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You can perform mass actions like Update, Delete or Move on your solution articles. To perform a mass action, do the following:
- In the Help Center home page, select multiple articles using the checkbox.
- Click Update.
- In the Mass update window, select the Field to Update and provide a New value.
- Click Save.
- Click Delete.
- Click OK in the confirmation window.
- Click Move to.
- Specify the section you intend to move the article to.
- Click Move.
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As women age, their metabolism slows down, which means fat tends to accumulate unless they are extremely active and eat a very low-calorie diet. After menopause, fat tends to accumulate around the middle, as opposed to the legs or arms. However, you can take preventive steps with diet and exercise to minimize or avoid middle-age spread.
Two Types of Fat
When you think of belly fat, you probably think of a roll of fat you can squeeze with your hand. That is called subcutaneous fat, as it lies just below the skin. Of greater health concern is visceral fat, which accumulates around the organs in your midsection. Visceral fat is strongly associated with cardiovascular and diabetes risk. Genetics and hormones may play the biggest roles in whether you tend to accumulate much visceral fat, as diet and exercise can only have a minor impact on visceral fat, though they can strongly affect how much subcutaneous fat gathers around your middle.
Video of the Day
Women can lose belly fat by make several key changes to their diet, such as smaller portions and reduced daily calorie intake. Think about how much you ordinarily eat at dinner, for example, and start to take a little less, particularly of foods such as pasta, bread and desserts. Weight loss is all about fewer calories consumed than those burned, so start counting calories and see where you can cut back. Other dietary tips to help women lose belly fat include reducing consumption of saturated fats and replacing them with unsaturated fats. Also, replace simple carbohydrates, such as white flour pasta and soda, with complex carbohydrates such as fruits and vegetables.
Daily fat-burning exercise, such as brisk walking or jogging, will help you lose weight all over. But if you tend to gather fat in your midsection, that may be an area where you start to see early reductions once you start exercising. You can also perform some belly-targeted exercises that may not immediately burn fat around the middle, but will tone your abdominal muscles to help flatten your belly. One exercise worth trying is known as "abdominal hollowing." To start, get on all fours and let your belly hang down as you take a deep breath. After you exhale, draw you belly up as though you were trying to push your bellybutton toward your spine and hold for 10 seconds. Release and repeat 10 times. You should feel a tightening around the waist as you hold in your belly.
To lose weight and keep it off, you may need to surround yourself with supportive people. Enlisting your family in a healthier approach to eating is a great idea and will pay dividends for everyone. A spouse or partner on board with smaller portions, healthier foods and more exercise can help keep you on track. Local support groups, particularly women-only groups, may also help keep you focused on your goal. Your physician or your local hospital may have information about support groups. See if your doctor will prescribe the services of a registered dietitian who can help you revamp your diet in a way that still allows you to enjoy tasty, but healthier foods.
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Not Exactly Rocket Science covers a fascinating study on how touching different objects influences how we perceive the world – based on abstract associations between things like weight and seriousness.
Weight is linked to importance, so that people carrying heavy objects deem interview candidates as more serious and social problems as more pressing. Texture is linked to difficulty and harshness. Touching rough sandpaper makes social interactions seem more adversarial, while smooth wood makes them seem friendlier. Finally, hardness is associated with rigidity and stability. When sitting on a hard chair, negotiators take tougher stances but if they sit on a soft one instead, they become more flexible.
The study, led by psychologist Joshua Ackerman, involved a series of innovative experiments that asked people to complete tasks and looked at the effect of simply changing texture or sensation on how the participants’ behaved or perceived the situation. For example:
Ackerman also looked at the influence of an object’s hardness. He asked 49 volunteers to touch either a hard block of word or a soft blanket, under the pretence of examining objects to be used in a magic act. Afterwards, when they read an interaction between a boss and an employee, those who felt the wood thought the employee was stricter and more rigid than those who touched the blanket (but no less positive)
This has obvious practical implications and I suspect attractive shop assistants will find themselves puzzled by sudden influx of the oddly alluring strangers who keep asking for a couple of peaches before asking them out.
Link to write-up from Not Exactly Rocket Science.
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Competency-based learning is an approach to education that focuses on the student’s demonstration of desired learning outcomes as central to the learning process. Competency-based learning is an effective model, potentially reducing inefficiency (including time spent learning) and increasing pedagogical precision and student achievement.
Critical thinking is one of the most valuable skills that every student must learn mastering. It is not just limited to problem-solving skills in class but also in real-life situations. A variety of skills are taught while learning about critical thinking, this involves any kind of circumstances that requires planning, analysis, and reflection.
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Most people are crap with axes, including myself until I undertook a diligent study of the art. It takes time and patience to learn. You need a sharp axe. Most of all you need to know that less often equals more when it comes to the use of an axe. First splitting. This is the only use of an axe that is widely practised these days. A saw is sensibly used to reduce a tree trunk into logs and then an axe is used to split that into usable chunks. A fat bodied spitting axe works best but almost any axe will do even a blunt one. But you need a sharp axe to chop trees down or to chop logs into two like a real lumberjack. Sharpen your axe with a metal file until all the dings are gone and the blade can shave wood like a knife. Remember, most of the work is done by the axe not your shoulders. Indigenous people leave a lot of wood chopping to women and if you watch them at work you can learn a lot. Almost lazily they raise their machete or axe and then let it fall using its own weight only slightly accelerated. You can chop for hours like this. With a long felling axe only lift it high enough to still feel in control (this will get higher as you get better) and just let it fall- when it moves past you add your own force to the downward momentum but don’t strain yourself. Chop at a manageable rhythm. To aim for a spot just look at it and the axe will follow a bit like teeing off in golf. Here is the big axe secret: when people chop logs in two they start by cutting a small ‘V’ and then they realise to make it deeper they have to expand it wider and wider, so a lot of their chopping effort goes into widening the hole not deepening it- which is wasted effort. To cut a log a foot in diameter you need to make a cut a foot wide to start with by making one axe chop on one side and another at a slight angle a foot away. Then lever the axe sideways and split out the intervening wood – or sometimes it just flies out as a big chunk. By magic, instead of shaving away constantly at both sides, you just took out a whole hunk of word. Just keep repeating this double action as you go down through the log and each chop will naturally get closer and closer to the other. Getting into a steady rhythm and you will beat any muscled Tyro who thinks it’s all about chopping like a mad axe murderer.
To take down a tree with an axe use the same principles but sideways on. First however chop out a section in the back of the tree lower down than you intend to cut at the front. This lower cut will be the direction the tree should fall in assuming it’s not leaning. It only needs to be about quarter of the way through the tree. Then go around to the front and if the tree is 2 feet wide start chopping out sections about 18 inches apart. Split out each chunk as before. When the tree starts to move you can give it a push in the right direction. Remember to shout timber!!!
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- U.S. Department of Labor
- Occupational Safety and Health Administration
- Directorate of Technical Support and Emergency Management
- (formerly Directorate of Science, Technology and Medicine)
- Office of Science and Technology Assessment
OSHA Hazard Information Bulletins
Potential Fire with Fluorescent Light Bulbs within Plastic Tubes
July 15, 1997
- FRANK STRASHEIM
- Acting Deputy Assistant Secretary
- STEVEN F. WITT
- Directorate of Technical Support
- Hazard Information Bulletin1 - Potential Fire with Fluorescent Light Bulbs within Plastic Tubes
The Consumer Product Safety Commission informed us that the fire department of Plymouth, Massachusetts noted that fluorescent light bulbs with protective plastic sleeves used in some bagel or donut display cases may cause a fire. The protective plastic sleeve covering is designed to protect food from broken glass in the event a bulb breaks.
The potential for this lighting system to overheat and cause a fire was discovered during an investigation of a fire in Plymouth, Massachusetts. During this investigation, the Plymouth Fire Department discovered that the two pins at one end of the bulb were not properly seated in the socket. Therefore, the fire investigator noted that the fire hazard appears to be due to the improper installation of the fluorescent light bulb in its socket. That is, if the pins at the ends of the fluorescent bulbs are not properly seated in the socket, the exposed pins can heat up and melt the black end caps and then the plastic sleeve covering (protective covering) surrounding the fluorescent bulb, and thereby create a fire hazard, as it occurred in Plymouth.
According to the Plymouth Fire Department, the plastic tube was manufactured by Tri Lite Plastic, Falsington, Pa. The display cases were made by Monarch Industries, Inc., Providence, RI and provided by Paramount Restaurant Supply Corporation. As a result of the incident, Paramount and Monarch manufacturers voluntarily replaced the fluorescent light bulbs that were equipped with protective sleeve coverings and end caps with a shatterproof bulb that is easier to install, in order to eliminate this potential fire hazard. This corrective action should eliminate the hazard. Some small shop owners, however, have not yet corrected the problem, and workers in those shops could be exposed to a fire hazard.
Please distribute this bulletin to all area offices, State Plan States, Consultation Projects and appropriate local, labor and industry associations. Copies of this HIB may be used for outreach Purposes.
1 The Directorate of Technical Support issues Hazard Information Bulletins (HIBs) in accordance with OSHA Instruction CPL 2.65 to provide relevant information regarding unrecognized or misunderstood health hazards, inadequacies of materials, devices, techniques, and safety engineering controls. HIBs are initiated based on information provided by the field staff, studies, reports and concerns expressed by safety and health professionals, employers, and the public. Information is complied based on a thorough evaluation of available facts, literature and in coordination with appropriate parties.
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A prescription drug already approved to treat genital warts and skin cancer may have a new use in boosting the effectiveness of future vaccines for bacterial and viral diseases, such as hepatitis C and HIV (the AIDS virus). These findings appear in ACS' Molecular Pharmaceutics, a bi-monthly journal.
John Pesce and colleagues at the Naval Medical Research Center and UC-Berkeley note that vaccines prepared from weakened or inactivated viruses or bacteria have had enormous success in preventing polio, influenza, and other diseases. However, vaccines containing living or weakened viruses cannot be used for HIV, hepatitis C, and other devastating diseases due to safety concerns.
Scientists are instead trying to develop a new generation of vaccines, made with DNA or proteins from infectious agents that can prevent illness without carrying a risk of causing the diseases. These vaccines will be weaker than conventional vaccines and require a new generation of "adjuvants," ingredients that boost a vaccine's immunogenicity.
The report identifies a promising candidate in the form of imiquimod, an immune-boosting drug already in general use. The scientists coated imiquimod with dextran-based microparticles in hopes of increasing the efficiency of cellular uptake by cells associated with immune response initiation. Sure enough, the coated drug significantly boosted levels of inflammatory cytokines in laboratory cultures of immune cells from mice. The findings have "broad significance" and open the door to more extensive testing of the approach, they indicate.
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Stuart Erskine checks in from the UMPLE team.
Umple is a powerful tool for Model-Oriented Programming. It allows the
programmer to work on a more abstract level by generating code automatically for attributes, associations and state machines. This eliminates the writing of a lot of _boiler plate code_ when developing and speed up the development process. We are so confident in Umple’s code generating capabilities that *we even write Umple using Umple* 🙂
The Umple team consists of 6 members this term. They have made a few
decesions on how best to improve the process.
*Thomas Morrison* has accepted the challenge of allowing special ordering of association elements. Currently association elements are added in the order they are created and it would be useful to have other ordering methods. (Issue 184) *Stuart Erskine* is now working on allowing associations to interfaces. At minimum we should be able to have a one directional association, but ideally classes that implement interfaces should generate the required methods and thus allow for bi-directional associations.
*Andrew Paugh* has accepted issue 231 and is working on generating more meaningful comments. Because umple has the ability to mix in parts of a class from many different umple files, finding the source from generated code would be difficult. This commentary would allow future users to debug code much easier so they could find the origonal umple file from generated code much easier.
*Russell Staughton* has expressed intrest on two possible issues. One is working more on the Papyrus generation. Another is dealing with compositions and aggregation. When you delete an object you sometimes want to delete all the objects an item contains.
*Sacha Bagasan* is currently working on issue 318, the detection of proper state machine syntax. Currently when umple does not understand code found in an umplefile it outputs it as other code assuming it is means to be compiled in the target language. This may lead to confusion when it was meant to be umple code and a warning message was not presented to the user.
*Christopher Hogan* has accepted the task of adding constraints on the before and after capability. The idea is we want to be able to limit what possible values a class attribute may have, or likewise, what kinds of associations the class is allowed to have.
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Intuition and Proof For The Derivative of ln(x) and Solved Examples
One of the questions that I sometimes made to myself when first studying calculus was: why the natural logarithm is "natural"? One of the reason it is called natural is the simplicity of the formula for the derivative of ln(x).
The formula for the derivative of ln(x) is not at all obvious. We know, because of the power rule, that the derivative of a polynomial is a polynomial. We also know we can obtain negative powers of x as derivatives of other negative powers of x.
To see what I mean, look at the following equations. In these equations, I just applied the power rule.
We can see from these equations that we can obtain any positive power of x as a derivative of a simple polynomial function. We can also obtain almost any negative power of x in this way. Now, what is the function whose derivaitve is x-1
We will show that this function is ln(x). That is, we'll prove that the derivative of ln(x) is x-1
Graphical Deduction of the Formula For the Derivative of ln(x)
We'll use a graphical method for the deduction of the derivatie of ln(x). For that, we'll use the geometric definition of derivative: the slope of the tangent line.
We'll begin with the graph of ex
. To construct this graph, we first note that e0
=1. So, the point (0,1) is on the graph. Also, as x approaches +∞, ex
also approaches +∞. And when x approaches -∞, ex
approaches zero, because in this case it equals 1 divided by a very big number.
Then, the graph of ex
looks like this:
Now, let's try to guess how the graph of ln(y) will look like. We know that ln(1)=0. So, the point (1,0) is on the graph. In this case let's use the letter y for the horizontal axis, and the letter x for the vertical axis. We have that
When y approaches +∞, we have, by the equation above, that ex
approaches infinity. But by looking at the graph of ex
above, we see that this only happens when x approaches +∞. So, we deduce that ln(y) approaches +∞ when y approaches +∞.
Now, when y approaches zero, we have that ex
approaches 0. From the graph of ex
we can see this happens only when x approaches -∞. So, we deduce that ln(y) approaches -∞ when y approaches zero. So, the graph of ln(y) looks like this:
Now let's observe something interesting. The graph of ln(y) is the same as the graph of ex
, but somehow reflected. This is because ln(y) is the inverse of the exponential function.
With respect to what line is the graph reflected? If you look closely at the graphs, you might be able to realize that they are reflected with respect to the diagonal line on the x-y plane. That is, the line y=x.
This means that to obtain the graph of ln(y), we just need to draw the graph of ex
, draw the diagonal line on the x-y plane, and imagine that this line is a mirror. The reflection of the graph of ex
will be the graph of ln(y).
Now, let's return to what were trying to do. We want to calculate the derivative of ln(y). To do that, we need the slopes of the tangent lines. Now, as the graph of ln(y) is the reflection of the exponential function, its tangent lines will also be reflections.
This means that the tangent line to ln(y) at any point is the reflection of the corresponding tangent line to ex
. It is possible to prove, using simple geometric arguments, that the slope of a reflected line is the reciprocal of the original slope.
That is, if the slope of a line is k, its reflection will have slope 1/k
. This is all we need. Because we already know the slope of the tangents to ex
. The slope of a tangent to ex is ex.
So, the corresponding tangent to ln(y) will have slope 1/ex
. But as we defined things, we have that y = ex
. Then, the tangent to ln(y) has slope 1/y. In other words, the derivative of ln(y) is 1/y:
Or if we return to the use of the more common letter x, we have that
That was the quick and easy graphical deduction of the derivative of ln(x). Now we are ready to apply it to calculate more derivatives.
Let's consider the function
Here we'll need to apply the chain rule. What is the derivative of the outside function? It is one over the argument:
And the derivative of cos(x) is -sin(x):
Let's calculate the derivative of
Here a and b are constants. We'll apply the chain rule:
And the derivative of the inside function is a:
Let's calculate the derivative of
We can actually solve this problem using the chain rule. However, if we go that route, this will become a long and hairy calculation.
Instead, we'll use an old trigonometric trick that will make our life easier. Inside the square root, let's multiply both the numerator and denominator by 1+sin(x):
The expression in the denominator is interesting. It actually equals cos2
That simplified the expression. Now we can simplify it a little more, applying a property of logarithms
Now we are finally ready to calculate the derivative. We apply the chain rule
We can leave at that and accept that expression as the answer. In this case, though, we can simplify it
So the derivative equals
That's all for now. At this point you already know most rules for the calculation of derivatives. There is a nice trick, called implicit differentiation, that allows you to calculate the derivative of functions whose expression you don't know. And that's the next step from here: Implicit Differentiation.
Have a Doubt About This Topic? Have an "Impossible Problem"?
If you have just a general doubt about a concept, I'll try to help you. If you have a problem, or set of problems you can't solve, please send me your attempt of a solution along with your question. These will appear on a new page on the site, along with my answer, so everyone can benefit from it.
Return to Home Page
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Incredible as it may seem, water is quite possibly the single most important catalyst in losing weight and keeping it off. Although most of us take it for granted, water may be the only true “magic potion” for permanent weight loss!
Water suppresses the appetite naturally and helps the body metabolize stored fat. Studies have shown that a decrease in water intake will cause fat deposits to increase, while an increase in water intake can actually reduce fat deposits. Here’s why: The kidneys can’t function properly without enough water. When the kidneys don’t work to capacity, some of their load is dumped onto the liver. One of the liver’s primary functions is to metabolize stored fat into usable energy for the body. If the liver has to do some of the kidney’s work, it can’t operate at full throttle. As a result, it metabolizes less fat, more fat remains stored in the body, and weight loss stops. Drinking enough water is the best treatment for fluid retention. When the body gets less water, it perceives this as a threat to survival and begins to hold on to every drop. Water is stored in extra cellular spaces (outside the cells). This shows up as swollen feet, legs and hands. Diuretics offer a temporary solution at best. They force out stored water along with some essential nutrients. Again, the body perceives a threat and will replace the lost water at the first opportunity. Thus, the condition quickly returns. The best way to overcome the problem of water retention is to give the body what it needs…PLENTY OF WATER.
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The Occupational Safety and Heath Administration (OSHA) has no standard specific to funeral homes. There are several regulations, however, within OSHA's Industry Standards Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 29 Part 1910 that apply to funeral homes. This document reviews the standards funeral home operators must follow to maintain a safe work environment.
As of 2013, there are 19,486 funeral homes in the United States. As with any workplace, funeral homes present a variety of occupational hazards. Funeral-affiliated employers must address these hazards to ensure their employees have a safe work environment. The OSHA act states that each employer shall furnish to each of his employees a place of employment which is free from recognized hazards that are causing, or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm. It also requires that employers comply with occupational safety and health standards promulgated under OSHA.
