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The 2020 Royal Rumble was the 33rd annual Royal Rumble professional wrestling event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event aired on pay-per-view (PPV) and the WWE Network and took place on January 26, 2020, at Minute Maid Park in Houston, Texas.
Traditionally, the Royal Rumble match winner receives a world championship match at that year's WrestleMania. For the 2020 event, the winners of both the men's and women's matches received a choice of which championship to challenge for at WrestleMania 36. The men could choose to challenge for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's Universal Championship, while the women had the choice between the Raw Women's Championship and the SmackDown Women's Championship. Additionally and for the first time, NXT's championships were eligible choices, which added the NXT Championship and the NXT Women's Championship, thus being the first Royal Rumble since 2010 in which there were three eligible championships for the Rumble winner to challenge for.
In total, eight matches were contested at the event, including two on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, Raw's Drew McIntyre won the men's Royal Rumble match by last eliminating SmackDown's Roman Reigns, while Raw's Charlotte Flair won the women's Royal Rumble match by last eliminating NXT's Shayna Baszler. Other prominent matches saw "The Fiend" Bray Wyatt retain the Universal Championship against Daniel Bryan in a strap match, Roman Reigns defeated King Corbin in a Falls Count Anywhere match, and Becky Lynch defeated Asuka by submission to retain the Raw Women's Championship. The event also featured the in-ring return of Edge, who last wrestled in April 2011 before retiring from a neck injury, as well as MVP, who last wrestled for WWE in December 2010.
Production
Background
The Royal Rumble is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event, produced every January by WWE since 1988. It is one of the promotion's original four pay-per-views, along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, dubbed the "Big Four". It is named after the Royal Rumble match, a modified battle royal in which the participants enter at timed intervals instead of all beginning in the ring at the same time. The 2020 event was the 33rd event in the Royal Rumble chronology and was scheduled to be held on January 26, 2020, at Minute Maid Park in Houston, Texas. It featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands, with some NXT wrestlers and WWE veterans appearing in both the men's and women's Royal Rumble matches.
The Royal Rumble match generally features 30 wrestlers and the winner traditionally earns a world championship match at that year's WrestleMania. For the past two years, the men and women had the choice to challenge for the top championships of the Raw and SmackDown brands at WrestleMania. In September 2019, NXT was recognized as WWE's third main brand, evidenced by its inclusion in the brand competition at the 2019 Survivor Series. Although the 2020 Royal Rumble was not promoted as an NXT event, for the first time, its titles became eligible for the Royal Rumble winners to challenge for, also marking the first time since 2010 in which the men had three championship choices. For the 2020 event, the men could choose between Raw's WWE Championship, SmackDown's Universal Championship, and the NXT Championship to challenge for at WrestleMania 36, while the women had the choice between the Raw Women's Championship, SmackDown Women's Championship, and NXT Women's Championship. This also made the 2020 event the first time women had three options.
Storylines
The event comprised eight matches, including two on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, Monday Night Raw and Friday Night SmackDown.
Raw
While the WWE Championship is generally defended at every year's Royal Rumble pay-per-view, on the January 6 episode of Raw, it was revealed that there would not be a WWE Championship defense at 2020's event. Instead, as he felt that there was no one on any brand who deserved an opportunity, WWE Champion Brock Lesnar decided to enter himself into the Royal Rumble match as entrant number one. There were no changes to the rules of the match, despite Lesnar holding one of the world championships that the winner could challenge for at WrestleMania 36. On the January 20 episode, Lesnar's advocate Paul Heyman reminded the fans of the prize of the Royal Rumble match, but said that there was no one worthy enough to face Lesnar in the main event of WrestleMania, implying that if Lesnar won, he would abstain his prize.
At TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs, The Kabuki Warriors (Asuka and Kairi Sane) defeated the team of Raw Women's Champion Becky Lynch and Charlotte Flair in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match to retain the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship. In a backstage interview on the following Raw, Lynch stated that she had not been herself the past few months and felt that management had been putting her into tag team matches to protect her from facing Asuka alone and losing. She also stated that she had never defeated Asuka and needed to change that. The following week, Lynch challenged Asuka to a match with her Raw Women's Championship on the line which Asuka accepted. The match was scheduled for the Royal Rumble as essentially a rematch from last year's event.
On the TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs Kickoff pre-show, Humberto Carrillo defeated Andrade. On the following episode of Raw, both were scheduled to participate in a gauntlet match to determine the number one contender against Rey Mysterio for the United States Championship. Carrillo advanced to the final to face Andrade, who did not appear during his entrance. Andrade instead attacked Carrillo from behind and then performed a Hammerlock DDT on Carillo onto the exposed concrete floor. Due to this, the gauntlet match ended in a no-contest. Andrade then won the US title from Mysterio at a WWE Live event in Madison Square Garden on December 26. After Andrade retained the title against Mysterio in a ladder match on the January 20 episode of Raw, Andrade attempted to perform the Hammerlock DDT on Mysterio on the exposed concrete floor, only for Carrillo to appear to aid Mysterio and fought off Andrade, who retreated along with Zelina Vega. Backstage, Carrillo issued a challenge to Andrade for the United States Championship at the Royal Rumble, which was made official for the Kickoff pre-show.
SmackDown
At Survivor Series, "The Fiend" Bray Wyatt defeated Daniel Bryan to retain the Universal Championship. On the following SmackDown, after Bryan accepted another rematch for the title at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs, The Fiend appeared and attacked Bryan, ripping out his hair. The Miz, who had been intertwined in the feud, appeared the following week and said that Bryan had not been seen since The Fiend's attack and in turn became Wyatt's opponent in a non-title match at TLC, where Wyatt (as his Firefly Fun House character and not The Fiend) defeated Miz. Following the match, a hooded figure attacked Wyatt and then revealed himself as a returning Bryan, now with a buzz cut and shorter beard. On the following SmackDown, both Bryan and Miz stated their desire to take the Universal Championship from Wyatt due to their respective personal issues with him. They were then interrupted by King Corbin, who felt that he deserved an opportunity for the title due to his victory over Roman Reigns at TLC. On the December 27 episode, Bryan defeated Miz and Corbin in a triple threat match to earn another Universal Championship match against The Fiend at the Royal Rumble. On the January 17 episode, Bryan delivered a running knee to The Fiend and attacked him, only for The Fiend to retreat. Frustrated, Bryan changed the stipulation of their match to a strap match so that The Fiend could not run away.
During the triple threat match to determine the number one contender for the Universal Championship, Roman Reigns attacked King Corbin, costing him the title opportunity. The following week, Reigns announced his participation in the Royal Rumble match. Later that night, Reigns teamed with Daniel Bryan to face Corbin and Dolph Ziggler which ended in a no-contest. Following the match, Corbin and Ziggler attacked Reigns only for The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso) to return and aid Reigns by attacking both Corbin and Ziggler. On the January 10 episode, Corbin announced his participation in the Royal Rumble match and stated that Reigns was scared to face him again, hence why Reigns was also competing in the match. In response, Reigns challenged Corbin to a rematch at the event which Corbin accepted. The following week, Reigns defeated the returning Robert Roode in a tables match, allowing him to choose the stipulation for his match with Corbin, and he chose a Falls Count Anywhere match.
On the SmackDown following Survivor Series, SmackDown Women's Champion Bayley and Team SmackDown women's captain Sasha Banks criticized their brand's women's division for letting them down at the event, as both Bayley and Team SmackDown lost their respective matches. Team member Lacey Evans interrupted and performed a Women's Right on Banks, with Evans turning face. Evans questioned the leadership of both Bayley and Banks, having several confrontations with them over the following weeks. On the January 10 episode, Evans was scheduled to face Banks, who no-showed and Bayley appeared on the TitanTron taunting Evans. In response, Evans went backstage where the two brawled. The following week, Evans was once again scheduled to face Banks, however, Banks was unable to compete due to her injured ankle. Bayley took her place in the match, but lost to Evans. Due to Evans' win, she earned herself a title match at the Royal Rumble.
After a seven-month hiatus, Sheamus appeared in a vignette on the November 29 episode of SmackDown, announcing that he would be returning to in-ring action. Over the next several weeks, more vignettes aired, with Sheamus claiming that SmackDown had become soft in his absence. On the January 3 episode, as Shorty G was being attacked by The Revival (Scott Dawson and Dash Wilder), Sheamus returned, seemingly to aid Shorty G. However, after The Revival cleared the ring, Sheamus delivered a Brogue Kick to Shorty G. Sheamus claimed that Shorty G embodied everything wrong with SmackDown and continued to target him over the next few weeks, and a match between the two was scheduled for the Royal Rumble Kickoff pre-show.
Event
Pre-show
Two matches were contested on the Royal Rumble Kickoff pre-show. In the first match, Sheamus faced Shorty G. In the end, Sheamus performed a Brogue Kick on Shorty G to win the match.
The second match saw Andrade defend the United States Championship against Humberto Carrillo. The end saw Carrillo attempt a hurricanrana on Andrade, who countered into a roll-up to retain the title.
Preliminary matches
The actual pay-per-view opened with Roman Reigns facing King Corbin in a Falls Count Anywhere match. Mid-way through the match, Reigns fought with Corbin in the crowd where Reigns performed a Samoan Drop on Corbin through two separate tables. As Reigns was about to attack Corbin near some production equipment, Reigns was attacked by Dolph Ziggler and Robert Roode. The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso) then came out and attacked Ziggler and Roode with Jimmy performing a Samoan Drop on Jey, Roode, and Ziggler. Reigns then shoved Corbin into a portable toilet, tipped it over, and continued to attack Corbin throughout the crowd. In the end, Reigns performed a Superman Punch and Spear on Corbin atop a dugout to win the match.
Backstage, Kevin Owens told Samoa Joe that he could not wait to eliminate Seth Rollins from the Royal Rumble match—as they had been feuding for weeks on Raw—and that he would go on to win. Joe stated that he also could not wait to do the same, but if Owens got in his way, he would eliminate him.
Next was the women's Royal Rumble match, which began with SmackDown's Alexa Bliss as the first entrant and NXT's Bianca Belair as the second. During the match, Raw's Lana (the fifth entrant) was eliminated by Liv Morgan (the seventh entrant) due to her ongoing rivalry with Morgan, who was in turn eliminated by Lana after she was eliminated. As SmackDown's Mandy Rose (the eighth entrant) was seemingly eliminated, she landed on top of Otis, who was on the floor. Belair attempted to eliminate Rose again, only for Otis to catch Rose. As Belair eliminated Rose's tag team partner Sonya Deville (the tenth entrant), Deville fell onto Rose and Otis, knocking Otis down and unintentionally eliminating Rose along with herself. Belair would go on to break Michelle McCool and Charlotte Flair's tied record of five eliminations in a single women's Royal Rumble match (McCool set the record in 2018 and Flair tied it in 2019). Mighty Molly, Naomi, Beth Phoenix, Kelly Kelly, and Santina Marella (entrants 3, 18, 19, 21, and 29, respectively) were all surprise entrants. NXT's Shayna Baszler entered last and ended up tying Belair's record of eight eliminations. In the end, Raw's Charlotte Flair (#17) eliminated Baszler to win the match and earn herself a women's championship match of her choosing at WrestleMania 36.
After that, Bayley defended the SmackDown Women's Championship against Lacey Evans. The climax saw Bayley perform a roll-up on Evans to retain the title.
Next, "The Fiend" Bray Wyatt defended the Universal Championship against Daniel Bryan in a strap match. The Fiend dominated the first half of the match, whipping Bryan with the strap. Bryan eventually gained the offense, and applied the LeBell Lock, using the strap to crank back on The Fiend's head. As Bryan attempted a running knee, The Fiend caught Bryan and performed a Sister Abigail for a near fall. Bryan then performed a running knee on The Fiend for a nearfall. In the end, The Fiend applied The Mandible Claw, and as Bryan tried to escape, The Fiend picked him up and performed a chokeslam while still applying the Mandible Claw to win the match and retain the title. Following the match, medical personnel tended to Bryan.
In the penultimate match, Becky Lynch defended the Raw Women's Championship against Asuka (accompanied by Kairi Sane). In the climax, as Asuka attempted to spit green mist in Lynch's face, Lynch kicked Asuka, causing her to spit the mist in the air and into her own face. Lynch then applied the Dis-arm-her on Asuka, forcing her to submit and retain the title.
Main event
The main event was the men's Royal Rumble match, which saw Raw's WWE Champion Brock Lesnar (accompanied by Paul Heyman) enter at number one. SmackDown's Elias entered second and sang a song during his entrance and taunted Lesnar until Lesnar ran out and chased Elias to the ring and quickly eliminated him. Lesnar would make quick work of the next few entrants, eliminating them almost as soon as they entered the match. SmackDown's Kofi Kingston, whom Lesnar defeated for the WWE Championship back in October, entered sixth followed by Rey Mysterio, who Lesnar recently feuded with, and then Kingston's New Day and SmackDown Tag Team Champion partner Big E. The three teamed up on Lesnar, only for Lesnar to eliminate all of them. Cesaro came in next, but didn't last long either, falling as yet another score for the Beast Incarnate. After Lesnar had a brief reunion with his old training partner Shelton Benjamin (the tenth entrant) and embracing him, Lesnar eliminated Benjamin after tricking him into thinking they would team up for the rest of the match. Shinsuke Nakamura suffered the same fate as all before him. The twelfth entrant saw the surprise return of Montel Vontavious Porter (who last wrestled in WWE in 2010), who was quickly eliminated by Lesnar. NXT's Keith Lee (the thirteenth entrant) and SmackDown's Braun Strowman (the fourteenth entrant) managed to subdue Lesnar and momentarily take him down. As Lee and Strowman attempted to eliminate each other, Lesnar managed to eliminate both at the same time, bringing Lesnar's total eliminations to 13, tying him with Strowman for the most eliminations in a single men's Royal Rumble match (a record Strowman set at 2018's Greatest Royal Rumble event).
Ricochet, who had a brief interaction with Lesnar on the previous episode of Raw, entered as the fifteenth entrant, followed by Drew McIntyre as the sixteenth entrant. With Lesnar's attention on McIntyre, Ricochet attacked Lesnar with a low blow from behind and McIntyre performed a Claymore on Lesnar to eliminate him. Following Lesnar's elimination, McIntyre stared him down. McIntyre then eliminated Ricochet and then continued to stare down Lesnar, who was still laid out at ringside before staggering away into the crowd. WWE Hall of Famer Edge, who was forced to retire from wrestling in 2011 due to a neck injury, made a surprise return as the twenty-first entrant. Kevin Owens (the twenty-seventh entrant) and Samoa Joe (the twenty-ninth entrant) formed a small alliance against the other wrestlers, after which, they fought each other until Seth Rollins (accompanied by Buddy Murphy, Akam, and Rezar) entered last. Joe and Owens left the ring and brawled with the four. Rollins would eliminate Joe and Owens thanks to interference from Murphy, Akam, and Rezar. McIntyre, Edge, Randy Orton (the twenty-fifth entrant), and Roman Reigns (the twenty-sixth entrant) then performed their respective finishers on Rollins with McIntyre eliminating him. After a brief reunion of Rated-RKO between Edge and Orton, and after Orton teased an RKO on Edge, Edge quickly eliminated Orton. In the climax, after Edge was eliminated by Reigns, McIntyre performed a Claymore on Reigns and eliminated him to win the match and earn himself a world championship match of his choosing at WrestleMania 36.
Aftermath
Raw
The following night on Raw, Drew McIntyre announced that he would challenge Brock Lesnar, whom McIntyre eliminated during the men's Royal Rumble match, for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania 36. The following week, Ricochet, who aided in Lesnar's elimination, defeated Seth Rollins and Bobby Lashley in a triple threat match to also earn a WWE Championship match against Lesnar, taking place prior to WrestleMania at February's Super ShowDown event.
Also on the following Raw, women's Royal Rumble winner Charlotte Flair teased that she would reveal which champion she would challenge at WrestleMania, however, she stated that she was still deciding. The following week, Flair stated she had held both the Raw and SmackDown Women's Championships multiple times and had defeated their current holders, Becky Lynch and Bayley, respectively. She was then interrupted by NXT Women's Champion Rhea Ripley, who stated that Flair should challenge her as Flair had never beat her, but she had beaten Flair. Flair held off on making her decision until after Ripley had defended the title at NXT TakeOver: Portland on February 16.<ref name="NXT02052020"}} At the event, Ripley retained her title against Bianca Belair, after which, Flair attacked Ripley and Belair and accepted Ripley's WrestleMania challenge, marking the first time that the Royal Rumble winner chose an NXT title, which were previously ineligible.
Edge made his return to Raw the following night, stating that he had questioned what if he could wrestle again, and explained that after a second neck surgery and hard work, he was able to make his return at the Royal Rumble and would be able to retire on his own terms. Randy Orton then came out to welcome Edge back and suggested reforming their tag team, Rated-RKO, only to turn on Edge and perform an RKO on him, thus turning heel in the process. Orton then attacked Edge's neck with a steel chair and smashed his head between two steel chairs in a manoeuvre known as the "Conchairto", which Edge made famous in the past. A Last Man Standing match between the two was eventually scheduled for WrestleMania which was won by Edge. Orton later challenged Edge to a normal singles match at Backlash which Orton won. During the match, Edge legitimately tore his triceps. After recovering from his triceps tear, Edge returned at the 2021 Royal Rumble, where he and Orton entered at number one and two, respectively. The two brawled at ringside, and Edge injured Orton's leg, taking Orton out for the majority of the match. Orton returned in the closing moments of the match where he attempted to eliminate Edge, however, Edge countered and eliminated Orton to win the men's Royal Rumble match. Unsatisfied, Orton challenged Edge to a rubber match on the following night's Raw, where thanks to a distraction by Alexa Bliss (as part of a storyline between Orton, Bliss, and "The Fiend" Bray Wyatt), Edge defeated Orton, putting an end to their rivalry.
A United States Championship rematch between Humberto Carrillo and champion Andrade was scheduled for the next night on Raw, where Carrillo won by disqualification due to Zelina Vega's interference. Following the match, Carrillo performed a Hammerlock DDT on Andrade onto the exposed concrete, just as Andrade once did to Carrillo in the past. Andrade was then suspended for 30 days due to violating WWE's wellness policy, though was not stripped of the title.
Following the animosity between Lana and Liv Morgan, which caused Lana to eliminate Morgan after she herself was eliminated by Morgan, a match between the two was scheduled the next night on Raw, with Bobby Lashley and Rusev banned from ringside. Morgan would defeat Lana. After defeating Lana in a rematch the next week, Morgan was confronted by former Riott Squad stablemate Ruby Riott, making her return from injury. Riott went to embrace Morgan, after which she then attacked Morgan.
After making a surprise return at the Royal Rumble, Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP) faced Rey Mysterio on Raw in a losing effort. Afterwards, MVP announced that although he still had a few matches left on the independent circuit, his match on Raw was his final in WWE. This proved to be false, however, as after hosting a segment of the "VIP Lounge" in which he insulted men's Royal Rumble winner Drew McIntyre, MVP faced McIntyre in a match on the February 17 episode that McIntyre won. MVP would then become a mainstay on Raw, forming The Hurt Business faction, comprising Bobby Lashley, Shelton Benjamin, and Cedric Alexander.
Seth Rollins and Buddy Murphy defended the Raw Tag Team Championship against Samoa Joe and Kevin Owens. Joe was legitimately injured during the match and was taken backstage, leaving Owens to fend for himself, however, Rollins and Murphy retained the title after Murphy pinned Owens with a roll-up. On February 7, Buddy Murphy's ring name was shortened to Murphy. Joe's injury proved to be minor, as he returned on the February 10 episode of Raw to aid Owens and The Viking Raiders (Erik and Ivar) against Rollins' stable.
On the February 3 episode of Raw, Asuka challenged Raw Women's Champion Becky Lynch to a rematch, and Lynch accepted for the following week. After Lynch retained the title, she was attacked by NXT's Shayna Baszler.
SmackDown
A six-man tag team rematch from the previous week between the team of Roman Reigns and The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso) and the team of King Corbin, Dolph Ziggler, and Robert Roode was scheduled for the following SmackDown in which the losers ate dog food. Reigns and The Usos won, and they dumped dog food over Corbin. The following week, Corbin challenged Reigns to one more match, and Reigns accepted as a steel cage match at Super ShowDown. At the event, Reigns defeated Corbin.
Sheamus faced Shorty G in a rematch on the following SmackDown, where Sheamus was again victorious.
Mandy Rose thanked Otis for helping her in the women's Royal Rumble match. With encouragement from his Heavy Machinery tag team partner Tucker, Otis asked Rose out on a date and Rose accepted for Valentine's Day.
