial tentacles, epipodium and foot. (GA image)
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-Abalone mantle pushed aside by forceps
-Abalone mantle pushed aside by forceps. (GA image)
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-A thin mantle hangs from the edge of the muscle attachment over the body. This mantle is right next to the shell and the surface touching the shell has glands that secrete the shell material, continually adding layers to the shell. As the abalone grows it is the edge of the mantle that adds new shell to the outer rim of the shell (increasing the diameter of the shell) and new layers to the inside (increasing the thickness of the shell). If disturbed the mantle can shrink up next to the attachment of the muscle to the shell.
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-Abalone body removed from shell
-Red abalone body removed from shell by carefully scraping the muscle attachment from the shell. A muscle scar is left on red abalone species in this area of muscle attachment. (GA image)
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-Abalone organs identified
-Abalone organs identified. (GA image)
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-The organs of the abalone are in a circle surrounding the muscular foot. These are organs of the digestive, respiratory, circulatory and reproductive systems. The head and mouth of the abalone is right near the most recently formed open hole on the shell. The digestive tract bends to the left (when viewed from the top), back to the apex (under the spiral) where it turns and comes back along the left side ending in the anus. The anus is right under the last open hole and at the end of a slit in the mantle on the left side of the animal.
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-Abalone head with central mouth, flanked by a pair of oral tentacles and a pair of eyes
-Abalone head with central mouth, flanked by a pair of oral tentacles and a pair of eyes. (GA image)
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-Abalone heads have a mouth, pair of oral tentacles, pair of eyes, and an internal radula. The oral tentacles can be extended out, under the shell to sense the surrounding area. The eyes of the abalone are sensitive to light. The mouth of the abalone is pressed down on its food (algae) when feeding, and the radula is used to scrape pieces of the food. All abalone are herbivores, feeding primarily on various species of marine algae.
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-Abalone radula
-Abalone radula from a four inch maricultured abalone. Note the brown area that is the area in use (stained by brown algae). (GA image)
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-Abalone radula close upAbalone radula microscopic view
-Abalone radula close up (left) showing rows of sharp teeth. Microscopic view of abalone radular teeth (right). (GA images)
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-Abalone radula and odontophore
-Abalone radula and odontophore. The odontophore is what presses the radula against the food while the animal is eating. It is made of cartilage. (GA image)
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-The radula is like a mini chain saw with a constant sharpening mechanism. Radulae are a characteristic of many mollusks. These unique organs are flexible bands with rows of sharp hooked teeth. A hard material is located under the radula and is used to press the radular teeth against the food. As radular teeth become broken this outer area of the radula is shed and new (sharp) teeth are moved up. The mollusks continue to form new radular teeth their entire life. The part of the radula in the abalone that is used is often stained due to the pigments in their preferred algal food. The hard material used to press the radula in the abalone is called the odontophore and is a pair of cartilaginous-like structures operated by red muscle.
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-Abalone reproductive organ (greenish)
-Abalone reproductive organ (greenish) is seen on the right side of the abalone . The foot and epipodium of the abalone is on the hand under the animal, it is stretching out so you can see the foot muscle and how it goes up and attaches to the center of the shell. The thin mantle is visible under the shell with the greenish reproductive organ in a pocket of the mantle. The animal is a female (males have a beige reproductive organ). The head of the animal is visible on the right just under the thumb with an eye raised up. (GA image)
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-Abalone reproductive organs are on their right side. These are large, horned-shaped organs located on the side of the animal opposite from the open holes. The organ is located in a pocket of the mantle and gets larger and swollen just before spawning. Abalone females produce green eggs and their reproductive organ is a greenish color. Abalone males produce beige sperm and their reproductive organ is beige in color. Abalone never mate, they are all broadcast spawners. The eggs and sperm leave the reproductive organ and travel through a small duct to the area, near the anus, where they are released just under the open holes of the shell.
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-Abalone apex is at the back of the body, opposite the head
-Abalone apex is at the back of the body, opposite the head. This is really just part of the body but it protrudes as a small knob that fits up under the spiral part of the shell. Below it is the heart with the clear abalone blood. (GA image)
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-An apex is at the back of the abalone’s body. This is an area that may be composed of reproductive products as well as digesting algae. If the area is brown then it is the digesting algae. This lump of tissue rests just under the apex of the shell. Both the body area and the shell area are called ‘apex.’ When removing an animal with all of its body parts intact one needs to be a little careful to run a finger around the shelf of shell in this area to be sure not to tear the body apex.
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-Abalone heart
-Abalone heart filled with clear blood. It contracts periodically to pump the blood to the animals tissues. (GA image)
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-Abalone have clear blood, pumped by muscular contractions of the heart. Abalone have a rather simple circulatory system. The blood of the abalone circulates through the body and gills. In the body oxygen is taken from the blood by the cells and carbon dioxide given off from the cells to the blood. In the gills carbon dioxide is released from the blood to the water and oxygen is taken in from the water to the blood. Abalone are unable to clot their blood if they are cut. This means that if they get cut in nature or if an abalone diver accidentally cuts them they will bleed to death. Most abalone divers do not pluck an abalone from the rocks unless they are sure they will be taking it and they use a blunt abalone iron to remove the animal so as not to cut the abalone.
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-Abalone gills
-Abalone gills are located right under the open holes of the shell. (GA image)
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-Abalone gills are located just behind the head, on the left side of the body, where the holes in the shell are located. In this area there is a slit in the mantle that provides an opening directly under all the open holes in the shell. The body tissue in this area is covered with cilia that beat in a certain direction to create a constant water flow in, under the shell, by the head, then to the left side of the abalone over its gills, past the anus and out the open holes. This constant slow respiratory current not only provides clean oxygenated water for the gills of the abalone but it keeps this area clean by removing the wastes from the anus promptly. When abalone are reproducing their reproductive gametes (eggs or sperm) are released here as well and washed out through the holes in the shell by this respiratory current.