Who's Covered By OSHA?
Any employer with one or more employees is covered, and can be cited under the OSHA Act of 1970. In addition, employers with 11 or more employees are required to comply with OSHAs Recording and Reporting Occupational Injuries and Illness (29 CFR 1904) requirements. Under 29 CFR 1904, employers are required to maintain occupational injury and illness records. The purpose of maintaining these records is to:
- Provide injury and illness information which is used by OSHA to measure and direct the agency's efforts
- Enable employees and employers to identify types and causes of injuries and illnesses at each establishment
- Make employers and employees more safety conscious
- Encourage employee and employer cooperation
(For more information on OSHA's recordkeeping requirements, refer to Quick Tips #183, OSHA Reporting Requirements.)
Funeral Homes and OSHA's General Industry Standards
A number of occupational activities performed in funeral homes fall under OSHA's General Industry Standards. These general industry standards are discussed in this document. Funeral home operators must be aware of the following regulations in order to stay compliant.
The Right-To-Know Law
The Right-To-Know Law, officially known as The Hazard Communication Standard 29 CFR 1910.1200 was enacted November 25,1983, by OSHA. Its purpose is to ensure that chemical hazards in the workplace are identified and evaluated, and that the information concerning these hazards is communicated to both employers and employees. This transfer of information is to be accomplished by means of a comprehensive hazard communication program that includes container labeling and other forms of warning including Safety Data Sheets (SDSs) and employee training. (Refer to Quick Tips #150 for detailed information on the Hazard Communication Standard and Quick Tips #374 on Globally Harmonized System (GHS).)
OSHAs Bloodborne Pathogens (BBP) Regulation (29 CFR 1910.1030)
This regulation applies to all individuals who may reasonably anticipate contact with blood or other potentially infectious bodily fluids in the course of their employment. This includes contact with skin, eyes, mucous membranes or contact from piercing the skin. The focus of the regulation is the creation of a written Exposure Control Plan that describes how the employer will protect employees from exposure (See Quick Tips #105 for additional information on the BBP Standard.).
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Standards
A key component of the PPE Standard is the hazard assessment of the work area as required under the General Requirements. According to OSHA, under 1910.132(d) Hazard Assessment and Equipment Selection states that the employer shall assess the workplace to determine if hazards are present, or are likely to be present, which necessitate the use of personal protective equipment. If the assessment determines that hazards are present, or likely to be present, the employer shall:
- Select and have each affected employee use PPE that will protect from the identified hazards
- Inform each affected employee of the selection decision
- Select PPE that properly fits each affected employee
- Document that the hazard assessment has been performed through a written certification that identifies the workplace evaluated; the person certifying that the evaluation has been performed; the date(s) of the hazard assessment
In addition, the employer is also required to train the affected employees on the proper use of the selected PPE (For more information on PPE Standard request Quick Tips #240).
Respiratory Protection Program
This program ensures that all employees are properly protected from respiratory hazards. According to 29 CFR 1910.134, creating and maintaining an individualized written respiratory protection program is the responsibility of all employers who provide respirators to their employees. The program must be administered by a suitably trained program administrator.
When establishing a Respiratory Protection Program, the funeral home operator must first identify what airborne contaminants are present. The SDS required under the Hazard Communication Standard contains this important information. Once the contaminants are identified, the operator will need to conduct air monitoring to determine whether employee exposures exceed OSHA's permissible exposure limit (PEL) for the identified contaminant(s). The established PEL(s) are also printed on the SDS.
If, after conducting the air monitoring, the employer determines contaminant concentrations are above the PEL, the employer must implement engineering controls (ventilation systems) or administrative controls (job rotations) to reduce the employee exposure. If neither of these options are feasible, the employer must then provide appropriate respiratory protection to the employee. Assigned respiratory protection must be approved by National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) for the contaminant(s) present (For more information on establishing a Respiratory Program refer to Quick Tips #195).
Formaldehyde and Glutaraldehyde Regulations
Formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde are two common hazardous materials used in funeral homes. Formaldehyde use is regulated under a specific OSHA standard, 29 CFR 1910.1048 and was established to protect workers from occupational exposures to formaldehyde. It defines an Action Level, a PEL and a Short-Term Exposure Limit (STEL) for formaldehyde exposure in the workplace. The following are the established airborne concentrations for each of these levels:
- Action level: Airborne concentration of 0.5 parts per million (ppm) formaldehyde. If this level is exceeded, the employer must perform periodic air monitoring until the levels can be reduced below this point (29 CFR 1910.1048 (b))
- PEL: Airborne concentrations of 0.75ppm formaldehyde as an 8 hour time weighted average (29 CFR 1910.1048 (C)(1))
- STEL: Airborne concentration of 2ppm formaldehyde over a 15 minute time interval (29 CFR 1910.1048 (C)(2))
All employers who have any form of formaldehyde in the workplace must monitor employee exposure unless they can objectively document that the presence of airborne formaldehyde will not exceed the action level or STEL under foreseeable conditions (29 CFR 1910.1048 (d) (1)). If this cannot be done, the employer must begin monitoring.
Initial monitoring is accomplished by identifying all employees who potentially have an exposure at or above the action level or STEL. Each potentially exposed employee may be monitored, or a representative sampling plan implemented for each job classification and work shift. Monitoring must occur each time a change in equipment, process, production, personnel, or control measures is instituted (29 CFR 1910.1048 (d) (2)). If formaldehyde concentrations are revealed at or in excess of the action level, monitoring must be repeated every 6 months. If the monitoring shows levels at or above the STEL, annual monitoring is required (29 CFR 1910.1048 (d) (3)).
Monitoring can be discontinued if after two consecutive sampling periods (taken at least seven days apart) airborne concentrations are below both the action level and STEL (29 CFR 1910.1048 (d) (4)).
Glutaraldehyde, which is not covered under a specific OSHA standard, is still a hazardous material with established exposure limits. NIOSHs recommended exposure limit (REL) for glutaraldehyde is a ceiling limit of 0.2 ppm. This exposure level should not be exceeded at any time.
Another organization that establishes chemical exposure limits is the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). The ACGIH has reduced their ceiling limit to a more conservative level of 0.05 ppm (Additional information on glutaraldehyde awareness is available on Quick Tips #174).
Eye/Face and Wash/Shower Requirements
When it comes to emergency eye/face wash and shower requirements, OSHA has two different types of regulations, general and specific. Funeral homes fall under the general requirements that are located in OSHA's First Aid Standard under 29 CFR 1910.151(c). This standard states where the eyes or body of any person may be exposed to injurious corrosive materials, suitable facilities for quick drenching or flushing of the eyes and body shall be provided within the area for immediate emergency use.
The performance guideline for emergency drenching equipment that OSHA recognizes is the American National Standards Institute's (ANSI) Z358.1-1998. This Emergency Eye Shower and Wash Equipment standard aids employers in selecting and installing emergency equipment to meet OSHA requirements (For more information on this ANSI standard see Quick Tips #120).
Medical and First Aid Regulations
In 1998, OSHA revised its Medical Services and First Aid regulation, 29 CFR 1910.151. The revision states; In the absence of an infirmary, clinic, or hospital in near proximity to the workplace which is used for the treatment of all injured employees, a person or persons shall be adequately trained to render first aid. Adequate first aid supplies shall be readily available. Included in the revision was Appendix A, a non-mandatory guideline that contains examples of minimal contents for first aid kits.
This appendix is taken from the ANSI Z308.1-1978, Minimum Requirements for Industrial Unit-Type First Aid Kits; it identifies the fill content that should be adequate for small worksites. The employer is responsible for determining the need for additional first-aid kits, quantities and the types of supplies at the worksite for large/larger worksites (Quick Tips #208 has more information on first aid kits.).
Chemical Compatibility Concerns in Storage
Chemicals play an important role in many workplace applications. The inherent hazards of chemicals can be reduced by minimizing the quantity of chemicals on hand. However, when chemicals must be in-house, proper storage and handling can reduce or eliminate the associated risks.
Proper storage information can usually be found on the chemical's SDS. The SDS will answer questions such as:
- Is the chemical a flammable or combustible?
- Is the chemical a corrosive?
- Does the chemical need to be stored at a temperature other than ambient?
- Is the chemical an oxidizer or reducer?
- Is the chemical light sensitive?
- Does the chemical require any special handling procedures?
Proper segregation of chemicals is necessary to prevent incompatible materials from inadvertently coming into contact with each other. If incompatible materials come into contact, a fire, explosion, violent reaction or the creation of toxic gases can result.
When segregating chemicals, acids should not be stored with bases and oxidizers should not be stored with reducing agents or organic materials. A physical barrier and/or distance is effective for proper segregation.
If cabinets are used to segregate chemicals, consider the compatibility of the chemicals with the cabinet itself. For example, corrosives like strong acids and caustics will corrode most metal cabinets. Non-metallic or epoxy-painted cabinets are available and will provide a better service life with these corrosive materials.
Safety cabinets are specifically made to maintain flammable and combustible materials. It's important to be aware of maximum allowable container size and maximum quantities for storage in cabinets based on the class of the flammable. The class of a flammable or combustible is determined by its flash point and boiling point (For more information on flammable and combustible liquids, see Quick Tips #179 and Quick Tips #180).
Disposal of Hazardous Waste
The disposal of hazardous waste varies from State to State and even between municipalities within the State. To validate that you are in compliance within your local requirements, you may want to contact your waste-water treatment plant.
While this document identifies the OSHA standards that apply to funeral homes, additional guidance may be necessary in interpreting how these standards apply to a specific situation. Your state OSHA Consultation Project (see Quick Tips #185) and the National Funeral Directors Association (NFDA) are resources for this information. The NFDA has an OSHA Support Line that's available to its members.
For information on NFDA membership, you can access their website at http://nfda.org/about-nfda-/membership-information.html or call 1-800-228-6332.
Federal Trade Commission's Funeral Customer's Guide Resource
American Board of Funeral Services Education
Bureau of Labor Statistics
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Visit Siemens at Booth 2747 to explore products and solutions, and speak directly with product experts to learn more about innovations and the future of energy.
Products to explore at the show:
- Navigate the inside of a transformer in our hands-on, interactive 3D experience
- Gas-insulated substation
- Vacuum tap changer and control panel
- 362 kV dead-tank circuit breaker
- 72 kV live-tank vacuum breaker
- Surge arrester
- Medium-voltage gas-insulated switchgear
- Distribution recloser
- Disconnect switches
- Outdoor distribution arc-resistant circuit breaker.
Solution demos and models on display:
- High-voltage systems
- Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)
- Gas-insulated lines
- Voltage regulators.
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The average body mass for an adult male grizzled leaf-monkey is around 6.5 kilograms, and for the female it is around 6.7 kilograms (Fleagle, 1988). This species has a sacculated stomach to assist in the breakdown of cellulose. The grizzled leaf-monkey has enlarged salivary glands. This species has a sacculated stomach to assist in the breakdown of cellulose. The incisors are narrow and the molars have sharp, high crests (Oates and Davies, 1994). This species has a dental formula of 2:1:2:3 on both the upper and lower jaws (Ankel-Simons, 2000). The jaw is deep and the face is short and broad (Oates and Davies, 1994). The pollex (thumb) is reduced in this species (Davies, 1991). The orbits are widely spaced and the hindlimbs are longer as compared to the forelimbs (Oates and Davies, 1994).
The grizzled leaf-monkey has two subspecies each having their own pelage coloration:
Presbytis comata comata: On the dorsum the pelage is a dark gray color (Nijman, 1997a). The tail on this subspecies is dark gray to black and the arms and legs are dark gray, being darker than the back (Nijman, 1997a). The innerside of the arms, legs, and tail are whitish (Nijman, 1997a). On the head there is a black colored prominent crest (Nijman, 1997a). The neonate has a pelage coloration that varies from medium gray to dark gray (Nijman, 1997a).
Presbytis comata fredericae: The dorsum (dorsal side) is black and the throat, upper chest are white or light gray (Nijman, 1997a; Brandon-Jones, 1995). The lower abdomen, innerside of legs, arms and tail are white (Nijman, 1997a). On the thumbs and middle and sometimes the distal phalanges of the digits there is a small amount of white (Brandon-Jones, 1995). The neonate has a pelage coloration that varies from dark gray to black (Nijman, 1997a).
The grizzled leaf-monkey is found in the country of Indonesia on the island of Java. On Java this species is found from the westernmost tip at Ujung Kulon to Mt. Lawu on the border between central and east Java (Nijman, 1997b; Nijman and van Balen, 1998). This species lives in primary and secondary lowland rainforests (Gurmaya et al., 1994). The grizzled leaf-monkey can be found in altitudes up to 2000 meters (Van der Zon, 1979; cited in Gurmaya et al., 1994), although Nijman (1997b) found that the altitudinal range is 2500 meters. Nijman (1997a) found this species to occur in primary and secondary forests, ecotones, in the forest interior, lowland forests, in forests on steep slopes and hills, and in montane and upper montane forests. The grizzled leaf-monkey has also been found on plantations and orchards (Sujatnika, 1992; cited in Nijman, 1997b; Melisch and Dirgayusa, 1996; Seitre and Seitre, 1990). At Gunung Pongkor, Mt. Halimun National Park this species was found to occur in hill forests from 500 to 1000 meters in altitude (Indrawan et al., 1995/1996).
The two different subspecies have different ranges:
Presbytis comata comata: This subspecies is found in west Java (Nijman, 1997a).
Presbytis comata fredericae: This subspecies is found in central Java (Nijman, 1997a). This subspecies is only known from Mt. Slamet, the northwestern slopes of the mountains north of the Dieng plateau, and Mt. Lawu (Nijman and Sozer, 1995). In the Dieng Mountains, this subspecies is found to live in primary and secondary forests, at the edges and the interior, and in lowland forests, forests on steep slopes and hills, and upper montane forests (Nijman and van Balen, 1998). In the Dieng Mountains this subspecies has been observed at an altitude of 2565 meters (Nijman and Sozer, 1995).
The grizzled leaf-monkey is primarily a folivorous species, but will also consume fruits, flowers, and seeds. Ruhiyat (1983) found that the diet of this species consisted of 59.1% young leaves, 13.5% fruits, 7.0% flowers, 5.6% mature leaves, 4.1% fungi, 2.7% pseudobulbs, 1.5% branch tips, and 0.7% seeds. The leaves taken generally are immature ones that have a low level of lignins and tannins (Gurmaya et al., 1994). Preferred leaves of this species include: Ficus pubinervis, Passiflora ligularis, Elaegnus triflora, Schefflera aromatica, Jasminum azoricum, Hoya sp., and Aeshynanthus sp. (Ruhiyat, 1983). This species prefers leaves of epiphytes and lianas in the lower and middle layers of the forest (Ruhiyat, 1983). Preferred fruits of this species are: Premna parasitica, Pygeum spp., Saurauia spp., and Castanopsis argentea (Ruhiyat, 1983). During the fruiting season this species was found to be attracted to orchards and other solitary fruiting trees (Melisch and Dirgayusa, 1996). Flowers of the species Pandanus furcatus and petioles of Alsophylla glauca are preferred food items of the grizzled leaf-monkey (Ruhiyat, 1983). This species rarely drinks water; it receives most of its water from the food it eats. The grizzled leaf-monkey has been observed to come to the ground and eat a reddish colored soil (Ruhiyat, 1983). There are three to four feeding peaks during the day for an individual (Ruhiyat, 1983).
Group sizes for this species range from 3 to 20 individuals. Nijman (1997b) found that on Mt. Slamet, central Java, that group sizes ranged from 4 to 10 individuals. At Gunung Tukung Gede Nature Reserve, the size of groups ranged from 5 to 23 individuals (Melisch and Dirgayusa, 1996). At Mt. Prahu, central Java, group sizes for this species ranged from 2 to 13 individuals (Nijman and van Balen, 1998). This species is found at an average height of 25 meters in the forest, in the upper canopy of the forest (Melisch and Dirgayusa, 1996). The day range of a group will decrease with increasing rainfall (Ruhiyat, 1983). When feeding, traveling and resting, group kept close together (Ruhiyat, 1983). Usually the adult male will be positioned at the front or rear of the group when feeding, traveling, or resting, except when sleeping at night when the adult male is positioned in the middle of the group (Ruhiyat, 1983). Groups will sometimes split for temporary periods of time (Ruhiyat, 1983). When coming together after splitting-up, group members will emit the kik call when rejoining (Ruhiyat, 1983). During daily activity, resting (60%) made up of most of the time, with feeding occurring 30% of the time and traveling only 5% of the time of an individual (Ruhiyat, 1983). This is a diurnal and an arboreal species. This species will rarely use the same sleeping site more than once, and sleeping sites tend to be located on ridges or higher places (Ruhiyat, 1983). Most members of the group sleeps in the upper layer of the canopy at about 20 meters, sometimes up to 40 meters, but the adult male mostly sleeps in the middle layer at a height of 10-20 meters (Ruhiyat, 1983).
Predators of the grizzled leaf-monkey could be the leopard, Panthera pardus, and the fishing cat, Prionailurus viverrinus (Melisch and Dirgayusa, 1996; Seidensticker, 1983; Ruhiyat, 1983). When pursued by humans, Homo sapiens, this species would drop to the forest floor and flee through the dense understory (Brandon-Jones, 1995).
The grizzled leaf-monkey moves through the forest quadrupedally (Fleagle, 1988). This species also moves through the forest primarily by leaping and also to a lesser extent by forelimb suspension (brachiation) (Fleagle, 1988).
The grizzled leaf-monkey has a unimale social system and a polygynous mating system. More than one male has been observed in a group even though usually there is only one (Ruhiyat, 1983). This is a territorial species that has aggressive encounters with conspecific groups. A group's home range will overlap with the home range of other groups, and intergroup aggression will occur in overlap zones if preferred foods of the grizzled leaf-monkey are present in abundance (Ruhiyat, 1983). The adult male is dominant over all other members of the group (Ruhiyat, 1983). Females perform most of the grooming bouts in the group. Males disperse from the natal group before adolescence. This species has been found to form mixed-groups with the ebony leaf-monkey, Trachypithecus auratus (Nijman, 1997b).
Social play occurs in this species with most bouts occurring amongst juvenile and infant males (Ruhiyat, 1983). Juvenile females and adult females rarely engage in social play (Ruhiyat, 1983).