On the following SmackDown, Bayley addressed her victory over Lacey Evans, as well as Charlotte Flair's Royal Rumble win. She was interrupted by Naomi, who took exception to Bayley's claim that she had beaten everyone as she had never beaten Naomi. Bayley then attacked Naomi, who retaliated and got the upper hand. This marked Naomi's return to the SmackDown brand as prior to her six-month hiatus, she had been drafted to Raw in April 2019's Superstar Shake-up, but went undrafted during the WWE Draft in October. The following week, Naomi participated in a fatal four-way match to determine Bayley's next challenger, but it was won by Carmella.
Results
Women's Royal Rumble match entrances and eliminations
– Raw
– SmackDown
– NXT
– NXT UK
– Free agent
– Winner
Lana was already eliminated when she eliminated Liv Morgan.
Men's Royal Rumble match entrances and eliminations
– Raw
– SmackDown
– NXT
– Hall of Famer (HOF)
– Free agent
– Winner
Akam and Rezar were not official participants in the match.
References
External links
2020
2020 WWE Network events
2020 WWE pay-per-view events
Professional wrestling in Houston
Events in Houston
January 2020 events in the United States
2020 in Texas
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David Edward Williams (born 20 August 1971), known professionally as David Walliams, is an English comedian, actor, writer, and television personality. He is best known for his work with Matt Lucas on the BBC sketch comedy series Rock Profile (1999–2000, 2009), Little Britain (2003–2007) and Come Fly With Me (2010–2011). Since 2012, Walliams has been a judge on the television talent show competition Britain's Got Talent on ITV. He is also a writer of children's books, having sold more than 37 million copies worldwide.
Walliams played the role of Greville White in the 2007 television drama film Capturing Mary. From 2013 to 2014, he wrote and starred in the BBC One sitcom Big School. In 2015, Walliams starred as Tommy Beresford in the BBC drama series Partners in Crime, and wrote and starred in his own sketch comedy series Walliams & Friend. He has won the award for Best TV Judge for his work on Britain's Got Talent at the 2015, 2018 and the 2020 National Television Awards.
Walliams began writing children's novels in 2008 after securing a contract with the publisher HarperCollins. His books have been translated into 53 languages, and he has been described as "the fastest-growing children's author in the UK", with a literary style compared to that of Roald Dahl. Some of his books have been adapted into television films, which he has also appeared in, such as Mr Stink (2012), Gangsta Granny (2013) and Billionaire Boy (2016).
Walliams was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2017 Birthday Honours for services to charity and the arts. His charity work includes swimming the English Channel, Strait of Gibraltar and River Thames, raising millions of pounds for the BBC charity Sport Relief.
Early life and education
Walliams was born at St Teresa's Maternity Hospital in Wimbledon, in the London Borough of Merton, in 1971. He is the son of Peter Williams (1936–2007), a London Transport engineer, and Kathleen Williams (née Ellis), a laboratory technician who worked at Sutton Grammar School. Walliams grew up in Banstead, Surrey, specifically in the residential area of Nork, with his mother, father and sister Julie. He was educated at Collingwood Boys' School in Wallington, and Reigate Grammar School in Surrey, where he was a contemporary of writer Robert Shearman. From 1989 to 1992, he studied at the University of Bristol, where he resided at Manor Hall and graduated with Bachelor of Arts (Drama). During university holidays in 1990, Walliams performed with the National Youth Theatre, where he met future comedy partner and friend Matt Lucas. He changed his stage name to David Walliams when he joined college Equity, as there was already a member named David Williams.
Television career
Walliams performed in the Big Finish Productions Doctor Who audio play Phantasmagoria, written by Mark Gatiss in 1999. In 2005, Walliams, Simon Pegg, Lucy Davis and Lauren Laverne starred in the video for Charlotte Hatherley's single "Bastardo". Later in the year, Walliams presented a documentary on James Bond, entitled David Walliams: My Life with James Bond. In 2007, he returned to non-comedy television, garnering positive reviews for his portrayal of a suave and dangerous manipulator in Stephen Poliakoff's Capturing Mary.
He portrayed comedian Frankie Howerd in the BBC Four television film Rather You Than Me. In 2010, Walliams appeared with Paul Rudd and Steve Carell in the comedy Dinner for Schmucks. Walliams played the strange mole-like alien Gibbis in the sixth series of Doctor Who, in the episode "The God Complex", broadcast on BBC One in 2011. In April 2012 Walliams appeared in an episode of ITV's Perspectives programme entitled "David Walliams: The Genius of Dahl". Also in 2012, he narrated Are You Having a Laugh? TV and Disability on BBC Two, and the ITV2 series Top Dog Model.
In 2013, Walliams appeared in two episodes of the comedy series Blandings as Rupert Baxter, an efficiency expert hired to serve as Lord Emsworth's secretary. Also that year, and in 2014, Walliams starred as chemistry teacher Keith Church in the BBC One sitcom Big School, which he created and co-wrote. The series also starred Catherine Tate, Frances de la Tour and Philip Glenister. In March 2014 Walliams narrated a short video for the charity, Electrical Safety First, featuring the character Charley from the Charley Says educational films of the 1970s.
For Comic Relief 2015, Walliams appeared as Lou Todd and Stephen Hawking in the Andy Pipkin role along with Catherine Tate as a nun. In 2015, coinciding with the 125th anniversary of Agatha Christie's birth, Walliams played the role of Tommy Beresford in Partners in Crime, a six-part BBC series. In September 2015, Walliams began filming for his BBC sketch show Walliams & Friend, which also starred Joanna Lumley and Morgana Robinson and premiered on Christmas Eve in 2015. The show returned for a full series in November 2016.
Walliams hosted the final comedy show Thrills and Spills in December 2016. The final was held in Louisville, Kentucky. In December 2016, Walliams presented the Royal Variety Performance and a Christmas special episode of Blankety Blank, both shows for ITV. In 2017, Walliams guest presented five episodes of The Nightly Show for ITV.
In 2017, Walliams, along with Rochelle Humes, were both confirmed as Voice Trumpets, joining the existing cast of Daniel Rigby, Antonia Thomas, Jim Broadbent, Fearne Cotton and Jane Horrocks In series 2 of the reboot of classic British children's television series Teletubbies.
In October 2019, Walliams became the new National Television Awards (NTAs) host for 2020, taking over after Dermot O'Leary's ten year presenting stint.
Matt Lucas
Walliams and Matt Lucas first met at the National Youth Theatre. At their first meeting, Lucas did an impression of Jimmy Savile and Walliams an impression of Frankie Howerd. They would not meet again for another year. In the late 1990s, playing minor roles in sketches such as The Club, Walliams and Lucas played grotesque caricatures of various rock musicians in the series Rock Profile and in the spoof documentary series Sir Bernard's Stately Homes. They were also stars of the Paramount Comedy Channel show Mash and Peas, and it was in this guise that they appeared in the Fat Les video. Walliams and Lucas also had small roles in Plunkett and Maclaine as prisoners.
The duo appeared together in a music video for the Pet Shop Boys single "I'm with Stupid", in which the two are apparently auditioning their version of the song's video for Neil Tennant and Chris Lowe, who are tied up and appear to be hostages.
The pair are best known for Little Britain, which ran from 2003 to 2009 on the BBC in the UK and from 2008 onwards on HBO in the USA. The programme first aired on BBC Three before moving to the more mainstream BBC One. Among the characters Walliams played were Emily Howard, a deluded "transvestite"; Ray McCooney, an insane Scottish hotel owner; and Sebastian Love, an aide de camp to the Prime Minister (portrayed by Anthony Head) on whom Love has a huge crush. A successful live stage show of the series, Little Britain Live, was produced in 2006. A number of seasonal and charity specials followed, up to 2009. A spin-off series produced in the United States by HBO, Little Britain USA, aired in 2008. The characters from Little Britain played by Walliams and Lucas appeared in a 2010 UK television advertising campaign for the Nationwide Building Society. In January 2005 Walliams and Lucas were named the most powerful people in TV comedy by Radio Times.
Their later series was Come Fly with Me, a six-part series airing on BBC One. The first episode was the third most-watched programme of Christmas Day 2010, and the most watched comedy of the year. The duo have not worked or made any public appearances together since early 2011 (although they each make separate cameo appearances in Michael Winterbottom's 2013 film The Look of Love).
Little Britain returned to BBC Radio 4 on 31 October 2019, for a one-off special entitled Little Brexit.
Britain's Got Talent
Since 2012 Walliams has been a judge on the ITV talent show Britain's Got Talent with Amanda Holden, Alesha Dixon and Simon Cowell. In 2015, 2018 and 2019, he was recognised at the National Television Awards as Best Judge for his involvement in the series. His chemistry with Simon Cowell on the show has often been praised.
Writing career
Children's novels
In early 2008 Walliams signed a contract with HarperCollins to publish two children's books. The debut novel, The Boy in the Dress, illustrated by Quentin Blake, was released worldwide on 1 November 2008. It explores several of the themes of Little Britain from Walliams' own life on an emotional level, such as the camp humour of cross-dressing and effeminacy. The story recounts a neglected 12-year-old boy called Dennis' search for a female role model, his friendship with the popular girl in school, and the ways in which relationships develop along gender lines. The story has a strong resonance with Anne Fine's 1989 book Bill's New Frock. This book was adapted into a film for Christmas 2014.
In November 2009 came Mr Stink, again illustrated by Quentin Blake, about a 12-year-old girl who meets a tramp and helps look after him. She keeps him hidden from her family. The book consists of 26 illustrated chapters full of jokes. It is aimed at teenagers and children over 9. It was the last of Walliams books to be illustrated by Quentin Blake. The book was awarded the Children's Award in the inaugural People's Book Prize in 2010, and was made into a 60-minute film, which premiered on BBC One on 23 December 2012.
On 28 October 2010 Walliams published his third book Billionaire Boy, illustrated by Tony Ross, telling the story of Joe Spud, the richest 12-year-old in the country. Joe's father is a famous inventor, and his wealth means that Joe has everything he could ever want: his own bowling alley, cinema and a trained orangutan who serves as his butler, but there is just one thing he really needs: a friend. The book included a 'billion pound note' that was used to enter a competition to win a day as a billionaire in London. This was the first of his books to be illustrated by Tony Ross.
Walliams' fourth book, Gangsta Granny was released in October 2011 and again illustrated by Tony Ross. It tells the story of Ben who is bored every time he is made to stay at his grandma's house as all she wants to do is to play board games and eat cabbage soup. Ben learns that she was once an international jewel thief and all her life she has wanted to steal the crown jewels. Ben is determined that they do it together. It won a Red House Children's Book Award and was adapted to be a 70-minute film for BBC One and shown on 26 December 2013.
In September 2012 Walliams released his fifth children's book, Ratburger, telling the story of a young girl named Zoe whose life is a misery as she has an evil stepmother. It was made into a one-off drama for Sky One.
Ratburger was followed in September 2013 by Walliams' sixth book, Demon Dentist, relating the tale of a young boy named Alfie with no family except his dad whose world goes upside-down when a new dentist arrives in town. The book won the top prize in the Younger Readers category at the 2015 Red House Children's Book Awards.
Walliams' seventh children's book, Awful Auntie, was released on 25 September 2014. This was the story of a girl named Stella whose Auntie has moved into her house with her owl, Wagner. It is the first (and currently only) of Walliams' books to not include Raj the newsagent, due to the book being set in the 1930s before Raj was born.
In September 2015 he released Grandpa's Great Escape. The story follows a boy called Jack trying to rescue his Grandpa who suffers from Alzheimer's disease from a care home run by an evil matron. The book was adapted for BBC One, with the script written by Walliams and Kevin Cecil, and starring Tom Courtenay as Grandpa. This book, although set in the 1980s like Awful Auntie is, sees the return of Raj the newsagent. The same year that Grandpa's Great Escape was published, Walliams backed children's fairytales app GivingTales in aid of UNICEF, together with Roger Moore, Stephen Fry, Ewan McGregor, Joan Collins, Joanna Lumley, Michael Caine, Charlotte Rampling and Paul McKenna.
The Midnight Gang was published in November 2016. Bad Dad was published in November 2017. Walliams sold £16.57 million worth of books in 2017. The Ice Monster was published in November 2018. Walliams' latest children's novel, Slime, was published in April 2020.
Picture books
Short story collections
Illustrated in colour by Tony Ross, Walliams' three The World's Worst Children short story collections, centered around 'five beastly boys and five gruesome girls', were published in May 2016, May 2017 and May 2018, respectively.
The World's Worst Teachers was published on 27 June.
In September 2021 it was announced that one of the stories in The World's Worst Children would be removed after podcaster Georgie Ma made a complaint, saying Walliams' book was "normalising jokes on minorities from a young age." The story criticized by Ma earlier in the year is "about a Chinese boy called Brian Wong" who is "never, ever wrong". Ma, who also called out the story for its "casual racism", talked in May with representatives of HarperCollins, who agreed to remove the story in future editions of the book.
Other work
Theatre
On 26 August 2008 Walliams made his stage debut at the Gate Theatre in Dublin opposite Michael Gambon in Harold Pinter's No Man's Land, in front of an audience that included Pinter himself. The production transferred to London later in the year.
In 2013, he played the part of Bottom in a production of A Midsummer Night's Dream at the Noël Coward Theatre opposite Sheridan Smith as Titania.
In July 2014, Walliams appeared on stage with Monty Python during their live show Monty Python Live (Mostly) held at the O2 Arena, London. He was the special guest in their "Blackmail" sketch.
Screenwriting
In addition to his writing credits for his sketch shows and adaptions of his novels, he co-wrote an animated film titled Shadows with filmmaker Edgar Wright for DreamWorks Animation. It was released in 2019.
In 2018, Walliams also starred in the British Airways Safety video, which was conducted in conjunction with Comic Relief for the airlines in house charity. Walliams most notable occasion in the video is the lifejacket instruction. Since then the video has been reworked with a mixture of the previous version; however, Walliams still appears in the new version.
Personal life
In 2007, Walliams' father, Peter, died of an aggressive form of liver cancer.
In 2009, Walliams began dating Dutch model Lara Stone. On 20 January 2010, they got engaged after her parents had given their blessing to the relationship. On 16 May 2010, the couple were married at central London's Claridge's Hotel. On 6 May 2013, Stone gave birth to the couple's first child, Alfred.
Walliams and Stone lived in the house with recording studio, formerly owned by Noel Gallagher, known as Supernova Heights in Belsize Park, north London. It was reported on 4 March 2015 that, following five years of marriage, the pair had decided to try a trial separation after "drifting apart". On 9 September 2015, Walliams filed for divorce from Stone, citing "unreasonable behaviour". The couple were granted a decree nisi the next day; the marriage was formally dissolved six weeks after the date of filing.
Walliams hinted at being pansexual in the book Inside Little Britain, but said he did not like to be labelled by that word. In an interview with Radio Times in 2013, he stated: "I think it's all about falling in love with the person and that is overlooked, really. I hate it when people 'confess' or 'reveal' their sexuality and also things can change for people over the years. So it is about the person but I also think it goes beyond that. You don't just fall in love with someone's body, do you? You fall in love with someone's soul and heart and brain."
Walliams has been diagnosed with bipolar disorder, and he described his 2006 swim of the English Channel as "some sort of redemption".
In November 2020, on behalf of GQ magazine, Walliams, a long-time Labour allegiant, interviewed Shaun Bailey, the Conservative candidate for London Mayor, who if elected would have been the capital's first Black British mayor.
Charity work
Telethon hosting
Walliams co-hosted a segment of the Sport Relief telethon in 2012, co-hosting the 22:00–22:40 slot with Miranda Hart when the show moved over to BBC Two while the BBC News at Ten was aired.
Walliams also co-hosted the 2014 Sport Relief telethon. This time, he hosted the earlier slot between 19:00–22:00 with Gary Lineker and later Davina McCall.
Swimming the English Channel
On 4 July 2006 Walliams swam the English Channel for Sport Relief. It took him 10 hours and 34 minutes to swim the 22-mile (35 km) stretch of sea, equivalent to 700 lengths of an Olympic-size swimming pool. This was wrongly reported as one of the top 50 recorded times for an unaided Channel crossing; in reality Walliams placed 167th at the time of crossing in only the CSA listings, excluding the CSPF listings. He raised over £1 million in donations. Under the supervision of his trainer, he trained for nine months to prepare for the swim. The training had to coincide with Walliams and Lucas's Little Britain Live tour, so he daily had to train for several hours before performing on stage in the evening.
Walliams first swam from Lee-on-the-Solent near Portsmouth to the Isle of Wight in around two hours and also completed an eight-hour swim off the coast of Croatia before embarking on the cross-Channel attempt. Walliams has insisted that prior to his challenge he had never seriously taken part in any sport. The Bluetones' lead singer Mark Morriss wrote a song, "Fade In/Fade Out", in honour of Walliams' achievement; it can be found on their self-titled album, released on 9 October 2006.
Swimming the Strait of Gibraltar
On 7 March 2008 Walliams, along with James Cracknell, swam the Strait of Gibraltar from Spain to Morocco, again for Sport Relief. He successfully completed the swim in just over 4½ hours.
Cycling
In March 2010 Walliams and a group of celebrities cycled an end-to-end journey through the UK, raising over £1 million for Sport Relief. Walliams suffered a serious fall when tackling the Kirkstone Pass, a thousand-foot climb in the Lake District but was able to complete the ride.
24 Hour Panel People
In March 2011 Walliams undertook 24 Hour Panel People, in which he took part in back-to-back recordings of various panel show formats over the course of 24 hours to raise money for Comic Relief. The recordings were streamed live on the BBC website. He took part in 19 episodes of "classic" TV panel shows.
Swimming the Thames
From 5 to 12 September 2011 Walliams swam the length of the River Thames () and raised more than £2 million for Sport Relief. Once he had got out of the river Walliams said "I think a bath is the only water I will be seeing for a while." The swim resulted in him getting giardiasis and injuring an intervertebral disc. In late 2013, Walliams had emergency back surgery to alleviate issues caused by the swim.
Controversies
Kim Jong-un Halloween costume
In early November 2017, Walliams caused upset through his dressing as North Korean leader Kim Jong-un for Halloween and posting it online. He had shared the photograph on his Twitter account, in costume, wearing a black suit, wig, and artificial prosthetics that appeared to alter his eyelids and hairline. There was an immediate backlash online, many Twitter users branding the outfit "racist" and accusing Walliams of "yellow-face". Others made the point that it was insensitive for Walliams to dress as Kim Jong-un given the North Korean leader's 'appalling' human rights record. Walliams responded to the backlash lightly, constructing a fake text message from Kim Jong-un which he posted to Twitter, reading: "Hi Dave, Loved the Halloween outfit mate! Wet meself laughing. Don't see what all the fuss is about. Kim x. PS Can't wait to read Bad Dad."
Stereotypes and black face
In June 2020, Netflix, Britbox, NOW TV and BBC iPlayer dropped Walliams and Lucas' Little Britain and Come Fly With Me, over the use of blackface and stereotypes to portray black, disabled, working class, transgender, and gay people. In Little Britain, both Walliams and Lucas use make up to portray different races, with Walliams portraying a black health-spa guest called Desiree Devere. Variety Magazine attributed the widespread removal of the series on streaming platforms to heightened awareness in the wake of George Floyd's murder and the resulting Black Lives Matter protests. After the removal, Walliams and Lucas released identical apologies on their Twitter: "[We] have both spoken publicly in recent years of our regret that we played characters of other races. Once again we want to make it clear that it was wrong & we are very sorry.”
Children's books
In July 2020, tweets by author and activist Jack Monroe described Walliams' books as "like Little Britain for kids", with "horrific racism and classism and bodyshaming in a veneer of privileged deniability". Harper Collins issued a response, stating "David Walliams's books have a diverse readership which is reflected in their content".
Filmography
Television
Film
Awards and honours
Walliams was given a special award in recognition of his sporting efforts for charity. Matt Lucas produced a documentary on the subject, entitled Little Britain's Big Swim. On 6 November 2006, Walliams won the Pride of Britain Award for "The Most Influential Public Figure" as he raised more than £1.5 million swimming the channel for the Sport Relief charity. Although initially tipped as a contender for the BBC's Sports Personality of the Year poll for 2006, Walliams failed to make the final shortlist of 10 contenders. Walliams was given a special award during the ceremony for his achievement. In July 2006, he became Patron of 'Cardiac Risk in the Young'.
At the 2012 National Television Awards, Walliams won the 'Landmark Achievement Award', for his television career and achievements for Sport Relief. In December 2012 he won the Specsavers National Book Awards "Children's Book of the Year" for Ratburger. In December 2013 he won the Specsavers National Book Awards "Children's Book of the Year" for Demon Dentist. In December 2014 he won the Specsavers National Book Awards "Children's Book of the Year" for Awful Auntie. Awful Auntie also won the 2014 Specsavers National Book Awards "Audiobook of the Year".
Walliams has won the award for Best TV Judge at the 2015, 2018 and 2019 National Television Awards.
He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2017 Birthday Honours for services to charity and the arts. He was invested with the honour by Princess Anne.