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-Abalone anus
-Abalone anus is located at the far end of the slit in mantle (that exposes the gills). (GA image)
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-The anus of the abalone is directly under the last open hole of the shell. Water circulating over the gills of the abalone leaves as a gentle upward current out of the open holes, taking with it the fecal material from the abalone.
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-Cleaning a shelled abalone at the beginningCleaning a shelled abalone near the end
-Cleaning a shelled abalone at the beginning (left). Cleaning a shelled abalone near the end (right) where the guts are only attached by a small area near the head. (GA images)
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-The abalone’s organs are easily discarded, once the shell has been removed, by a tiny cut next to the muscle attachment. This reveals that the majority of the body of the abalone is its muscular foot and that this foot is solid muscle without any organs. All of the foot is edible. A v-shaped cut to remove the head (and radula) is all that is needed.
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-Abalone cleaned of its gutsAbalone cleaned of its guts and epipodium
-Abalone cleaned of its guts (left). Abalone cleaned of its guts and epipodium (right). (GA images)
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-Most people prefer to remove the epipodium and bottom of the foot before preparing abalone. The traditional way is to trim the abalone to remove the epipodium and bottom foot layer then slice the muscle into ‘steaks.’ The steaks are very tough (like the heel of a shoe) at this point.
-
-
-Sliced abalonesteaks before poundingPounding an abalone steak
-Sliced abalone steaks before pounding (left). Pounding an abalone steak (right). (GA images)
-
-Abalone steaks must be pounded to tenderize them. After pounding the abalone muscle gives up its toughness and the steak is then ready to be cooked. A traditional abalone steak is prepared by dusting the pounded abalone with flour or breadcrumbs and frying it quickly in oil or butter. Thirty seconds on each side is all that is necessary and the abalone steak is ready. The taste is similar to mild clam or chicken but has its own unique abalone flavor.
-
-
-Floured abalone steakCooking abalone steak
-Floured abalone steaks before cooking (left). Cooking a traditional abalone steak (right). (GA images)
-
-Abalone steaks ready to eatAbalone ceviche
-Abalone steaks ready to eat (left). Abalone ceviche (right). (GA images)
-
-Abalone can be prepared in many different ways. Traditional fried abalone steaks can be eaten plain or with a variety of condiments or sauces. Abalone can be served raw in ceviche (also called seviche or cebiche) by soaking the abalone overnight in lemon juice and adding vegetables to it in a marinade. Abalone chowder can be made in a similar fashion to clam chowder and often uses pieces of the epipodium as well as the bottom of the foot (all are edible). Today abalone is a delicacy, in the United States, often commanding 30 to 70 dollars a pound (for the trimmed, sliced and pounded steaks) before cooking.

data/txt/sushiuniversity.txt

@@ -1,23 +0,0 @@
-https://sushiuniversity.jp/visual-dictionary/?Name=Japanese-abalone-(kuro-awabi)
-
-What is Kuro-awabi?
-Imported Awabi (abalone) comes to Japan from Australia and Canada, but the flavor isn’t as good as domestically produced abalone. In conveyor belt sushi, Rokogai (Barnacle Rock-shell) and Akaawabi (Red abalone) are sometimes used to imitate Kuro awabi (Japanese abalone).
-
-The five types of abalone eaten in Japan include Japanese abalone (黒鮑), disk abalone (雌貝鮑), ezo abalone (蝦夷鮑), giant abalone (真高鮑) and Tokobushi (常節). Japanese abalone and ezo abalone are good raw while giant abalone and disk abalone can be enjoyed steamed. The chewy texture of raw abalone is from the scleroproteins collagen and elastin. Steaming it with sake softens the collagen into gelatin, softening the texture as well.
-
-What does Kuro-awabi (Japanese abalone) nigiri sushi taste like?
-Sea grass-feeding abalone has a tasty meat with crunchy texture and fine flavor of ocean. By steaming, it gets even tastier and takes on more firmness. Every juicy bite is like a bliss.
-
-It is exquisite in the summer when glycogen has accumulated in its body. Glycogen itself is tasteless and odorless, but when combined with glutamic acid and adenylic acid, it increases the richness of the abalone's natural flavor. The sweetness of glycine and betaine also adds to this, making it the most delicious of all conch.
-
-【How to prepare abalone】
-There are several methods of preparing abalone. All of them are designed to soften the abalone and bring out its flavor and aroma to the maximum extent possible.
-
-There are two types of cooking methods for Ni-awabi (boiled abalones): Saka-ni (sake-boiling), in which abalones are boiled with a lot of sake, and shoyu-ni (soy sauce-boiling), in which abalones are boiled with soy sauce and other seasonings.
-
-Mushiawabi (Steamed abalones) using a steamer can also be prepared in a variety of ways, such as steaming with sake, salt, or no seasoning.
-
-Sake is added to the abalones so that the umami of the sake can soak into the abalones, reduce their odor, and bring out their soft texture while leaving them chewier. As a side note, sushi restaurants also have a custom of calling the abalones stewed and softened "Mushi-awabi (Steamed abalones). To be precise, they are Ni-awabi (boiled abalones).
-
-【Trivia】
-Abalone is thought to be a lucky charm that symbolizes good fortune and longevity, and legend has it that the Qin Emperor, the first ruler to unite China, traveled all the way to Japan to find the coveted shellfish in search of immortality.

data/txt/tokyofoundation.txt

@@ -1,78 +0,0 @@
-https://www.tokyofoundation.org/research/detail.php?id=250
-Abalone
-May 12, 2009
-
-GDP
-culture
-fishery resources
-Eaten since prehistoric times, abalone is favored in Japan as a luxury foodstuff. It also has religious significance. The numbers of abalone in the Japanese seas are decreasing, however, as are the number of female free divers who have traditionally fished for abalone.