VOCAL COMMUNICATION: kik: This call is a fast sequence of 20 "kik" notes heard within 2.5 seconds (Ruhiyat, 1983). This call is given by adult males during intergroup encounters (Ruhiyat, 1983). This call is also given to humans and when large trees fell down (Ruhiyat, 1983). An adult female would emit this call when she missed her infant, but the call is weaker and shorter (Ruhiyat, 1983). When the adult male utters this call, other group members move to the upper levels of the canopy (Ruhiyat, 1983).
hiccup: This call serves as a soft warning and is heard when an enemy is far away (Ruhiyat, 1983). This call is emitted by the adult male of a group (Ruhiyat, 1983).
ngek: This is a nasal weak call heard when foraging (Ruhiyat, 1983).
nguok: This call is emitted by both adult males and females when two groups would approach and confront each other (Ruhiyat, 1983).
chiet: This call is given by adult females after adult males perform the kik display (Ruhiyat, 1983). This call is also heard by embracing females after two subgroups come together (Ruhiyat, 1983).
chiit: This is a squeak type call that is emitted by infants when they are separated from their mothers or when they are being transferred (Ruhiyat, 1983).
ngiik: This call is emitted by adult females and juveniles (Ruhiyat, 1983). This is heard when individuals grimace when they presented and were chased by more dominant individuals (Ruhiyat, 1983). This call serves to communicate submission (Ruhiyat, 1983).
VISUAL COMMUNICATION: kik display: This behavior is performed by an adult male of a group when he locates another conspecific group (Ruhiyat, 1983). This is where an adult male will emit a series of kik calls while running along a branch horizontally and/or leaping vertically about 5 to 15 meters (Ruhiyat, 1983). This behavior is responded to with a reciprocal display by adult males of the other group (Ruhiyat, 1983). Other members of the group will emit chiet calls during or after the male performs this display (Ruhiyat, 1983).
rush: This is where the adult male of one group will rush towards the adult female and/or juveniles of another group (Ruhiyat, 1983). This is responded to running away by the individuals being rushed (Ruhiyat, 1983). The adult male of the other group counter-attacks the male performing this behavior (Ruhiyat, 1983).
TACTILE COMMUNICATION: social grooming: This is when one individual grooms another and is used to reinforce the bonds between individuals.
The grizzled leaf-monkey gives birth to a single offspring. Ruhiyat (1983) found no definite birth season for this species. The mother holds the infant ventrally until it is about one year old (Ruhiyat, 1983). Infant transferring has been observed where the adult female hands her infant over to other adult female or juvenile females (Ruhiyat, 1983). After about 1.5 years of age the young will stop following its mother (Ruhiyat, 1983).
Ankel-Simons, F. 2000. Primate Anatomy: An Introduction. Academic Press: San Diego.
Brandon-Jones, D. 1995. Presbytis fredericae (Sody, 1930), an endangered colobine species endemic to central Java, Indonesia. Primate Conservation. Vol. 16, 68-70.
Burton, F. 1995. The Multimedia Guide to the Non-human Primates. Prentice-Hall Canada Inc.
Fleagle, J. G. 1988. Primate Adaptation and Evolution. Academic Press: New York.
Gurmaya, K.J., Adiputra, I.M.W., Saryatiman, A.B., Danardono, S.N., and Sibuea, T.T.H. 1994. A preliminary study on ecology and conservation of the Java primates in Ujung Kulon National Park, west Java, Indonesia. in Current Primatology Vol. 1: Ecology and Evolution. eds. B. Thierry, J.R. Anderson, J.J. Roeder, and N. Herrenschimdt. Universite Louis Pasteur: Strasbourg, France.
Indrawan, M., Supriyadi, D., Supriatna, J., and Andayan, N. 1995/1996. Javan gibbon surviving at a mined forest in Gunung Pongkor Mount Halimun National Park, west Java: Considerable toleration to disturbances. Asian Primates. Vol. 5(3/4), 11-13.
Melisch, R. and Dirgayusa, I.W.A. 1996. Notes on the grizzled leaf monkey (Presbytis comata) from two nature reserves in west Java, Indonesia. Asian Primates. Vol. 6(1/2), 5-11.
Nijman, V. 1997a. Geographical variation in pelage characteristics in Presbytis comata (Desmarset, 1822) (Mammalia, Primates, Cercopithecidae). Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde. Vol. 62, 257-264.
Nijman, V. 1997b. On the occurrence and distribution of Presbytis comata (Desmarest, 1822) (Mammalia: Primates: Cercopithecidae) in Java, Indonesia. Contributions to Zoology. Vol. 66(4), 247-256.
Nijman, V. and Sozer, R. 1995. Recent observations of the grizzled leaf monkey (Presbytis comata) and an extension of the range of the Javan gibbon (Hylobates moloch) in central Jawa. Tropical Biodiversity. Vol. 3(1), 45-48.
Nijman, V. and van Balen, S.B. 1998. A faunal survey of the Dieng Mountains, central Java, Indonesia: Distribution and conservation of endemic primate taxa. Oryx. Vol. 32(2), 145-156.
Oates, J.F. and Davies, A.G. 1994. What are colobines? in Colobine Monkeys: Their Ecology, Behaviour and Evolution. eds. A.G. Davies and J.F. Oates. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
Ruhiyat, Y. 1983. Socio-ecological study of Presbytis aygula in west Java. Primates. Vol. 24(3), 344-359.
Seidensticker, J. 1983. Predation by Panthera cats and measures of human influence in habitats of South Asian monkeys. International Journal of Primatology. Vol. 4(3), 323-326.
Seitre, R. and Seitre, J. 1990. Recent sightings of rare primates in Java. Primate Conservation. Vol. 11, 18.
Sujatnika, 1992. Studi habitat Surili (Presbytis aygula Linnaeus, 1758) dan pola penggunaanya di Taman Nasional Gunung Gede-Pangrango dan kawasanhutan Haurbentes-Jasinga: i-xiii, 1-150 (unpublished M. Sci. thesis, Institut Pertanian Bogor).
Van der Zon, A.P.M. 1979. Mammals of Indonesia. FAO Project, FO/INS/78/061.
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Immense Dinosaur Specimen from an Undescribed Species - Mounted Femur, Tibia, Fibula and Foot
Diplodocus sp., possibly Amphicoelias
Morrison Formation, Wyoming
From a recently discovered undescribed dinosaur species, a thigh, leg and foot specimen of prodigious size represents one of the largest creatures ever to exist on the planet.
Sauropods were the most massive dinosaurs among the behemoths of their time. An infraorder of long-necked herbivorous dinosaurs, they walked on four short, thick, five-toed legs. Diplodocus, the likely genus of the present specimen, reached a length of over 100 feet. It possessed a long whip-like tail to balance its very long neck, a small head with nostrils above the eyes and pencil-like teeth located only in the front of the mouth. The vertebrae of these prehistoric behemoths featured hollow chambers to lighten their weight.
The present massive specimen attests to the almost unimaginable size of these Jurassic giants. The specimen is composed of a mounted femur, tibia and fibula, and foot. A custom metal armature supports this awe-inspiring discovery. Height 11 feet
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F. H. Bradley: Logic
Although the logical system expounded by F. H. Bradley in The Principles of Logic (1883) is now almost forgotten, it had many virtues. To appreciate them, it is helpful to understand that Bradley had a very different view of logic from that prevalent today. He is hostile to the idea of a purely formal logic. Today, deductive logic is largely restricted to a study of the rules through which we can legitimately re-arrange our thoughts, permitting the elimination of items no longer required, but not allowing the addition of anything genuinely new. Bradley had a much wider conception and took logic to be the discipline through which we give an account and explanation of the special function of thought through which we transcend immediate experience. Bradley believes logic covers topics that would fall today under the heading of theory of knowledge.
For Bradley, the processes of thought through which we transcend immediate experience involve ideas, judgments, and inferences. He begins with judgment and offers a natural account of both relational judgments with more than one subject and judgments without a special subject, such as: “It is raining.” His general theory that the ultimate subject of all judgment is reality as such could also accommodate the mass terms that give modern logicians so much trouble.
Although Bradley accepts the credo of empiricism that all our knowledge begins in experience, he does not accept Hume’s view that our immediate experience is composed by a swarm of impressions. He rejects the theory, widespread at the time, that knowledge could be explained through the association of ideas derived from such impressions. Neither psychological particulars nor any connections among them are the sorts of thing capable of representing anything beyond themselves. Judgment requires “logical” ideas that are universal, not particular.
What most baffles readers is an esoteric doctrine in which Bradley assimilates judgment and inference as processes in which there is a movement of thought from a ground to a conclusion. Unless there is a change, nothing has happened, but any change requires justification, if the inference is to be valid or the judgment true. For the movement of thought to be satisfactory, the ground and justification cannot remain external and must be brought inside. This is achieved to the extent that we can enlarge our system of thought. It may seem that Bradley is now heading to a Hegelian solution in which the completion of the system of thought brings about the identity of Thought and Reality, but Bradley is not prepared to go this far. This is, however, a matter for metaphysics and is beyond the scope of logic.
Table of Contents
- Bradley’s Conception of Logic
- Logical Ideas
- Categorical Judgments
- Hypothetical Judgments
- The Esoteric Doctrine
- Other Types of Judgments
- Other Topics
- Judgment: Concluding Remarks
- The Nature of Inference
- The Association of Ideas
- Inductive Inference
- Inference: The Inclusive Theory
- Inference and Judgment
- Formal Logic
- Truth and Validity
- The Final Doctrine
- References and Further Reading
Francis Herbert Bradley was born in 1846 into a very large family that included the celebrated Shakespearean critic, A.C. Bradley. Having studied at Oxford University, F. H. Bradley was awarded in 1870 a Fellowship at Merton College, where he remained until his death in 1924. He was not required to teach and did not do so. The dominant philosophy in England when he came to Oxford was the (kind of) empiricism, originally due to John Locke, whose champion in the nineteenth century was John Stuart Mill. This theory attempted to explain cognition through the association of mental particulars, impressions and ideas, originally introduced into the mind, it was supposed, by external causes. Bradley was implacably opposed to this position and determined to demolish it. He gained assistance in this from his wide reading in German philosophy, but refused to call himself a Hegelian, since he denied the central principle of the identity of Thought and Reality. Nonetheless, he is generally regarded as the central figure in the group of British Idealists in the late nineteenth century.
The principal source for Bradley’s thoughts about logic is a substantial two-volume work entitled The Principles of Logic, published in Oxford in 1883. A second edition appeared in 1922, in which the original text was supplemented by a large number of additional notes and terminal essays through which Bradley expressed his mature position. (Page references in what follows will be to this second edition.)
Bradley had a very different view of logic from that prevalent today. Today, logic is largely restricted to a study of the rules through which we can legitimately re-arrange our thoughts, permitting the elimination of items no longer required, but not allowing the addition of anything genuinely new. Bradley had a much wider conception and took logic to be the discipline through which we give an account and explanation of the special function of thought through which we transcend immediate experience. Logic, for Bradley, therefore covers topics that would fall today under the heading of theory of knowledge.
The processes of thought were traditionally taken to involve ideas, judgments, and inferences. These topics, however, are very closely connected. One could begin at any point, but Bradley proposes to begin in the middle with the faculty of judgment.
Bradley’s central definition is as follows: “Judgment proper is the act which refers an ideal content (recognized as such) to a reality beyond the act.” (10) This definition immediately raises two serious questions: (1) What is this ideal content and how is it acquired? (2) What is reality and how is it accessed? These are questions that Bradley tackles in considerable detail. Moreover, the definition commits Bradley to the thesis that the structure of judgment is essentially subject-predicate, “that in every judgment there is a subject of which the ideal content is asserted.” (13) The subject is what is real, and the predicate is the ideal content referred to it: judgment is essentially predication.
This is, of course, to display the form of the act or function of judgment. It does not specify the essential structure of the ideal content, nor does it trap Bradley within the traditional logic of the categorical statement, as Russell believed. Categorical statements involve the combination of two terms—a subject term and a predicate term—with the two terms united by the copula in such a way that the act of combination is the act of judgment. Bradley resists this account on the ground that the ideal complex expressed is the same whether the proposition is asserted or merely entertained. “We may say then, if the copula is a connection which couples a pair of ideas, it falls outside judgment; and, if on the other hand it is the sign of judgment, it does not couple. Or, if it both joined and judged, then judgment at any rate would not be mere joining.” (21) It is not even true that every judgment contains two ideas: on the contrary, it has but one. The ideal content may be as complex as you please: it may be “a complex totality of qualities and relations” (11); but even if we distinguish separate ideas within the complex, it is as a unit that it is referred to reality. When we assert that the wolf eats the lamb, it is the whole complex that is referred beyond the act of judgment, even if we distinguish within it the separate ideas of (at least) the wolf and the lamb.
Because we can distinguish separate objects such as the wolf and the lamb that can function as special subjects, we can draw at the level of logic a distinction between singular judgments that characterize single things and plural judgments in which a number of such things may be related. But even with non-singular judgments, we must assume a unified reality within which various objects are assigned a place.
Bradley’s theory that relational judgments that appear to refer to a number of identifiable and discriminable individuals actually presuppose a single underlying reality gets confirmation from his logical analysis of a kind of judgment in which this reality is introduced directly. This is the kind of judgment that denies the existence of things of a certain type, such as sea-serpents. “Sea-serpents do not exist” has “sea-serpents” as its grammatical subject, but we must distinguish the grammatical subject from the real subject that confers a truth-value upon the statement. Sea-serpents are not the reality to which we refer when making this judgment, since there are no sea-serpents. The correct logical analysis is something like: “Reality is such that it contains no sea-serpents.” This corresponds to: “Reality is such that A and B are simultaneous.” Bradley can therefore handle this kind of judgment without presupposing the existence of what is denied. What he presupposes is the reality that is the ultimate subject of every judgment. The competing analysis offered by modern logic through the negation of existential quantification presupposes a universe of discourse comprising all possible values of the individual variables in the system.
Judgment has a dimension of truth and falsity, and Bradley uses this to confirm his view that judgment necessarily involves a reference to what is real. “For consider;” he says, “a judgment must be true or false, and its truth or falsehood cannot lie in itself. They involve a reference to a something beyond. And this, about which or of which we judge, if it is not fact, what else can it be?” (41) It may be thought that logical truths, said to be true in all possible worlds, are an exception. For Bradley, logical truths, or tautologies, are not true in all possible worlds: they are not true in any possible world. “A bare tautology …is not even so much as a poor truth or a thin truth. It is not a truth in any way, in any sense, or at all.” (Appearance and Reality, Note A, 501.)
Bradley’s definition of judgment introduces “ideal content.” What is “ideal content” and how is it acquired? Bradley was completely sure that the psychological particulars with which empiricists furnished the mind could not begin to explain judgment, knowledge, and cognition. If such things existed, they certainly could not function as predicates in judgment, since they could not be moved from their place in the mind.
What Bradley had to explain was how we get from psychological ideas, which are mental particulars, to logical ideas, which are universal ideal contents, while preserving the information that the impressions have no doubt acquired from elsewhere. He begins by distinguishing two sides that belong to every psychological idea—its existence as a mental particular and its content. “We perceive both that it is and what it is.” (3) Unlike existence, content can be loosened from its home in the psychological idea and transferred elsewhere—a loosening of content that takes place within the act of judgment. It is not, however, the entire content of the psychological idea that is used in judgment. The original content, he says, is “mutilated.” That the acquisition of ideal content involves abstraction is more clearly appreciated, if we move from the Humean picture of a swarm of distinct impressions arriving together in the mind to the notion of an organic immediate experience with which Bradley is more comfortable. It is clear that the logical ideas used in judgment require the separation of elements within the “sensuous felt mass” presented in immediate experience. Even if we begin, however, with an isolated impression or sense-datum, we must recognize that universals are associated at different levels.
Bradley makes an unsuccessful attempt to explain what he has in mind by using the notion of a symbol. A symbol, such as a particular inscription, has, like everything else, two sides: its existence and its content. But it has also a third side—its meaning or signification. This meaning can be identified with the logical idea used in judgment. The symbol RED has as its meaning exactly what we assign to a variety of objects in the act of judgment. This provides an opening for Frege and those who favor the linguistic turn to slip in an item distinct from any image or psychological idea that may be associated with the word. (The logical idea is, of course, to be identified with what Frege calls the sense of the sign, not the referent.) But the attachment of the idea to the symbol through decision or convention does nothing to explain the connection between the abstract universal and the immediate experience which must be its home. It is only because we can abstract a part of the given content that we obtain the sense that we attach to the sign in the language.
The standard classification of judgments distinguished categorical, hypothetical, and disjunctive. Bradley reduces the universal form of the categorical judgment to a hypothetical form. The universal form does not even guarantee the existence of real things to which we refer. “All trespassers will be prosecuted” is designed to ensure that the subject class remains empty. Thus, “Animals are mortal” becomes “If anything is an animal, then it is mortal.” (47) Bradley admits that he got this from Herbart, and Russell admits, in turn, that he got it from Bradley.
Singular judgments, however, are different. Bradley takes as his example: “I have a toothache.” I and my toothache are both individual, but I describe my condition in general terms as “suffering from toothache.” This example belongs to the first division of singular judgments that he calls “analytic judgments of sense.” “The essence of these is to hold only of the now, and not to transcend the given presentation.” (56) Analytic judgments of sense do not always have a grammatical subject or copula. We may call the cry “Wolf” a warning, but it is also a statement of fact, or is supposed to be. The cry of “Wolf” or “Rain” refers to an undifferentiated present reality. The thought is that a wolf is somewhere and that rain is everywhere, at least everywhere that matters. But there are also singular judgments without grammatical subjects in which we qualify by our idea “but one piece of the present.” (57) One way to do this is by pointing. I point to my dog and say “Asleep.” Bradley rejects the view that the grammatical subject is merely suppressed. Even if a grammatical subject may appear when my judgment is reported.
Bradley identifies a second kind of analytic judgments of sense that do have a grammatical subject. “The ideal content of the predicate is here referred to another idea, which stands as a subject. But in this case, as above, the ultimate subject is no idea, but is the real in presentation. It is this to which the content of both ideas, with their relation, is attributed.” (57) “This bird is yellow” is a typical example. The ideal content “bird”, perhaps aided by a pointing finger, is used to identify the particular object that is the special subject of the judgment.
In addition to analytic judgments of sense in which a real object is introduced through what we would now call a definite description, there are other cases in which a proper name is used, such as “John is asleep.” The name “John” is bestowed to help us identify a particular person. Bradley attacks the view that a proper name has a denotation, but no connotation. The proper name is a sign connected with what it denotes, but I could not identify what it denotes without some descriptive content to help me recognize it.
The discussion of proper names allows Bradley to move to a second category of singular judgment-synthetic judgments of sense. “Proper names,” he says, “have a meaning that always goes beyond the presentation of the moment.” (61) In using the name of a person, we assume an existence that goes beyond what is available in immediate experience, a reality that appears but is distinct from its appearance. In a synthetic judgment of sense, “we make generally some assertion about that which appears in a space or time that we do not perceive.” (61-2) But how is this possible? How can we make a judgment about a reality that appeared in the past, will appear in the future, or is now over the horizon, if we encounter reality only through presentation in immediate experience? No idea can capture the uniqueness of the day that is last Tuesday. We can form the idea of a certain kind of event: we can form the idea of an extensive history involving as large a sequence of events as you please, but such ideal contents cannot capture the unique past that actually took place, which alone can make the ideas we refer to the past either true or false.