Bibliography
Non-fiction
Inside Little Britain (with Boyd Hilton and Matt Lucas): London: Ebury Press: 2006:
Autobiography
Camp David (2012)
Children's fiction
Novels
The first two novels are illustrated by Quentin Blake, the rest are illustrated by Tony Ross.
The Boy in the Dress (2008, )
Mr Stink (2009, )
Billionaire Boy (2010, )
Gangsta Granny (2011, )
Ratburger (2012, )
Demon Dentist (2013, )
Awful Auntie (2014, )
Grandpa's Great Escape (2015, )
The Midnight Gang (2016, )
Bad Dad (2017, )
The Ice Monster (2018, )
Fing (2019, )
The Beast of Buckingham Palace (2019, )
Slime (2020, )
Code Name Bananas (2020, )
Short story collections
Illustrated by Tony Ross.
The World's Worst Children (2016, )
The World's Worst Children 2 (2017, )
The World's Worst Children 3 (2018, )
The World's Worst Teachers (2019, )
The World's Worst Parents (2020, )
Picture books
The Slightly Annoying Elephant (2013)
The First Hippo on the Moon (2014)
The Queen's Orang-utan (2015, for Comic Relief)
The Bear Who Went Boo! (2015)
There's a Snake in My School! (2016)
Boogie Bear (2018)
Geronimo (2018)
World Book Day book
Blob (2017)
References
External links
1971 births
Living people
20th-century English comedians
21st-century English comedians
20th-century English male actors
21st-century English male actors
21st-century English novelists
Alumni of the University of Bristol
English autobiographers
English children's writers
English Channel swimmers
English male comedians
English comedy writers
English male film actors
English radio writers
English male soap opera actors
English male stage actors
English television personalities
English television producers
English television writers
English male voice actors
Labour Party (UK) people
Little Britain
Male long-distance swimmers
Participants in British reality television series
People educated at Reigate Grammar School
People with bipolar disorder
National Youth Theatre members
People from Banstead
British sketch comedians
Best Comedy Performance BAFTA Award (television) winners
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
British male comedy actors
British male television writers
21st-century British screenwriters
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The Discovery Institute has conducted a series of related public relations campaigns which seek to promote intelligent design while attempting to discredit evolutionary biology, which the Institute terms "Darwinism." The Discovery Institute promotes the pseudoscientific intelligent design movement and is represented by Creative Response Concepts, a public relations firm.
Prominent Institute campaigns have been to 'Teach the Controversy' and to allow 'Critical Analysis of Evolution'. Other campaigns have claimed that intelligent design advocates (most notably Richard Sternberg) have been discriminated against, and thus that Academic Freedom bills are needed to protect academics' and teachers' ability to criticise evolution, and that the development of evolutionary theory was historically linked to ideologies such as Nazism and eugenics, claims based on misrepresentation which have been ridiculed by topic experts. These three claims are all publicized in the pro-ID movie Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed; the Anti-Defamation League said the film's attempt to blame science for the Nazi Holocaust was outrageous. Other campaigns have included petitions, most notably A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism.
The theory of evolution is accepted by overwhelming scientific consensus. Intelligent design has been rejected, both by the vast majority of scientists and by court findings, such as Kitzmiller v. Dover, as being a religious view and not science.
Goal of the campaigns
The overarching goal of the Institute in conducting the intelligent design campaigns is religious; to replace science with "a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions." To accomplish this the Institute has conducted a number of public relations campaigns. The governing strategy of these various campaigns is called the Wedge strategy and was first made public when the Institute's "Wedge Document" was leaked on the World Wide Web in 1999. The Discovery Institute argues that science, due to its reliance on naturalism, is an inherently materialistic and atheistic enterprise and thus the source of many of society's ills, and that "Design theory [intelligent design] promises to reverse the stifling dominance of the materialist worldview."
None of the campaigns are aimed at directly influencing the scientific community, which the Institute considers dogmatic and hidebound, but rather are focused on swaying the opinions of the public and public policy makers, which, if effective, it is hoped will respond by forcing the academic institutions supporting the scientific community to accept the Discovery Institute's redefinition of science. Public high school science curricula has been the most common and visible target of the campaigns, with the Institute publishing its own model lesson plan, the Critical Analysis of Evolution.
In a Seattle Weekly article, Nina Shapiro quoted Institute founder and president Bruce Chapman when she wrote that behind all Discovery Institute programs there is an underlying hidden religious agenda:
The Institute's approach has been to position itself as opposed to any required teaching intelligent design, while campaigns such as Teach the Controversy and Critical Analysis of Evolution introduce high school students to design arguments through the Discovery Institute-drafted lesson plans. Teach the Controversy and Free Speech on Evolution both require that "competing" or "alternative" "theories" to evolution to be presented while the Critical Analysis of Evolution model lesson plan fills that requirement by listing intelligent design books by Institute Fellows as such alternatives for students.
Campaign to "teach the controversy"
Previously, attempts to introduce creationism into public high school science curricula had been derailed when this was found to have violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. In an attempt to avoid repeating this violation, the Institute today avoids directly advocating for intelligent design in high school curricula. Instead, it advocates teaching methods that introduce intelligent design ideas (and textbooks) indirectly through a campaign to "Teach the Controversy" by portraying evolution as "a theory in crisis" and "presenting all the evidence, both for and against, evolution" and teaching "Critical Analysis of Evolution" (the name of the Institute's model lesson plans on the subject). The Discovery Institute describes their approach as:
Gordy Slack of Salon interpreted this tactic as: "the 'more' they want to teach, of course, is what they see as evolution's shortcomings, leaving an ecological niche that will then be filled by intelligent design."
In 2001 Robert T. Pennock wrote that intelligent design proponents are "manufacturing dissent" in order to explain the absence of scientific debate of their claims: "The 'scientific' claims of such neo-creationists as Johnson, Denton, and Behe rely, in part, on the notion that these issues [surrounding evolution] are the subject of suppressed debate among biologists. ... according to neo-creationists, the apparent absence of this discussion and the nearly universal rejection of neo-creationist claims must be due to the conspiracy among professional biologists instead of a lack of scientific merit."
These teaching methods were promoted by the Institute at the Kansas evolution hearings in 2005, but were the subject of judicial criticism later in that year in the decision in Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District:
"ID's backers have sought to avoid the scientific scrutiny which we have now determined that it cannot withstand by advocating that the controversy, but not ID itself, should be taught in science class. This tactic is at best disingenuous, and at worst a canard. The goal of the IDM is not to encourage critical thought, but to foment a revolution which would supplant evolutionary theory with ID." The slogan "teach the controversy" has been increasingly superseded by the more oblique "Critical Analysis of Evolution".
Campaigns claiming discrimination
The claim that "scientists, teachers, and students are under attack for questioning evolution" and have been discriminated against, is the centerpiece of a number of campaigns conducted by the Institute. Notable among these campaigns is the Sternberg peer review controversy and in the more recent case of Guillermo Gonzalez's denial of tenure. As part of a long term strategy the Institute actively promotes an image of intelligent design proponents suffering professional setbacks or failing to advance as victims of "Darwinist inquisitions" conducted by "Thought Police". Critics of intelligent design and the Institute such as PZ Myers, Eugenie Scott and Barbara Forrest frequently find themselves the subjects of unflattering articles on the Institute's blog which ignores or downplays the responses of large scientific and academic organizations rejecting intelligent design while portraying opponents as members of an academic and scientific fringe and minority. Other methods employed by the Institute include what they term "Public Education"; described as exposing 'bigotry and intolerance' to 'public disapproval' often through the Institute's blog Evolutionnews.org, "Personal Assistance"; described as "providing assistance in locating free legal representation from a network of concerned lawyers across the nation" and "investigations" and lobbying of officials by the Institute, "Legal Defense" and "Grassroots Action".
Other purported instances of discrimination publicised by the Discovery Institute include:
philosopher Francis J. Beckwith's initial failure to gain tenure from Baylor University;
biology teacher Roger DeHart's reassignment at, and later resignation from, Burlington-Edison High School for teaching intelligent design;
Mississippi University for Women chemist Nancy Bryson, who was removed as head of the science and mathematics division, purportedly for giving a presentation entitled "Critical Thinking on Evolution", which claimed evidence for intelligent design in nature. After protests, the university decided Bryson could keep the job and insisted her removal had nothing to do with the lecture.
biologist Caroline Crocker, who was barred by George Mason University from teaching a Cell Biology class over her introduction of intelligent design into it, and whose contract at that university was not renewed;
The closure of the short-lived Evolutionary Informatics Lab formed by Baylor University engineering professor Robert J. Marks II, which included Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary research professor in philosophy William Dembski as a postdoctoral researcher. The lab was shut down and its website was deleted because Baylor's administration considered that it violated university policy forbidding professors from creating the impression that their personal views represent Baylor as an institution. Baylor however permitted Marks to resume work in the informatics lab on his own time and maintain his website, provided a disclaimer accompany any intelligent design-advancing research makes clear that the work does not represent the university's position.
Court cases (such as Webster v. New Lenox School District and Bishop v. Aronov) have upheld school districts' and universities' right to restrict teaching to a specified curriculum. None of these purported cases of discrimination have been subjected to formal legal or congressional scrutiny.
In August 2007, an upcoming movie publicising a number of these incidents was announced, entitled Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed and starring Ben Stein.
Free Speech on Evolution campaign
The primary message of the campaign was:
The term gained exposure when the Institute was widely quoted in the press in 2005 after president Bush publicly spoke in favor of teaching intelligent design alongside evolution as a competing theory and Institute fellow John G. West responded with a statement framing the issue as a matter of free speech: "President Bush is to be commended for defending free speech on evolution, and supporting the right of students to hear about different scientific views about evolution."
A notable characteristic of this campaign is the Institute's framing of the issues as a confluence of free speech, academic freedom and discrimination.
The campaign has found traction with the Discovery Institute's constituency, conservative Christians, but has failed to produce gains with a wider audience. Critics of the Institute and intelligent design have alleged that the campaign is founded on intellectual dishonesty. PZ Myers describes the "free speech on evolution campaign" as promoting intolerance, lies and distortions, while Wesley R. Elsberry says 'Free Speech on Evolution' is a "catchphrase" describing false compromises offered by Institute Fellows that introduce intelligent design into science classes indirectly by having teachers "teach the controversy."
Campaigns portraying books and sites as banned
Banned Books Week is an awareness campaign, led annually by the American Library Association, in an attempt to protect freedom of speech by celebrating books that the ALA claims others have banned or attempted to ban from various venues. In 2006, Discovery Institute Fellow John West nominated the book Of Pandas and People, on the basis of it being "at the heart of" Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District. However the decision in Kitzmiller made no order regarding Pandas, rendering the basis for considering it to be "banned" highly tenuous, and the assertion was dismissed by Deborah Caldwell-Stone, Deputy Director of the American Library Association's Office for Intellectual Freedom who does not consider the book banned. The Discovery Institute continued to misrepresent the book as banned in 2007, with the statement that:
In 2007, the Discovery Institute nominated Robert J. Marks' 'Evolutionary Informatics Lab' web-site as "Banned Item of the Year", after it was deleted from the Baylor University server. However, the site is still accessible, now being hosted on a third party server.
Academic freedom campaign
Between 2004 and 2008 a number of anti-evolution 'Academic Freedom' bills were introduced in State legislatures in Alabama, Oklahoma, Maryland, Florida, Louisiana, Missouri and Michigan, based largely upon language drafted by the Discovery Institute. As of May 2008, none of them were successfully passed into law.
They purport that teachers, students, and college professors face intimidation and retaliation when discussing scientific criticisms of evolution, and therefore require protection. Critics of the bills point out that there are no credible scientific critiques of evolution. Investigation of the allegations of intimidation and retaliation have found no evidence that it occurs.
In February 2008, the Discovery Institute announced the Academic Freedom Petition campaign, which it is conducting with assistance from Brian Gage Design who provides the Discovery Institute graphic design professional services. The petition states:
Casey Luskin, program officer for public policy and legal affairs at Discovery Institute, is the contact person for the campaign's Model Academic Freedom Statute on Evolution.
Campaigns to link evolution to Nazism and eugenics
In his 2004 book From Darwin to Hitler, Evolutionary Ethics, Eugenics and Racism in Germany, Discovery Institute fellow Richard Weikart links Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution to Nazism, concluding:
This conclusion is however controversial, with professor of history at the University of Louisville Ann Taylor Allen giving the opinion that Weikart's talk about "Darwinism" is not based on any careful reading of Darwin himself but on vague ideas by a variety of people who presented themselves as "Darwinian." Moreover, fundamental elements of Nazism like anti-Semitism cannot be attributed to Darwinism since it predates evolutionary theory. Allen concluded:
Discovery Institute Center for Science and Culture Associate Director John G. West, in both his book Darwin Day in America and in lectures, has attempted to link Darwin to the eugenics movement. However, critics point out that:
this movement came to prominence during the 'eclipse' of Darwinian evolution in the early 20th century;
the popular support for eugenics was matched with popular opposition to teaching evolution;
"while many biologists did support eugenic policies, many important biologists did not";
it was evolutionary biology that provided information debunking eugenics;
West quoted Darwin out of context in order to misrepresent him as supporting eugenics; and
prominent evolutionary biologists, such as Stephen Jay Gould have spoken out against eugenics.
"on the whole the evangelical mainstream [...] appeared apathetic, acquiescent, or at times downright supportive of the eugenics movement" between 1900 and 1940.
Campaign to discredit the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District decision
For deciding whether intelligent design is science
David K. DeWolf, John G. West and Casey Luskin, senior fellows or officers of the Discovery Institute, argued that intelligent design is a valid scientific theory, that the Jones court should not have addressed the question of whether it was a scientific theory, and that the decision will have no effect on the development and adoption of intelligent design as an alternative to standard evolutionary theory. Peter Irons responded to the DeWolf et al. article, arguing that the decision was extremely well reasoned, and that it marks the end to legal efforts by the intelligent design movement to introduce creationism in public schools. DeWolf et al. responded to the Irons article in the same issue.
"Study" criticizing Judge Jones
The Discovery Institute and its fellows published several articles describing a "study" performed by the Discovery Institute criticizing the judge in the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial. It claims that "90.9% of Judge Jones' [opinion] on intelligent design as science was taken virtually verbatim from the ACLU's proposed 'Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law' submitted to Judge Jones nearly a month before his ruling." The study, though making no specific allegations of wrongdoing, implies that Judge Jones relied upon the plaintiff's submissions in writing his own conclusions of law.
Within a day, the president of the York County Bar Association wrote that parties are required by the courts to submit findings of fact and "a judge can adopt some, all or none of the proposed findings." She added that in the final ruling, a judge's decision "is the judge's findings and it doesn't matter who submitted them". A partner in a York law firm said that "Any attempt to make a stink out of it is absurd."
Several commentators described a number of critical flaws in the study from both a numerical and legal standpoint. Witold Walczak, legal director for the ACLU of Pennsylvania and the ACLU's lead attorney on the case called the Institute's report a stunt: "They're getting no traction in the scientific world so they're trying to do something ... as a PR stunt to get attention, ... That's not how scientists work, ... Discovery Institute is trying to litigate a year-old case in the media." He also said the Discovery Institute staff is not, as it claims, interested in finding scientific truths; it is more interested in a "cultural war," pushing for intelligent design and publicly criticizing a judge.
A subsequent review of the study performed by Wesley Elsberry, author of the text comparison program that was partly responsible for the decision in the case, indicated that only 38% of the complete ruling by Judge Jones actually incorporated the findings of fact and conclusions of law that the plaintiffs proposed that he incorporate, and only 66% of the section (on whether intelligent design was science) incorporated the proposals, not the 90.9% the Discovery Institute claimed was copied in that section. Significantly, Judge Jones adopted only 48% of the plaintiffs's proposed findings of fact for that section, and rejected 52%, clearly showing that he did not accept the section verbatim.
"Intelligent design is not creationism"
One of the principal rationales behind intelligent design's neo-creationist strategy is to separate intelligent design from previous, more explicitly religious, forms of creationism, and the legal defeats that prohibit them from public school science classrooms. For this reason, the Discovery Institute (and its supporters) make frequent and vehement denials of any connection between intelligent design and creationism. These denials are at times bitter and abrasive, for example:
However this assertion has been refuted both in court and academia. In Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District Judge John E. Jones III found that "the overwhelming evidence at trial established that intelligent design is a religious view, a mere re-labeling of creationism, and not a scientific theory." Numerous books have been written by prominent academics documenting intelligent design as a form of creationism, e.g.:
Creationism's Trojan Horse - The Wedge of Intelligent Design by Barbara Forrest and Paul R. Gross
The Creationists, From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design by Ronald Numbers
Tower of Babel: The Evidence Against the New Creationism by Robert T. Pennock
Petition campaigns
The Discovery Institute has created a number of petitions to give the impression that there are widespread doubts about the Theory of Evolution among scientists and scientifically-literate professionals. These petitions include A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism, Physicians and Surgeons for Scientific Integrity, Physicians and Surgeons who Dissent from Darwinism, and the now-defunct Stand Up For Science.
Physicians and Surgeons who Dissent from Darwinism
Physicians and Surgeons who Dissent from Darwinism is a petition promoting intelligent design. It consists of a list of people agreeing with a statement casting doubt on evolution. The petition was produced by the Physicians and Surgeons for Scientific Integrity (PSSI), a nonprofit organization formed by the Discovery Institute, and is intended to support the Discovery Institute's campaign to portray intelligent design as a scientifically valid theory by creating the impression that evolution lacks broad scientific support. It is similar to the Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns to discredit evolution.
The document itself has been the subject of controversy and extensive criticism from a variety of sources. The statement in the document has been branded as poorly worded, misleading and vague. This campaign, like the rest of the Discovery Institute anti-evolution campaigns, has come under criticism for being misleading and anti-science. The list of signatories represents an insignificant fraction of medical professionals (about 0.02%). The evidence of evolution is not determined by petitions or polls, but by scientific consensus. This is the reason that the theory of evolution is overwhelmingly accepted.
Statement
The medical doctors and comparable professionals are signatories to a statement which disputes evolution, which they refer to as "Darwinian macroevolution" or "Darwinism", which are both misleading terms. The statement that the organization subscribes to is titled "Physicians and Surgeons who Dissent from Darwinism" and contains the following text:
Evolutionary synthesis and the theory of evolution state that random mutation leads to inherited traits that become more or less common due to non-random natural selection and random genetic drift, as well as other mechanisms. Therefore, the PSSI statement is overly vague and worded in a misleading fashion, since few real evolutionary biologists would subscribe to the version of evolution presented by the statement. Evolution does not include the study of the origin of life, as the statement implies.
The wording of this statement is very similar to the wording of the Discovery Institute's petition, "A Scientific Dissent from Darwinism", which has been widely criticized for being inaccurate and misleading.
History
The Physicians and Surgeons for Scientific Integrity was formed in 2006. By May 8, 2006, the PSSI Dissent petition had 34 signatories. There were 100 signatories on July 30, 2006. By December 2006, 167 had signed the statement. By May 22, 2007, 252 appeared on the list. As of July 30, 2007, the list included 264 names.
The PSSI invites holders of the M.D., D.O., D.D.S., D.M.D., D.V.M., or similar degrees to sign the Dissent petition.
Analysis
The statement is similar to the one of the A Scientific Dissent from Darwinism of the Discovery Institute which has come under extensive criticism from a variety of sources as misleading, poorly phrased and containing only a tiny fraction of professionals in relevant fields.
Statement of "A Scientific Dissent from Darwinism":
The value of the opinions of physicians, surgeons, veterinarians, optometrists and other signatories of this petition is not clear. Referring to the number of people on the Scientific Dissent from Darwinism list and their claimed relevance, University of Minnesota biology professor PZ Myers writes, "Not only is the number that they cite pathetically small, but they rely on getting scientists whose expertise isn't relevant." In analogy, it can be argued that the 'Physicians' list represents an insignificant fraction of the total medical profession. Addressing a specific example, Myers says of neurosurgeon Michael Egnor, who signed both lists, that "The Discovery Institute may like to trumpet his expertise in neurosurgery as an indicator of the significance of his dissent from evolutionary biology, but I think I'd rather trumpet his ignorance of evolutionary biology as an indicator of the uselessness of the Discovery Institute's list." Myers continued to state that the signer "is not only wrong, but he's pretty damn arrogant about it — how else to explain someone who is proud of the fact that he knows nothing about a subject, and is proud of his inability to find sources that would correct his ignorance, even when they're pointed out to him directly? He's like Michael Behe, in that we can plop mountains of information in front of him, and he'll just blithely claim it doesn't exist."