-
-Ancient History
-Abalones are shellfish belonging to the family haliotidae, the name of which is derived from the Greek words halios, meaning "sea," and otos, meaning "ear." There are about 100 known species worldwide. In Japan, where abalone is called awabi, the major species include kuro awabi, megai awabi, and madaka awabi in the south and Ezo awabi in the north.
-
-Vol.17_1.jpg
-Abalone from Toba
-The Japanese have had a special fondness for abalone since ancient times, believing it to have been the elixir of life that Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty (third century BC), sought for. During the Edo period (1603-1868) dried abalone, along with dried sea cucumber and shark fin, was one of the three marine exports from Japan that were especially prized in China.
-
-Abalone has also been known in Japan to be good for the eyes. This is evidenced by the saying in Mie Prefecture, which has a thriving abalone fishing industry, that eating abalone during pregnancy will give the child beautiful eyes. The abalone of Mie, moreover, has had an important influence on Japanese celebratory traditions. It is customary to wrap formal gifts with paper called noshi gami and to place monetary gifts in envelopes called noshi bukuro. Both of these have their origins in noshi awabi, stretched and dried strips of abalone that are still made today in Mie Prefecture.
-
-A Female Occupation
-No discussion of abalone in Japan is complete without considering the tradition of dive fishing by women. The Man'yoshu, a poetry anthology compiled around the eighth century, includes a famous poem that likens "one-sided" (unrequited) love to "the shell of the abalone that the fishers [ ama ] of Ise are said to dive for morn and eve." Since those early days, ama was a word that broadly referred to people who worked at sea. It is only relatively recently that the word was assigned the kanji characters for "ocean" and "grown man" when referring to male divers and those for "ocean" and "woman" when referring to female divers.
-
-As Satoru Tanabe notes in his book Ama, people who dived in the Genkai Sea for fish and shellfish were mentioned as early as the third century in the Gishi Wajinden, a chapter about Japan in a Chinese history book. It is unclear whether the "water people" to whom it refers are men or women. Evidence suggests that ama existed along coastal areas from even older times; many abalone shells have been unearthed from prehistoric shell mounds across Japan.
-
-Vol.17_2.jpg
-An ama jumps into the sea
-The largest number of women divers remain in the Shima and Toba districts of Mie Prefecture, which have long been famous for their ama . There are several disputed theories as to why the divers are women, including that the men were busy hunting for skipjack tuna and other fish by boat and that women are better suited to diving than men because their higher percentage of body fat keeps them warmer in the water. But according to curator Taizo Hiraga of the Toba Sea-Folk Museum, which offers detailed exhibits about the ama tradition, the key may lie in the religious significance of abalone. Ise Shrine in Mie Prefecture has valued abalone as an important offering to its deities for centuries.
-
-"There may be a religious reason, such as that offerings to Amaterasu, the sun goddess, should be gathered by women," Hiraga speculates.
-
-In Kuzakicho, Toba-shi, is a facility where village elders produce noshi awabi to be offered during the three annual festivals of Ise Shrine. Ise Shrine is actually a complex of 125 shrines, and abalones are presented to the deities at each of them. In all, the rituals call for about 1,000 fresh abalone and another 2,500 for making noshi awabi. The tradition of ama has endured in the Toba-Shima area precisely because of the sanctity with which it views the abalone. At the same time, the abundance of the shellfish has ensured the profitability of abalone diving and kept the occupation of ama alive.
-
-It is also worth noting that Amakazukime Shrine in Kuzakicho has a legend that, 2,000 years ago, Yamatohime no Mikoto—a princess who is said to have founded Ise Shrine—learned of the delicious taste of abalone when an ama named O-Ben (to whom the shrine is dedicated) offered it to her.
-
-Decreasing Abalones
-In recent years, however, the all-important abalone has been dramatically decreasing. Numerous reasons have been suggested, including overfishing, sediment runoff into the ocean due to landfills and road construction, sewage contamination, displacement of seabed sand, and the effect of the Kuroshio current with its scarcity of nutrients. But researchers at the Mie Prefecture Fisheries Research Institute, which for years has been releasing juvenile abalone in the sea and making other efforts to improve the situation, suspect that changes on a larger scale, including global warming, are responsible. As for the Kuroshio current, they point out that major changes in its course are seen every 20 years.
-
-Vol.17_3.jpg
-The ocean of Toba, the workplace of woman divers
-Whatever the cause, nationwide catches of abalone have plunged from 6,466 tons in 1970 to roughly 2,000 tons over the last three decades, writes Toshio Oba in his book Awabi to Nihonjin (The Culture of Abalone and the Japanese). Women divers have decreased as well. According to statistics by the Toba Sea-Folk Museum, the number of ama in Mie Prefecture was 1,081 in 2007, compared to 6,019 in 1949. Given the fact that there are very few young ama in their twenties to forties, the number is sure to drop even further in the coming years.
-
-As Hiraga commented, "What is certain is that ama is a female profession that has continued for at least a thousand years."
-
-It is a pity to see a millenarian tradition die away, but the life of a woman diver is not easy. They juggle diving with child rearing and housework, and those in households that engage in both farming and fishing additionally tend the fields. There are even some ama who, on top of all this, also run an inn. And abalones are not their only prey. They dive during all but the two coldest months of the year for various fruits of the sea, such as Japanese spiny lobster, sea cucumber, turban shell, sea urchin, green laver, and hijiki seaweed, as well as abalone.