For Bradley, the solution requires a crucial distinction between “this” and “thisness”. Only this day is today. Yesterday was today yesterday, but it is no longer today today. Today is also a particular day distinct from every other day and has its own date. It has its own position in a series of days within which every day is rigidly ordered through the relation of earlier and later. This series of days does not change, even when it is envisaged at different times. It is therefore a universal ideal content, and each day within the series has particularity or “thisness”. After McTaggart, the series has been known as the B-series. This ideal series can be attached to reality, only through the identification of a particular day within it with the reality given in present experience, which will turn that day into “today.” Once this is done, days that come after the day with that date are future days that will be real, and days that come before are past days that were real. This introduces the McTaggart A-series. To explain Bradley’s theory, the unit “day” has been used, although it does not appear in the text and involves an oversimplification, since we cannot identify an entire day with the present of immediate experience. On the other hand, it would be a complete mistake to identify the immediate present with an instant or a moment, imagined as either the end product of the infinite division of a period of time or as the interface between adjacent periods.
Since we cannot introduce a reference to what really happened in the past or will really happen in the future, which synthetic judgments of sense seem to demand, through the construction of even the most complex and extensive ideal content constituting a history of a possible world, how is the feat to be accomplished? Bradley’s solution is that although I can access reality only through a point of contact in immediate present experience, reality is not restricted to its appearance in my experience. The problem of appearance and reality is metaphysical and requires another book; but even at the level of logic it is clear that the identity of reality and what appears in experience is not mandated. “If the real must be ‘this’, must encounter us directly, we cannot conclude that the ‘this’ we take is all the real, or that nothing is real beyond the ‘this’.” (70) Being given in experience is not a quality of reality “in such a sense as to shut up reality within that quality.” (70) An ideal content can be true “because it is predicated of the reality, and unique because it is fixed in relation with immediate perception.” (72) Since immediate perception may involve an experience of change, a fragment of the temporal series may be abstracted and extended indefinitely through an ideal process.
Bradley has one further move to make to introduce the idea of a particular fact. “The idea of particularity implies two elements. We must first have a content qualified by ‘thisness’, and we must add to that content the general idea of reference to the reality.” (77) Without the second element, we have members that are exclusive within the series, “but the whole collection is not unique.” (77) For absolute uniqueness, we require the connection of the series with direct presentation. To think of tomorrow we may require a universal ideal content to connect it with today, but the day we think about is as unique as is today.
Bradley handled universal judgments by reducing them to hypothetical form, but how can a hypothetical judgment be taken as true, since its antecedent is supposed, but not categorically affirmed? Modern logic evades this problem by treating hypothetical statements as truth-functional, but this evasion has consequences. For Bradley, the hypothetical judgment involves an ideal experiment. “The supposal is treated as if it were real, in order to see how the real behaves when qualified thus in a certain manner.” (86) The connection of the components is what is asserted in the hypothetical judgment, and it is this that has its ground in reality.
Bradley believes that not only are all universal judgments hypothetical, but also that all hypothetical judgments are universal. This may be thought doubtful, since there seem to be exceptions. “If this man has taken that dose, he will be dead in twenty minutes.” (89) This would not be necessarily true of any man who took the dose; but if the judgment is true, there will be some universal connection, even if restricted to the case of that specific man.
Bradley is assuming that the truth of a hypothetical statement must depend on some (possibly) latent feature of reality. Singular judgments, however, appear to connect us more directly with solid fact. The synthetic judgment of sense has its special status as categorical because of its connection with a reality actually given. It therefore depends on the analytic judgment of sense which assigns an ideal content to that given. Bradley has already argued that all universal statements are hypothetical. This is now widely accepted. He now moves to the startling claim that all singular statements are hypothetical, which he recognizes as an “unwelcome conclusion.” (91) Construed as categorical, analytic judgments of sense are all false, because they do not provide the whole truth about what is given in immediate experience, far less the whole truth about reality. This follows from his original story that an ideal content used in judgment is limited to part of the content of the given reality. But to say that the judgment is not the whole truth is not to say that it is not wholly true and hence partly false, even false tout court. Bradley complains that the choice of an ideal content to qualify the immediate given is arbitrary. Arbitrary is too strong, since the choice may very well have a purpose, but even if it were arbitrary, the assignment of universal content to the given reality would be just as true as the choice of any other content from the selection available.
Bradley is suggesting that the loosening of part of the content of the given reality that he introduced earlier as the very essence of thought is doomed to failure in advance. This is why he talks about “mutilation”. But the success or failure of the operation is surely relative to what it is intended to achieve. It is not designed to provide an ideal content that will be a complete characterization of reality as a whole; it has surely a much more limited aim. One idea is that loosening a part of the content is associated with separating out a segment of the given reality that conforms to the concept introduced. Loosening the concept of a dog from what I am given allows me to separate out Fido and perhaps other dogs within my field of view. The analytic judgment of sense that here is a dog would appear to be categorically true. This way of explaining the function of the judgments immediately associated with the loosening of ideal contents would allow Bradley, were he so minded, to make peace with logical systems, such as both Aristotelian and modern logic, that give a central position to the individual object. (This is essentially the problem of “special subjects”, discussed in Campbell: 1967.)
We have now come to a parting of the ways. If we accept the truth of analytic judgments of sense, such “judgments that analyze what is given in perception will all be categorical.” (106) Abstract, universal judgments will all be hypothetical. Synthetic judgments “about times and spaces beyond perception” (106) are also categorical, although they require inferences that rely on the universal. Bradley is prepared to allow those who lack the courage to follow him to a more esoteric theory “to remain at a lower point of view.” (106) Bradley, however, proposes a trip to a region where the “distinction between individual and universal, categorical and hypothetical, has been quite broken through.” (106) It is at this higher level that Bradley’s logic becomes so difficult, perhaps impossibly difficult. At the lower point of view, we separate out individual objects that we characterize through universal properties and relations in singular and plural judgments. Bradley begins the move to what is higher (or deeper) with the point that these individual objects are conditioned by the setting in which they are found. They are not unconditioned, but are asserted subject to a condition. What is subject to a condition can be asserted categorically, if the condition is taken as satisfied. Bradley is well aware that conditional and conditioned are not the same. “A thing is conditional on account of a supposal, but on the other hand it is conditioned by a fact.” (99) His argument is that for anything with a setting in space and time, the condition can never be satisfied. To introduce the series of conditions in space and time is to introduce a chain whose last link hangs unsupported in the air. This is a worrying argument, traditionally used to prove that the world must have a beginning in time (perhaps also a First Cause), or else by Kant to vindicate transcendental idealism. The assessment of how far it provides a solid support for what Bradley proposes to build on it will be postponed until 18b.
Rejecting the categorical judgment that assigns an ideal content to the segment of reality from which it has been loosened, Bradley is left with no more than hypothetical judgments. These cannot even be our standard hypothetical judgments that are composites of categorical statements. They are mere husks, connecting adjectives For example, “If lightning, then thundering.” Certainly, hypotheticals that connect adjectives are in a way also categorical, since they affirm a ground of connection in reality. But we have lost our standard hypothetical judgments and are left with mere scraps. Even more baffling is the replacement we are offered for a singular judgment in the higher point of view. “Instead of meaning by ‘Here is a wolf,’ or ‘This tree is green’ that ‘wolf’ and ‘green tree’ are real facts, it must affirm the general connection of wolf with elements in the environment, and of ‘green’ with ‘tree.’” (104)
Bradley offers a further explanation of his “unwelcome conclusion” in Terminal Essay II, which I discuss in 18b and offer a way of escape. In the meantime, he returns from the heights and provides a more mundane account of other kinds of judgment.
Bradley now turns to negative judgments. Negative judgments, he believes, are more complicated than affirmative, since they must begin with a suggestion that is rejected in the judgment. Moreover, this rejection must depend on the assumption of a positive ground of exclusion, even if what this is may not be known. Negative existential judgments are of particular interest. In “Ghosts do not exist,” the grammatical subject cannot be the real subject; the real subject is the nature of things to which we deny the quality of harboring ghosts. The positive character of reality that excludes ghosts is not, however, determined through the negative judgment. This entails that the same character of the real may exclude a variety of different suggestions. The suggestions excluded have their source in an ideal experiment and not in the nature of reality. The negative judgment affirms that some quality of the real excludes a suggestion, but it does not determine what quality that is. The truth of a negative judgment depends on a quality of the real incompatible with the quality excluded in the judgment. The true quality and the quality assigned in the judgment are thus contraries and not contradictories. The way in which a negative judgment presupposes a quality in what is real that we may not be able to specify may be compared with the way in which a hypothetical judgment presupposes the same kind of quality as grounding its connection. It follows that the negation of a hypothetical judgment would be the rejection of this sort of ground. The mere assertion of the antecedent and the negation of the consequent is indeed incompatible with the hypothetical judgment, but it is not its contradictory. A genuine contradictory would be strong enough to rule out counterfactual conditionals.
Bradley understands disjunction as providing a list of two or more mutually exclusive alternatives. He is willing to associate disjunction with a nest of hypothetical judgments, but since neither the hypothetical judgments nor the disjunction are truth-functional, the disjunctive judgment may have a certain categorical aspect. “Disjunctive judgment is the union of hypotheticals on a categoric basis.” (131)
Bradley connects disjunction with choice, where we make a selection from a number of alternatives. There is a definite list of possibilities; this is its categorical feature. We cannot use disjunctive addition to add in an arbitrary fashion another disjunct that is not a real possibility. In the same way, to say that something is colored is associated with a list of possibilities from which we select the actual color. To produce the disjunctive judgment that lists the varieties of color is to assign to the object categorically the property of being some kind of color, even if we do not know which color it is.
This example conforms to the template that Bradley favors in place of the form “either p or q or…” that is used today. Bradley treats the disjunctive judgment as a kind of singular judgment, with the format “A is either b or c or d….” This analysis will run into difficulties when A does not exist, but Bradley has met this problem before, and deals with it by replacing the grammatical subject with the real subject. This maneuver can even handle cases that seem most recalcitrant, such as “Either the light bulb is dead or the fuse has blown.” This would become: “Reality is either characterized by light bulb malfunction or fuse meltdown.”
Chapter V examines logical principles. Bradley dismisses the Law of Identity as an empty tautology. Judgment requires the identity of differences, not provided by “A is A.” This means that the accusation (by Bertrand Russell) of confusing the “is” of predication with the “is” of identity cannot be fair, since for Bradley predication is the essence of judgment, whereas through the “is” of strict identity we do not make a judgment at all.
The most interesting part of the section on “The Principle of Contradiction” is the discussion of (Hegelian) dialectic. Bradley’s simple solution is that if the ideas combined in the synthesis are merely different, there is no problem. The ideas of self and other are different ideas, but no one would say that it is a contradiction to assert the existence of the self and other things as well. The challenge to the principle of contradiction comes, only if the different ideas combined are taken to be discrepant or contrary, since the contrary of a given proposition entails its contradictory. Bradley offers a compromise according to which ideas that appear to be contrary are reconciled when harmonized within a wider reality. For example, opposite properties can be assigned to the same thing at different times.
The Law of Excluded Middle takes the form of a disjunctive judgment and would be expressed today as “either p or not p.” Bradley, however, has a different form for disjunction, so that his version of the principle will be: “A is either b or not-b.” A is not always a real particular thing, but sometimes reality as such. Indeed, if Bradley gets his way, the ultimate subject will always be reality. Excluded middle uses the variety of disjunction in which the number of disjuncts is exactly two. When the second disjunct is constructed as the negation of the first, there can be no other choice.
Bradley next tackles the familiar distinction between intension and extension in the chapter on the quantity of judgment, explaining that “in every symbol we separate what it means from that which it stands for.” (168) (Frege’s distinction between sinn and bedeutung.) His account of the extensional treatment of universal judgments such as “Dogs are mammals” is disappointing, because he fails to register that a set is a special kind of entity, suggesting that a set of dogs must be a pack of dogs, failing which the only alternative is the ludicrous idea of a collection of dog-images in the mind! With a proper notion of set in place, “Dogs are mammals” can be taken to assert a relation between two sets, just as many other judgments assert a relation between two objects.
Judgments founded on intension refer to the connection of attributes and meanings, and ignore the denotation of objects. Universal judgments based on meanings are those Kant considers strictly universal, because they do not permit even the possibility of exceptions. Not all universal judgments are of this type, and singular judgments never are. Our concept of what is real, denoted in a singular judgment, is the concept of the individual, which is both particular, excluding all other individuals, and universal, as unifying various characteristics and constituting an identity in difference. The real individual is a concrete universal: abstract universals, which can be separated from the individual in thought and applied elsewhere, cannot be real. In a similar way, what is truly individual is a concrete particular; abstract particulars that are nothing more than their distinction from other particulars are also unreal. “A reality in space must have spatial diversity, internal to itself.” (188) A point in space is distinct from all other points, but is a mere abstraction. A moment in time is also an abstraction; a concrete individual existing in time must have some duration.
Bradley rejects as erroneous the view that modal differences do not affect the actual content of the judgments involved. Certainly, you can take any judgment and “express any attitude of your mind towards it.” (198) These propositional attitudes are many and various. I may say: “I wish to make it” or “I fear to make it” or “I am forced to make it.” “All these are simple assertorical statements about my condition of mind.” (198) Statements about possibility and necessity do not, however, express my state of mind. They are assertions that claim objective truth. “There clearly can be but one kind of judgment, the assertorical. Modality affects not the affirmation, but what is affirmed.” (197) This is in line with the logic of Principia Mathematica, in which everything takes place under the aegis of the assertion sign. In this system, there is not even a corresponding negation sign, just a sign for the negation of a proposition. This is more extreme than Bradley, who does allow a distinct function of negation.
Thus, judgments of necessity and possibility have a special content not to be found in the corresponding assertoric judgment. For Bradley, “The possible and the necessary are special forms of the hypothetical.” (198) Necessity consists in a necessary connection between antecedent and consequent in a hypothetical judgment. To say that a fact is necessary is not to elevate it to a higher status, but merely to say that it is a necessary consequence of some other state of affairs, also taken as fact. As already explained, the connection through which the antecedent necessitates the consequent must itself depend on a categorical ground. This includes cases where we assert a necessary connection, because of a regular succession of events. Not that this ground has to be a necessary causal connection. “The real connection which seems the counterpart of the logical sequence, is in itself not necessary.” (206)
Bradley also connects the possible with the hypothetical. To say that something is possible is to say that some of its conditions are satisfied, excluding those specified in the antecedent of the associated hypothetical statement. “It is possible to see an eclipse of the moon tonight” means “If you get up early enough and the weather co-operates, you will see an eclipse of the moon.” To assert a potentiality or power or disposition is to commit to a hypothetical judgment stating that if certain other conditions are satisfied, a certain state of affairs will necessarily come to pass.
Bradley has a problem with modality because of his metaphysical vision of a Parmenidean Absolute Reality. Modal distinctions come to life with the conception of an open future, in which some things are unavoidable and others are possibilities among which we may choose. What is actual at the present time cannot be properly said to be either possible or necessary (Bradley gets this right!); although some things that have taken place were necessary and others were not. Without this kind of background, the conceptual scheme Bradley is discussing would not exist.
In his presidential address to the American Philosophical Association in 1957 “Speaking of Objects,” W.V. Quine presents the manifesto for the position of modern logic. “We persist in breaking reality down somehow into a multiplicity of identifiable and discriminable objects to be referred to by singular and general terms. We talk so inveterately of objects that to say we do seems almost to say nothing at all; for how else is there to talk?” The reality to which Quine referred at the beginning disappears under the carpet and is heard from no more. For Bradley, the reality that is broken down is, and has to be, the reality available in immediate experience. It is broken down through the faculty of thought and judgment, which introduces distinct individuals characterized through universal logical ideas. This makes possible singular and plural judgments involving qualities and relations. Not all judgments about what is real conform, however, to this template. There are genuine judgments about reality that bypass a reference to real individuals. Some such judgments modern logic may handle in other ways, but there are some that remain troublesome, such as judgments involving mass terms. Bradley’s system of logic is more flexible and can handle the variety we find.
The strength of Bradley’s theory of judgment is the flexibility through which it accommodates a variety of forms. Its weakness is that through insisting that the ultimate subject of judgment is reality, he seems to undermine the legitimacy of the singular and plural judgments on which we normally rely. One way to retain Bradley’s logic while rejecting the absolute monism of his metaphysical theory is to recognize that “reality” is itself a mass term. The later developments in the logic of mass terms that are proving such a headache for modern logic also make more palatable the logic of Bradley. Concepts, like “gold”, which do not by themselves package reality into units in the same way as count nouns like “dog”, can be used in various ways. They can be used in a singular judgment to refer to a piece of gold: they can be used in plural judgments to refer to pieces of gold: and there is also a third use, as in “Gold is yellow,” where the concept is associated with a mass term. (Interestingly, Bradley uses this very example (46) without noticing its special character.) The possibility of this third use surely does not invalidate the other uses in singular and plural judgments.
This explanation of the process described by Quine is, of course, given at Bradley’s lower point of view, but the use of a mass term to designate the setting for the individual object, in place of a string of other individuals, may well discourage the desire to move to the mysterious higher view. To isolate within the sensuous felt mass, designated by a mass term, an individual object associated with an ideal content loosened from what is given, seems about as good an account of the process of thought as we can get.
Bradley moves on in Books II and III to the important topic of inference. There is a problem emerging from the distinction between analytic and synthetic judgments of sense introduced in Book I, in that the synthetic judgments move us beyond what is given in immediate experience and must involve some kind of inference. In a book on the principles of logic, Bradley must also engage with the traditional doctrine of the syllogism, which was taken to be the core of deductive inference. Bradley proposes in the second book to deal with deductive inferences generally agreed to be valid, without probing too deeply, then moving in a third book to a fundamental theory intended to cover all forms of inference.
He begins by setting out three features of inference with which it is difficult to disagree. First, the conclusion of an inference depends on a process of thought through which it is reached. Second, the process rests on a basis. “In inference, we advance from truth possessed to a further truth.” (245) Third, there must be a difference between basis and conclusion; otherwise, the supposed inference is a “senseless iteration.” (246)
Bradley makes a list of forms of deductive inference, casting his net more widely to capture specimens that do not usually appear in the textbooks of the day. The traditional syllogism cannot be taken as fundamental, since it does not cover all the forms that Bradley has listed, such as those empowered by transitive relations. Bradley describes the process of inference as an operation of synthesis which “takes its data and by ideal construction combines them into a whole.” (256) Logical connection, however, requires the identity of common links, such as the middle term in a syllogism. The first step is to form the whole: the second step is to extract the conclusion perceived within the whole by omitting parts that are no longer of interest. Bradley denies that there is any general principle that will serve as a test of the validity of reasoning. The traditional syllogism is not up to the job and no replacement can be found.