The compiled list of medical professionals is available on the Internet, where each signatory is listed three times: by last name, by country and by specialty. Most of the doctors who signed the statement are from the United States. As of May 22, 2007 there were 224 signatories from the United States, two signatories from Australia, four signatories from Canada, eight signatories from the United Kingdom and another 14 from nine other countries. However, this figure should be expected to rise, based on a poll of 1472 US physicians conducted by the "Louis Finkelstein Institute for Social and Religious Research" at the Jewish Theological Seminary and HCD Research in Flemington, New Jersey, from May 13–15, 2005. This study showed that 34% of physician respondents felt more comfortable with intelligent design than evolution.
include doctors trained or working in a wide range of disciplines, including, addiction medicine, bariatrics (i.e., weight loss medicine), dentistry, dermatology, hospice care, ophthalmology, optometry, plastic surgery, psychiatry, radiology, urology and veterinary medicine.
The American Medical Association estimates that in 2006, there were more than 884,000 physicians in the United States.
In addition, the US Bureau of Labor Statistics estimated that in May 2003 the US had 97,090 dentists, 63,780 opticians, 22,740 optometrists and 43,890 veterinarians.
Therefore, the total number of US professionals in the fields represented by the "Physicians and Surgeons for Scientific Integrity" Dissent petition is at least 1,111,500. That is, the 224 US signatories of the statement represent approximately 0.02% of the total number of US professionals in these fields.
Stand Up For Science
The Stand Up For Science campaign originated in July 2006 leading up to the showdown in the Kansas Board of Education that began with Kansas evolution hearings, which was also driven by the Discovery Institute. The Institute's online petition and Stand Up For Science website where one could sign the petition were prominent features of the campaign. During the period leading up to the Kansas evolution hearings the Institute ran a number radio and print ads across Kansas incorporating many of its slogans, such as "Teach the Controversy", "Free Speech on Evolution", and "Critical Analysis of Evolution", and directing readers and listeners to the Discovery Institute website. As the Kansas debate over the teaching of evolution wound down in Fall 2006 after the conservative Republicans who approved the Critical Analysis of Evolution classroom standards lost their majority in a primary election and the moderate Republicans and Democrats vowed to overturn Discovery Institute-influenced 2005 school science standards and adopt those recommended by a State Board Science Hearing Committee that were rejected by the previous board, the Institute shifted the focus of The Stand Up For Science campaign from Kansas to Texas.
The scientific and science education communities reacted to campaign by saying that it was a misinformation campaign. Nick Matzke described the campaign's support for science as "irony-meter-busting". In response to the campaign Kansas biology teacher Jeremy Mohn founded the competing website, Stand Up for REAL Science.
Theistic evolution
On May 26, 2009, the Discovery Institute announced a new website, FaithandEvolution.Org. The site attacks theistic evolution, and New Scientist suggests that it is in response to Francis Collins' recent launch of the BioLogos Institute to promote theistic evolution.
Criticism
Every leading scientific professional organization has through position statements unequivocally endorsed evolution as a widely accepted and well-proven theory. McGill University Professor of Education Brian Alters states in an article published by the NIH that "99.9 percent of scientists accept evolution".
Critics say that the Institute is conducting a deliberate disinformation campaign. One common criticism is that the rhetoric employed by the Institute in its campaigns is intentionally vague and misleading and that the campaigns mask a near total absence of scientific support and productive research programs. The Templeton Foundation, who once provided grants for conferences and courses to debate intelligent design has since rejected the Discovery Institute's entreaties for more funding, Foundation senior vice president Charles L. Harper Jr. said "They're political - that for us is problematic," and that while Discovery has "always claimed to be focused on the science," "what I see is much more focused on public policy, on public persuasion, on educational advocacy and so forth."
In one of a series of articles in Skeptic on the movie Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed, ID critic Ed Brayton noted:
See also
Intelligent design in politics
References
External links
Discovery Institute - Center for Science and Culture
Stand Up For Science A Discovery Institute campaign to influence the Kansas evolution hearings
Intelligent design controversies
Intelligent design movement
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Torah im Derech Eretz ( – Torah with "the way of the land")
is a phrase common in Rabbinic literature referring to various aspects of one's interaction with the wider world.
It also refers to a philosophy of Orthodox Judaism articulated by Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch (1808–88), which formalizes a relationship between traditionally observant Judaism and the modern world. Some refer to the resultant mode of Orthodox Judaism as Neo-Orthodoxy.
Derech Eretz
The phrase Torah im Derech Eretz is first found in the Mishna in Tractate Avoth (2:2): "Beautiful is the study of Torah with Derech Eretz, as involvement with both makes one forget sin". The term Derech Eretz, literally "the way of the land", is inherently ambiguous, with a wide range of meanings in Rabbinic literature, referring to earning a livelihood and behaving appropriately, among others.
Appropriate behaviour and good character
In the Talmud and Midrash, there are approximately 200 teachings concerning Derech Eretz as decent, polite, respectful, thoughtful, and civilized behavior. One representative teaching is that "Derech Eretz comes before Torah" – one cannot personify Torah until he demonstrates Derech Eretz in everything that he does.
There are many more such teachings in the rishonim and acharonim (post-Talmudic authorities). The mussar literature, in fact, presents an entire body of thought devoted to the subject of middot (character traits) and "behaving like a mentsh" (refined human being, lit. a mature man). Here, the way that one behaves is regarded as an external manifestation of one's middot.
Nachman of Breslov takes the words comes before (in the above maxim) in a chronologic sense. Thus, "Derech eretz comes before Torah", means that Derech Eretz is the original method to know part of the truth, and existed before the gift of the Torah.
Earning a livelihood
The meaning of Derech Eretz in the above Mishna is generally taken as "earning a livelihood", and the Mishna is thus read as "Beautiful is the study of Torah combined with 'earning a livelihood'". In consonance, Rabbinic opinion has a general requirement for earning a livelihood, but in such a fashion that one may also study and live Torah.
This opinion, in fact, extends to codification in Jewish Law:
"[One] should work every day, sufficient for his living... and should busy himself with Torah the rest of the day and night; one who supports himself with his own hands is on a great level".
The language of this codification is representative of the general value assigned by Rabbinic literature to work in and of itself, and of the simultaneous requirement that work be seen as means to spiritual, and not material, goals.
(See also Kohelet Rabbah 1:34). Thus, as formulated in Pirkei Avot 4:1:
Rashi, on the verse, similarly states that one who supports himself inherits this world and the next.
At the same time, in this widely quoted Mishna, the requirement to work is clearly presented with a simultaneous warning against materialism. In fact similar teachings are widespread in the Tanakh ("God made one to balance the other" Ecclesiastes 7:14), Midrash, and Rabbinic literature generally.
Even the choice of occupation is circumscribed:
The Mishna Berurah states that working laymen (בעלי בתים) should ensure that their business activities are secondary to their Torah study, and, regardless, should set aside 3 or 4 hours each day to study — if required, limiting one's lifestyle such that this amount of study is possible.
The popular Kitzur Shulchan Aruch more generally requires that:
"when you are engaged in business or in a trade [or profession] to earn a livelihood, you should not aspire to accumulate wealth, but pursue your work in order to support your family, to give charity, and to raise your children to study the Torah..."
See also .
Rabbinic tradition therefore recognizes that achieving an appropriate balance could pose both practical and philosophic challenges (e.g. the requirement for secular education as opposed to limited vocational training), and the various issues are therefore widely discussed:
(i) in various tractates in the Talmud;
(ii) in the halakhic literature;
(iii) as well as in Jewish philosophy, Hasidic thought and Musar (ethical) literature - see discussion under Divine providence in Judaism.
In Kabbalistic and Chassidic thought, also, work is seen as having positive value: Thirty-Nine Acts of Labor, encompassing all the types of work, were necessary in order to build the Tabernacle. Work became a necessity when Adam ate from the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil, causing the sparks of holiness to fall to the Other Side. All our work, regardless of its spiritual or material purpose, serves to rebuild those Shattered Vessels. One who conducts his work or business honorably is considered as though he builds the Tabernacle.
Knowledge of the natural world
Maharal, Judah Loew (1525–1609), points out that Derech Eretz is not limited to "earning a living"; rather, the concept encompasses hanhaga tiv`it, "operating in the natural world". Here, Maharal in his Derech Chaim comments on the later Mishna, Avoth 3:21, which discusses the interdependence of "Torah and flour (kemakh)" as well as the interdependence of "Torah and Derech Eretz". Kemakh, flour, clearly refers to monetary livelihood (with Torah referring to spiritual livelihood). Thus, Derech Eretz refers to more than just "earning a livelihood" and includes the knowledge and skills that facilitate success in the "world of Nature". See.
Knowledge of culture and society
Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch (18081888), incorporating the above, was among the first to extend the definition of Derech Eretz to include a broad knowledge of, and appropriate interaction with, culture and society. Hirsch states that:
"Derech Eretz includes everything that results from the fact that man's existence, mission and social life are conducted on Earth, using earthly means and conditions. Therefore this term especially describes ways of earning a livelihood and maintaining the social order. It also includes the customs and considerations of etiquette that the social order generates as well as everything concerning humanistic and civil education." (commentary on Pirkei Avot)
Hirsch's conception also entails the qualification that there be no compromise on strict adherence to Jewish law. The resultant philosophy of Orthodox Judaism in the modern world, referred to as "Torah im Derech Eretz", is discussed below.
Rabbi S.R. Hirsch
When Hirsch first came to Frankfurt in 1851, he proclaimed Torah im Derech Eretz as the "banner" for his congregation, the Israelitische Religionsgesellschaft — the phrase has since been synonymous with Hirsch as well as with his philosophy. As seen, Hirsch was not unique in extending Derech Eretz to include broad knowledge of the secular world; rather, his role was to formalize a philosophy of Derech Eretz that incorporated a practical response to modernity.
Hirsch's philosophy has been variously interpreted within Orthodoxy.
Hirsch's Torah im Derech Eretz
In Hirsch's view, Derech Eretz refers not only to livelihood, but also to the social order, with the associated mores and considerations of courtesy and propriety, as well as to general education. Hirsch thus developed the concept of Derech Eretz to embrace Western culture while maintaining strict adherence to Jewish law (see and ).
Worldly involvement
Hirsch seeks to demonstrate in all his writings that the combination of Torah and Derech Eretz is not only possible but necessary if Judaism is to dominate not only the religious sphere of personal and communal life, but the secular, mundane sphere as well. To Hirsch, the fulfillment of Torah—Derech Eretz—therefore requires worldly involvement and general participation in society, as facilitated by the requisite knowledge.
"Judaism is not a mere adjunct to life: it comprises all of life. To be a Jew is not a mere part, it is the sum total of our task in life. To be a Jew in the synagogue and the kitchen, in the field and the warehouse, in the office and the pulpit ... with the needle and the graving-tool, with the pen and the chisel—that is what it means to be a Jew." (Religion Allied to Progress)
Secular culture and education
In Hirsch's view, Judaism must "include the conscientious promotion of education and culture". Hirsch speaks of the Mensch-Yisroel ("Israel-man"), the "enlightened religious personality" as an ideal: that is the Jew who is proudly Jewish, a believer in the eternal values of the Torah, but also possessing the ability to engage with and influence contemporary culture and knowledge.
"The more, indeed, Judaism comprises the whole of man and extends its declared mission to the salvation of the whole of mankind, the less it is possible to confine its outlook to the synagogue. [Thus] the more the Jew is a Jew, the more universalist will be his views and aspirations [and] the less aloof will he be from ... art or science, culture or education ... [and] the more joyfully will he applaud whenever he sees truth and justice and peace and the ennoblement of man." (Religion Allied to Progress)
Jewish law
Importantly, Hirsch was very clear that Derech Eretz in no sense allows for halakhic compromise. In his view, Judaism is "an untouchable sanctuary which must not be subjected to human judgment nor subordinated to human considerations" and "progress is valid only to the extent that it does not interfere with religion". He states that "the Jew will not want to accomplish anything that he cannot accomplish as a Jew. Any step which takes him away from Judaism is not for him a step forward, is not progress. He exercises this self-control without a pang, for he does not wish to accomplish his own will on earth but labours in the service of God." In The Nineteen Letters of Ben Uziel Hirsch remarked that it would have been better for the Jews not to have been emancipated if the price they had to pay was assimilation. (See also, Modern Orthodox Judaism#Standards of observance.)
Interpretation
See also the discussion on this point, in the article on Rabbi Hirsch.
As mentioned, the philosophy of Torah im Derech Eretz has been variously interpreted within Orthodoxy. The range of interpretations arises particularly in light of the tension between Hirsch's insistence as to faithfulness to Jewish law and tradition, and the challenges posed to this by interaction with the secular world.
Under a "narrow interpretation", exposure to secular philosophy, music, art, literature, or ethics must be functional. Under a "median interpretation", this exposure is permissible, and even required, for the sake of the domination of Torah values over one's worldly matters. Under a "broad interpretation" this exposure is permissible, providing a complement to ― and even a synthesis with ― Torah.
Thus as regards involvement in the secular world, the "narrow interpretation" essentially restricts Derech Eretz to a gainful occupation; permissible knowledge would be limited to functional and occupation related knowledge, and (possibly) secular knowledge that enables one to better interpret and understand the Torah. The "median interpretation" encourages the study of secular knowledge, but only insofar as this permits application of a Torah outlook and philosophy to human knowledge and culture. The "broad interpretation" permits the general acquisition of secular culture and knowledge as valuable in its own right.
Hirsch himself appears to have embraced the "median interpretation", albeit with the qualifications above. He states that "Torah im Derech Eretz, as used by our sages, means the realization of Torah in harmonious unity with all the conditions under which its laws will have to be observed amidst the developments of changing times" (Gesammelte Schriften vii p. 294). Thus on a regular basis, he quotes secular scientists in his Torah commentary. Some scholars believe that he was influenced by Hegel (1770–1831) and Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805) ; in fact, in a speech given in the school he founded on the centenary of the birth of the latter, he claimed that the universalistic principles of Western culture embodied in Schiller's writings are Jewish values originating in the Torah.
On the other hand, Hirsch cautioned as to the danger of scientific knowledge leading one away from God; further, his schools, unlike others in Germany at the time, taught modern (business) languages as opposed to classical languages. Famously, in his commentary to Leviticus 18:4-5 (see also Rashi ad loc.), Hirsch clearly delineates the relationship of secular knowledge and Torah, where Torah is "ikkar" (עיקר), the essential, while secular knowledge is "tefel" (טפל), secondary or supplementary to Torah. He states that "[w]e are confident that there is only one truth, and only one body of knowledge that can serve as the standard... Compared to it, all the other sciences are valid only provisionally".
His commentary on Deuteronomy 6:7 is perhaps more explicit:
"The study of the Torah shall be our main intellectual pursuit... We are not to study Torah from the standpoint of another science or for the sake of that science. So, too, we are to be careful not to introduce into the sphere of the Torah foreign ideas... Rather, we should always be mindful of the superiority of the Torah, which differs from all other scientific knowledge through its Divine origin... [Our Sages] do not demand of us to completely ignore all the scientific knowledge... [but rather] that a person [be] familiar with these other realms of knowledge, but ... only from the Torah's perspective ... and they warn us that neglecting this perspective will jeopardize our intellectual life."
Neo-Orthodoxy: the "Breuer" communities
In 1851, Hirsch was called to become the rabbi of the breakaway Orthodox community of Frankfurt am Main. This community soon became the model for "modern communities" strict in adherence to Orthodox practices, sometimes called, "Frankfurter Orthodoxy". Hirsch's son-in-law Rabbi Dr. Shlomo Zalman (Solomon) Breuer, succeeded him after his death. Wary of establishing a dynasty, the Frankfurt community did not appoint Hirsch's son to be his successor.
After World War I, in order to show their rejection of religious liberalism, followers of the community started to call themselves "Neo-Orthodox"; this mirrored the parallel movement in Lutheranism (called "Neo-Orthodoxy"). Thus, at this point, Hirsch's romantic liberalism and the values of the 1848 struggle for civil rights were less relevant – and the rejection of many elements of Weimar German culture was prevalent. Solomon Breuer and Isaac Breuer were leaders of this conservative turn by the community.
Following Kristallnacht, Breuer and his family emigrated to Antwerp, and then to New York City. Once in New York, Breuer started a congregation among the numerous German refugees in Washington Heights, which closely followed the customs and mores of the Frankfurt community. The congregation, Khal Adath Yeshurun, is colloquially known as "Breuer's". Rabbi Shimon Schwab, also a native of Frankfurt, served as the second Rabbi of the "Breuer" community, until his death in 1995. Solomon Breuer and Joseph Breuer are often regarded as Hirsch's intellectual heirs, while Schwab is regarded as aligned with the more traditional Lithuanian orthodox communities.
The Breuer community has cautiously applied Torah im Derech Eretz to American life, narrowing its application over time. Schwab warned of the dangers of contemporary moral attitudes in secular culture and literature, and emphasized that followers of Neo-Orthodoxy therefore require a strong basis of faith and knowledge, and must exercise caution in engagements with the secular world.
Schwab also frequently emphasized that Torah can never be regarded as parallel with the secular knowledge. "Torah study is the highest duty of the Jew", and "even to suggest that anything can be parallel to Torah is a blasphemy of the highest order; Torah is above all, and everything else in life must be conducted in accordance with the Written and Oral Torah." Still, entry into commerce or the professions is seen as a valid component of Torah life, to be facilitated by an appropriate secular education (with the caveat that campus life is "incontestably immoral"). "Carrying on one's professional life in consonance with the halakha is in itself a practice of Torah." One must "establish the Torah's primacy over the modes of business and professional life so that his behavior transforms even that 'mundane' portion of his life into a sanctification."
The community is positioned ideologically outside of both Modern Orthodoxy and Haredi Judaism ("Ultra-Orthodoxy"). As regards Haredi Judaism, Schwab acknowledged that although Neo-Orthodoxy is not the path openly espoused by the majority of today's Roshei Yeshiva, the "Torah Only" and Torah Im Derech Eretz camps can exist side-by-side. "As long as one is prompted solely by Yiras Shamayim ("fear of Heaven") and a search for truth, each individual has a choice as to which school he should follow." Practically, the community is fully engaged with haredi Agudath Yisrael of America, while it shuns the more modern Orthodox Union.
The movement is somewhat distant from Modern Orthodoxy. Schwab regards Modern Orthodoxy as having misinterpreted Hirsch's ideas: regarding standards of halakha as well as the relative emphasis of Torah versus secular; see discussion under Torah Umadda. Further, Breuer, influenced by Hirsch's philosophy on Austritt (secession), "could not countenance recognition of a non-believing body as a legitimate representative of the Jewish people". For this reason, he was "unalterably opposed to the Mizrachi movement, which remained affiliated with the World Zionist Organization and the Jewish Agency".
Contemporary influence
Torah im Derech Eretz remains influential as a philosophy in Orthodox Judaism. Although usually associated with the "Breuer" community of Washington Heights, the philosophy remains an important influence in Modern Orthodox Judaism and, to some extent, in Haredi Judaism. (See also Divine Providence for discussion of derech eretz in contemporary Orthodox Judaism.)
Modern Orthodoxy
Torah im Derech Eretz is a major source of ideology for Modern Orthodoxy, particularly regarding the synthesis of Judaism and secular culture. Organizations on the left of Modern Orthodoxy have embraced the "broad interpretation", although critics say that, philosophical issues aside, their "relatively relaxed stance" in halakha in fact positions them outside the realm of Torah im Derech Eretz.
Further to the right, the "broad interpretation" is largely identical with Torah Umadda—Torah and secular knowledge—a philosophy of Modern Orthodoxy closely associated with Yeshiva University, which aims at synthesizing Torah learning and secular knowledge within the personality. The two are nevertheless distinct in terms of emphasis. Under Torah Umadda, "[w]e prefer to look upon science and religion as separate domains..." (Samuel Belkin, inaugural address, 1943), whereas Torah im Derech Eretz, aims at the domination of Torah over secular knowledge and the application of Torah thought to secular knowledge. See further under Torah Umadda.
Neo-Orthodoxy
As above, the "Breuer" community continues to closely apply the philosophy. However, since World War II, the community, has moved away from the "median interpretation" toward the "narrow interpretation", as above. Rabbi Breuer saw the risk of misinterpretation of his grandfather's ideas (and confusion with Torah Umadda) especially post-war. He repeatedly stated that compromising on Jewishness and halakha was at variance with Torah im Derech Eretz, and emphasized the distinction between Modern Orthodoxy and Neo-Orthodoxy as regards the relationship between Torah and secular. "Rabbi Hirsch's fight was not for balance and not for reconcilement, nor for synthesis and certainly not for parallel power, but for domination – for the true and absolute domination of the divine precept over the new tendencies" (Isaac Breuer, Hirsch's grandson). See further in the article on Rabbi Hirsch and additionally under Modern Orthodoxy.
Haredi Judaism
Today, the Haredi "Yeshiva communities" adhere to the "narrow interpretation" as an educational philosophy. Torah im Derech Eretz was the basic idea that shaped the curriculum of the Beis Yaakov school system, and continues to be influential. (In fact, in her Seminary in Kraków, Sarah Schenirer taught Rav Hirsch's writings in German. The (German-born) teachers spoke German and the Polish students learned German.) Similarly, the "narrow interpretation" guides the curricula at boys' high schools.