-
-Women at Sea
-We were able to accompany ama to sea with the cooperation of the Kuzaki branch of JF (Japan Fisheries Cooperative) Toba Isobe. There are largely two styles of ama fishing. In the first, in which the divers are called funado ama, a husband-and-wife pair would go out to sea in a small boat, and the husband would hold onto the wife's lifeline while she dived. In the second, men known as tomae would row the boat and keep watch over the diving women, called kachido ama or okedo ama.
-
-This day's fishing was in the latter style, with nine divers riding out on two boats. The destination was a fishing ground owned by the cooperative. The usual competition was absent, as the day had been reserved for a joint survey of the growth of juvenile abalone that the cooperative had released with the support of the Mie Prefecture Fisheries Research Institute.
-
-As the boats neared the reef, one by one the ama jumped into the ocean with a splash. The women scattered out, each holding onto a float, and soon began quickly disappearing underwater. In a matter of minutes, several were holding up large abalones for us to see with joyful looks. All of them were in their fifties and sixties, but they kept diving with superhuman stamina during a full hour and 20 minutes, repeatedly submerging and resurfacing for 30 times or even 50.
-
-Vol.17_4.jpg
-An ama diving for abalone
-By local tradition, when a girl was born she was destined to become an ama , and there was even a saying that went, "She who cannot feed a single te [man] is not worth much as a yaya [woman]." Girls growing up in this region apparently were well aware of their future as an ama from an early age. The local communities have thus had a longstanding tradition of prizing women with superior diving abilities.
-
-After 1 hour and 20 minutes, the ama returned with heavy catches. The women seemed exhausted as they dragged themselves back on the boats. They made a distinctive whistling sound as they steadied their breathing; it is a special breathing technique called ama bue, meaning ama's whistle, and its melancholy ring has been made the subject of poetry.
-
-Sustainability and Seasonal Variation
-Ama diving is a sustainable form of fishing. There are several reasons:
-
-There is a cap on the diving time allowed per day. At Kuzakicho the ama can only dive once a day for a duration of 1 hour and 20 minutes.
-Fishing for abalone is banned during their breeding season from October to December.
-In Mie Prefecture, small abalone of 10.6 centimeters or less must be returned to the sea.
-Diving gear, such as wet suits and oxygen tanks, are prohibited.
-The net bags in which the ama put the abalone that they caught, called sukari , are intentionally made with large meshes.
-Another distinguishing feature of ama diving is the seasonal variation. From May to around mid-September they mainly fish for abalone, turban shell, sea urchin, and tokobushi abalone. Tengusa seaweed is taken from July to August. As these summer months also happen to be typhoon season, the divers only go out to sea for a total of 30 days at most, and as little as 10 days in some years. Japanese spiny lobster comes in season from December to April, and sea cucumber can be fished from November to December. The ama do not dive in January and February. In March they begin harvesting wakame seaweed, and May is the time for hijiki seaweed.
-
-Vol.17_5.jpg
-Some of the Kuzakicho divers gather in their ama hut, which has a hearth to warm their bodies after diving.
-July 1 and November 15 are designated resting days, called himachi . The ama offer flowers, beans, and sake to the gods and get together for dinner. They also refrain from diving on July 13 and 14, when sharks are said to pass by for spawning. The final fishing day of the year, called nomiage , is December 26 or 27, and on this day they celebrate by cooking sekihan (red bean rice).
-
-"It would be nice if we could go out every day," mumbles someone in the ama hut. "But there are the days, you know, when typhoons make the water cloudy for a good week or ten days. I wish our work was more steady."
-
-To make up for the instability of ama fishing, it is common for local households to divide the time between farming and fishing. About half of the ama engage in agriculture, while also raising their children and keeping house. The daughters, having grown up watching their mothers, are rarely willing to follow in the parental footsteps. The mothers have likewise been unable to tell their daughters to take up the busy lifestyle of the ama .
-
-Today the majority of women divers in Kuzakicho are in their fifties and sixties. But the situation here is actually better than many others; the ama in nearby Anori and Koga, where we once visited, were mostly in their sixties and seventies, and last year there was even a report of an 82-year-old ama . Nonetheless, the fact is that even Kuzakicho has not a single ama in her twenties to forties. The town has a tradition of having only one ama per household, and the number of women divers in the town has gone down from 170 in 1978 to 63 in 2009.
-
-The primitive fishing method of ama diving is historically important, having underpinned the venerable traditions of Ise Shrine for at least 1,300 years. At the same time, it has contemporary significance as a sustainable coastal fishing technique that prevents the depletion of fisheries resources. It is to be desired that the culture of abalone fishing by women divers be kept alive by finding some way to ease the heavy workload of the ama.

data/txt/visitcalifornia.txt

@@ -1,39 +0,0 @@
-https://www.visitcalifornia.com/experience/cultural-significance-abalone/
-
-For thousands of years, the abundant abalone population along California’s coast played a central role in the lives of the state’s Indigenous peoples. Seven species of these large, plant-eating marine snails thrived in California’s intertidal and subtidal reefs to depths of more than 200 feet. The term abalone is derived from the Rumsen word aulun, and anthropologists have found the remains of abalone shells in middens (ancient shell mounds) that date back at least 12,000 years.
-
-In his book, Abalone Tales: Collaborative Explorations of Sovereignty and Identity in Native California, anthropologist Les W. Field likened the significance of abalone for California’s coastal tribes to the role that the bison played for Plains Indians. And at the Autry Museum of the American West’s Human Nature exhibit, which examines the relationship between California’s Indigenous people and the environment, Shmuwich Chumash weaver and cultural educator Timara Lotah Link noted the importance too: “As coastal Native people, abalone is our most visible object of cultural identity,” she says. “Men, women, and children wear abalone with pride, and the subtle differences in style can tell you which tribe a person is from.”
-
-But a combination of factors—most notably overfishing, poaching, climate change, disease, and habitat loss—have decimated California’s abalone stocks. After once numbering in the millions, six of the species are now designated as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. In 2001, the white abalone became the first federally listed endangered marine invertebrate and biologists fear it could go extinct within the next 20 years.