The common link required to combine premisses is both the same and different. “If it were not different it would have nothing to connect, and if it were not the same there could be no connection.” (288) But how can we have both identity and difference? The solution is that the common term is an ideal content “appearing in and differenced by two several contexts.” (288)
The process of inference depends entirely on this identity in difference. There are, however, two radically different kinds of identity that Bradley does not distinguish at this point. There are universal characters which are identical throughout their various instantiations (abstract universals) and there are individual objects that remain identical throughout their various appearances (concrete universals). These individuals may even combine characters that are in some sense discrepant, if they are extended in space or enduring in time. Caesar was in Gaul, and Caesar was in Italy. Both types of identity in difference can provide a ground for inference, even within traditional syllogistic logic. By suggesting that inference takes place only through the development of an ideal content and not via reference to an individual object, Bradley undermines the singular judgment and prepares the ground for a logical doctrine that downgrades it.
The “association of ideas” is the name for a process that exists as a psychological fact; what Bradley is attacking is the empiricist account of this fact and the use of it to explain judgment and inference. The empiricist theories of David Hume and John Stuart Mill attempt to explain the life of the mind in terms of the association of ideas that are distinct existences or psychological atoms. The laws of association usually recognized are contiguity and similarity. Bradley argues that the empiricists do not have the resources even to state clearly their central position, and offers the following restatement: “Any element tends to reproduce those elements with which it has formed one state of mind.” (304) He calls this law “redintegration”, getting the term from Sir William Hamilton. The use of the qualification “tends” is standard for laws of association. Bradley insists that his law “does not exclude any succession of events which comes as a whole before the mind,” (305) which is, of course, vital for the explanation of causal inference.
In spite of a superficial resemblance, there is a chasm that divides Bradley’s redintegration and the association of the empiricists. Association is cohesion between psychical particulars: redintegration concerns the connection of universals, “which is an ideal identity within the individuals.” (306) Only an ideal connection in the mind can survive the disappearance of connected individuals. The impressions originally given in conjunction are gone and cannot be resurrected. Only the universal ideal content, the “what” as opposed to the “that” is left behind as a memory trace. Through the universals, we may perhaps be able to produce images that are, as it were, ghosts of the past, but these images will be fresh particulars and distinct existences that can be considered re-incarnations of the past, only in virtue of an ideal identity preserved through the universal.
In the empiricist theory developed, for instance, by John Stuart Mill, the bare contiguity of impressions was not considered to be by itself sufficient to operate the mechanism of association. Past contiguity can be operative only if the memory thereof is introduced through the similarity between a component in a past experience and a sensation now being enjoyed. But we still face the problem: “What has been called up has never been contiguous; and what has been contiguous cannot be called up.” (318) Not even similarity can resurrect what is now dead and gone. Similarity can exist, only if the similar terms both exist. Therefore, reproduction through similarity is not possible, since the similarity requires that what is reproduced is already there.
There are few traces surviving today in either psychology or philosophy of the theory demolished by Bradley. The violence of the rhetoric, although amusing, might be considered excessive, but in its day the theory was solidly entrenched, and dynamite may have been justified.
It seems that we often make inferences from particulars to particulars. We take note that Fido barks when approached by a stranger; we infer that Rover will do the same. Bradley denies that such inferences tacitly involve the inductive generalization that all dogs bark when approached by strangers, since people quite happy to make the inference from Fido to Rover might be reluctant to issue a general guarantee for all inferences of this type. This does not mean, however, that universals are not involved. The inference to the barking of Rover is based on a connection of ideal content, acquired through the encounter with Fido.
Bradley now turns to inductive generalization through which we reach a conclusion about all members of a certain class when only some members have been examined. This arena is the stamping ground of John Stuart Mill against whom Bradley directs his fire. Even if Mill’s Methods may be useful, standard textbooks agree that they are not logically sound. Bradley endorses the usual criticisms, and adds the point that in any case they do not take us from mere particulars to general truths, since the facts from which they begin are already conceptualized as instances of general kinds.
The story so far is that inference operates by combining premises that contain a ground of identity. A conclusion is reached by eliminating the middle term. Bradley now recognizes that this theory will not cover all forms of reasoning and sees the need for a third book in which to put things right. The original theory will handle the syllogism and many other arguments. What it does not cover is arguments where there is no elimination of a middle term, where the conclusion emerges as a structure incorporating A, B, and C on the basis of information relating A to B and B to C. An example may clarify what Bradley has in mind. We connect a day to the day before through the identity of the intervening night and the same day to the day after through a similar process. In this way we construct a succession of days that will constitute a history. This result will count as the conclusion of an inference in the wide sense.
Mathematics is also important in our cognitive life, and often not covered by the theory in Book II. Other exceptions are the processes of comparison and distinction. These are mental operations resulting in judgment, and are therefore inferences. Recognition is also inference, when we make the move from the perception of the man entering the room to the recognition of someone seen before.
Hegelian Dialectic also transcends the pattern permitted in the original theory. Bradley offers a heretical version that tones down the excesses of the orthodox view. Instead of supposing that the process begins in contradiction, Bradley suggests that our unrest begins in the recognition that the original datum is incomplete. The dialectical move is to complete the incomplete through positing a larger whole in which it is a component. This larger whole is itself seen to be incomplete, and the process is repeated. The way in which the incomplete is completed has its source in the subject. Although a dialectical move may have a source in past experience, the inferential move goes directly from the datum to what lies beyond, even if we are able sometimes to uncover a hypothetical judgment expressing the function that controls the inference.
Bradley is now ready to unveil general characteristics of inference. Because it is intended to cover all cases, this will have to be vague. In the beginning is a datum or data, followed by a mental operation, producing a result. For example, in the inference: “A to the right of B, and B of C, and therefore A to the right of C” (432), we begin with “two sets of terms in relations of space” (432) and put them together. This act of construction makes a difference, “but it does not make such a difference to the terms that they lose their identity.” (432-3) Nor do A and C change their identity when directly related in the conclusion. Inference makes a change, but it does not change the world. Bradley often describes inference as “ideal experiment.” It is a movement of thought that we make, but we are not compelled to take this path. If we have several premises, we are not compelled to put them together. The act of combination is arbitrary, in the sense that it is something that we choose, but might not have chosen. The act of inference is not a revision of the original data, although it introduces a fresh thought.
This makes sense where there is more than one premiss and an act of combination is required that depends upon the will of the agent. But Bradley discovers many inferences where the conclusion issues through the development of a single premiss. Certainly, there is no inference without mental activity in which we begin with a datum and end with a judgment predicating a fresh characteristic; but does such intellectual activity all count as inference? Standard inference involves “a construction round an identical centre” (457), but there are non-standard inferences in which there seems to be no given identity. However, the middle process, the operation leading from datum to conclusion, cannot “dispense with all identity.” (457) The mere co-presence of all my thoughts is not enough, since this does not explain the special identity that enables the inference. Take “recognition” and “dialectic”, where we are given a real thing with a quality and infer another quality. The inference depends on the connection of these qualities, and we might want to say that the middle term is the given quality. The problem is that the connection of the qualities is neither explicit nor given. “It is a function of synthesis, which never appears except in its effects.” (458) “It is a construction by means of a hidden centre.” (458)Bradley distinguishes two operations associated with inference: synthesis and analysis. In synthesis the many become one; in analysis the one becomes many. Bradley makes a further distinction between analysis and elision. We may begin with a judgment about a given whole, move by analysis to a plural judgment about its elements, and then by elision reach a conclusion about specific elements. Central cases of inference in which premises are combined and a middle term eliminated involve both synthesis and analysis, but there are other inferences in which one or other operation is at least predominant.
Although they are different functions, analysis and synthesis have an intimate connection. In analysis, the elements in the result are separated, but this means that they are also combined in a latent synthetic unity. In synthesis, elements are combined, but the unity formed will be capable of analysis into the original components. “Analysis is the synthesis of the whole which it divides, and synthesis the analysis of the whole which it constructs.” (471) The crucial idea is the idea of the whole that analysis disassembles and synthesis constructs. In analysis we operate on an explicit whole that falls into the background. In synthesis we bring out the invisible totality comprehending the elements combined.
With this wider conception of inference, it is getting harder to separate inference and judgment. Certainly, synthetic judgments of sense involve a substantial inferential component, but even a judgment that comes straight from presentation seems to involve the analysis and synthesis that is characteristic of inference. Judgment involves abstraction from the sensuous felt mass, and hence analysis. Judgments assigning various characters to reality involve synthesis. Bradley is certainly anxious to retain the distinction between judgment and inference. “Inference is an experiment performed on a datum,” whereas in judgments of perception “there is properly no datum.” (479) They do, indeed, have a basis, but this basis is for the intellect nothing. “It is a sensuous whole which is merely felt and is not idealized.” (479) Judgment is required to provide the ideal content from which inference takes its start. In judgments of perception we have no rational ground to justify our result and “the stuff, upon which the act is directed, is not intellectual.” (480) We can now, perhaps, make this clearer by explaining that the stuff in question is designated by a mass term.
The distinction between judgment and inference may not, however, be as sharp as one might like, as becomes clear when Bradley discusses the beginnings of our intellectual life. “The earliest judgment will imply an operation which, although it is not inference, is something like it; and the earliest reasoning will begin with a datum, which though kin to judgment, is not intellectual.” (481) “Experience starts with a stimulation coming in from the periphery [what John McDowell calls ‘a brute impact from the exterior’]; but….the stimulation must be met by a central response.” (481) Sensations do not “simply walk into the mind.” They are “the product of an active mental reaction.” (482) The senses may give us sensations, but “the gift contains traces of something like thought.” (482) The interface between cognition and the sensory input is murky indeed, but two things are clear. The response to the stimulus is not entirely arbitrary, nor is it a simple re-enactment of a given. Nothing is given until it is received!
Bradley is hostile to the idea of a purely formal logic whose goal is to construct a system of valid patterns of inference, covering all cases through the use of blanks and variables. Partly, he does not believe that the goal can be achieved. More basically, his concern is that the attempt to reconstruct inference in terms of the manipulation of counters in accordance with rules breaks the connection between inference and that continued reference to reality that lies at its heart.
Inferences do, indeed, proceed in accordance with principles, and we can reject a principle employed by finding another similar inference in which the premiss is true and the conclusion false. In a particular inference, we can distinguish the principle from the matter involved, but we should not separate it and turn it into a major premiss in order to exhibit the argument as a syllogism. The principle is not a premiss, because it is not a datum but a function. There may sometimes be a point in replacing the original argument with such a syllogism, but this option will not always be available. Every inference depends on a principle that is not a premiss, as Lewis Carroll has shown in “What the Tortoise Said to Achilles.” Even Principia Mathematica has the Law of Substitution and the Law of Detachment that are not axioms of the system!
So far the focus has been on the phenomenology of inference. But inference is important, not because it takes place, but because it is taken to have validity and justification. The problem is to explain how inference can have validity and justification in the face of the fundamental dilemma that Bradley identifies. Unless there is a transition from the premiss to a different conclusion, nothing has happened, and there is no inference; but if there is a difference between premiss and conclusion, how can we justify the intellectual move? Bradley dismisses the extreme claim that since they are different, there is an actual contradiction between premiss and conclusion. To assert the premisses is not to deny the conclusion: it is merely to fail to assert it until the inference is completed. But how is the eventual assertion of a different conclusion to be justified?
Logicians who do not challenge the legitimacy of the analytic judgment of sense can form a concept of truth that will allow them to explain that what is crucial for a valid inference is not that there be no change from premiss to conclusion, but merely that there be no change in the truth value from true to false. In the case of valid deductive inference this is guaranteed, because we merely re-arrange our information to make a certain element more salient. What changes is merely our knowledge of the relation implicit in the premisses. The act of inference requires an intervention by the subject that is arbitrary in the sense that it might not have taken place; but in the case of valid deductive inference, it is not an intervention that tampers with the truth. There is, perhaps, more interference by the subject when a decision is made to eliminate part of the original ideal content, as when we drop the middle term in the conclusion of a syllogism. Dropping ideal content even makes it possible that the conclusion is true, when the premisses contain error; but this does not matter, so long as it remains the case that if the premisses are true, the conclusion must also be true.
Perhaps deductive inference can be handled, if we do not probe too deeply, but Bradley now comes to a “rising sea” of non-deductive inferences that are not so easily controlled. In mathematical construction we may infer the extension of a given straight line to double its size, but this is not the deduction of a conclusion from a premiss. Comparison and distinction are also acts of the mind that are not deductive inference. It could be argued, indeed, that these acts are not in fact inferences at all, but rather forms of plural judgment, originally involving more than one object distinguished within immediate experience. Bradley, however, would not be greatly interested in this, since in his final view the distinction between judgment and inference is to be broken down.
The really serious problem, however, is empirical inference, including the prediction of the future on which we rely so heavily to carry out our purposes. Bradley took the first step at the beginning of The Principles of Logic when he introduced the loosening from the given experience of an ideal content that can be transferred elsewhere. This may explain how it is possible to formulate a belief about what will happen, but it does not explain why we choose to adopt the beliefs we do, or how these beliefs are to be justified. Suppose we abstract from immediate experience a conjunction of ideal elements. This may tempt us to imagine a similar conjunction in our representation of the future, but this would be justified, only if the connection of the elements were unconditioned and necessary. Since in abstracting the conjunction from the given experience it has been separated from the context in which it was found, it remains, as Bradley believes, conditioned by that context. Since this context is never completely known, the successful transfer of an ideal complex abstracted from the given context to a fresh context that may well be different cannot be guaranteed.
The recognition of the context in which the given ideal content is embedded undermines its guaranteed transfer elsewhere. Does it also undermine the analytic judgment of sense that predicates the content of immediate experience? This is what we are led to think in the move to the higher point of view, and it would be extremely serious, since it would destroy the very concept of true judgment. It is ironic that at the beginning of The Principles of Logic Bradley uncovers the source of true judgment in the predication of an ideal content of an immediate experience from which it has been loosened and with which it is necessarily connected. This explains how it is possible to transfer an ideal content extracted from immediate experience to a segment of reality not immediately experienced. Such judgments, of course, may be either true or false.
This system is available as a lower point of view for those who are unable to follow Bradley all the way. (It is also there as a fallback position, in the event that a fatal flaw is discovered in Bradley’s advanced reasoning, although Bradley himself does not seem to fear this possibility.) The lower point of view is happy enough with the argument that empirical inferences have no logical guarantee, since the given object involved in the premiss is embedded in a context, ultimately unknown. This argument establishes a conclusion to which everyone would agree. What cannot be accepted is the use of the same fact to break the tie between ideal content and object that constitutes true judgment. Without a viable concept of true judgment, even inference as we normally understand it will disappear, since the premisses and conclusion of an inference are all judgments, and a deductive argument is valid, if the conclusion must be true when the premisses are all true.
We have been following the argument in the first edition of The Principles of Logic, in which Bradley tries to keep out the influence of his own metaphysical ideas, when operating at the lower level. This is fortunate, because it makes Bradley’s often insightful discussion available to logicians who would be appalled by his metaphysics. Bradley, as we know, is not ultimately satisfied with the lower point of view and feels compelled to move to a different position, where the influence of his metaphysical views can be detected. This difficult theory was not well understood, so that in the second edition of The Principles of Logic he included a set of terminal essays, which he hoped would provide a clearer exposition of his final views.
The original book began with judgment; the terminal essays begin with inference which he now moves to the center. “Every inference is the ideal self-development of a given object taken as real.” (598) This definition attempts to explicate inference without using the notion of judgment, which will later be explained as a kind of inference. Even the third member of the logical trinity, the universal idea, is partly concealed under cover as “the given object.” The given object must be ideal, since this is the only kind of entity capable of ideal self-development. Bradley’s definition of inference would have been much clearer, if he had explained it as the ideal self-development of a logical idea taken as real. The concept of ideal self-development, however, contains a problem, encountered before. If there is no change, there is no inference; but if there is change, then “the inference is destroyed.”(599) Bradley cannot take the usual line that the transition in inference from judgment to judgment is valid, so long as the preservation of truth is guaranteed. This would be circular, since he intends to explain judgment in terms of inference. Bradley’s solution relies on the double nature of the datum, considered in itself and as part of a systematic whole. This is what is involved in the reference of the ideal content to reality. This reference to reality, familiar from Bradley’s initial account of judgment, now turns out to mean “taken to be real, as being in one with Reality, the real Universe.” (598) This is the point of “taken as real” in the original definition. To take an ideal content as real is to identify it with Reality, in so far as it belongs to Reality.
We can now perhaps understand why Bradley replaces “logical idea” with “given object” in his initial definition. A logical idea can only be a part of a system of logical ideas, a system of thought. A given object, as normally understood and as understood within Bradley’s lower point of view, is a part of the real universe. It is the act of judgment that connects the domain of thought with the real world. It is judgment that predicates a logical idea of reality or of an object that belongs to reality. Without judgment, the only possible movement of thought is a movement along a stream of ideas. The only thing more real than a logical idea is a complete system of all ideas, and we have fallen into the clutches of Hegel! To adopt the term “given object” to denote logical ideas makes it difficult to use the same term to introduce concrete individuals constituting the universe.
The movement of inference can be illustrated in the Dialectical Method, in which we expand a given content through recognition of its incompleteness. The explicit premiss is “some distinguished content set before us.” (601) Implicit is “the entire Reality as an ideal systematic Whole.” “Every member in this system…develops itself through a series of more and more inclusive totalities until it becomes and contains the entire system.” (601) When I use this method, everything is necessary except where I begin and when I stop. For Bradley, however, such inferences are never fully satisfactory, since their ground is largely implicit and unknown.
Bradley goes on to consider in some detail other processes such as analysis, abstraction and comparison. His discussion of arithmetic is of surprising interest, because the construction of the natural number series does seem to make sense of the notion of ideal self-development. Each natural number develops itself through the successor function to introduce the number that follows it. The number three is an ideal content, since it is a universal property shared by all triples, so that the transition to four must lie in the domain of ideality.
The representation of space and time is constituted through a similar process involving the ideal self-development of a given space or time. Although these examples may illuminate the obscure notion of ideal self-development, they will not help to explain inference, if the construction of the successor of a natural number or the space and time that lies beyond what is given is not an inference. Inference is usually considered a movement of thought from judgment to judgment, from premiss to conclusion. This is not what happens when we extend a line or form a new number.