Other Haredi communities, the "Torah only" school, are further distant from Torah im Derech Eretz. Since World War II there has been an ideological tendency in that camp to devote all intellectual capabilities to Torah study only—in schools, yeshivot and kollels. Thus, the optimum course to be adopted in all cases is to devote oneself to full-time Torah learning for as long as possible; "to go out into the world is a course to be adopted only when there is no other alternative". Here, the Hirschian model is seen as horaat sha'ah, a "time-specific teaching" intended to apply to the special circumstances of Western Europe in the 1800s. (Note that Hirsch himself addressed this contention: "Torah im Derech Eretz ... is not part of troubled, time-bound notions; it represents the ancient, traditional wisdom of our sages that has stood the test everywhere and at all times." (Gesammelte Schriften vi p. 221); see further under Joseph Breuer.)
References
Further reading
Torah im Derech Eretz
Berman, Saul J. Diverse Orthodox Attitudes to Torah U'Maddah, Edah
Blau, Yosef , Torah U'Madda, Volume 1: 1989
Breitowitz, Yitzchok Choosing a Profession: Torah Considerations part I, part II, darchenoam.org
Forsythe, Jeff Derech Eretz: Civil, Polite and Thoughtful Behavior, shemayisrael.com
Rothstein, Gidon Maharal on Avot, rjconline.org
Schnall, David Six Days Shall You Toil: Classic Jewish Work Values, The Torah u-Madda Journal (10/2001)
Taubes M. The value of work, Parshas Yitro in The Practical Torah
Waxman, Chaim. Dilemmas of modern orthodoxy: sociological and philosophical, Judaism, Winter, 1993
Rabbi S.R. Hirsch
Bodenheimer, Ernst Rabbi Joseph Breuer: The Rav of Frankfurt, U.S.A., Jewish Observer
Carmell, Aryeh Torah Im Derech Eretz, jct.ac.il
Chamiel, Ephraim The Middle way - The Emergence of Modern Religious Trends in Nineteenth-Century Judaism, Academic Studies Press, Brighton, 2014, Vol I, pp. 392-446.
Chamiel Ephraim, The Dual Truth - Studies on Nineteenth-Century Modern Religious Thought and its Influence on Twentieth-Century Jewish Philosophy, Academic Studies Press, Brighton, 2019, Vol I' pp.1-72.
Chevroni, M. The Contribution of German Chareidim to the New Yishuv, Deiah veDibur
Drachman, Bernard Hirsch, Samson Raphael, jewishencyclopedia.com
Frankel, Pinchas On the Breuer Kehilla, ou.org
Hirsch, Samson Raphael The Nineteen Letters Translated by Karin Paritzky, annotated by Rabbi Joseph Elias, Philip Feldheim (1994) .
Hirsch, Samson Raphael Religion Allied to Progress, in Collected Writings of Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, Philip Feldheim (1996)
Jacobs, Louis Samson Raphael Hirsch: The Father of Neo-Orthodoxy in The Jewish Religion: A Companion, Oxford University Press (1995)
Kaplan, Lawrence Revisionism and the Rav: The Struggle for the Soul of Modern Orthodoxy, Judaism, Summer, 1999
Katzenellenbogen, Raphael Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, His Teachings and Philosophy (Hebrew), daat.ac.il
Klugman, Rabbi Eliyahu Meir Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, architect of Judaism for the modern world, Mesorah (1996)
Levi, Yehuda "Torah Study", Philipp Feldheim Inc, (1990) (see especially Parts 1 & 7)
Levi, Yehuda Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch as a guide for our generation (Hebrew), daat.ac.il
Plaut, Mordechai The "Torah Only" Attitude to Torah Im Derech Eretz, Deiah veDibur
Plaut, Mordechai The Call to Stand Firm Against "Chareidi Yeshiva High Schools", Deiah veDibur
Schwab S. "These and Those" and "Torah im Derech Eretz – a Second View" in Selected Essays, CIS Publishers, (1994)
Segal, Eliezer Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch and Neo-Orthodoxy, ucalgary.ca
Sofer D. Rav Shimshon Raphael Hirsch, Yated Neeman
Weinberg Y. Y. The Teachings of Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch(Hebrew), daat.ac.il
Jewish philosophy
Orthodox Judaism
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In French, a verb is inflected to reflect its mood and tense, as well as to agree with its subject in person and number. Following the tradition of Latin grammar, the set of inflected forms of a French verb is called the verb's conjugation.
Stems and endings
French verbs have a large number of simple (one-word) forms. These are composed of two distinct parts: the stem (or root, or radix), which indicates which verb it is, and the ending (inflection), which indicates the verb's tense (imperfect, present, future etc.) and mood and its subject's person (I, you, he/she etc.) and number, though many endings can correspond to multiple tense-mood-subject combinations. In certain parts of the second conjugation there is also a suffix -iss- between the stem and the ending, which derives historically from an inchoative suffix.
In parlaient, the stem parl- indicates that the verb is parler (to speak) and the ending -aient marks the third-person plural imperfect indicative. "Third person plural" meaning the subject of the verb is "they". The "imperfect indicative" being a tense.
In finissons, the stem fin- indicates that the verb is finir (to finish), the suffix -iss- follows it, and the inflection -ons marks the first-person plural present indicative or imperative. The "first-person plural" is the "we" form of a verb. The "present indicative" being a tense and "imperative" being a mood, but in French they are indistinguishable without context.
These verb conjugations are most often coupled with a subject pronoun to reinforce who the subject of the verb is (i.e. who is doing the action). Note that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the stem from the ending, especially in irregular verbs such as avoir (to have), aller (to go), dire (to say), être (to be), faire (to do, make), pouvoir (can), savoir (to know), valoir (to be worth, to cost), and vouloir (to want):
Il va travailler. (He goes to work.)
Es-tu là ? (Are you there?)
Elle a rougi. (She blushed.)
In these examples, there is no obvious stem - the verbs conjugate without a stem.
The principle of the fixed stem
The stem normally stays fixed in the first two conjugations:
Parler: Je parlerais, tu parlas, qu'ils parlassent, que nous parlions, parlez…
Finir: Je finirais, vous finîtes, qu'ils finissent, finis, que nous finissions…
In the third it is often modified, sometimes even between persons in the same tense:
Vouloir: Je veux, tu veux, il veut, nous voulons, vous voulez, ils veulent.
But such irregularities apart, the principle is that nothing is removed from the stem. Consequently, verbs ending in -guer and -quer keep the -gu- or -qu- throughout the conjugation, even where simplifying this combination to -g- or -c- would be consistent with the rules of French orthography:
Naviguer: nous naviguons, je naviguais, en naviguant…
Provoquer: nous provoquons, je provoquais, en provoquant…
Adding to the stem to preserve the pronunciation
But although things are generally not removed from the stem, it is permissible to add letters when this is necessary. Certain stems can undergo various orthographic changes (which are not strictly speaking considered to be irregularities) in order to retain the correct pronunciation:
The -c- in certain stems receives a cedilla before any ending which would otherwise change its pronunciation:
Avancer: j'avance, nous avançons, j'avançais…
Apercevoir: j'aperçois, tu aperçus, nous apercevons…
The -g- in certain stems is followed by a silent -e- before any ending which would otherwise change its pronunciation:
Manger: je mange, nous mangeons, je mangeais, vous mangiez, en mangeant…
Endings (terminaisons)
The ending is a suffix which tells us:a
For all verbs, the mood and the tense;
For finite verbs, the person and the number; and
For the past participle alone, the gender and the number.
Apart from a few frequent verbs which are considered totally irregular (mainly avoir, être, aller and faire), for each tense of each mood a series of six endings (one for each person singular and plural) is associated with a group or subgroup of verbs. Each of these series must now remain fixed throughout a single tense. Consequently, no ending may be modified even when orthographical simplification would be possible:
For example, when the verb stem ends in a vowel (crier, fuir, tuer, voir, etc.), the -e- of the ending may become silent but must still be written (in the present, future, and conditional):
Fuir (to flee), present subjunctive: que je fuie, que tu fuies, qu'il fuie, que nous fuyions, que vous fuyiez, qu'ils fuient…
Créer (to create), future indicative: je créerai, tu créeras, il créera, nous créerons, vous créerez, ils créeront…
Similarly, the imperfect indicative and present subjunctive endings for the first and second persons plural are -ions et -iez: for verbs such as gagner, voir, rire, briller, etc., the -i- of these endings must be retained, even though some speakers pronounce them the same way as the present indicative forms without -i-:
Nous gagnions (vs. gagnons), vous voyiez (vs. voyez), nous riions (vs. rions), vous brilliez (vs. brillez), …
Formation of simple tenses active
These tenses are not formed with an auxiliary, and their formation is discussed in the following section.
Infinitive (Infinitif)
A verb is normally named by its present infinitive (Infinitif présent). Starting from this infinitive, the conjugations can be classified into three different groups:
The first group or first conjugation. This contains the verbs with infinitives ending in -er /e/ (with the exception of aller, which due to its numerous irregularities is usually classed as being in the third conjugation):
etc.
For example, for the verb parler, the stem is parl- and the ending is -er .
The second group or second conjugation. This contains the verbs with infinitives ending in -ir whose present participle ends in -issant :
etc.
For example, for the verb finir, the stem is fin- and the ending is -ir.
The third group or third conjugation. This contains all the other verbs, all considered as to some extent irregular, to wit: the verbs ending in -ir not belonging to the second conjugation, the verbs ending in -oir, the verbs ending in -re, and the verb aller:
etc.
Examples:
– the stem is cour- and the ending is -ir /iʁ/.
– the stem is dev- and the ending is -oir /waʁ/.
– the stem is rend- and the ending is -re /ʁ/.
– the stem is all- and the ending is -er /e/.
Note that the auxiliaries être and avoir, although they would naturally seem to belong to the third conjugation, are traditionally classed separately.
Present indicative (Indicatif présent)
The present indicative is the form of the verb used to describe an action in the present e.g. Je parle means "I speak" or "I am speaking".
The stem of the present indicative is not always regular and can vary (especially in the third conjugation) and there are three main sets of endings:
Verbs ending in -er (all verbs of the first group): -e, -es, -e, -ons, -ez, -ent, pronounced .
Verbs ending in -ir (all verbs of the second group and most of the third): -is, -is, -it, -issons, -issez, -issent, pronounced . But there are numerous irregularities, especially in the third group.
Verbs ending in -re (all verbs of the second group and most of the third): -s, -s, - , -ons, -ez, -ent, pronounced .
Example:
Verbs of the second group take an -iss- in the plural conjugations.
Verbs of the third group:
Verbs ending in -oir : the indicative present stems depend on the verb. The endings are -s, -s, -t, -ons, -ez, -ent. However, verbs , , and have -x, -x, -t in singular (je peux, tu peux, , , , ).
Verbs in -re : endings are the same, stems are equally irregular. There are verbs dire, faire and être which have -tes instead of -ez and other irregularities. Verbs with -ttre have -ts, -ts, -t in singular (je mets for mettre, tu bats for battre). Verbs with -dre have endings -ds, -ds, -d in singular (e.g. : je prends, tu mouds, il répand) except verbs in -indre and -soudre (Verbs in -soudre in plural: -solvons, -solvez, -solvent). Verbs vaincre and convaincre have -cs, -cs, -c in singular (, , ).
Verbs in -ir : endings are the same as the second group in singular, and they have regular ending of third group in plural.
Imperfect indicative (Indicatif imparfait)
The imperfect indicative is a past tense, where the action either continues into the present or is a repeated action e.g. "je parlais" means "I was speaking" or "I used to speak". It may be used when someone or their action is interrupted e.g. "je parlais avant que tu m'arrêtes" meaning "I was speaking before you stopped me"
The stem of the imperfect indicative is always invariant for a single verb. It is derived from the first person plural of the present indicative (except for the verb être):
Verb boire, present indicative: je bois, tu bois, il boit, nous buvons, vous buvez, ils boivent.
Verb boire, imperfect indicative: je buvais, tu buvais, il buvait, nous buvions, vous buviez, ils buvaient.
The endings of this tense are for any of the three groups always: -ais, -ais, -ait, -ions, -iez, -aient, pronounced .
For the 1st and 3rd groups, the -i- of the first and second persons plural must always be kept even though it may not be reflected in the pronunciation of certain verbs:
Nous travaillions, vous travailliez, nous riions, vous riiez, nous essuyions, vous essuyiez, nous gagnions, vous gagniez, nous tressaillions, vous tressailliez, nous priions, vous priiez...
Example:
In older texts, one can find the endings -ois, -ois, -oit, -ions, -iez, -oient, corresponding to the orthography of Old French. This spelling coexisted with the modern endings -ais, -ais, -ait, -ions, -iez, -aient and was not officially abandoned by the Académie française until 1835.
Example:
Verb être : the stem is ét- (/et/), endings are the same.
Past historic (Indicatif passé simple or Indicatif passé défini)
Note that in modern language this tense is used only in formal writing, usually referring to historical, historic events, or in novels; it was replaced by passé composé in other contexts.
The stem of the past historic tense is not always regular but is always invariant for a single verb. There are four sets of endings for this tense:
Past historic in -a-: -ai, -as, -a, -âmes, -âtes, -èrent. [1st group and aller]
(pronounced .)
Past historic in -i-: -is, -is, -it, -îmes, -îtes, -irent. [2nd and 3rd groups]
(pronounced .)
Past historic in -u-: -us, -us, -ut, -ûmes, -ûtes, -urent. [3rd group]
(pronounced .)
Past historic in -in-: -ins, -ins, -int, -înmes, -întes, -inrent. [verbs venir, tenir and all the verbs which are formed with them (survenir, maintenir, etc.)]
(pronounced .)
Je chantai, je finis, je bus, je vins…
Example:
Future (Indicatif futur simple)
The future endings correspond to the present indicative of the verb avoir. They are always regular: -ai, -as, -a, -ons, -ez, -ont, pronounced .
Between the future stem and these endings the infinitive ending is inserted, though the pronunciation of the -er infinitive changes from to In other words, to form the future tense these endings are appended to the infinitive:
Je finirai, tu parleras, elle sortira, nous travaillerons, vous rougirez, ils partiront.
But there are several irregular future stems, especially in the third group.
Example:
The following verbs have a double r in future forms: envoyer, renvoyer (j'enverrai, je renverrai), mourir (je mourrai), courir (je courrai), choir and échoir (il cherra, il écherra), acquérir and conquérir (j'acquerrai, je conquerrai), voir (je verrai), pouvoir (je pourrai).
Present conditional (Conditionnel présent)
The conditional endings correspond to those of the imperfect indicative. They too are always regular: -ais, -ais, -ait, -ions, -iez, -aient, and in some rare cases, -it, pronounced ...
The conditional stem is always the same as the future stem:
Je finirais, tu parlerais, elle sortirait, nous travaillerions, vous rougiriez, ils partiraient.
Consequently, if the future stem is irregular, so will the conditional be, and vice versa. Moreover, if the future does not exist (defective verbs) neither will the conditional.
Example:
Sometimes the past imperfect subjunctive is used to replace the present conditional. This form is called the present conditional second form (Conditionnel présent deuxième forme). In contrast the regular conditional is then called present conditional first form (Conditionnel présent première forme). This has become very unusual, only in sentences starting with Même si and the expression fût-ce this form is still used. The perfective
tense (the past conditional second form (Conditionnel passé deuxième forme) is however used very often in literature.
Example:
Present subjunctive (Subjonctif présent)
The present subjunctive endings are for all three groups (except the verbs être and avoir): -e, -es, -e, -ions, -iez, -ent, pronounced .
For the 1st and 3rd groups, the -i- of the first and second persons plural must always be kept even though it may not be reflected in the pronunciation of certain verbs:
(Il faut) que nous travaillions, que vous travailliez, que nous riions, que vous riiez, que nous essuyions, que vous essuyiez, que nous gagnions, que vous gagniez, que nous tressaillions, que vous tressailliez, que nous priions, que vous priiez. Exceptions: que nous ayons, que vous ayez, que nous soyons, que vous soyez...
The present subjunctive stem is generally derived from the third person plural of the present indicative (except for the verbs aller, avoir, être, faire, falloir, pouvoir, savoir, traire, valoir, and vouloir, which have irregular stems):
Verb craindre, present indicative: je crains, tu crains, il craint, nous craignons, vous craignez, ils craignent.
Verb craindre, present subjunctive: (que) je craigne, tu craignes, il craigne, nous craignions, vous craigniez, ils craignent.
Verb faire, present indicative: je fais, tu fais, il fait, nous faisons, vous faites, ils font.
Verb faire, present subjunctive: (que) je fasse, tu fasses, il fasse, nous fassions, vous fassiez, ils fassent.
But sometimes when in the present indicative the stem used for the first and second persons plural differs from that used for the other four persons; the present subjunctive also uses this stem for these two persons:
Verb recevoir, present indicative: je reçois, tu reçois, il reçoit, nous recevons, vous recevez, ils reçoivent.
Verb recevoir, present subjunctive: (que) je reçoive, tu reçoives, il reçoive, nous recevions, vous receviez, ils reçoivent.
Example:
Irregular endings : (que je sois, que tu sois, qu'il soit, que nous soyons, que vous soyez, qu'il soient) and avoir (qu'il ait, que nous ayons, que vous ayez, the rest are regular)
Imperfect subjunctive (Subjonctif imparfait)
The imperfect subjunctive is always constructed from the past historic; hence, if the past historic does not exist (defective verbs) neither will the imperfect subjunctive. To be more exact, the imperfect subjunctive stem consists of the second person singular of the past historic, except that in the third person singular of the imperfect subjunctive the final -s- of the stem is replaced with a circumflex over the preceding vowel. The stem is otherwise stable for a single verb, and the endings are always: -se, -ses, -ˆt, -sions, -siez, -sent, pronounced .
(Il fallait) que je chantasse, que tu finisses, qu'il bût, que nous vinssions, que vous parlassiez, qu'elles rougissent…
Example:
Imperative (Impératif)
Recall two unusual features of the imperative: it exists only in three persons (second singular, first plural and second plural) and its subject pronoun is always omitted.
Most often, the present imperative (Impératif présent) is copied from the indicative present (this is always true for verbs from the first two groups). Thus when the present indicative has two alternate forms, so does the present imperative:
Asseoir: assieds (assois), asseyons (assoyons), asseyez (assoyez).
Payer: paie (paye), payons, payez.
The imperatives of avoir and être are based on the present subjunctive, and those of savoir and vouloir are irregular:
Aie, ayons, ayez.
Sois, soyons, soyez.
Sache, sachons, sachez.
Veuille, veuillons, veuillez.
Note that the singular of verbs ending in -e or in -a in the imperative has no final -s. This applies to all verbs from the 1st group and to some from the 3rd (assaillir, couvrir, cueillir, défaillir, offrir, ouvrir, souffrir, tressaillir and verbs derived from them, as well as the verbs aller, avoir, savoir et vouloir):
Parle, cueille, va, aie, sache, veuille, finis, sors...
However, for euphonic reasons this -s reappears if the imperative is immediately followed by one of the indirect object pronouns en and y:
Cueille (cueilles-en). Pense (penses-y)...
Example:
Present participle and gerundive
The present participle (le participe présent) is typically formed from the first-person plural of the present indicative by replacing -ons with -ant. There are exceptions to this, as with avoir, être, and savoir (whose present participles are ayant, étant, and sachant, respectively), but in all cases the present participle ends in -ant.
The gerundive (le gérondif) consists of the preposition en together with the present participle; for example, the present participle of faire is faisant, so its gerundive is en faisant.
The present participle and the gerundive are both invariable; that is, they do not change form to agree with any other part of a sentence.
Past participle
Past participles, unlike present participles and gerundives, may be inflected to show gender and number by adding -e and -s, as with a normal adjective. Hence, "un fruit confit", "une poire confite", "des fruits confits", and "des poires confites." As they are passive participles, this inflection only occurs with transitive verbs, and with certain reflexive verbs.
The plain (masculine singular) form of a past participle may end in -é (1st group verbs, naître [né], être [été] and aller [allé]), -i (2nd group; sortir [sorti], partir [parti], etc.), -u (entendre [entendu], boire [bu], lire [lu], etc. and savoir [su], voir [vu], pouvoir [pu]), -is (mettre [mis], prendre [pris], etc.), -us (inclure [inclus] and reclure [reclus] and only this verbs), -it (maudire, [maudit], dire [dit], etc.),-t (verbs in -indre : peindre [peint]), -ert (ouvrir [ouvert], couvrir [couvert], offrir [offert] and souffrir [souffert]), or eu (avoir [eu]).