-
-For most non-Indigenous people, other than commercial fishermen and sport divers, the decline in abalone is mostly an inconvenience and little more than the loss of a favorite delicacy. But for the state’s Native Americans, the collapse of California’s abalone population represents both the depletion of a vital food source and the painful loss of ancient cultural traditions.
-
-The Traditional Role of Abalone
-For roughly 20 California coastal tribes, including the Yurok, Hoopa, Karuk, Pomo, Wiyot, and Ohlone in Northern California and such Southern California cultures as the Chumash, Tongva, and Kumeyaay, the abalone has played a major role both in daily life and as part of ceremonies since time immemorial.
-
-Rich in protein and omega-3 fatty acids, abalone was vital to the diet of Indigenous people along the coast. The meaty red abalone, found from Oregon to Baja California, is the largest of the world’s 56 known abalone species and can grow to 12 inches across and weigh more than three pounds. Abalone was also sometimes dried and used for trade with inland tribes.
-
-Beyond the nutritional value of these shellfish, abalone shells, rough on the outside but with iridescent and opalescent interiors of pinks, purples, reds, and greens, were used functionally and as part of rituals.
-
-Carved into circular shapes, the shells became a form of currency. The remnants of abalone from the California coast have been found as far away as the Mississippi River. Pieces of abalone shell ornamented ceremonial regalia, both for visual beauty and to create a jangling, chiming sound during dances as the carved shell fragments rattled off one another.
-
-The Chumash and Tongva inlaid abalone into the prows of their tomols (called Tiats by the Tongva), which are oceangoing plank canoes. In addition, they crafted abalone shells into durable, nearly circular fishhooks that greatly enhanced their deep-sea fishing capabilities.
-
-An assortment of tribes also integrated abalone into their spirituality. In her book Abalone: The Remarkable History and Uncertain Future of California’s Iconic Shellfish, author Ann Vileisis writes that both the Chumash and the Yokut in the Central Valley employed abalone shells as part of burial rituals, while Kumeyaay shamans used the shells during rainmaking ceremonies. The Pomo considered abalone the ocean’s first creature and the story of Abalone Woman is part of the oral tradition of several North Coast tribes, including the Yurok and Wiyot.
-
-An Uncertain Future
-Abalone were a ubiquitous presence along the California coast well into the 20th century, both as a delicacy in restaurants and as keepsakes in souvenir shops. Many recreational skin divers harvested abalone and backyard barbecues featuring abalone as the delectable main course were common. The prospect of depleting the seemingly infinite stocks was unthinkable.
-
-But the population did indeed crash and in 1997 the state banned all commercial abalone fishing south of San Francisco, and that ban has since been extended to the entire coast. The recreational fishery for red abalone in Northern California was closed in 2018 and the prohibition will continue until at least 2026.
-
-A big part of the problem was the illusion of perpetual abundance. Abalone are a favorite food of sea otters and after these marine mammals were nearly hunted to extinction following the arrival of Europeans in California, abalone prospered. Thanks to their protected status, sea otter numbers have increased, thus putting additional pressure on remaining abalone stocks.
-
-But overfishing by humans has taken a far greater toll: Millions of pounds of abalone were harvested annually. And because these mollusks mature slowly and require a certain population density to successfully reproduce, the animals couldn’t easily recover. There simply weren’t enough adult abalone, nor were the surviving ones in close enough proximity for spawning.
-
-A series of cascading environmental events have also devastated abalone. A bacterial infection known as Withering Syndrome took a heavy toll, especially along the southern half of the coast and during episodes of warming ocean water. Abalone eat bits of kelp and algae drifting through the water column but a sequence of marine heat waves killed off huge numbers of sunflower sea stars, which prey on purple urchins. As a result, the urchin population has exploded. The urchins voraciously devour kelp, greatly reducing a vital food source for abalone, especially because kelp forests were already stressed by warming ocean waters.
-
-To enhance the survival of abalone, the state has launched management plans designed to protect these shellfish, as well as California’s kelp forests. Thousands of captive-bred white abalone raised at the White Abalone Culture Lab at the UC Davis Marine Laboratory in Bodega Bay have been planted in the waters off Southern California.
-
-Tribal members are also involved in abalone recovery efforts. In Sonoma County, the federally recognized Kashia Band of Pomo Indians of the Stewarts Rancheria is planning a tribal abalone breeding program, as well as a monitoring program and a purple urchin removal project to restore kelp, at their proposed abalone aquaculture center.
-
-Tongva artist Mercedes Dorame’s installation Mercedes Dorame: Woshaa’axre Yaang’aro (Looking Back), which consists of five abalone-shaped sculptures ranging from 4 to 12 feet tall in the rotunda at the Getty Center in Los Angeles, is bringing new attention to the importance of abalone for Indigenous people. And Northern Chumash artist Leah Mata Fragua, who uses abalone shell in her jewelry, has spoken out about the impact of the decline in abalone for Native people.

data/txt/wikipedia.txt

@@ -1,84 +0,0 @@
-https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abalone
-Abalone (/ˈæbəloʊni/ ⓘ or /ˌæbəˈloʊni/; via Spanish abulón, from Rumsen aulón) are sea snails in the genus Haliotis, the only genus in the family Haliotidae.[2] Abalone shells are distinctive for their flattened, ear-like shape, nacreous interior, and row of holes used for respiration. The flesh of abalone is widely considered to be a delicacy, and is consumed raw or cooked by a variety of cuisines. Abalone are globally distributed, with approximately 70 known species alive today. Though some species are small, the largest abalone can attain a length of 300 millimetres (12 in).