Bradley, however, would not accept this, since he considers judgment itself to be a kind of inference in the wide sense. It is a kind of inference in which the ground that compels the judgment is not made explicit. Inference is present, even in the purest case of an analytic judgment of sense. As we have seen, Bradley recasts the judgment “S is P” in the form: “Reality is such that S is P.” The word “such” is the placeholder for the ground in reality that compels the conclusion “S is P.” Since this condition is unspecified and not completely specifiable, the inferential structure is merely implicit. This is a radical change, under the influence of Bosanquet, from Bradley’s original position, where judgment lies at the interface between the ideal and the actual, between the universal and particular, and is hence distinct from inference which is a movement within thought.
Bradley supports his change of heart by giving an example. Suppose I immediately experience A to the right of B and therefore form the judgment that A is to the right of B. There is, presumably, some sort of causal explanation for the relative position of these things. My objection is that any such condition for the existence of a state of affairs is not a truth condition for the corresponding judgment. It would be a truth condition only if it were incorporated in the judgment, which it is not. Even if I am prepared to say that A is to the right of B because John put it there, I am not saying that A is to the right of B, if John put it there. My statement is categorical, not conditional, and I will insist that A is to the right of B, even if it turns out that John is not responsible.
The objects A and B that are the special subjects of the plural judgment are necessarily selected from and connected with “our whole Universe.” (Presumably, this is our Universe, because it is connected with our immediate experience.) In a singular judgment the special subject is this reality, which is “some special and emphasized feature in the total mass.” (629) All such special subjects are conditioned by what lies beyond. Even without invoking the law of causality, they are all conditioned by their setting in space and time. Bradley argues that since the special subject of the judgment must be conditioned, even if its conditions are not known, the judgment itself cannot be unconditioned. “The object therefore remains conditioned by that which is unknown, and only on and subject to this unknown condition is the judgment true.” (631) This sentence explicitly identifies the existence conditions of the object with the truth conditions of the judgment. If we refuse to make this jump, we can remain comfortably at Bradley’s “lower point of view” and ignore the obscure and baffling complexities of the esoteric theory.
Even if we insist on a sharper distinction between judgment and inference than Bradley would allow, there is a general idea of a movement of thought that covers both activities. There may be some movements of thought we prefer to call judgments and others we call inferences, but Bradley’s purpose is to dig out what all acts of thought have in common. He believes he can state the fundamental problem without a final distinction between judgment and inference. Thinking is a process that reaches a result, and this implies the transcending of some initial state. It is not enough, however, that there be a mere succession of states. The movement of thought requires justification. The movement of thought must “satisfy the intellect.” In the case of inference, the satisfactory is called “valid”; in the case of judgment, the satisfactory is called “true.” In both cases the problem of the satisfaction condition is essentially the same. “Thought demands to go proprio motu…with a ground and reason…. Now to pass from A to B, if the ground remains external, is for thought to pass with no ground at all.” (Appearance and Reality, Note A, 501) We might suppose that in the case of deductive inference, there is an internal ground within the domain of ideas, although Bradley would not agree. But there is clearly no such internal justification for the inferential move in the case of non-deductive or empirical inferences. The success of empirical inferences or predictions depends on the way the world is or will be. Our general level of success depends on our living in a reasonably well-ordered world in which we have developed reliable systems for the acquisition of information.
Since the ground that justifies the movement of thought is the nature of reality, this ground can never be brought within thought without the identity of thought and reality. Nothing less than this will satisfy the intellect. This is the essentially Hegelian move to identify thought and reality by turning reality into a system of thought. Not that a finite center can ever reach an unconditioned completion of its thought. We may try to get as close as we can, and the closer we get to a final completion, the more truth our thought contains. As we expand our system of thought to make it more comprehensive, the truer it will become, so long as it remains harmonious and coherent. Although the goal of Thought in Dialectic may be to complete the incomplete, Bradley believes that there is more to reality than even a completed system of thought could provide. Bradley is not a Hegelian, because he denies that the completion of thought, even if it were possible, would be identical with the Absolute. He rejects the replacement of reality by “some spectral woof of impalpable abstractions, or unearthly ballet of bloodless categories.” (591) Although Bradley follows Kant in accepting the transcendental ideality of the series of phenomena, a position that provided a stepping stone for Hegel, Bradley refuses to accept this creation of the mind as the reality encountered in immediate experience. For Bradley, “it is the whole continuity of the total series which is absolutely based on ideal reconstruction. By means of this function, and this function alone, we have connected the past in one line with the present.” (587)
Immediate experience is associated with a cluster of ideas: “this”, “my”, “now”, “here”. What is immediately experienced is felt. “Feeling may be either used of the whole mass felt at any one time, or it may again be applied to some element in that whole.” (659) What I immediately experience is real enough, but this does not mean that everything real must be experienced by me. As less than reality as a whole, Bradley calls my immediate experience an appearance of reality. To Bradley, “it seems clear that we not only start from the given ‘this,’ but remain resting on that foundation throughout. Our whole ordered universe we may call a construction resting on immediate experience.” (661)
Bradley clearly retains the phenomenal realism at the heart of traditional empiricism, while rejecting the idea that immediate experience is a collection of distinct existences, which was responsible for its demise. Experience, for Bradley, is originally a sensuous, felt mass. This is particularly acceptable with the re-instatement of mass terms, excluded by the logic of Principia Mathematica.
For Bradley, a collection of distinct existences is not given, but emerges through an analysis carried out by thought. “I have to turn my experience into a disjunctive totality of elements.” (665) This is uncannily like Quine’s idea that “we persist in breaking reality down somehow into a multiplicity of identifiable and discriminable objects.” The connection is particularly striking, once we realize that special subjects, as well as Reality as a Whole, may extend beyond what is presented in immediate experience. The ideal contents, necessary to separate objects within the sensuous felt mass, do not confine these objects to their presentation in immediate experience. Because the contents are universal, they permit what Hume would call the continued existence of such real things beyond their appearance in my mind.
Bradley’s theory must be taken very seriously because of the detailed account that it offers of a process that Quine leaves shrouded in mystery. It may be understood as a way of fixing what is wrong with empiricism. It is harder to sympathize with the arguments that led Bradley to abandon what he calls the “lower point of view” and which may be based on a mistake.
- The Principles of Logic. Oxford University Press, 1883; second revised edition including terminal essays, 1922.
- (This is the main source for Bradley’s logical theory.)
- Appearance and Reality. Oxford University Press, 1893; second edition with appendix, 1897.
- (The metaphysical theory.)
- Essays on Truth and Reality. Oxford University Press, 1914.
- (A collection of articles, for the most part originally published in Mind, and many on broadly logical topics.)
- Collected Works. Thoemmes Press: Bristol, England and Sterling, Va., 1999.
- (Volume I contains Bradley’s notes for The Principles of Logic.)
- Allard, J. W., 2005, The Logical Foundations of Bradley’s Metaphysics: Judgment, Inference, and Truth. Cambridge University Press.
- Basile, Pierfrancesco, 1999, Experience and Relations: an Examination of F. H. Bradley’s Conception of Reality. Chapter 4.
- Blanshard, Brand, 1939, The Nature of Thought. Two Volumes. London: George Allen & Unwin.
- (Especially, Chapter XIII: Bradley on Ideas in Logic and in Psychology.)
- Bosanquet, Bernard, 1885, Knowledge and Reality, A Criticism of Mr. F. H. Bradley’s ‘Principles of Logic’. London: Kegan Paul, Trench.
- Bradley, James (ed.), 1996, Philosophy after F. H. Bradley. Bristol: Thoemmes.
- Bradley Studies, the journal of the Bradley Society, was published from 1995 to 2004.
- (It has now been succeeded by Collingwood and British Idealist Studies.)
- Campbell, C. A., 1931, Scepticism and Construction: Bradley’s Sceptical Principle as the Basis of Constructive Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin.
- Campbell, C. A., 1957, On Selfhood and Godhood. London; George Allen & Unwin.
- (Gifford Lectures delivered at the University of St. Andrews.)
- Campbell, C. A., 1967, In Defence of Free Will. London: George Allen & Unwin.
- (Chapter XII. The Mind‘s Involvement in Objects. This was originally published in 1962 as a contribution to Theories of the Mind, edited by Jordan M. Scher, published by the Free Press of Glencoe, a division of the Macmillan Company.)
- Candlish, S., 2007, The Russell/Bradley Dispute and its Significance for Twentieth-Century Philosophy. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Ferreira, P., 1999, Bradley and the Structure of Knowledge. Albany: SUNY Press.
- Ferreira P., 2014, ‘Idealist Logic’ in The Oxford Handbook of British Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 111-132.
- Hylton, Peter, 1990, Russell, Idealism, and the Emergence of Analytic Philosophy. Oxford University Press. Chapter 2.
- Levine, James, 1998, “The What and the That: Theories of Singular Thought in Bradley, Russell and the Early Wittgenstein” in Appearance Versus Reality: New Essays on Bradley’s Metaphysics. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Mander, W. J. (ed.), 1996, Perspectives on the Logic and Metaphysics of F. H. Bradley. Bristol: St. Augustine’s Press.
- Mander, W.J., 2008, ‘Bradley’s Logic’ in D. Gabbay and J.H. Woods (eds.) Handbook of the History of Logic. Volume Four: British Logic in the Nineteenth Century, Elsevier, pp. 663-717.
- Mander, W., 2011, British Idealism. A History. Oxford University Press.
- Manser, A., 1983, Bradley’s Logic. Oxford University Press.
- Peacocke, C., 1992. A Study of Concepts. Chapter 3. Cambridge MA and London: MIT Press.
- (This entry requires explanation, since Bradley is never mentioned in the book. Chapter 3 introduces scenarios, which are non-conceptual representational contents. As general, they qualify as ideal contents in Bradley’s sense. The positioning of scenarios in reality is therefore a special case of an act of judgment that refers an ideal content to a reality beyond the act. Peacocke is thus presenting the essence of Bradley’s position in an up-to-date form.)
- Sprigge, T.L.S., 1993, James and Bradley. Chicago and La Salle, Illinois: Open Court. Part II. Chapters 2 and 3.
- Wollheim, R., 1959, F. H. Bradley. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
D. L. C. Maclachlan
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Over the years I have gathered a few "cleansing tips" that I use to keep myself on track. A few of my favorites are:
- Make a list of what you are expecting to get from your cleanse and refer to it in those moments of wavering resolve
- Make a list of what challenges you expect to face. For me this normally consists of one thing - cravings. Your list of what you are expecting to get will be much longer and therefore put the challenges in perspective
- If you give in and cheat don't throw the whole cleanse out. Try not to cheat but if you start going down that road try to have a safe cheat item: i.e. a little watermelon or cucumber slices. These water filled items may allow you to quickly move on from your weak moment and complete your cleanse.
Why am I suddenly blogging on cleansing??? I'm coming off of a few days of vacationing and a few weeks of reckless indulgence. With that, last night I announced to my kids that I would be embarking on a juice cleanse for a few days. READ: Don't bug me to go out to eat!!
In the spirit of appealing to my selfish side, I have compiled a list of "what's in it for me". So, much like on Letterman, here are the top 10 reasons everyone should occasionally cleanse your body...
- Get Blood Sugar Levels in check: keeping blood sugar levels under control help reduce future health problems, prevent weight gain, and reduce unhealthy cravings.
- Reduce Unhealthy Cravings: see #1. When the body is nutritionally balance, cravings seize to happen.
- Increase Absorption of Vital Nutrients: When you cells are clean, they can more easily absorb nutrients in your food. Every body system will benefit from this.
- Boost Your Immune System: I do not take flu shots. My immune system is very strong and cleansing just makes the cells of the body more equipped to fight disease.
- Brain Chemistry Boost: My mental clarity is always enhanced after a cleanse. My thinking is clearer and more concise. I've read that cleansing helps your body absorb fats and proteins more effectively. The better your body does this, the more healthy brain chemicals it produces.
- Increase Energy: During my last cleanse I was amazed at my increased level of activity - yes I said DURING! After a cleanse this increase continues. Cleansers definitely feel more inclined to exercise. Your cells are "de-junked" and full of super nutrition -- the effect is more energy and more motivation to move your body.
- Balance Your Hormones: Cleansing and super nutrition help your body balance its hormone levels. This leads to increased stamina, better sleep, and a feeling of well-being.
- Support Your Liver: The liver is your body's primary elimination organ. When it gets overwhelmed with toxins and poor nutrition, poor thyroid function and low energy are the results. Cleansing supports the liver and leads to better thyroid function.
- Improve Your Quality of Life: This is the ultimate reason to cleanse and replenish your body. When you are clean, you feel happier, sleep better, exercise more, make better food choices and loose excess weight.
- Lose Weight: All though this is the least important reason to cleanse it is an added benefit! Your body protects itself from ingested toxins by producing extra fat cells. These fat cells encapsulate the impurities and keep them from depositing into and harming your vital organs. Cleansing leeches chemicals from fat cells and helps your liver and kidneys flush them from your system.
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- ScienceNOW: “Human Evolution Is Speeding Up”
Led by University of Utah paleoanthropologist Henry Harpending, the team analyzed DNA from 270 individuals, searching for single-nucleotide polymorphisms in sequence data from Europeans, Africans, and Asians. After the analysis, the team concluded that the rate of evolution “has accelerated in 1800 human genes, which encompass about 7% of the human genome.”
The source for most of the mutations, the scientists speculate, is a series of “recent” population booms.
“The pace of change has accelerated a lot in the last 40,000 years, especially since the end of the Ice Age,” explains Harpending. The source for most of the mutations, the scientists speculate, is a series of “recent” population booms.
Not all evolutionists are convinced, however. Yale University geneticist Kenneth Kidd cautions that, while he doesn’t deny recent rapid selection, “I am not yet convinced that so much rapid selection at so many places in the genome has occurred. ... I think we need much more data.”
AiG’s Dr. Georgia Purdom said of this research:
“The researchers suggest two reasons for human ‘evolution’ speeding up: an increase in population size and increased migration of humans to new environments (changing lifestyle, diet, and other selection pressures). Although creationists would not agree with the time scale of 40,000 years ago, these two reasons they suggest for the ‘speed up’ would have occurred shortly after Noah’s Flood and the Tower of Babel event around 4500 years ago. In Genesis 9:1 God commanded Noah and his sons to be fruitful and multiply, and after the confusion of languages at the Tower of Babel, people migrated to different parts of the earth that had been drastically altered by the Flood. It is conceivable that natural selection would have occurred in the human population helping them adapt to their new environments. However, this is not an example of human evolution. Humans are still humans! This is why it is so important to not equivocate the terms natural selection and evolution and to clearly define them (see this past Friday’s Feedback, The Nature of Myth, for more information on this issue).”
Be sure to check back soon for an in-depth article on this news from Dr. Purdom.
For More Information: Get Answers
Remember, if you see a news story that might merit some attention, let us know about it! (Note: if the story originates from the Associated Press, FOX News, MSNBC, the New York Times, or another major national media outlet, we will most likely have already heard about it.) And thanks to all of our readers who have submitted great news tips to us. If you didn’t catch all the latest News to Know, why not take a look to see what you’ve missed?
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The Logical Limits of Liberty & Needism
Your needs can’t all be as easily fenced off as land. But that map-like model lurks behind unbalanced ideas about private and public interests. The “public good” is both bedrock and climate to all private interests. No logic of liberty should ignore their inalienable interdependence.
The “tragedy of the commons” shows why: Herders using a commons (public pasture) seemingly have rational incentives to add animals; grazing is free, and profits can be increased. But if others do the same, the commons becomes overgrazed. So short-term asocial self-interest becomes self-defeating, causing collective tragedy. Two fixes are known; either fence off, assign property rights, and leave it to the new owners; or manage the commons for everyone’s benefit, which entails restricting freedom of use, but prevents tragedy (Elinor Olstrom’s Nobel Prized-work showed how). The moral: too much “freedom in a commons brings ruin to all.”
The “public good” and the nation itself both face “tragedy of the commons” logic. In politics, special interests that prioritize their gain above the public good resemble those overgrazing herders. But it’s always irrational to discount the health of what supplies your needs. And no “politics of parts” can work unless the health of the whole governs. A nation isn’t only the sum of its special interests, or even the private interests of its people. A workable nation must balance those with the health of the whole. America’s founders agreed, they defined duties “to promote the general Welfare” and to enact laws “necessary for public good.”
Tocqueville feared that Americans might forget “the close connection between the private fortune of each and the prosperity of all.” But he said “Americans combat individualism by the principle of interest rightly understood,” which “inclines them willingly to sacrifice a portion of their time and property to the welfare of the state.”
Markets also face commons-like logic. Profit seeking that risks damaging markets is best restricted. Concern about large banks posing “systemic risks,” signals a nascent realization of this need.
In describing “the social contract” Hobbes used an image of “the body politic” illustrating that no part thrives alone, and ailing parts risk an unhealthy body. Some politics now borders on becoming a fenced-off “asocial contract,” dominated by asocial (or even anti-social) self-interest. But that map-like model of interests misguides. Even the value of what you do on your land depends utterly on what is happening beyond your fences. No workable logic of liberty can ignore that the common good is the soil in which all private interests grow.
Whatever your political beliefs, they need needism: Know your needs. Don’t damage them, or what supplies them. Don’t let others, either. Or you’re doomed (separately and jointly).
Illustration by Julia Suits, The New Yorker Cartoonist & author of The Extraordinary Catalog of Peculiar Inventions.
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Exchange TRON (TRX) To Bitcoin (BTC)
What Is TRON (TRX)?
TRON (TRX) is a decentralized blockchain-based operating system developed by the Tron Foundation and launched in 2017. Originally TRX tokens were ERC-20-based tokens deployed on Ethereum, but a year later they were moved to their own network.
Initially, the project was created with the aim of providing full ownership rights to makers of digital content. The main goal is to help content creators (who receive only a small part of the income) and encourage them with more rewards for their work. How: invite content consumers to reward content makers directly (without intermediaries like YouTube, Facebook or Apple).
The TRON software supports smart contracts, various kinds of blockchain systems, and decentralized applications aka dApps. The cryptocurrency platform uses a transaction model similar to Bitcoin (BTC), namely UTXO. Transactions take place in a public ledger, where users can track the history of operations.
Therefore, the platform was built to create a decentralized Internet and serves as a tool for developers to create dApps, acting as an alternative to Ethereum. Anyone can create dApps on the TRON network, offer content, and in return receive digital assets as compensation for their efforts. The ability to create content and share it openly without hesitation regarding transaction fees is an undeniable advantage of TRON.
What Is Ripple (XRP)?
Launched in 2021, the XRP Ledger (XRPL) is an open-source, permissionless and decentralized technology. Benefits of the XRP Ledger include its low-cost ($0.0002 to transact), speed (settling transactions in 3-5 seconds), scalability (1,500 transactions per second) and inherently green attributes (carbon-neutral and energy-efficient). The XRP Ledger also features the first decentralized exchange (DEX) and custom tokenization capabilities built into the protocol. Since 2012, the XRP Ledger has been operating reliably, having closed 70 million ledgers.