Verbal adjective (Adjectif verbal)
For most verbs, the verbal adjective is nearly the same as the present participle, however the verbal adjectif is inflected as an adjective, e.g. le garçon sautant (the jumping boy), la fille sautante (the jumping girl), les garçons sautants (the jumping boys), les filles sautantes (the jumping girls). This is called the Present verbal adjective (Adjectif verbal présent). The past participle can act as the Past verbal adjective (Adjectif verbal passé) (e.g. la fille sauvée (the girl that has been rescued)).
However some verbs are irregular, their verbal adjective slightly differs from their present participle (most of these irregular verbs have a verbal adjective ending on ent instead of ant). A relative construction is almost always preferred to the present verbal adjective (e.g. les garçons qui sautent preferred to les garçons sautants), especially when there is a risk of orthographic confusion in some irregular cases (e.g. adj. résident vs. verb. adj. résidant, pronounced exactly the same, with only a slightest distinction of meaning).
Irregular verbs:
Present Infinitive (Infinitif présent) - Verbal adjective (Adjectif verbal) - present participle (Participe présent) - Translation
adhérer - adhérent - adhérant - to adhere
affluer - affluent - affluant - to rush
coïncider - coïncident - coïncidant - to coincide
communiquer - communicant - communiquant - to communicate
confluer - confluent - confluant - to meet (for rivers)
convaincre - convaincant - convainquant - to persuade
converger - convergent - convergeant - to converge
déléguer - délégant - déléguant - to delegate
déterger - détergent - détergeant - to wash
différer - différent - différant - to differ
diverger - divergent - divergeant - to diverge
exceller - excellent - excellant - to excel
équivaloir - équivalent - équivalant - to equal
fatiguer - fatigant - fatiguant - to wear, to tire
influer - influent - influant - to affect
intriguer - intrigant - intriguant - to intrigue
naviguer - navigant - naviguant - to navigate
négliger - négligent - négligeant - to neglect
précéder - précédent - précédant - to precede
provoquer - provocant - provoquant - to provoke
suffoquer - suffocant - suffoquant - to suffocate
vaincre - vaincant - vainquant - to conquer
valoir - valent - valant - to be worth
violer - violent - violant - to assault
vaquer - vacant - vaquant - to take a break
Verbal adverb (Adverbe verbal)
Out of the present verbal adjectif, a present verbal adverb (adverbe verbal présent) can be formed for every verb by replacing nt with :
courir - courant - couramment - to run
précéder - précédent - précédemment - to precede
Out of the past verbal adjectif, a past verbal adverb (adverbe verbal passé) can be formed for some verbs by adding ment:
assurer - assuré - assurément - to ascertain
Defective verbs
Some verbs have incomplete conjugations: they do not have forms for certain tenses, moods, or persons. Such verbs are said to be defective. They include:
some archaic verbs that survive only in very narrow contexts, such as accroire, choir, clore, ester, férir, gésir, occire, ouïr, poindre, and quérir. Hence, we have "Ci-gît un homme irremplaçable", "Oyez, oyez, braves gens !", and "Je l'ai obtenu sans coup férir."
necessarily impersonal verbs, such as falloir, pleuvoir, s'agir, and importer. Hence, we have "Il fallait que tu viennes", "Il tonne", and "Il s'agit de réussir."
some other verbs for which certain forms are useless, such as barrir, éclore, and pulluler. Hence, we have "Les moustiques pullulent", "Les fleurs éclosent", and "L'âne brait."
See also
French grammar
French verbs
French conjugation
Notes
References
This article is based on a translation of the corresponding article from the French Wikipedia, accessed 21 April 2005.
External links
A Two-Page PDF Reference Guide of the 681 Most Common French/English Verbs
9000 French verb conjugations
Open source database of French verb conjugation rules
Verb morphology
Linguistic morphology
French language
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Kodaikanal () is a hill station which is located in Dindigul district in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. Its name in the Tamil language means "The Gift of the Forest". Kodaikanal is referred to as the "Princess of Hill stations" and has a long history as a retreat and tourist destination.
Kodaikanal was established in 1845 as a refuge from the high temperatures and tropical diseases of the plains. Much of the local economy is based on the hospitality industry serving tourism. As of 2011, the city had a population of 36,501.
Etymology
It is not known who first used this name or what they intended it to mean.
The word Kodaikanal is an amalgamation of two words: kodai and kanal. The Tamil language has at least four possible interpretations of the name Kodaikanal. By pronouncing the first syllable of Kodaikanal with a long Tamil 'O', as in koe-dei (கொடை), it means "summer", whilst the final two syllables kanal (காணல்) means "to see", rendering Kodaikanal as a "place to see in summer". Kodaikanal is a summer forest, and it is a place that the first missionaries used as a refuge to escape the overbearing and mosquito-ridden heat of the plains – a place that they would have counted on seeing in the summer.
Kanal, in Tamil, can mean dense or closed forest. In this case, Kodai can have at least four meanings. By pronouncing Kodai with the long Tamil 'o' and short 'e', Ko-dai means "the end". Kodaikanal could mean "the end of the forest" which makes poetic and geographical sense – Kodaikanal is at the crown of the Palani Hills and is effectively surrounded and protected by thick forests.
By pronouncing Kodai with the short Tamil 'o' (as in Kodi), it means "creepers" or vines. Kodaikanal could mean "forest of creepers" or the forest of vines. "The forest of creepers" is thought to be the English language meaning given in 1885 during the early western habitation of the place and is still accepted.
By pronouncing Kodai with a short Tamil 'o', and a long 'e', it might be interpreted to mean "gift", rendering "Kodaikanal" as "gift of the forest". Keeping the short Tamil 'o' but adding a long 'a', Kodai could be understood as the Tamil word for umbrella, where Kodaikanal is a forest fashioned like a protecting umbrella.
Another Tamil word for creeper or vine is valli, the honey collecting daughter of the chief of the Veddas mountain tribe. The chief and his wife prayed to the Mountain God for a girl and their prayers were answered when the chief found a newborn girl child during a hunting expedition. As she was found among creeper plants, they named her Valli and she grew up as princess of the tribe in Kurinji and became the consort of lord Murugan. The romantic traditions of Murugan in Sangam literature are thus associated with the name Kodaikanal.
History
The earliest residents of Kodaikanal were the Palaiyar tribal people. The earliest specific references to Kodaikanal and the Palani Hills are found in Tamil Sangam literature of the early Common era.
Modern Kodaikanal was established by American Christian missionaries and British bureaucrats in 1845, as a refuge from the high temperatures and tropical diseases of the plains. In the 20th century a few elite Indians came to realise the value of this enchanting hill station and started relocating here.
Tourism has been impacted by industrial pollution issues including the closure of a mercury factory owned by Unilever's Indian subsidiary Hindustan Unilever after evidence of widespread mercury pollution. To date no proper clean-up operation has been mounted.
Train
The Kodaikanal-Gudalur Railway line was under the contemplation of the Government from 1889 when the Madras and Travancore Governments made an agreement regarding the waters of the Periyar river in 1895 a survey was made in 1897 after the completion of the Periyar dam, the Government granted permission to the then Wilson and Company, Madras to construct a light railway from Kodaikanal railway station, then Ammaayanaickanur railway station, which lies between Dindigul and Madhurai railway stations, to Gudalur within two years The company failed in floating the capital wanted within the period allotted and thus the permission granted automatically expired. Then the Government made several surveys till 1920 After the close of the First World War, the Government sanction, ed in 1920 this line under the postwar reconstruction scheme and directed the District Board, Madurai to intimate to the Government within two years whether it was willing to take UP this work, as the then South Indian Railway Company and the two planters of the Kannan Devan Hills were willing to undertake the work. In 1922 the district board of Madurai intiiP&ted the Government to cancel the sanction of the Kodaikanal road- Gudalur railway line and requested sanction for the construction of Madurai-Bodinayakanur line Accordingly.
Geography
The town of Kodaikanal sits on a plateau above the southern escarpment of the upper Palani Hills at , between the Parappar and Gundar Valleys. These hills form the eastward spur of the Western Ghats on the western side of South India. It has an irregular basin as its heartland, the centre of which is now Kodaikanal Lake a circumference manmade lake. A few kilometres away from Kodaikanal a small village named Vattakanal is located in the Dindigul District on the southern tip of the upper Palani hills in the state of Tamil Nadu, along the eastern coast of the Western Ghats.
Vattakanal is better known as 'Vatta', which means circle and by most or 'Little Israel' by the villagers that observe a large number of Israeli tourists who flock there from October onwards.
Meadows and grasslands cover the hillsides. Gigantic eucalyptus trees and shola forests flourish in the valleys. Mighty rocks and cascading streams lie above the valleys. There are many high waterfalls and ubiquitous gardens and flower beds in bloom.
Kodaikanal is known for its rich flora. Of the big trees, cypress, eucalyptus and acacia are the dominant varieties. Pear trees are numerous and the fruits are of high quality. Competing with the fruit trees are the flowering ones, mainly rhododendron and magnolia. Large dahlias of different hues are the main attraction of Bryant Park, situated close to the Kodai lake. Water lilies in the park's pond are another pleasing sight. The town abounds in yellow wild flowers.
North of the town, high hills that slope down into the villages of Pallangi and Vilpatti stand guard. On the east the hill slopes less abruptly into the lower Palnis. A precipitous escarpment facing the Cumbum Valley is on the south. On the west is a plateau leading to Manjampatti Valley, Indira Gandhi National Park, the Anamalai Hills and the main body of the Western Ghats of Kerala border.
Climate
Kodaikanal has a monsoon-influenced subtropical highland climate (Cfb, according to the Köppen climate classification, with a Cwb tendency). The temperatures are cool throughout the year due to the high elevation of the city.
Demographics
According to the 2011 census, Kodaikanal had a population of 36,501 with a sex-ratio of 1,004 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929. A total of 3,893 were under the age of six, constituting 1,945 males and 1,948 females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 19.86% and .28% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the city was 79.78%, compared to the national average of 72.99%. The city had a total of 9442 households. There were a total of 14,103 workers, comprising 163 cultivators, 744 main agricultural labourers, 130 in household industries, 12,118 other workers, 948 marginal workers, 10 marginal cultivators, 51 marginal agricultural labourers, 34 marginal workers in household industries and 853 other marginal workers. As per the religious census of 2011, Kodaikanal had 48.84% Hindus, 12.0% Muslims, 38.69% Christians, 0.02% Sikhs, 0.22% Buddhists, 0.04% Jains, 0.15% following other religions and 0.04% following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference.
Economy
The economy of Kodaikanal predominantly depends on tourism. The number of tourists increased from two million in 1999 to 3.2 million in 2009.
The town's infrastructure changes every year in preparation for the peak tourist season. Major roads are converted into one-way lanes to regulate the constant inflow of traffic and special police are brought in for the safety of the tourists and protection of local businesses. Hotels are often fully booked during the high season, and remain virtually empty during the off-season. Due to the rapid development of nearby cities such as Madurai, Palani and Coimbatore the town is learning to deal with year-round tourism.
Plums, pears, chile peppers, carrots, cauliflower, cabbage, garlic, and onions are cultivated by terrace farmers in surrounding villages. Most are trucked to other parts of India and some are sold in the local market. Common tourist souvenirs include handcrafts, home-made chocolates, postcards, and eucalyptus oil.
Due to its relatively unpolluted image, various locations in Kodaikanal are used for movie shoots. Some examples are Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar though depicted as Dehradun, the Tamil movie Guna, Manmadhan Ambu, and Thenali.
Health
The major medical facilities are KHMS Hospital, Van Allen Hospital, the Government Hospital, and the Prana Spa. These hospitals treat patients with common ailments and injuries and perform child delivery and care, but are not equipped with modern medical equipment for complicated diagnoses and surgery.
KHMS hospital was formed in 2009 to provide quality health care to residents and visitors.
In April 1915, Dr. Van Allen raised funds to construct the first unit of the hospital at the entrance of Coaker's walk. It was named after him. Its facilities have been updated and now it has an X-ray machine, well equipped pathological lab, and operation theatre with blood transfusion facilities.
The Government Hospital is situated on the hillside near Rock Cottage on Lower Shola Road. It was a small municipal hospital until 1927. Now it has X-ray, dental, and maternity wards and other facilities.
Kodaikanal mercury poisoning
Air and water-borne mercury emissions have contaminated large areas of Kodaikanal and the surrounding forests. A study conducted by the Department of Atomic Energy confirmed that Kodaikanal Lake has been contaminated by mercury emissions.
Mercury pollution was reported in Kodaikanal affecting lakes in the area. The causes, originating from a Hindustan Unilever thermometer factory nearby, were reported to be dispersal of elemental mercury into the atmosphere from improper storage and dispersal into the water from surface effluents from the factory. Apart from tests conducted on Kodaikanal lake, moss samples collected from trees surrounding the Berijam Lake, located from the factory, were also tested. These showed mercury levels in the range of 0.2 µg/kg, while in Kodaikanal lake the lichen and moss levels were 7.9 µg/kg and 8.3 µg/kg, respectively. Fish samples were taken from Kodaikanal lake also showed Hg levels in the range of 120 to 290 mg/kg, confirming that pollution of the lake had taken place due to mercury emissions from the factory.
The Hindustan Unilever thermometer factory caused widespread mercury pollution through improper disposal of broken thermometer waste containing large quantities of mercury. The factory sold much of this waste to a junkyard in Kodaikanal and also dumped large quantities in the forest behind the factory. The factory was eventually closed in 2001 after 18 years of operation. Hindustan Lever have used considerable legal manoeuvering to avoid paying compensation to the workers and their families, many of whom died or became physically handicapped as a result of mercury poisoning.
The ex-workers joined to form the 559-strong Ex-Mercury Employees Welfare Association and in 2006 filed a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) suit in the Madras High Court. The association wants an economic rehabilitation scheme, healthcare treatment and a monitoring programme at the company's expense for everyone who ever worked in the factory. It also wants the company prosecuted. Hindustan Unilever denies that any of the health problems of the workers or their families were the result of mercury exposure in the factory. In 2010 the workers were still fighting for compensation.
In June 2007, the Madras High Court constituted a five-member expert committee to decide on the mercury workers' health claims. The last court hearing was in June 2008. The committee later failed to find sufficient evidence to link the current clinical condition of the factory workers to past mercury exposure in the factory.
Additional site remediation studies are being undertaken by national institutions, as desired by the Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB) and the Court's Scientific Experts Committee (SEC) during the project review meeting in January 2010. IIT Delhi is revalidating the risk assessment study and site-specific clean-up standards; the National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, is studying the impact on trees and preservation of trees; and the Centre for Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Ooty, is studying the impact on soil and soil erosion. Based on the above study findings, results of remediation trials and recommendations of the SEC, the TNPCB will take a final decision on the clean-up standards. Hindustan Unilever Ltd. will commence soil remediation work at the factory site once a decision on clean-up standards is taken and consent is given by TNPCB.
The Hindustan Unilever, however refused the responsibility for the mercury poisoning even after multiple online petitions and protests by environmental activists.
Education
There are many educational institutions in Kodaikanal. Kodaikanal comes under the Batlagundu educational district. The head office for the educational district serving from Batlagundu government boys higher secondary school.
Schools
Colleges
Kodaikanal Christian College
Kodai International Business School
Kodaikanal Institute of Technology
University
Mother Teresa Women's University
There are many Hindu temples in Kodaikanal including the Durgai Amman Kovil, Kurinji Andavar Kovil, Mariamman Kovil, Observatory Murugan Kovil and Vinayagar Kovil. The Muslim mosques are Ellis Villa, Munjikal, Naidupuram, Observatory, Perumal malai and Anna nagar. There is an active community of Tibetan Buddhist refugees.
The Kuzhanthai Velappar temple (Kulandai Velayudha Swami Tirukkovil) has three thousand years of history and was consecrated by Bhogar. The idol is made of Dashabashanam (10 metal alloys). This temple comes under Palani Devasthanam. Every year Poombarai celebrates the Ther Thiruvizha procession for Lord Muruga. This temple was built by the Chera dynasty and still holds 3000-year-old inscriptions.
Civil societies
Kodaikanal has several clubs and civil society organizations operating for social, charitable and environmental goals. Established clubs in Kodaikanal are the Kodaikanal Lions Club (est. 1985) under the jurisdiction of Lions Clubs International (district 324B); Kodaikanal Boat Club (est. 1890) with nearly 650 permanent members; Kodaikanal Golf Club (est. 1895) with over 600 members and an 18-hole golf course, spread over ; the Indian Club (est. 1915) on Poet Thyagarajar Road; and the Rotary Club of Kodaikanal.
In 1890, the Kodaikanal Missionary Union (KMU) was formed to enable missionaries of the various denominations to come together for recreation and to develop a mission strategy and outreach in cooperation with each other. In 1923 it built an Edwardian style clubhouse with large central hall for social events and afternoon teas, six tennis courts, a reading room, and other spaces for meetings. With the decline of missionary activity in India, the KMU was wound up in the 1980s, and the property was turned over to Kodaikanal International School. The KMU library with many valuable old books besides newer materials, is still functioning in one room, and provides something of a social venue. The valuable original KMU archive materials have been incorporated into the archives of the school, which has hired an archivist and is in process of converting the whole original KMU building into an archive and display centre for the school and the community.
Kodaikanal has several social service societies which promote local trade and increase employment of rural villagers in the town's periphery by participating in its tourism fuelled growth. These include the Kodaikanal People Development Group (KOPDEG) which has been successful in providing employment for marginalized women and marketing their products. The Made-in-India tagged products from Kopedeg are unique to Kodaikanal and are targeted at foreign tourists who regularly buy them as souvenirs.
The Cottage Crafts Shop at Anna Salai is run by the voluntary organisation Coordinating Council for Social Concerns in Kodai (CORSOK). They sell goods crafted by development groups and uses the commission charged to help the needy.
In 1994 the Potter's Shed was inaugurated. This pottery and craft Shop in Kodaikanal has made and sold hundreds of thousands of fine pieces of locally made pottery. All profits from this business are contributed to the Bethania Kids Center For Children with Disabilities.
The Kodaikanal Lake Protection Council and Vattakkanal Organization for Youth, Community and Environment (VOYCE) are active in preserving Kodaikanal's environment. Plastic bags are banned and almost all shops and roadside vendors heed the rule and use recycled paper bags in fear of social reprisal. Local hotels have also participated in improving the environment by placing garbage cans all across the town, with their prominent donated by signs acting as silent salesmen.
Places of interest
Kodaikanal has several scenic natural attractions which attract visitors and make it a destination for newlyweds. Young people also come for bike trips and leisure. It is also known for home made chocolates and eucalyptus oil.
These are described in order of distance from the bus-stand.
Kodaikanal Lake is an artificial, roughly star-shaped lake built in 1863. It is Kodaikanal's most popular geographic landmark and tourist attraction. Rowboats and pedalos can be hired at the Kodaikanal Boat Club. Horses and bicycles can be hired beside the lake for short periods. The path that skirts the periphery of this lake is a favourite walk for locals and tourists alike.
Bryant Park: Just east of the lake and from the bus stand is a well maintained botanical garden. The park was planned and built in 1908 by a forest officer from Madurai, H.D. Bryant, and named after him. With 325 species of trees, shrubs, and cacti, the park is a rainbow of flowers during the peak season. A large section is dedicated to nearly 740 varieties of roses.
There is an 1857 eucalyptus tree and a Bodhi tree which adds a religious significance to the park. Ornamental plants are cultivated in a nursery for sale. The park organizes horticultural exhibits and flower shows every summer, to coincide with the peak season. The entrance fee to the park is nominal, and it is open all year.
Coaker's Walk, from the bus-stand, constructed by Lt. Coaker in 1872, is a paved pedestrian path running along the edge of steep slopes on the southern side of Kodai. The walk, winding around Mount Nebo, starts in front of the Van Allen hospital, running parallel to the Van Allen Hospital Road, and joins the main road beside St.Peter's Church, providing a panoramic view of the plains. On a clear day one can view as far as Dolphin's Nose in the south, the valley of the Pambar River in the southeast, Periyakulam town and even the city of Madurai. A fascinating rare phenomenon called the Brocken spectre can be witnessed, when a person can see his shadow on the clouds with a rainbow halo. This occurs when the sun is behind the viewer and clouds and mist are to the front. There is an observatory with a telescope halfway along the walk. The entrance fee to the walkway is nominal and it is open all year.
Poombarai Village (Kudhanthai Velappar Temple) is from the bus-stand. In Poombarai village there is a temple of Lord Muruga. The village is fully covered by reserve forest. The final approach to this quiet area is a gently climbing foot-path.
Green Valley View (formerly called Suicide Point), from the bus-stand and near the golf course, has a panoramic view of the plains and a sheer drop of overlooking the Vaigai Dam to the south. The stairway leading up to it is highly commercialized and lined with rows of shops to tempt tourists.
Pine forests: In 1906, with a view to growing valuable timber, H.D. Bryant started
the Kodaikanal pine plantations in the south-west of Kodaikanal.