-
-Other common names for abalone are ear shells, sea ears, and, now rarely, muttonfish or muttonshells in parts of Australia, ormer in the United Kingdom, perlemoen in South Africa, and pāua in New Zealand.[3]
-
-Most abalone vary in size from 20 mm (0.8 in) (Haliotis pulcherrima) to 200 mm (8 in). The largest species, Haliotis rufescens, reaches 300 mm (12 in).[4]
-
-The shells of abalone have a low, open spiral structure, and are characterized by several open respiratory pores in a row near the shell's outer edge. The thick inner layer of the shell is composed of nacre, which in many species is highly iridescent, giving rise to a range of strong, changeable colors which make the shells attractive to humans as ornaments, jewelry, and as a source of colorful mother-of-pearl.
-
-The shell of abalone is convex, rounded to oval in shape, and may be highly arched or very flattened. The shell of the majority of species has a small, flat spire and two to three whorls. The last whorl, known as the body whorl, is auriform, meaning that the shell resembles an ear, giving rise to the common name "ear shell". Haliotis asinina has a somewhat different shape, as it is more elongated and distended. The shell of Haliotis cracherodii cracherodii is also unusual as it has an ovate form, is imperforate, shows an exserted spire, and has prickly ribs.
-
-A mantle cleft in the shell impresses a groove in the shell, in which are the row of holes characteristic of the genus. These holes are respiratory apertures for venting water from the gills and for releasing sperm and eggs into the water column.[5] They make up what is known as the selenizone, which forms as the shell grows. This series of eight to 38 holes is near the anterior margin. Only a small number is generally open. The older holes are gradually sealed up as the shell grows and new holes form. Each species has a typical number of open holes, between four and 10, in the selenizone. An abalone has no operculum. The aperture of the shell is very wide and nacreous.[5]
-
-The exterior of the shell is striated and dull. The color of the shell is very variable from species to species, which may reflect the animal's diet.[3] The iridescent nacre that lines the inside of the shell varies in color from silvery white, to pink, red and green-red to deep blue, green to purple.
-
-The animal has fimbriated head lobes and side lobes that are fimbriated and cirrated. The radula has small median teeth, and the lateral teeth are single and beam-like. They have about 70 uncini, with denticulated hooks, the first four very large. The rounded foot is very large in comparison to most molluscs. The soft body is coiled around the columellar muscle, and its insertion, instead of being on the columella, is on the middle of the inner wall of the shell. The gills are symmetrical and both well developed.[6]
-
-These snails cling solidly with their broad, muscular foot to rocky surfaces at sublittoral depths, although some species such as Haliotis cracherodii used to be common in the intertidal zone. Abalone reach maturity at a relatively small size. Their fecundity is high and increases with their size, laying from 10,000 to 11 million eggs at a time. The spermatozoa are filiform and pointed at one end, and the anterior end is a rounded head.[7]
-
-The larvae are lecithotrophic. The adults are herbivorous and feed with their rhipidoglossan radula on macroalgae, preferring red or brown algae. Sizes vary from 20 mm (25⁄32 in) (Haliotis pulcherrima) to 200 mm (7+7⁄8 in), while Haliotis rufescens is the largest of the genus at 30 cm (12 in).[8]
-
-The haliotid family has a worldwide distribution, along the coastal waters of every continent, except the Pacific coast of South America, the Atlantic coast of North America, the Arctic, and Antarctica.[9] The majority of abalone species are found in cold waters, such as off the coasts of New Zealand, South Africa, Australia, Western North America, and Japan.[10]
-
-Abalone are members of the clade Vetigastropoda, though their precise position within the clade is uncertain. Despite their inclusion in the order Lepetellida, they do not appear to be particularly closely related to other members of the order and may be more closely related to Trochoidea, or alternatively outside of a clade uniting Trochoidea with the rest of Lepetellida.[11] The earliest known fossil abalone are known from the Campanian age of the Late Cretaceous. The few known Cretaceous abalone fossils have all been found in North America, suggesting that the group may have originated there, although other possibilities have been suggested, including a central Indo-Pacific origin based on where abalone are most diverse today.[12] Haliotidae may have evolved from the pleurotomariidan families Temnotropidae or Trochotomidae.[13] Trochotoma frydai,[a] from the Campanian of Spain, closely resembles the Cretaceous abalone Haliotis antillesensis except in having a slit instead of a row of tremata.[14][16]
-
-The shell of the abalone is exceptionally strong and is composed of a tightly packed calcium carbonate matrix. Layered among the matrix is an endogenous protein further strengthening the shell. Due to the unique structure of the shell, a force applied directly to the shell matrix will more likely cause the shedding of layers as opposed to cracking or shattering. Material scientists are currently studying this structure for insight into stronger ablative protective tools such as body armor.[17]
-
-The dust created by grinding and cutting abalone shell is dangerous; appropriate safeguards must be taken to protect people from inhaling these particles.[18]
-
-Abalone are subject to various infectious diseases. The Victorian Department of Primary Industries said in 2007 that ganglioneuritis killed up to 90% of stock in affected regions. Abalone possess very little clotting factor, meaning even a mild to moderate skin-piercing injury can result in death from fluid loss. Members of the Spionidae of the polychaetes are known as pests of abalone.[19]
-
-Abalone have been harvested as a source of food and esthetics since prehistory. Abalone shells and associated materials, like their claw-like pearls and nacre, have been used as jewelry and for buttons, buckles, and inlay.[20][21][22] These shells have been found in archaeological sites around the world, ranging from 100,000-year-old deposits at Blombos Cave in South Africa to historic Chinese abalone middens on California's Northern Channel Islands.[23][24] For at least 12,000 years, abalone were harvested to such an extent around the Channel Islands that shells in the area decreased in size four thousand years ago.[25]
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-Farming of abalone began in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Japan and China.[26] Since the mid-1990s, there have been many increasingly successful endeavors to commercially farm abalone for the purpose of consumption.[27] Overfishing and poaching have reduced wild populations to such an extent that farmed abalone now supplies most of the abalone meat consumed. The principal abalone farming regions are China, Taiwan,[28] Japan, and Korea. Abalone is also farmed in Australia, Canada, Chile, France,[29] Iceland, Ireland, Mexico, Namibia, New Zealand, South Africa, Spain,[30] Thailand, and the United States.[31]
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-After trials in 2012,[32] a commercial "sea ranch" was set up in Flinders Bay, Western Australia to raise abalone. The ranch is based on an artificial reef made up of 5,000 separate concrete abalone habitat units, which can host 400 abalone each. The reef is seeded with young abalone from an onshore hatchery.