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In this ongoing series, we explore what culturally responsive teaching looks like at different grade levels and offer concrete examples and resources. Last month we explored the intentional selection of texts for reading discussion in first grade. This month, educator Lindsay Barrett offers guidance on culturally responsive teaching in grade 2 by bridging between the familiar and unfamiliar in literature discussions.
More in this series:
- What is Culturally Responsive Teaching?
- Culturally Responsive Teaching in Kindergarten: Read Alouds to Build Relationships
- Culturally Responsive Teaching in Grade 1: Intentional Selection of Texts for Reading Discussion
- How Culturally Responsive is Your Classroom Library?
There is a key shift in Common Core’s expectations for students’ response to literature from first to second grade. In Grade 1, students “describe characters, settings, and major events.” In Grade 2, they move to describing, “how characters in a story respond to major events and challenges.” This is a tall order when you’re seven or eight, especially when you consider that a “major challenge” to someone this age could be anything from an argument with a friend at recess to a tragic event or significant family struggle. Whatever their experiences, many eight-year-olds’ worlds are still relatively self-focused. Empathizing with book characters that face unfamiliar challenges can be a reach.
We must keep in mind that education, at its best, hones and develops the knowledge and skills each student already possesses, while at the same time adding new knowledge and skills to that base.
How can teachers support students by bridging familiar and unfamiliar book content?
Books with relatable characters who encounter multiple layers of events and challenges can provide familiar entry points while also stretching students’ thinking. Intentionally crafted discussions can help students make the leap from thinking about their own lives to thinking about the challenges others face. For example:
- In Finding the Music/En Pos de la Musica, Reyna breaks a treasured instrument in a moment of anger and searches her neighborhood for a way to repair it. Many students will be able to relate to being frustrated with a family situation or wanting to fix a mistake, so these make helpful discussion openers. Questions like, “What does it mean to honor your family’s heritage?” or “What makes a neighborhood a community?” invite students into new thinking territory.
- The Have a Good Day Cafe tells what happens when other vendors encroach on the location of Mike’s family’s food cart. Many students will identify with Mike’s conversations with his grandmother, who yearns for the way things used to be in Korea and doesn’t always understand Mike’s modern preferences. Deeper conversations such as, “What’s the impact on an entire family when parents’ jobs are threatened?” and “How can honoring traditions be both challenging and beneficial?” could lead students to consider broader perspectives.
- Armando and the Blue Tarp School is the powerful account of a boy who is finally able to go to school when a teacher sets up a makeshift classroom at the Tijuana garbage dump where he lives. A discussion could begin with the universal question, “What makes a teacher great?” and progress to conversations about “Why is obtaining an education especially powerful for those who experience extreme hardship?” The “I wish my teacher knew” exercise publicized in connection with this book can be a way for teachers to learn more about the hidden challenges their students face that can inform their teaching in the future.
Culturally responsive teaching means viewing learning as a “socially mediated process,” so it’s not just important for students to read books that reflect their own challenges and expose them to those of others; they should also talk about these topics with peers. For example:
- Facilitate partner discussions of My Very Own Room/Mi Propio Cuartito, which tells of a girl’s quest for some quiet space in a crowded house, and Soledad Sigh Sighs/Soledad Suspiros, the story of a girl who hates coming home each day to her empty apartment. Have partners discuss: “How does each main character respond to the challenges she faces?” “Who helps each girl and how?” “With which character do you identify more and why?” Hearing partners’ perspectives broadens students’ thinking.
- After reading Tashi and the Tibetan Flower Cure, the story of a granddaughter who orchestrates a modern version of a traditional Tibetan practice to help her ailing grandfather, begin a partner discussion with the question, “What do you think about when someone you care for is sick or hurt?” Expand the conversation to, “How can connecting to others have healing powers?”
Talk to students about the power of literature to widen and deepen their worldviews. Using one’s own experiences to make sense of those of others is a powerful lesson for someone who is eight or eighty-eight.
About the Author: Lindsay Barrett is a former elementary teacher and literacy nonprofit director. She currently works as a literacy consultant and stays busy raising three young boys. Find out more about her work at lindsay-barrett.com.
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While I work hard play hard, even my play won’t ever chill. Why do I prefer to go-go-go instead of letting go? Continue reading Why I go-go-go instead of let go!
We have all suffered heartbreak, and we all carry around scars. How come it takes so long to heal, and what does it say about our spiritual wellness? Continue reading How to let go or the lost conduit to source
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It is very difficult to keep track of number of balls and number of overs bowled simultaneously so in order to solve this problem we built a small Cricket Over Counter which keeps track of no balls and no of overs bowled.Whenever the legal ball is bowled the switch is pressed and it reminds when one over is completed.The circuit operation is simple – after each ball has been bowled, the scorer presses switch S2, which sends a negative going pulse to the trigger input, pin 2, of CMOS timer IC1, triggering it for a period determined by the values of components R3 and C2.
The resulting positive output from IC1 pin 3 triggers the inputs of decade counters IC2 and IC3. It also enables all the 7-segment common cathode l.e.d. displays until the timing period is over, thus conserving battery power (i.e. the displays will show the ball and over count for a few seconds after S2 has been pressed, before turning off. IC2 counts the balls and then resets itself, and IC3, when output Q7 goes high when the sixth ball is reached.
The solid-state buzzer WD1 is simultaneously also turned on, via transistor TR1, signalling the end of the over. It remains sounding for the same duration as the display is on. The balls display is returned to zero and the reset pulse clocks counter IC4, ensuring that the l.e.d. units display advances by one digit. When the tenth over is reached, counter IC5 receives a carry-out pulse from IC4 and therefore the tens display advances by one digit and so forth. A maximum of 99·5 overs can be counted. An extra display stage could be added for a greater number of overs. No reset switch is included – resetting can be achieved by switching the unit off and then on again, after a brief delay to allow capacitor C4 to discharge completely. A good quality switch must be used for S2.
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A high level of LDL--low-density lipoprotein--cholesterol places a person at risk for developing heart disease or having a heart attack, according to the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. The goal of lowering this type of cholesterol is to lower a person's risks for these conditions. Many treatment options exist for those with high cholesterol, from lifestyle changes to medications. For some people, it takes a combination of both.
Reduce your weight. Being overweight is a risk factor for high cholesterol, therefor, shedding excess pounds can help lower LDL levels, as the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute explains. Men with a waist measurement greater than 40 inches and women whose waists are larger than 35 inches suffer from a condition known as metabolic syndrome, and face a greater risk for developing heart disease.
Do 30 minutes of physical activity on most days, suggests the American Heart Association. Physical inactivity is a major risk factor for heart disease. Not only does it help reduce a person's weight, it helps increase a person's HDL--the good cholesterol. The job of HDL cholesterol is to carry away excess amounts of LDL; the higher the levels of HDL, the lower the levels of LDL.
The American Heart Association suggests 30 minutes of physical activity most days of the week, and recommends aerobic activities such as running, brisk walking or swimming--any activity that increases the heart rate. Even gardening, raking the yard or dancing in the living room are acceptable.
Adhere to the TLC diet, which includes lifestyle changes made specifically to lower LDL cholesterol. These include limiting saturated fats and cholesterol, eating enough calories to maintain weight, increasing the amount of soluble fiber because it absorbs excess cholesterol and increasing foods fortified with plant sterols and stanols, such as margarine, orange juice and yogurt drinks. Sterols and stanols--when one consumes at least 2g a day--can reduce cholesterol by more than 10 percent, according to the Mayo Clinic.
Take prescribed medication to reduce your LDL cholesterol. The first choice of medication, according to the American Heart Association, when it comes to lowering LDL cholesterol, belong to a class of drugs known as statins. Not only are they extremely effective for lowering LDL cholesterol, they have few short-term side effects. Most patients tolerate the medications in this class well and have few drug interactions.
In some cases, patients may require a combination of drugs before their cholesterol levels are effectively lowered. Patients who take medications need to remember that medication is not a cure-all, and should still adhere to lifestyle changes to see optimal results and a decrease in their cholesterol levels.
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Keeping your money in the bank is the best thing to do in order to keep the money but there are other things you can do to earn from your idle money instead of keeping it in the bank.
How to Earn with Idle Fund
1. You need not keep the fund in the bank but to INVEST the money
2. Instead of keeping the cash, you could buy stocks
3. You could invest in real estate or properties even if you need to start small.
4. You could do importation of cheap Smartphones or computers and resale
5. You could import cars and start selling the cars
6. You can make money from you idle fund only if you get working with it by buying
7. You could invest in transport and haulage business
8. Instead of keeping the fund idle, why not start small scale Agriculture like fish farming
9. You could make your money work for you by buying Treasury Bills
10. Your Idle money could be used to buy ladies/ guys wears as well as household materials for sale
This is just few ways by which your money get working and not remain idle in the bank. Think about this, invest your cash and see how it works.
It might be difficult at first but i bet you that the smarter you are in business, the more money you earn. Thanks for reading.
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250 opera performances captured on video through staged productions, interviews, and documentaries
Opera in Video presents streaming online video of 250 opera performances, captured through staged productions, interviews, and documentaries. The full range of operatic composition is represented, from the Baroque to the 20th century, with multiple performances of major operas. Search or browse by genre, composer, performer, ensemble, time period and role. Make, annotate, and share playlists; or use the video clip making tools.
Use this database to answer questions like
- I would like to watch the opera Aida.
- I would like to compare two or more performances of Carmen.
- Do you have any examples of Renaissance operas?
- Gibson Library Connections
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Muscle Strain Topic Guide
Muscle Strain: Muscle strain or muscle pull or even a muscle tear implies damage to a muscle or its attaching tendons. Symptoms and signs include swelling, bruising, pain, and weakness. Treatment may involve rest, ice, compression, and elevation in addition to taking anti-inflammatory medications.
CT Scan (CAT Scan, Computerized Axial Tomography) Computerized tomography scans (CT scans) are an important diagnostic tool for a variety of medical conditions. The process uses X-rays and a computer to produce cross-sectional images of the body.
Expert Views and News
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The drastic effects of climate change are now felt more aggressively in many provinces in Fiji leading to destruction of agricultural and poultry produce, damages to households and major disruptions in the school timetable for children.
These impacts of climate change were voiced out by the Nadroga Navosa Provincial Youth Council at the Strategic planning workshop, facilitated by the Pacific Community’s (SPC) Human Rights and Social Development (HRSD) division.
The provincial youth council member, Iosefa Tavoitai, highlighted climate change as a hinderance to the development of youth as the impacts have ripple effects in the community.
“Lately the Tuva river that runs within Emuri, the host village, has been flooding three to four times a year. This leads to disruption on the community’s diets, health issues such as diarrhea and typhoid but most importantly the loss of income for the majority who are dependent on agriculture for survival,” he said.
In response to these severe impacts, the youth in the province are now leading the mitigation work by turning towards the use of traditional knowledge-based initiatives to lessen the impacts of climate change in the area.
Tavoitai explained that improving infrastructure in the settlement using traditional knowledge practices was proposed by the council. In its assessment, the council saw severe erosion of soil along Tuva river due to flooding, prompting a response from the youth.
“Tree planting is done to mitigate soil erosion from flooding is one of the traditional methods young people applied. During the Strategic Planning Workshop week, we planted 2,000 native plants along the Tuva river banks in Emuri and Vavinaqiri and Nalele settlements,” Tavoitai said.
The weeklong Strategic Planning Workshop was facilitated and supported by the HRSD division of SPC and was funded by the New Zealand Government.
The Nadroga Navosa Provincial Youth Council Strategic Plan 2021 – 2025 was drafted as an outcome of the workshop and is currently undergoing further consultations and deliberations by the Council board members and community youth. It is expected to be finalised by 24 April, 2021.
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We all have issues, whether from long standing hurt, memories of trauma, unresolved anger or current frustration, from which we find hard to move on. They circulate endlessly in our minds, invade our dreams and hijack headspace. Dwelling on unhappy or unpleasant episodes stops us enjoying the good things in life and having the self-confidence to achieve what we want.
Writing is an immensely effective way of processing these episodes and our reactions to them, freeing us from associated negative emotions and allowing the events themselves to pass quietly into history. Putting feelings into words produces therapeutic effects in the brain.
Professor James W. Pennebaker has probably done more research than any other psychologist on the “writing paradigm”. He explains how the actions of putting life events and our reactions to them into written form causes us to pay attention to the words we use to describe them and the structure of our “story”; which in turn forces our brain to integrate the emotions with our understanding and interpretation of them.
Though the process of expressing feelings may be painful at times, Pennebaker’s expressive writing experiments have demonstrated major improvements in not only the mood and distress levels of his subjects, but on their immune systems, stress levels, self-esteem and productivity.
Here are 5 easy to follow writing methods that Pennebaker suggests will help process negative emotions:
1. Choose an issue or event that you want to deal with and write first about your own subjective experience of what happened, then how you felt about it. Write about the deepest thoughts and feelings you have about it, including perhaps how they relate to other people in your life, your situation, the person you are now.
Recognise that doing so may bring up painful memories and feelings but that these are part of the process.
When writing from your own perspective you will probably use the first person singular pronoun, “I”, frequently as you describe what caused your emotions, and the feelings themselves. This writing style is associated with stress symptoms, depression and negative feelings; it is a necessary first step.
Only write for fifteen to twenty minutes at most and don’t write again that day.
“Write hard and clear about what hurts.” Ernest Hemingway.
2. The following day, or a few days later, move on to another blank page. Write again about the same matter but this time from a more objective point of view. Take a journalistic approach and describe the event(s) as if you were watching yourself and any others involved from the outside. Use your own name and third person pronouns (she/he/they) about yourself as well as others. Then attempt to describe the feelings of everyone involved, as well your own, and the effect the incident had on them.
Research shows that the more that people make reference to others in their writing, the healthier they are mentally, and moving from first to third person pronouns is linked to adaptive coping and improved physical health.
Again, only write for fifteen to twenty minutes at most and don’t write again that day.
“There is a tremendous wisdom that is accumulated after loss. Healing takes place when we can turn our pain into something meaningful.” Dan Baker, psychologist
3. The third time you sit down to write about your chosen issue, look for reasons as to why the initial event happened; why individuals – including you – acted as they did, felt the way they did, made the decisions they did. This will encourage you to retell the story from yet another perspective, thereby gaining still more awareness and understanding.
We know that using causal (“because”, “reason”, “infer”) and insight (“understand”, “realise”) words, are strongly related to emotional recovery and better physical health.
4. Finally, one or more days later, sit down and write again. This time write about the ways you have coped with the bad experience. Describe how you yourself have grown as a result of the event. Write about any positive outcomes from what has happened to you: perhaps you have become more insightful and understanding, maybe you have made new relationships or some existing ones have been strengthened through the experience. Consider the ways you have become stronger, better equipped to deal with life, possessed of more wisdom and greater ability.
5. Over the next few weeks, check in with yourself to see if you feel more at peace about the situation. If it works for you, repeat the process with any other outstanding emotional issues or new irritations that crop up. Get into the habit of processing and clearing painful or difficult experiences on a regular basis, so your past is dealt with, your present is clear and your future open to every possibility.
More on writing for wellbeing in The Real Secret (available on Amazon in paperback and Kindle), and on http://www.therealsecret.net
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EXCLUSIVE PRODUCT! NOT SOLD IN STORES!
50% OFF Limited Offer
ONE YEAR WARRANTY INCLUDED
Compatible with Android & iOS
- Accurate Location: We use GPS WIFI and LBS Three models location for accurate position.
- Safe Incoming Calls: After setting SOS Family number . Contacts . Telephone numbers in the APP . kids can only receive calls from the setting numbers. Not from STRANGER!
- Kids can press SOS or familiarity number button to call you!
- Walkie Talkie: By this function . you can have voice conversation between smart watch and app. Send voice message over app or watch recording message send to phone\’s app all is available!
- Safety Zone: The Min.fence radius is within 500 meters .if the watch user walked out of the range . your phone will received and alert.
- Pedometer: It can record your dear bay’s steps too . calories and distance. Let you know baby’s sports data . adjust exercise program and get healthier life!
- Sleeping Monitoring: The smart watch will record your baby’s turnover times . you can check the related data through the APP.
- History Route: Path query in your children’s historical activities by the choose the period.
- Find the watch: If the watch is not nearby . send this command . the watch will start to ring for 1 mins so that you can easily find it . press any button will stop the ringer.
- Take off watch: If you set the telephone number in the APP’s “SMS alerts setting” . you will receive a message when occurring the above 3 conditions.
- Listen to kids: If you miss your baby . you can listen to them without disturbing them.
- Alarm: You can set 3 different alarms as your child’s requirements!
- Remote Shutting Down: You can remote controlled the smart watch power off via APP.
- Anti-lost: After registered your smart watch in the phone and the APP is on-line . if someone take off the watch from your children’s wrist . you phone will alert to remind you.
- Quick learning: The kids can play the sample Mathematical games by the watch
- Flashlight: The will a LED flashlight for you when you in the darkness.
- Smartwatch * 1
- Manual * 1
- Original box * 1
- Charge Cable * 1
*Please allow 10-21 business days for the item to arrive
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admincheat SpawnDino "Blueprint'/Game/PrimalEarth/Dinos/Piranha/Piranha_Character_BP.Piranha_Character_BP'" 500 0 0 35
Variant Aberrant Piranha
admincheat summon Piranha_Character_BP_Aberrant_C
admincheat SpawnDino "Blueprint'/Game/PrimalEarth/Dinos/Piranha/Piranha_Character_BP_Aberrant.Piranha_Character_BP_Aberrant'" 500 0 0 35
Basic Info[edit | edit source]
Dossier[edit | edit source]
Megapiranha magnadmorsus is carnivorous fish found fairly commonly in the rivers and ponds of the island. Its bite is incredibly powerful; I've even seen them break through the armored turtles of the island. Megapiranha has one of the strongest bites, pound-for-pound, of any creature on the island.
When encountering a Megapiranha, be on the lookout for the rest of the school. No one Megapiranha is an overwhelming threat, but their tendency to swarm prey can make short work of much larger and stronger creatures. Any given Megapiranha is easy to kill, but killing the entire school can be a daunting task.
Like some of the other creatures on the island, a tamed Megapiranha is best suited as a guard. Their high metabolism makes them require more food than many other creatures, but they are very adept at hunting their own food, particularly the Coelacanths.
Behavior[edit | edit source]
Very aggressive to anything that is in their immediate vicinity, they will even attack the mighty Tyrannosaurus, although these attacks usually prove futile. Megapiranha tend to stay in groups of 4-5. In such numbers, they can tear through weak armor in a matter of seconds. Players who cross large bodies of water often find multiple schools converging on them, which can prove a problem even for the most advanced of players.