Shembaganur Museum of Natural History, from the bus-stand, founded in 1895, is open to the public (except Tuesdays) for viewing their outstanding taxidermy collection of more than 500 species of animals, birds and insects and a living collection of over 300 exotic orchid species. The museum is affiliated with Loyola College in Chennai and exhibits artifacts of the ancient Palaiyar tribespeople whose descendants still live in these hills.
Kodaikanal Solar Observatory, from the bus-stand on Observatory Road, at is the highest location near Kodai. The first observations were commenced here in 1901. Former Director John Evershed discovered the phenomenon of radial motion in sunspots, now known as the Evershed effect. The Kodaikanal Terrestrial Telescope can view a grand panorama including Sothupparai Dam, Vaigai Dam, Periyakulam and Varaha river. This Indian Institute of Astrophysics facility has a comprehensive astronomical science museum with organized public tours, access to the astronomy library, and scheduled night-time telescopic sky viewing. It is open daily to the public during peak season, and a few hours each Friday the rest of the year.
Pillar Rocks, from the bus-stand, is a set of three giant rock pillars which stand high. Managed by the Tamil Nadu Forest Department, The viewpoint can be crowded but is not commercialized. There is an excellent public garden adjacent to the viewpoint.
Guna caves, made popular by the Tamil movie Gunaa, previously called Devil's Kitchen, are deep bat-infested chambers between the three gigantic boulders that are the Pillar Rocks. The deep narrow ravines of the caves are now closed to public due to the deaths of twelve youths there. These dangerous caves are highly protected now, and tourists can see sections of the cave system from afar. In the late 1970s the inside of the caves was well photographed.
Silver Cascade, from Kodaikanal at a wide bend in the long and winding Laws Ghat Road, at altitude , is a waterfall formed from the outflow of Kodaikanal Lake. This waterfall is a common stop for first-time visitors. There are a few souvenir and fruit vendors and many monkeys here. There is also a smaller waterfall below the bridge which crosses the stream here.
Dolphin's Nose, from the bus stand, is a flat rock projecting over a chasm deep. It is an undisturbed area down a steep rocky trail beginning soon after Pambar Bridge. Views of steep rocky escarpments rising from the plains can be seen. The old village of Vellagavi can be reached through a rugged bridle path here. A short paved walkway leads from the road here to Pambar Falls (which is also locally addressed as 'Liril Falls' after the Liril Soap advertisement filmed in 1985).
Kurinji Andavar Murugan temple, from the bus-stand, is known for its Kurinji flower which blossoms in the area only once every 12 years. The deity here is called Sri Kurinji Easwaran, who is Lord Murugan. This temple was built in 1936 by a European woman, who on coming to Ceylon, converted to Hinduism. She changed her name to Leelavathi and married Ponnambalam Ramanathan. She is also known as Lady Ramanathan. This temple was handed over to Arulmighu Dhandayuthapani Swamy Thiru Kovil, Palani by Devi Prasad Bhaskaran (also known as Padmini, niece and adopted daughter of S Natesan Pillai, son-in-law of Lady Ramanathan) and her husband R. Bhaskaran.
Berijam Lake is surrounded by nature at a distance of around from Kodaikanal. Boating is prohibited as the lake is a source of water for villages. Forest department permission is required and a limited number of vehicles (up to 80) are allowed to enter the forest area where the lake is situated. Entry is restricted into the Berijam Lake area to between 9.30 a.m. and 3 p.m. Bison, deer, panthers, and snakes are often spotted in this area. The fire tower, Silent Valley, Medicine Forest, and Lake View are other attractions around the lake.
To enter into the Berijam Lake permission must be obtained from the Forest Department. Usually, they give permission around 8 a.m. every day except Tuesdays. They give permission to about 80 to 100 vehicles per day and collect an entry fee of around Rs. 150 depending upon the vehicle.
Psilocybin mushrooms which produce hallucinogenic effects when consumed, and other poisonous mushrooms grow around Berijam. Medicine Forest has a certain species of trees whose fragrance is believed to have hallucinogenic effects.
Transport
Air
Almost all distances from Kodaikanal are calculated with the lake as the central point of reference.
The nearest airports are as follows:
Madurai International Airport ()
Coimbatore International Airport ()
Tiruchirapalli International Airport ()
Tuticorin Airport ()
Train
The nearest railway stations are Palani Station () north, Kodaikanal Road Station () south east, Oddanchatram Railway Station () north east, Dindigul Junction () east, and Madurai Junction () nearly east.
Bus
From Madurai Aarappalayam bus stand and Batlagundu frequent bus services are available. Buses are also available from Palani, Oddanchatram, Kodairoad, and Dindigul.
The 2–3-hour drive to Kodaikanal via the steep and winding Ghat roads from Palani, Oddanchatram or Batlagundu is a memorable experience. Travellers may stop at turnouts on the road and view the Palani hills. There is a shortcut road from Periyakulam to Kodaikanal via Kumbakarai and Adukkam.
Gallery
References
Further reading
Charlotte Chandler Wyckoff: Kodaikanal: 1845-1945. London Mission Press, Nagercoil, Travancore, Indien. 1945.
Nora Mitchell: The Indian Hill Station Kodaikanal. Research paper, University of Chicago, Department of Geography, No. 141. Chicago Ill., 1972.
Volker Winkler: Kodaikanal. Land of the Clouds. Hillsboro Press, Franklin (Tennessee) 1999.
External links
Tourism in Tamil Nadu
Populated places established in 1845
Hill stations in Tamil Nadu
Mountains of Tamil Nadu
1845 establishments in British India
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The Shuffle! light novel and anime series features an extensive cast of characters designed by Aoi Nishimata and Hiro Suzuhira. The series takes place in a fictional universe where humans live in harmony with gods, and devils. The protagonist is Rin Tsuchimi, a high school student from Verbena Academy who lives with his childhood friend Kaede Fuyou.
Shuffle!
This is a list of characters that were introduced in Shuffle!. They are presented in the order they are given of the omake section of the game.
Main
The main player character and the five heroines from the anime are listed here.
Rin Tsuchimi
is the player character in the Shuffle games and the male protagonist in the anime series. He is a 17-year-old high school student. As noted by Kaede, Rin's main virtue is his kindness. This is both his greatest strength, as the girls love him because of this, and his greatest weakness, as shown later in the series by his indecisiveness and goal to make everyone happy, which usually ends up hurting them instead. Rin tends to show minimal initiative when dealing with the girls around him (mostly because of the abuse he receives from his fellow male classmates over his perceived relationship with his childhood friend Kaede). However, he starts to spend more and more time with both Lisianthus (Sia) and Nerine after they arrive and starts to develop feelings for them. With regards to Kaede, he thinks of her as a childhood friend only. When people comment that he and Kaede would make a good couple, Rin either waves it off or says that it is strange to think of it that way. This distance between them is caused in part by Kaede and Rin's dark past when both Rin's parents and Kaede's mother were killed during their travel when Rin and Kaede were kids. Rin reluctanly took the blame for it, causing Kaede to hate him during their childhood.
Kaede Fuyou
, Ran Tōno (PC)
is Rin's childhood best friend who grew up with him in the same house after her mother and Rin's parents died during their travel. Rin reluctantly took blame for it, causing Kaede to hate him and wish him dead. Some time after they started junior high school, Kaede found out about the real truth about her mother's death and felt bad about hating Rin and wishing him dead. Ever since then, she started taking care of Rin, doing everything from housework to making his meals. She is very down-to-earth, modest, polite and soft-spoken. However, when something greatly upsets or shocks her, she shows signs of psychosis and even violence. In the anime, when Rin spends too much time with Asa, Kaede pins Asa to the wall and tells her to die and that Rin is and always will be hers. But when Rin refuses to accept Kaede's feelings towards him, she contemplates suicide until Rin stops her, telling Kaede he loves her but not in a romantic way. In the original game, this is only visible in the back story: after her mother died during her return trip home, she abused Rin because she blamed him for her mom's death. To shock Kaede out of her apathetic state after her mother's death, Rin told that her mother and his parents were returning from their trip because he begged for them to return, when in fact it was Kaede who had gotten sick and they were returning so that her mother could look after her. He endured her abuse so that she wouldn't blame herself and fall into despair and depression. When she learned the truth of the matter, Kaede resolved to atone for all of her past misdeeds by serving Rin. In fact, it became her raison d'être and although Rin was not really comfortable with the idea, he was afraid of Kaede suffering a relapse by not allowing her to punish herself in this way. Kaede has romantic feelings for Rin, but considers herself unworthy to be loved by Rin or to stay by Rin's side. For Rin's part, he cares deeply about Kaede but more as a sister than romantically. In the anime, she comes to terms with Rin's lack of romantic feelings for her, and her own feelings for Rin, and she resolves to continue loving him.
Asa Shigure
, Sumire Takarazuka (PC)
is Rin's friend and senior. In the anime she is sometimes called "Shocking Shigure", much to her disappointment. She is a cambion (half-human/half-demon) but keeps this a secret. While she has a weak constitution (due to her body not being able to handle the magic powers she inherited from her mother), she makes up for it with her energetic personality. Even though she is half-human/half-demon she does not have the long ears typical of demons as seen in episode 14. Her mother explains this to Rin and tells him that although Asa is half-demon, her body is 'from her father' and in almost all respects human. Despite being a bit of a tomboy (because she refers to herself with boku (ボク or 僕), a Japanese word for "I" mainly used by males), she is an excellent cook. She often uses English loan words and is notable for saying "Hello!" in English—a greeting which is her catchphrase. She like to flirt and tease Rin, sometimes greeting him with big smacks on the back. It is later revealed that numerous guys have confessed to her only to be shot down. In the game it is hinted that she may have feelings for Rin; as Asa admits to him, saying, "But if it's Rin-chan, it might be good to fall in love..." In the anime, she is the heroine whom Rin chooses.
Primula
, Minami Hokuto (PC)
, nicknamed , is a strange, stoic and calm girl who is often seen carrying one of two stuffed cats around—a present from Rin to her or a stuffed cat which Nerine gave to Lycoris who, in turn, gave it to Primula before she died. She is the third artificial life form created from a result of the gods' and devils' experiments. She escaped the facility and came to the human world in order to search for Rin because Lycoris had told her about him. Primula has good relationships with the other clones, because she was Lycoris's sister. Most of the time she shows either very little or no emotions whatsoever. According to Forbesii and Eustoma, it's not that she lacks emotions, but rather that, due to being raised in isolation in the laboratory, she simply doesn't know how to express them. She was not close to anyone but Lycoris, whom she looked up to as a sister. During her route in the game (and a couple of other routes in Shuffle! Essence+), she starts to trust Rin enough to start showing her real personality; that of an extremely happy and bubbly girl. Additionally, with her young appearance, Primula serves to fill the lolicon niche of the series. In the anime, there are hints that she has some prophetic ability; she warns Rin and Kaede of an earthquake a few moments before it happens and she starts making herbal medicine for Kaede's cold before the latter even exhibits the symptoms. Primula would not start school until the end of the series.
Lisianthus
, Rumiko Sasa (PC)
, known in the anime by her nickname , is the daughter of the King of Gods and came to the human world as a possible marriage candidate for Rin. She and Nerine are cousins, as her mother is Forbesii's sister. She has a very energetic personality and is very optimistic. Although she struggles with academics, she is an excellent cook. Her magical capability is poor, but she makes up for it with brute force by hitting people with objects ranging from chairs to tables. Towards the end of her route it is revealed that Lisianthus has two personalities; her own, and that of her twin sister who was more devil than god and therefore could not be allowed to be born. While still in the womb, Sia decided to save her sister by allowing her soul to reside inside of her own. The twin's personality emerges (takes control of Sia's body) when Sia is depressed or when she feels that Sia should be more aggressive towards Rin. Rin gives the twin the name , which belonged to his deceased mother. In Shuffle! Essence+, Kikyou gets an extended ending where she and Sia are able to be separated and thereby co-exist together. In the non-Lisianthus routes, Sia confesses to Rin that, although he might not return her feelings of love, she will keep on loving him because the world of the gods allows polygamy. She tells this to Itsuki when rejecting his advances.
Nerine
, Yuki Matsunaga (PC)
, known to Sia as Rin (Rina in the English dub), is the daughter of the King of Demons and, like Sia, is also a marriage candidate for Rin. Nerine is a more capable magic user than her cousin, Sia, and occasionally uses it to devastating effect. Similar to Sia, Nerine has absorbed the spirit of her clone, . Nerine and Lycoris can be distinguished from each other by the color of their eyes; Nerine has red eyes, while those of Lycoris are blue. Lycoris saved Nerine from an incurable illness at the cost of her own life. However, unlike Sia, this has not led her to developing multiple personalities and Nerine only shares Lycoris' emotions and singing voice. Nerine is very shy, respectful, and speaks in an extremely formal way. She enjoys getting to know and learn about her peers. Although her cooking skills are rather poor, her magic capabilities are quite impressive, with enough destructive power to level entire city blocks. Her grades in school are also excellent. Initially, Nerine becomes a bit depressed when seeing Rin with Sia, but after her confession to Rin about Lycoris' identity and her own love for Rin (which had blossomed during her effort to fulfill Lycoris' last wish), she decides it would be better if she were dead. Concerned, Rin challenges her to a game; if he can find where she is at five o'clock the next day, then the show goes on. When he finds her, he tells her that he can understand what Lycoris wanted and that she needs to sing and smile as herself, or else Lycoris can't do so with her.
Supporting
Kareha
is Asa's friend and classmate from the realm of the gods. They are often seen together. She has a habit of saying "Maa! Maa!! Maa!!!" (translated as "My! My!! My!!!", or "Ooh! La! La!!! in the English Dubbed) whenever she sees something romantic or cute, and starts to daydream, much to the chargrin of her peers. She works a part-time job as a waitress in the cafe that Rin and the other characters visit frequently. She also has a younger sister named Tsubomi who had a cameo in the series' final episode, is introduced in the On the Stage version of the game, and has her own route in Shuffle! Essence+ where she reveals that she has been interested in Rin since they met.
Mayumi Thyme
, Nasumi Katori (PC)
is a half-demon and half-human girl with heterochromia. She is in Rin's class, good friends with Kaede and is always looking for the latest gossip. She has the smallest bust in the series, a fact often made fun of by Itsuki. Nonetheless, she takes pride in her small breasts, rationalizing that by being below average, they are a rarity sought after by a select group of men. She may have feelings for Itsuki, despite of their frequent quarreling. It is revealed in Shuffle! Essence+ that she and Itsuki are indeed childhood friends.
Itsuki Midoriba
is Rin's classmate and "bad" friend. He addresses himself as "oresama": a rather arrogant version of "ore" (the masculine word for "I" in Japanese). Being the Don Juan of the class, he is envious of the girls' attraction to Rin and often mentions that he will take care of the girls that he doesn't choose. Itsuki and Mayumi often fight over comments made about Mayumi's small chest. It is revealed in the visual novel that he harbors strong feelings of love for Mayumi due to her flat chest, while his outward insults of them are just to get a rise out of her.
Nadeshiko Benibara
, Mari Oda (PC)
is Rin's homeroom teacher. She is single, attractive, and is frequently the victim of pickup lines, including from the King of Demons and Itsuki. She appears to have had some martial arts training (being able to slice a bottle with her bare hand). Students dread her habit of dealing out extreme punishments such as writing 100-page reports and dragging a tire around the track for minor offenses.
Eustoma
, Gorō Hama (PC)
, more commonly known as , is Lisianthus's father and the lord of the realm of the gods. He is big, musclebound, and enjoys drinking sake. Despite his best intentions, he often embarrasses his daughter, and it is a running gag in the series that she has to hit him with a chair in order to curb his enthusiasm. He has three wives, who are introduced volume 2, chapter 10, page 16 in Shuffle!- Days of the Bloom. Cineraria, Sia's mother, is the only Demon he has as a wife. It's possible that the other two, Lilac (Shorter-haired woman) and Iris (Long-haired lady) are humans or Gods.
Lilac
The shorter haired wife of Eustoma. She and Iris are only mentioned in the anime and introduced in the manga. She and Cineraria both have a habit of hitting their husband when he's being stupid or embarrassing. Instead of a chair, though, she is seen with brass knuckles.
Iris
The longer-haired wife of Eustoma. Unlike her fellow wives of Eustoma, she doesn't hit him when he acts embarrassing and seems to not be much of a talker since she barely talks when her fellow wives take care of Eustoma.
Forbesii
, Sagano Shiba (PC)
, more commonly known as , is Nerine's father and the lord of the realm of the devils. He is a lustful character and thus gets along well with Itsuki. Like the King of Gods, he too has a habit of embarrassing his daughter, and this usually leads to Nerine addressing him as "Devil King" instead of "Father" as punishment, much to his displeasure.
Ama Shigure
is Asa's mother and the first test subject experimented on by the gods and demons. Many players of the game assume she was created by the gods and demons but in the anime revealed that she actually was a normal demon who chose to be experimented on. She has the habit of drastically reducing names to cute nicknames (Asa for instance is referred to as "A-chan"). She also wears a cat-ear hat (which hides her demon ears from casual sight). She looks abnormally young to be a mother, and it surprises the other characters to learn that she is quite a bit older than she looks. This has caused Asa several headaches from having to go to the police station and convincing the police that her mother wasn't a lost child. Due to the experiment that transported her to the human world, her magical power was greatly enhanced (although she hasn't been seen using her magic) and was passed on to Asa, who suffered a lot growing up due to her human body not being able to handle it well.
Tsubomi
Voiced by Ryōko Tanaka (Japanese - PS2), Hikaru Isshiki (Japanese - Really? Really!), Brina Palencia (English)
is a character in Navel's Shuffle! media franchise. She is Kareha's younger sister, and like Kareha, she has a tendency to space out when she see something romantic or cute. Her catchphrase is "Kya! Kya! Kya!". Her first appearance is in Shuffle! On the Stage during Kareha's path. She returns as a secondary character in Really? Really! and has her own route in Shuffle! Essence+. She also makes small cameo appearances in the 22nd and 24th episodes of the Shuffle! anime. Tsubomi (蕾) is the Japanese word for 'flower bud'.
Tick! Tack!
The following characters are introduced in Tick! Tack!
Sage
is a character in Navel's Shuffle! media franchise. She is introduced as a main character in Tick! Tack! and appears as a secondary character in Really? Really!
In Tick! Tack!, Sage (she is called Se-chan by Mayumi and red form Nerine) is Forbesii's maid. In the normal timeline, she married him and is the mother of the true Nerine. Sage is introduced when Nerine's group discover the entry to Forbesii's mansion. Nerine's friends are surprised when she reveals that Sage is her mother.
When they travel into the past, Rin and the others find that Sage is very energetic and cheerful in almost all circumstances. She is a great housekeeper and good at hiding her feelings, especially towards Forbesii, whom she is devoted to. However, since Forbesii is a prince and she is just his maid, Sage does her utmost to be of service to Forbesii in the hope that she can stay in his service after he marries his fiancée, Ai. But after several encounters with her master (e.g. in the kitchen, when Forbesii tries to cook), Sage feels more and more attracted to him. She later confesses to Rin that she loves Forbesii and is concerned that no matter how hard she tries, her feelings will not be reciprocated.
In the original timeline, Forbesii proposed to Sage after she gave him a New Year gift.
In the altered timeline, due to the presence of Rin and company in the past, Forbesii's proposal to Sage happens after Sage and Rin talk at the shore of a lake and she reveals that she loves Forbesii. When Forbesii appears unexpectedly Sage is unable to face her master, runs away and falls into the lake. Forbesii saves her, and on returning to the mansion finds that Sage has caught a terrible cold. While Rin watches over her as she sleeps, Forbesii comes in and tells Rin how he feels about Sage and he proposes to her the very next morning.
However, if the player makes certain choices and decides to pursue Sage as a love interest rather than get her and Forbessi together, this event does not occur and Nerine's hair turns red as a result of being born from Ai instead. In this case, Sage then falls in love and has intercourse with Rin, changing the original timeline's Nerine's personality and hair color. However, after Rin and company return to the present, Sage does not reappear, in contrast to Ai's ending with Rin where she waits and meets him after he visits Nerine's house in the present. No specific explanation is given to why Sage does not reappear to meet Rin in the altered timeline of pursuing her love.
Following the theme of characters from Shuffle! being named according to flowers, her name refers to the Salvia genus of flowering plants, more commonly known as sage.
Sage was designed by Hiro Suzuhira.
She is voiced by Yukari Aoyama.
Ai
is a character in Navel's Shuffle! media franchise. She is introduced as a main character in Tick! Tack!.
Ai was Forbesii's fiancée in the past. She is ladylike and may be a part of the Royal Family of the Demon World. She is well-educated, graceful and gentle and is always seen smiling sweetly (even when she is sad and crying). Her speech, thoughts and actions can be considered 'Big-Sisterly'. She often refers to herself as 'Ai-Onee San (Big sister Ai)' when talking to Rin and even with those who seem to be older than she is (e.g. Forbesii).