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-The abalone feed on seaweed that grows naturally on the habitats; the ecosystem enrichment of the bay also results in growing numbers of dhufish, pink snapper, wrasse, and Samson fish among other species.[33][34]
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-Abalone have long been a valuable food source for humans in every area of the world where a species is abundant. The meat of this mollusc is considered a delicacy in certain parts of Latin America (particularly Chile), France, New Zealand, East Asia and Southeast Asia. In the Greater China region and among Overseas Chinese communities, abalone is commonly known as bao yu, and sometimes forms part of a Chinese banquet. In the same way as shark fin soup or bird's nest soup, abalone is considered a luxury item, and is traditionally reserved for celebrations.
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-As abalone became more popular and less common, the prices adjusted accordingly. In the 1920s, a restaurant-served portion of abalone, about 4 ounces, would cost (in inflation adjusted dollars) about US$7; by 2004, the price had risen to US$75.[35] In the United States, prior to this time, abalone was predominantly eaten, gathered, and prepared by Chinese immigrants.[36] Before that, abalone were collected to be eaten, and used for other purposes by Native American tribes.[37] By 1900, laws were passed in California to outlaw the taking of abalone above the intertidal zone. This forced the Chinese out of the market and the Japanese perfected diving, with or without gear, to enter the market. Abalone started to become popular in the US after the Panama–Pacific International Exposition in 1915, which exhibited 365 varieties of fish with cooking demonstrations, and a 1,300-seat dining hall.[38]
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-In Japan, live and raw abalone are used in awabi sushi, or served steamed, salted, boiled, chopped, or simmered in soy sauce. Salted, fermented abalone entrails are the main component of tottsuru, a local dish from Honshū. Tottsuru is mainly enjoyed with sake.[39]
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-In South Korea, abalone is called Jeonbok (/juhn-bok/) and used in various recipes. Jeonbok porridge and pan-fried abalone steak with butter are popular but also commonly used in soups or ramyeon.
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-In California, abalone meat can be found on pizza, sautéed with caramelized mango, or in steak form dusted with cracker meal and flour.[40]
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-Tasmania supplies about 25% of the yearly world abalone harvest.[41] Around 12,500 Tasmanians recreationally fish for blacklip and greenlip abalone. For blacklip abalone, the size limit varies between 138 mm (5.4 in) for the southern end of the state and 127 mm (5.0 in) for the northern end of the state.[42] Greenlip abalone have a minimum size of 145 mm (5.7 in), except for an area around Perkins Bay in the north of the state where the minimum size is 132 millimetres (5.2 in). With a recreational abalone licence, the bag limit is 10 per day, with a total possession limit of 20. Scuba diving for abalone is allowed, and has a rich history in Australia. (Scuba diving for abalone in the states of New South Wales and Western Australia is illegal; a free-diving catch limit of two is allowed).[43][44]
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-Victoria has had an active abalone fishery since the late 1950s. The state is sectioned into three fishing zones, Eastern, Central and Western, with each fisher required a zone-allocated licence. Harvesting is performed by divers using surface-supplied air "hookah" systems operating from runabout-style, outboard-powered boats. While the diver seeks out colonies of abalone amongst the reef beds, the deckhand operates the boat, known as working "live" and stays above where the diver is working. Bags of abalone pried from the rocks are brought to the surface by the diver or by way of "shot line", where the deckhand drops a weighted rope for the catch bag to be connected then retrieved. Divers measure each abalone before removing from the reef and the deckhand remeasures each abalone and removes excess weed growth from the shell. Since 2002, the Victorian industry has seen a significant decline in catches, with the total allowable catch reduced from 1440 to 787 tonnes for the 2011/12 fishing year, due to dwindling stocks and most notably the abalone virus ganglioneuritis, which is fast-spreading and lethal to abalone stocks.
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-Sport harvesting of red abalone is permitted with a California fishing license and an abalone stamp card. In 2008, the abalone card also came with a set of 24 tags. This was reduced to 18 abalone per year in 2014, and as of 2017 the limit has been reduced to 12, only nine of which may be taken south of Mendocino County. Legal-size abalone must be tagged immediately.[45] Abalone may only be taken using breath-hold techniques or shorepicking; scuba diving for abalone is strictly prohibited.[46] Taking of abalone is not permitted south of the mouth of San Francisco Bay.[47] A size minimum of 7 in (180 mm) measured across the shell is in place. A person may be in possession of only three abalone at any given time.[48][49]
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-As of 2017, abalone season is May to October, excluding July. Transportation of abalone may only legally occur while the abalone is still attached in the shell. Sale of sport-obtained abalone is illegal, including the shell. Only red abalone may be taken, as black, white, pink, flat, green, and pinto abalone are protected by law.[48] In 2018, the California Fish and Game Commission closed recreational abalone season due to dramatically declining populations. That year, they extended the moratorium to last through April 2021.[50] Afterwards, they extended the ban for another 5 years until April 2026.[51]
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-An abalone diver is normally equipped with a thick wetsuit, including a hood, bootees, and gloves, and usually also a mask, snorkel, weight belt, abalone iron, and abalone gauge. Alternatively, the rock picker can feel underneath rocks at low tides for abalone. Abalone are mostly taken in depths from a few inches up to 10 m (33 ft); less common are freedivers who can work deeper than 10 m (33 ft). Abalone are normally found on rocks near food sources such as kelp. An abalone iron is used to pry the abalone from the rock before it has time to fully clamp down. Divers dive from boats, kayaks, tube floats, or directly off the shore.[46]
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-The largest abalone recorded in California is 12.34 in (31.3 cm), caught by John Pepper somewhere off the coast of San Mateo County in September 1993.[52]
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-The mollusc Concholepas concholepas is often sold in the United States under the name "Chilean abalone", though it is not an abalone, but a muricid.