Appearance[edit | edit source]
Traversing the island's freshwater rivers and lakes can be a dangerous proposition, especially when the fearsome Megapiranha is in the area. As large as a coelacanth and far more aggressive, these fish usually travel in small groups to hunt, swarming weak and wounded animals in a flurry of snapping jaws and cutting teeth. The Megapiranha's rough skin and violent behavior make it unmistakable for any other fish species.
Color Scheme and Regions[edit | edit source]
This section displays the Piranha's natural colors and regions. For demonstration, the regions below are colored red over an albino Piranha. The colored squares shown underneath each region's description are the colors that the Piranha will randomly spawn with to provide an overall range of its natural color scheme. Hover your cursor over a color to display its name and ID.
Server admins can use this region information in the Console Command
cheat SetTargetDinoColor <ColorRegion> <ColorID>.
cheat SetTargetDinoColor 0 6 would color the Piranha's "body" magenta.
Eye Area and Stripes
Region 3 is not used
Drops[edit | edit source]
Base Stats and Growth[edit | edit source]
Note that creatures will have different stats in Survival of the Fittest
|Attribute||Amount at Level 1||Increase per point|
1Percentages are based on the value of the stat the moment the creature was tamed (after taming effectiveness)
2The absolute Base Damage is shown here instead of the percentage.
3Wild creatures do not level up movement speed
4Torpidity increases every level on wild creatures, but can not be increased once they are tamed.
5The Piranha is incapable of drowning.
|Movement Type||Base Speed||Sprinting|
- These are the base speeds of the creature at 100% Movement Speed
- For a comparison of the speeds of all creatures, see Base Creature Speeds
|Base||Minimum||Activation||The Megapiranha bites the target.|
|Attack Type||Projectile Values||Torpor Values|
|Impulse||Radius||Base||Mult||Duration||Damage Mult||Amount||Duration||Damage Mult||Amount|
Taming[edit | edit source]
The Piranha can be 'tamed' using a Fish Basket . However, their level are affixed, thus cannot earn any experience, and they do not eat from the trough. The engram for the basket can only be learned on Aberration and you need amongst other things 60 × Fungal Wood . You can also transfer tamed piranhas or pre built fish baskets to the desired map via a Tek Transmitter.
Combat[edit | edit source]
This section describes how to fight against the Piranha.
General[edit | edit source]
Any melee weapon will suffice to kill them off, as they have relatively low health. Make sure that you do not stay nearby them for so long, as others will swim over and pile themselves on. At that point, it becomes dangerous. Stepping away from the water removes them as a threat entirely. Tamed mounts such as Baryonyx are sufficiently easier to kill them on instead of a pike or sword, this is because of their stun.
Strategy[edit | edit source]
Use the range provided by a pike or spear to poke at the Megapiranha from a distance. If possible, lure them to the shore and get them stuck in the shallows. It is not practical to use a ranged weapon, as they swerve often, and only crossbows work underwater. Before crossing a river just get deep enough to see underwater and look around for piranha, wait there long enough for any that are around to come to you, if nothing comes you are safe to cross, if they do come try to stand knee deep until they are pretty close and they may get stuck in the shallows. It is also wise to take a running leap across a river after you have checked it, this will help to clear the distance just in case.
Weaponry[edit | edit source]
The best weapons to use are Pikes and Spears because they can hit the piranha without getting close enough for it to fight back. If the piranha is exposed you can hit it with ranged weapons like a slingshot or bow.
Dangers[edit | edit source]
Piranha employ swarm tactics to kill their prey. Make sure you stay as far away from them as possible, or if you feel confident, let them gather so you can hit them all at once.
Weakness[edit | edit source]
They have a small health pool, so they do not take a while to be killed if they are singled out and separated.
Utility[edit | edit source]
Roles[edit | edit source]
Collectibles[edit | edit source]
Notes/Trivia[edit | edit source]
For information pertaining specifically to the real-world Piranha, see the relevant Wikipedia article
- Piranhas can make crossing rivers difficult for survivors starting off in the game. It is recommended to try to find a shallow place to cross or avoid crossing altogether until you get some gear to protect yourself. If you have a corpse you can drag it into the water to potentially lure piranhas in either to find out if there are any and/or eliminate them.
- The Piranha's design is similar to that of the titular fish in "Piranha 3D", a 2010 horror-comedy film.
- The Piranha used to be named Megapiranha in game, but they are still named that way in ARK: Survival Evolved Mobile.
- The Piranha was not tameable until Aberration was released.
- Real Piranhas lay eggs, however Ark's Piranhas do not.
- Although Piranha can't lay eggs or reproduce they still some how manage to spawn into the Ark worlds.
- Piranha do not produce feces.
- Real Piranhas are social animals that live in schools, Ark's Piranhas can be found together but mostly found on their own.
- the Piranha along with the Coelacanth, Leech, Sabertooth Salmon, and Trilobite, all became tamable with the fishing basket introduced in aberration.
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Originally Posted by Ubercroz
Over a large enough sample the two should converge
yeah think this is probably what duggs is saying regarding the central limit theorem aspect as well in regards to the distribution normalizing where it will fall on a bell curve around the 80%.
Again, I had to google and look up the central limit theorem.....this is fun i quite enjoy learning especially when its interesting, and probably not really contributing here either but its got some mice trying to spin the wheel in my brain
In probability theory, the central limit theorem (CLT) states that, given certain conditions, the arithmetic mean of a sufficiently large number of iterates of independent random variables, each with a well-defined expected value and well-defined variance, will be approximately normally distributed. That is, suppose that a sample is obtained containing a large number of observations, each observation being randomly generated in a way that does not depend on the values of the other observations, and that the arithmetic average of the observed values is computed. If this procedure is performed many times, the central limit theorem says that the computed values of the average will be distributed according to the normal distribution (commonly known as a "bell curve").
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Methods for genetic manipulation of Clostridium ljungdahlii are of interest because of the potential for production of fuels and other biocommodities from carbon dioxide via microbial electrosynthesis or more traditional modes of autotrophy with hydrogen or carbon monoxide as the electron donor. Furthermore, acetogenesis plays an important role in the global carbon cycle. Gene deletion strategies required for physiological studies of C. ljungdahlii have not previously been demonstrated. An electroporation procedure for introducing plasmids was optimized, and four different replicative origins for plasmid propagation in C. ljungdahlii were identified. Chromosomal gene deletion via double-crossover homologous recombination with a suicide vector was demonstrated initially with deletion of the gene for FliA, a putative sigma factor involved in flagellar biogenesis and motility in C. ljungdahlii. Deletion of fliA yielded a strain that lacked flagella and was not motile. To evaluate the potential utility of gene deletions for functional genomic studies and to redirect carbon and electron flow, the genes for the putative bifunctional aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenases, adhE1 and adhE2, were deleted individually or together. Deletion of adhE1, but not adhE2, diminished ethanol production with a corresponding carbon recovery in acetate. The double deletion mutant had a phenotype similar to that of the adhE1-deficient strain. Expression of adhE1 in trans partially restored the capacity for ethanol production. These results demonstrate the feasibility of genetic investigations of acetogen physiology and the potential for genetic manipulation of C. ljungdahlii to optimize autotrophic biocommodity production.
Available at: http://works.bepress.com/derek_lovley/379/
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Mary Bird Perkins – Our Lady of the Lake Cancer Center provides genetic counseling and testing services for people who have an increased risk for hereditary cancer. Based on your risk assessment, we can assist you in making informed medical decisions.
Genetic counseling involves discussing your personal and family history of cancer. The goal is to provide clear and clinically relevant information about genetic risk factors in a supportive and educational atmosphere.
Genetic testing allows us to examine specific genes known to increase the risk of developing certain types of cancer, which is key in the early detection of cancers in high-risk patients.
For more information about genetic counseling and testing or for a referral, please call (225) 765-8988.
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A chemical substance, also known as a pure substance, is a form of matter that consists of molecules of the same composition and structure. It cannot be separated into components by physical separation methods, i.e., without breaking chemical bonds. Chemical substances can be simple substances, chemical compounds, or alloys.
Chemical substances are often called ‘pure’ to set them apart from mixtures. A common example of a chemical substance is pure water; it has the same properties and the same ratio of hydrogen to oxygen whether it is isolated from a river or made in a laboratory. Other chemical substances commonly encountered in pure form are diamond (carbon), gold, table salt (sodium chloride) and refined sugar (sucrose). However, in practice, no substance is entirely pure, and chemical purity is specified according to the intended use of the chemical.
Chemical substances exist as solids, liquids, gases, or plasma, and may change between these phases of matter with changes in temperature or pressure. Chemical substances may be combined or converted to others by means of chemical reactions.
Forms of energy, such as light and heat, are not matter, and are thus not “substances” in this regard.
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Urtica, or as it is more commonly known, Stinging Nettle, has a well-known reputation for its sting when the skin touches the hairs and bristles on the leaves and stems. The name Urtica comes from the Latin verb urere, meaning `to burn’.
Interestingly when the fine hairs on the Urtica plant come into contact with a painful area of the body they can actually cause a decrease in the original pain! Alfred Vogel was one who advocated this treatment to a number of his patients.
Today A. Vogel is kinder and the leaves and roots of Urtica plants are carefully harvested and manufactured twice yearly into a tincture.
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This is a pretty simple post to show how to alter (add, remove or edit) a calculated field in an SSAS cube without redeploying the whole project, a useful technique if you do not have the SSAS cube project handy or wish to quickly implement changes on a live cube.
In order to edit a live cube’s calculated fields, we will need to run an ALTER command in XMLA (XML for Analysis) format on the Analysis Services server where our project is deployed. The format for the XMLA command looks like this:
<Alter ObjectExpansion="ObjectProperties" xmlns="http://schemas.microsoft.com/analysisservices/2003/engine"> <Object> <DatabaseID>[CUBE-DB-ID]</DatabaseID> <CubeID>[CUBE-ID]</CubeID> <MdxScriptID>MdxScript</MdxScriptID> </Object> <ObjectDefinition> <MdxScript xmlns:xsd="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance"> <ID>MdxScript</ID> <Name>MdxScript</Name> <Commands> <Command> <Text> /* The CALCULATE command controls the aggregation of leaf cells in the cube. If the CALCULATE command is deleted or modified, the data within the cube is affected. You should edit this command only if you manually specify how the cube is aggregated. */ CALCULATE; ... ... </Text> </Command> </Commands> </MdxScript> </ObjectDefinition> </Alter>
In order to run an XMLA command, right click on the cube database and select “New Query” then “XMLA“.
Now lets take each part of the ALTER command and explain the required value:
- DatabaseID: The cube’s Database ID needs to be added here, this can be found out using SSMS by right clicking on the database node and then clicking Properties, there should be a field called “ID”.
- CubeID: In order to extract the Cube ID, you will need to expand the Cube Database, right click on the relevant cube, and then click on the Properties option, there should be a field called “ID.
- Text: Which can be found by navigating the XML above using the path “Alter -> ObjectDefinition -> MdxScript -> Commands -> Command -> Text“, this field should include the definition for all calculated fields in the cube, as whatever in there will replace what you already have in the cube being altered.
The best way to handle the Text field is by grabbing the existing calculated fields from the cube, then altering the command text itself as required, and then upload it again using the ALTER XMLA command above, in order to get the existing cube commands you can generate a CREATE script of the cube in question, this can be done by right clicking on the Cube Database, selecting “Script Database as” then “CREATE To” then “New Query Editor Window“, if you do a find command on the resultant XMLA and search for “MdxScript” you should find all existing commands.
I recommend keeping a backup of the existing script, just in case you need to roll back the calculated fields changes.
And that is it really, once the command is executed, the result should look something like this:
<return xmlns="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:xml-analysis"> <root xmlns="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:xml-analysis:empty" /> </return>
In addition to a message that confirms the command has been executed successfully.
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© 2013 – Routledge
Exploring the concept of ‘colonial cultures,’ this book analyses how these cultures both transformed, and were transformed by, their various societies. Challenging both the colonial vulgate, and the nationalist paradigm, Revisiting the Colonial Past in Morocco, examines the lesser known specificities of particular moments, practices and institutions in Morocco, with the aim of uncovering a ‘new colonial history.’
By examining society on a micro-level, this book raises the profiles of the mass of Moroccans who were highly influential in the colonial period yet have been excluded from the historical record because of a lack of textual source material. Introducing social and cultural history, gender studies and literary criticism to the more traditional economic, political and military studies, the book promotes a more complex and nuanced understanding of Moroccan colonial history.
Employing new theoretical and methodological approaches, this volume encourages a re-assessment of existing work and promotes a more interdisciplinary approach to the colonial history of Morocco. Revisiting the Colonial Past in Morocco is a highly topical and useful addition to literature on the subject and will be of interest to students and scholars of History, Imperialism and more generally, Middle Eastern Studies.
Introduction – Driss Maghraoui Part I: Colonialism, Spacial Configurations and Science 1 The Mellah Without Walls: Jewish Space in a Moroccan City: Tangier, 1860-1912 – Susan Gilson Miller 2 Colonial Experience and Territorial Practices – Abdelahad Sebti 3 France in Morocco: Technocosmopolitanism and Middling Modernism – Paul Rabinow 4 Knowledge, Gender and Spatial Configuration in Colonial Casablanca – Driss Maghraoui 5 Rumor and Revolution: Medicine, Technology and Popular Politics in pre-Protectorate Morocco, 1877-1912 – Ellen Amster Part II: Colonialism and Nationalism: A Social History 6 Civilian Administrators in Protectorate Morocco: An Unrecognized Function – Olivier Berger 7 Mohand N’Hamoucha: Middle Atlas Berber 8 Slavery and the Situation of Blacks in Morocco in the First Half of the Twentieth Century – Rita Aouad 9 Propaganda and its Target: the Venom Campaign in Tangier during World War II 10 National Resistance, Amazighite, and (Re)-imagining the Nation in Morocco – Jonathan Wyrtzen Part III: The Literary and Artisitic Dimension of Colonialism 11 American Orientalism: Taking Casablanca – Brian T. Edwards 12 Post-Colonial Literature in Morocco: Nation, Identity and Resistance Aesthetics – Said Graiouid 13 Nos Goumiers Berberes: The Ambiguities of Colonial Representations in French Military Novels – Driss Maghraoui 14 Le Protectorat dans la Peau: Prosper Ricard and the 'native arts' in French Colonial Morocco, 1899-1952
Contemporary events in the Islamic world dominate the headlines and emphasise the crises of the Middle East and North Africa, yet the Islamic World is far larger and more varied than we realise. Current affairs there too mask the underlying trends and values that have, over time, created a fascinating and complex world. This new series is intended to reveal that other Islamic reality by looking at its history and society over the ages, as well as at the contemporary scene. It will also reach far further afield, bringing in Central Asia and the Far East as part of a cultural space sharing common values and beliefs but manifesting a vast diversity of experience and social order.
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Distant powerful temblors triggered ominous activity at wastewater injection sites
Courtesy of Science/AAAS
Giant, distant earthquakes may help scientists identify places where humans are liable to set off smaller tremors when they inject fluid deep into geologic deposits.
Scientists have known for decades that injecting huge volumes of liquid underground — such as waste from hydraulic fracturing, or fracking — can set off quakes. But in most cases it doesn’t, and scientists can’t predict when or where such human-induced earthquakes will happen.
In the July 12 Science, seismologists report that massive earthquakes unleash seismic waves that can trigger tremors near wastewater disposal wells half a world away. The tiny quakes may be a warning sign that a fault is close to rupture.
“When we do see remote triggering, it seems to foreshadow larger induced earthquakes,” says coauthor Nicholas van der Elst of Columbia University’s Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory in Palisades, N.Y. “It shows the faults are reaching a tipping point.”
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The opening ceremonies of the 147th Audio Engineering Society Convention took place on Wednesday, October 16, featuring the presentation of this year’s AES Awards and the announcement of its winners.
This included welcoming speeches from AES president Nadja Wallaszkovits and AES New York Convention committee members Agniezska Roginska, Valerie Tyler and Jonathan Wyner. Awards were presented by Alex Case, AES Awards Committee Chair.
The awards presented include the following:
The Silver Medal Award, given in recognition of outstanding development or achievement in the field of audio engineering. This year’s recipients are:
- Marina Bosi, in recognition of outstanding achievements in the development and standardisation of audio and video coding and of secure digital rights management. Bosi is a consulting professor at Stanford University’s Centre for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics.
- Louis D. Fielder, psychoacoustics and audio coding researcher, for extraordinary contributions to the field of perceptual audio coding, and years of service to the Audio Engineering Society.
The Board of Governors Award, given for outstanding contributions to the Audio Engineering Society, has been presented to:
- Gavin Kearney, in recognition of co-chairing the 2019 AES International Conference on Immersive and Interactive Audio.
- Mariana Lopez, in recognition of co-chairing the 146th AES Convention in Dublin.
- Michael Santucci, in recognition of co-chairing the 2018 International AES Conference on Hearing Disorders.
- Jim Starzynski, for outstanding leadership and contributions to the AES Audio Guidelines for Over the Top Television and Video Streaming Technical Group within the Broadcast and Online Delivery Technical Committee.
- Jonathan Wyner, in recognition of co-chairing the 145th AES Convention in New York.
The Fellowship Award, given to a member who has rendered conspicuous service, or is recognised to have made a valuable contribution to the advancement in or dissemination of knowledge of audio engineering or in the promotion of its application in practice, has been presented to:
- Anthony Agnello, for the continuous invention of influential disruptive audio technologies.
- Martha de Francisco, for conspicuous commitment to audio education and mentorship and support of the Audio Engineering Society.
- Michael Kelly, for significant contributions to the Society’s leadership in Game Audio.
- John Krivit, for conspicuous commitment to audio student education and mentorship.
- Jan Abildgaard Pedersen, for advancements in the field of loudspeaker design and for his substantial contributions to the Audio Engineering Society.
- Josh Reiss, for valuable contributions to, and for encouraging and guiding the next generation of researchers in the development of audio and musical signal processing.
- Takehiro Sugimoto, in recognition of his diverse contributions to the development and standardisation of 22.2 multichannel sound broadcasting systems.
- Terri Winston, for providing training, resources, and leadership, greatly expanding the participation of young girls and women in the field of audio engineering.
The Citation Award, given in recognition of services to the Society or industry accomplishments by non-members, has been presented to:
- Pat Parker, for over 40 years of invaluable contributions to Audio Engineering Society conventions.
The Honorary Member designation, given to persons of outstanding repute and eminence in the science of audio engineering or its allied arts, has been given to:
- Grandmaster Flash, for pioneering revolutionary and influential implementations of audio and music technologies for performance.
The Distinguished Service Medal Award, given in recognition of extraordinary service, has been presented to:
- Garry Margolis, in recognition of more than 20 years of dedicated service to the Society as a section officer, governor, treasurer and president.
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