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-In New Zealand, abalone is called pāua (/ˈpaʊə/, from the Māori language). Haliotis iris (or blackfoot pāua) is the ubiquitous New Zealand pāua, the highly polished nacre of which is extremely popular as souvenirs with its striking blue, green, and purple iridescence. Haliotis australis and Haliotis virginea are also found in New Zealand waters, but are less popular than H. iris. Haliotis pirimoana is a small species endemic to Manawatāwhi / the Three Kings Islands that superficially resembles H. virginea.[53][54]
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-Like all New Zealand shellfish, recreational harvesting of pāua does not require a permit provided catch limits, size restrictions, and seasonal and local restrictions set by the Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI) are followed. The legal recreational daily limit is 10 per diver, with a minimum shell length of 125 mm (4.9 in) for H. iris and 80 mm (3.1 in) for H. australis. In addition, no person may be in possession, even on land, of more than 20 pāua or more than 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) of pāua meat at any one time. Pāua can only be caught by free-diving; it is illegal to catch them using scuba gear.
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-An extensive global black market exists in collecting and exporting abalone meat. This can be a particularly awkward problem where the right to harvest pāua can be granted legally under Māori customary rights. When such permits to harvest are abused, it is frequently difficult to police. The limit is strictly enforced by roving Ministry for Primary Industries fishery officers with the backing of the New Zealand Police. Poaching is a major industry in New Zealand with many thousands being taken illegally, often undersized. Convictions have resulted in seizure of diving gear, boats, and motor vehicles and fines and in rare cases, imprisonment.
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-There are five species endemic to South Africa, namely H. parva, H. spadicea, H. queketti and H. speciosa.[55]
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-The largest abalone in South Africa, Haliotis midae, occurs along roughly two-thirds of the country's coastline. Abalone-diving has been a recreational activity for many years, but stocks are currently being threatened by illegal commercial harvesting.[56] In South Africa, all persons harvesting this shellfish need permits that are issued annually, and no abalone may be harvested using scuba gear.
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-For the last few years, however, no permits have been issued for collecting abalone, but commercial harvesting still continues as does illegal collection by syndicates.[57] In 2007, because of widespread poaching of abalone, the South African government listed abalone as an endangered species according to the CITES section III appendix, which requests member governments to monitor the trade in this species. This listing was removed from CITES in June 2010 by the South African government and South African abalone is no longer subject to CITES trade controls. Export permits are still required, however. The abalone meat from South Africa is prohibited for sale in the country to help reduce poaching; however, much of the illegally harvested meat is sold in Asian countries. As of early 2008, the wholesale price for abalone meat was approximately US$40.00 per kilogram. There is an active trade in the shells, which sell for more than US$1,400 per tonne.
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-Ormers (Haliotis tuberculata) are considered a delicacy in the British Channel Islands as well as in adjacent areas of France, and are pursued with great alacrity by the locals. This, and a recent lethal bacterial disease,[58] has led to a dramatic depletion in numbers since the latter half of the 19th century, and "ormering" is now strictly regulated to preserve stocks. The gathering of ormers is now restricted to a number of 'ormering tides', from 1 January to 30 April, which occur on the full or new moon and two days following. No ormers may be taken from the beach that are under 80 millimetres (3.1 in) in shell length. Gatherers are not allowed to wear wetsuits or even put their heads underwater. Any breach of these laws is a criminal offence and can lead to a fine of up to £5,000 or six months in prison.[59] The demand for ormers is such that they led to the world's first underwater arrest, when Mr. Kempthorne-Leigh of Guernsey was arrested by a police officer in full diving gear when illegally diving for ormers.[60]
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-The highly iridescent inner nacre layer of the shell of abalone has traditionally been used as a decorative item, in jewelry,[3] buttons, and as inlay in furniture and musical instruments, such as on fret boards and binding of guitars.[61] See article Najeonchilgi regarding Korean handicraft.
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-Abalone has been an important staple in a number of Indigenous cultures around the world, specifically in Africa and on the Northwest American coast. The meat is a traditional food, and the shell is used to make ornaments; historically, the shells were also used as currency in some communities.[62]
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-Abalone are critically threatened due to overfishing and the acidification of oceans[63] as lower pH erodes the calcium carbonate in their shells. In the 21st century, white, pink, and green abalone are on the United States federal endangered species list. Possible restoration sites have been proposed for the San Clemente Island and Santa Barbara Island areas.[64] Reintroduction of farming abalone to the wild has been proposed, with these abalone having special tags to help track the population.[65]
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-The number of species that are recognized within the genus Haliotis has fluctuated over time, and depends on the source that is consulted. The number of recognized species range from 30[66] to 130.[67] As of 2025, 70 extant species were listed as accepted in MolluscaBase.[68] This list finds a compromise using the WoRMS database, plus some species that have been added, for a total of 57.[2][69] The majority of abalone have not been rated for conservation status. Those that have been reviewed tend to show that the abalone in general is an animal that is declining in numbers, and will need protection throughout the globe.