Ai has a number of 'over-leisurely' habits including taking long baths (according to her, her average time in the bathroom is about 4 hours) or lazing time away enjoying the cool breeze on the mansion's balcony.
At they first meet her, Rin and the others believe that Ai is Nerine's mother since Nerine shares her grace and has a similar physical appearance.
In the main timeline, Ai seemed to know that Forbesii and Sage had feelings for one another, and encouraged Sage to state her feelings, although it seemed more like a way of making fun of her. Despite loving Forbesii more than anyone else, she was willing to break their engagement to allow him to marry Sage, whom he loved.
If the timeline is altered so that Ai marries Forbesii, she becomes the mother of the alternate, red-haired Nerine.
When Rin and the others return from the past, and assuming that history has been restored, they discover that Ai fell in love with Rin and has waited for 20 years to be re-united with Rin, rejecting numerous proposals in the interim.
Ai (藍) is the Japanese word for Persicaria tinctoria, or the Japanese indigo. Since her name is written in katakana, it can also carry a secondary meaning of 'love' (愛).
Ai was designed by Hiro Suzuhira.
She is voiced by Sachiko Mimura.
Cineraria
is a character in Navel's Shuffle! media franchise. She has a small cameo appearance in the first Shuffle! game, but her real introduction is in Tick! Tack!
Cineraria is Forbesii's younger sister. She is one of Eustoma's wives and the mother of Lisianthus, making her Nerine's aunt and Sage's sister-in-law.
The characters of Shuffle! have a theme of being named after plants. Cineraria is genus of flowering plants that, like the nerine, is native to southern Africa.
Cineraria was designed by Hiro Suzuhira.
She is voiced by Anna Akashi.
Bark
is a character in Navel's Shuffle! media franchise. His only appearance is as a secondary character in Tick! Tack!, where he is Forbesii's butler.
His name, Bark, is a reference to tree bark and not the sound a dog makes.
Bark was designed by Hiro Suzuhira.
He is voiced by Yamato Ken.
Really? Really!
The following characters in the Shuffle franchise are introduced in Really? Really!.
Sakura Yae
is a character in Navel's Shuffle! media franchise. She is one of the main characters in the Really? Really! visual novels. She also appears in the Visual Novel Shuffle! Essence+.
Yae Sakura (八重 桜), her full name in the Japanese order, is a Japanese term that means 'double-flowered cherry blossom'. Sakura (桜) is the Japanese name for ornamental cherry trees, Prunus serrulata, and their blossoms.
Sakura Yae is voiced by Mai Goto and designed by Aoi Nishimata.
Mikio Fuyou
is a character in Navel's Shuffle! media franchise. He is Kaede Fuyou's father and the husband of Momiji Fuyou. His only appearance in the visual novels is as a secondary character in Really? Really!, but has minor cameo appearances in the Shuffle! anime.
Mikio Fuyou was designed by Hiro Suzuhira.
His surname, fuyō (芙蓉), refers to the Hibiscus mutabilis, while his given name, mikio (幹夫) means "three trees together".
Momiji Fuyou
is a character in Navel's Really? Really! media franchise. She is Kaede Fuyou's mother and the wife of Mikio Fuyou. Her only appearance in the visual novels is as a secondary character in Really? Really!.
Her given name, momiji (紅葉), is the Japanese word for Japanese Maple (Acer palmatum). This ties in with her daughter's name, Kaede, referring to the maple genus in general. Her surname, fuyō (芙蓉), refers to the Hibiscus mutabilis.
Momiji Fuyou was designed by Aoi Nishimata.
Shuffle! Essence+
The following characters are introduced in the Shuffle! Essence+.
Daisy
is a character in Navel's Shuffle! media franchise. Her only appearance in the visual novels is as a main character in Shuffle! Essence+. She's a transfer student from the Realm of Gods, likes Sia a lot and is the lone member of Verbena's Broadcast Club. Apparently part of her story will be getting everyone else likewise involved in the club as well.
Daisy was designed by Aoi Nishimata.
She is voiced by Komugi Nishida.
Ruri Matsuri
is a character in Navel's Shuffle! media franchise. Her only appearance in the visual novels is as a secondary character in Shuffle! Essence+ and main character in last route in Shuffle! Love Rainbow. She's a member of Sia's personal guard from the Realm of Gods. In Shuffle! Essence+ she prefers wearing the boys' uniform over the girls' one. Outwardly she seems very cold, but she's actually got a pleasant and serene personality. She also may not be much for acting girly either. However, in Shuffle! Love Rainbow, from the start she is acting like a girl and honestly shows a girly side, but we also meet her when she is wearing boys' uniform and acting as one.
Ruri Matsuri was designed by Aoi Nishimata.
She is voiced by Aoi Mukai.
Erica Suzuran
is a character in Navel's Shuffle! media franchise. Her only appearance in the visual novels is as a secondary character in Shuffle! Essence+.
Erica Suzuran was designed by Aoi Nishimata.
She is voiced by Tsubaki Yuki.
Notes
References
Shuffle!
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The Birds, the Bees & the Monkees is the fifth studio album by the Monkees. Released in April 1968, it was the first Monkees album not to reach Billboards number one, peaking at No. 3 on the U.S. charts. It was also their first album to miss the UK charts altogether, with their four previous efforts all having reached the top ten. The album has sold over a million copies.
History
While 1968 presented several misfortunes for the band (their eponymous television series was canceled; their first motion picture project, Head, failed at the box office; their television special, 33⅓ Revolutions per Monkee, arguably fared even worse; and, in December, Peter Tork left the group), The Birds, The Bees & The Monkees proved to be another successful album, yielding the group's sixth million-selling single in "Valleri" and yet another No. 1 in "Daydream Believer", written by former Kingston Trio member John Stewart. Coincidentally, both songs had been holdovers from previous albums: "Valleri" had originally been recorded more than a year prior for the television show (the version on this album is a new production) and "Daydream Believer" had been recorded for their previous album, Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. "Tapioca Tundra", an experimental piece of poetry put to music by Nesmith, charted well as the B-side to "Valleri" and reached No. 34.
After gaining complete artistic control over their musical direction and being allowed to play instruments on their own records in early 1967, the success of Headquarters and Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. began to somewhat rebuff the critics who viewed The Monkees as a band of talentless individuals who were simply lucky enough to gain recognition through their "manufactured" origins.
The desire and focus, however, to remain as a complete band unit in the studio evaporated after the Pisces album, when each individual band member began to produce his own sessions with his own selected studio musicians, often at entirely different studios around the Los Angeles area. According to Chip Douglas, "Peter kind of drifted away first, and then everybody did. Everyone wanted to do their own songs and produce them the way they wanted to hear them." An agreement was made to label all finished efforts as "Produced by The Monkees" but, in reality, beyond a few exceptions the recordings featured on The Birds, The Bees & The Monkees reverted to the recording process of the first two albums (fewer group dynamics), except now each band member was fully in charge of the sessions. Chip Douglas, producer of the Monkees' previous two albums, fully expected to continue as the band's representative in the studio, but found the individual Monkees more interested in exploring their diverse musical backgrounds with their own friends and associates rather than relying on Douglas as the central figure. Douglas continues, "I was ready to do that Boyce & Hart song 'P.O. Box 9847' – it sort of had that 'Paperback Writer' feel on the demo. We passed on it for Pisces, and I began to think, 'Well, we should do that one now.' Then somebody said, 'Chip, we’re not working with you anymore; we’re gonna do our own thing.'"
While being credited as the producers, in reality the Monkees were assisted in the studio by Colgems' president, and head of Screen Gems-Columbia Publishing, Lester Sill, jazz musician and arranger Shorty Rogers, or future manager and later MCA vice president Brendan Cahill. "At that point their contract read that they were to be credited as producers on any product of theirs that came out", Rogers recalls. "Brendan Cahill and I really did all the studio work and production with Lester Sill. When we finished the album, Lester said, 'We’ll put you down as producers', but The Monkees didn't want it, so that went by the wayside."
Davy Jones' Broadway rock, Michael Nesmith's country and western leanings and psychedelic experiments, and the rock and soul of Micky Dolenz made for a diverse album. Several of Peter Tork's compositions were considered for release on Birds; however, they were all rejected (for reasons unknown). Aside from playing piano on "Daydream Believer", he did not participate in the making of the record at all. Veteran Monkees tunesmiths Boyce and Hart returned to the fold to contribute the psychedelic "P.O. Box 9847", as well as a new version of "Valleri."
The rare U.S. mono album (COM-109) was released in a limited quantity, as mono albums were being phased out by 1968, and has become a highly sought item for its unique mixes that differ from the common stereo versions. Mono copies from Australia, India, Israel, Mexico and Puerto Rico are known to have the same mix as the U.S. There may be others as well. Most countries' mono versions — including the UK's — feature a "fold-down" mix where the stereo channels are reduced to one monaural channel (a mono version of the stereo mix).
Artwork
The front cover of the album shows a shadow box that contains some memorabilia from the 1940s through 1960s, including a Cootie bug, a popgun, a fan that folds out into a paper flower, ceramic birds, various paper flowers and stick flowers (which were popular in 1968). Alan Wolsky, whose agency created the cover, put a picture of himself in the bottom center square, partially obscured by some flowers. The rear cover contains the term "MIJACOGEO" alongside Micky's photo, a term that is an acronym for the members of Micky's family (Micky, Janelle, Coco and George, respectively). Another quirk was that while Davy and Peter signed autographs in a traditional manner on their rear cover photos, Michael Nesmith signed "Carlisle Wheeling" to be superimposed onto his picture. This was the title of a song that did not make it on to any Monkees release at that time. However, it appeared on his post-Monkees album Loose Salute with the First National Band, having been renamed "Conversations". The song also was later released on various Monkees rarities collections.
Reissue
On February 8, 2010, Rhino Records' Rhino Handmade released a 3-CD boxed set reissue of the album. It was made available only online directly from Rhino. The set is housed in a 7 inch by 7 inch box with a 3D lenticular cover. It contains the original stereo and U.S. mono versions of the album in miniature vinyl replica sleeves, over 60 demos, rehearsals and outtakes from the original album's sessions, a commemorative pin and a booklet of essays and session information by Monkees historian Andrew Sandoval. The first 1,000 orders include a bonus vinyl single featuring two more unreleased tracks, acoustic versions of "St. Matthew" and "Lady's Baby".
The mono mix was re-released in October 2014 by Friday Music, as part of The Monkees in Mono box set. This pressing features messages in the dead wax reading "Thanks to the Monkees" and "In memory of Davy Jones" on sides 1 and 2, respectively.
Track listing
Original 1968 Colgems vinyl issue
Side 1
Side 2
Aborted track listing
The original track lineup for the album, compiled in March 1968, included the following songs:
Side 1
"Through The Looking Glass"
"We Were Made For Each Other"
"Writing Wrongs"
"I'll Be Back Up On My Feet"
"Valleri"
"Long Title: Do I Have To Do This All Over Again"
Side 2
"Dream World"
"P.O. Box 9847"
"Tapioca Tundra"
"The Poster"
"Alvin"
"Daydream Believer"
"Zor and Zam"
1994 Rhino CD reissue
Tracks 1-12: Original album in stereo
1996 Sundazed vinyl reissue
2010 Rhino Handmade deluxe CD reissue
Disc 1 (The Original Stereo Album & More)
Tracks 1-12: Original album in stereo
"Through the Looking Glass" (1968 Stereo Mix) (Red Baldwin, Boyce, Hart) - 2:49
"Long Title: Do I Have to Do This All Over Again" (Alternate Mix) (Tork) - 2:36
"D.W. Washburn" (1968 Stereo Mix) (Jerry Leiber, Mike Stoller) - 2:50
"It's Nice to Be with You" (1968 Stereo Mix) (Jerry Goldstein) - 2:52
"Carlisle Wheeling" (1967 Stereo Mix) (Nesmith) - 3:07
"Rosemarie" (1968 Stereo Mix) (Dolenz) - 2:38
"My Share of the Sidewalk" (1968 Stereo Mix) (Nesmith) - 3:01
"Alvin" (Alternate Take) (Thorkelson, Thorkelson) - 0:22
"We Were Made for Each Other" (Alternate Backing Track) (Bayer, Fischoff) - 2:46
"The Girl I Left Behind Me" (1967 Stereo Mix) (Bayer, Sedaka) - 4:32
"Little Red Rider" (Acoustic Version) (Nesmith) - 2:30
"Lady's Baby" (1968 Stereo Mix) (Tork) - 2:25
"Ceiling in My Room" (1967 Stereo Mix) (Dominick DeMieri, Bobby Dick, Jones) - 3:50
"I'm a Man" (Backing Track) (Barry Mann, Cynthia Weil) - 2:55
"Me Without You" (1968 Stereo Mix) (Boyce, Hart) - 2:16
Disc 2 (The Original Mono Album & More)
Tracks 1-12: Original album in mono
"Alvin" (1968 Mono Mix) (Thorkelson, Thorkelson) - 0:24
"While I Cry" (1968 Mono Mix) (Nesmith) - 3:02
"D.W. Washburn" (Mono Single Mix) (Leiber, Stoller) - 2:49
"It's Nice to Be with You" (Mono Single Mix) (Goldstein) - 2:53
"Come on in" (1968 Mono Mix) (Mapes) - 3:19
"Carlisle Wheeling" (1968 Mono Mix) (Nesmith) - 3:02
"Rosemarie" (1968 Mono Mix) (Dolenz) - 2:39
"The Girl I Left Behind Me" (1967 Mono Mix) (Bayer, Sedaka) - 2:45
"Seeger's Theme" (Alternate Version) (Seeger) - 0:42
"Tear the Top Right Off My Head" (Micky's Vocal) (Tork) - 1:55
"My Share of the Sidewalk" (1968 Mono Mix) (Nesmith) - 3:02
"Lady's Baby" (1968 Mono Mix) (Tork) - 2:26
"Ceiling in My Room" (1967 Mono Mix) (DeMieri, Dick, Jones) - 3:15
"Merry Go Round" (1968 Mono Mix) (Tork, Diane Hildebrand) - 1:43
"Don't Listen to Linda" (1968 Mono Mix) (Boyce, Hart) - 2:56
"Me Without You" (1968 Mono Mix) (Boyce, Hart) - 2:17
"Zor and Zam" (TV Version) (Chadwick, Chadwick) - 2:04
The Birds the Bees & the Monkees Teen Radio Spot - 1:00
Disc 3 (The Birds, The Bees & The Raritees)
Monkees Adult Stereo 8 Spot - 0:59
"Tear the Top Right Off My Head" (Peter's Vocal) (Tork) - 1:57
"Auntie's Municipal Court" (Mike's Vocal) (Nesmith, Allison) - 4:08
"P.O. Box 9847" (1968 Alternate Stereo Mix) (Boyce, Hart) - 3:22
"War Games" (Version One) (Jones, Pitts) - 2:12
"Lady's Baby" (Tork) - 2:27
"Tapioca Tundra" (1967 Alternate Stereo Mix) (Nesmith) - 3:02
"D.W. Washburn" (Alternate Mix with Bass Vocal) (Leiber, Stoller) - 2:56
"Nine Times Blue" (Version Two - Davy's Vocal) (Nesmith) - 2:19
"Lady's Baby" (Acoustic Version) (Tork) - 2:19
"While I Cry" (Alternate Mono Mix) (Nesmith) - 3:05
"Shorty Blackwell" (Rehearsal) (Dolenz) - 2:54
"Laurel and Hardy" (Berry, Christian) - 2:45
"Seeger's Theme" (Acoustic Version) (Seeger) - 0:52
"Tapioca Tundra" (Acoustic Version) (Nesmith) - 3:15
"Don't Say Nothin' Bad" (About My Baby) (Goffin, King) - 2:08
"War Games" (Version Two) (Jones, Pitts) - 2:31
"(I Prithee) - Do Not Ask for Love" (Second Recorded Version) (Michael Martin Murphey) - 3:47
"My Share of the Sidewalk" (Mike's Vocal Version) (Nesmith) - 3:12
"Shake 'em Up and Let 'em Roll" (Alternate Vocal Version) (Leiber, Stoller) - 2:10
"Changes" (2009 Mix) (Jones, Pitts) - 2:25
"Merry Go Round" (Version One) (Tork, Hildebrand) - 1:29
"Magnolia Simms" (Acoustic Version) (Nesmith) - 3:15
"I'm Gonna Try" (Jones, Pitts) - 2:44
"Seeger's Theme" (Electric Version) (Seeger) - 0:42
"Magnolia Simms" (Stereo Remix) (Nesmith) - 3:42
"The Girl I Left Behind Me" (Third Recorded Version) (Bayer, Sedaka) - 2:57
"Merry Go Round" (Third Recorded Version) (Tork, Hildebrand) - 1:41
"Nine Times Blue" (Version Two - Mike's Vocal) (Nesmith) - 2:17
"The Party" (2009 Mix) (Jones, Pitts) - 3:01
"I Wasn't Born to Follow" (Backing Track) (Goffin, King) - 2:58
Vinyl 45
"St. Matthew" (Acoustic Version) (Nesmith)
"Lady's Baby" (Alternate Acoustic Version) (Tork)
Session information
All tracks produced by The Monkees unless otherwise specified.Dream World
Written by David Jones and Steve Pitts
Lead vocal: Davy Jones
Guitar: Michael Deasy, Al Hendrickson, Gerry McGee
Harpsichord: Don Randi
Bass: Max Bennett
Drums: Earl Palmer
Percussion: Brendan Cahill, Teresa Helfer, Milt Holland, Jerry Williams
Violin: Sam Freed, Nathan Kaproff, George Kast, Martin Limonick, Alexander Murray, Erno Neufeld
Cello: Marie Feram, Edgar Lustgarten, Jacquelyn Lustgarten, Fredrick Seykora
Trumpet: Buddy Childers, Jack Sheldon
Trombone: George Roberts
French Horn: John Cave, Don Duke, Arthur Maebe
Arrangement: Shorty Rogers
Recorded at Western Recorders Studio 2, Hollywood, California; February 6, 1968 and RCA Victor Studios, Hollywood, California; 8 February 8, 1968
Auntie's Municipal Court
Written by Keith Allison and Michael Nesmith
Lead vocal: Micky Dolenz
Harmony vocal/percussion: Michael Nesmith
Backing vocals: Michael Nesmith, Bill Chadwick, and Unknown
Electric guitar: Michael Nesmith, Keith Allison, Bill Chadwick
Bass: Richard Dey
Drums: Eddie Hoh
Recorded at RCA Victor Studios, Hollywood, California; January 6, 15–16, 1968
Mono mix features louder guitar accompaniment
We Were Made for Each Other
Written by Carole Bayer Sager and George Fischoff
Lead vocal: Davy Jones
Guitar: James Burton, Michael Deasy, Al Hendrickson, Gerry McGee
Harpsichord: Michael Melvoin
Bass: Max Bennett
Drums: Earl Palmer
Percussion: Brendan Cahill, Milt Holland, Jerry Williams
Mallet: Milt Holland
Violin: Sam Freed, Nathan Kaproff, George Kast, Marvin Limonick, Alexander Murray, Erno Neufeld
Cello: Maria Fera, Jacquelyn Lustgarten, Kurt Reher, Eleanor Slatkin
Trumpet: Buddy Childers, Jack Sheldon
Trombone: Lewis McCreary
French horn: Vincent DeRosa, David Duke, Richard Preissi
Arrangement: Shorty Rogers
Originally intended for Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd.Recorded at Western Recorders Studio 2, Hollywood, California; February 6, 1968 and RCA Victor Studios, Hollywood, California; February 7 and 9, 1968
Tapioca Tundra
Written by Michael Nesmith
Lead vocal/whistle/electric and acoustic guitars/percussion: Michael Nesmith
Bass: unknown
Drums: Eddie Hoh
Recorded at RCA Victor Studios, Hollywood, California; November 11, 18–19, 1967
Daydream Believer
Written by John Stewart
Lead/backing vocals: Davy Jones
Harmony vocal: Micky Dolenz
Electric guitar: Michael Nesmith
Piano: Peter Tork
Producer/bass/percussion: Chip Douglas
Bell: Bill Martin
Drums: Eddie Hoh
Violin: Nathan Kaproff, George Kast, Alex Murray, Erno Neufeld
Trumpet: Pete Candoli, Al Porcino, Manuel Stevens
Piccolo trumpet: Manuel Stevens
Trombone: Richard Noel
Bass trombone: Richard Leith, Philip Teele
Arrangement: Shorty Rogers
Recorded at RCA Victor Studio A, Hollywood, California; June 14, 1967 and RCA Victor's Nashville Sound studio, Nashville, Tennessee, August 9, 1967
Issued as a single on Colgems #1012, 25 October 1967, No. 1
Only song on Birds featuring all members of the band, and the only song featuring Tork at all.
Replaced "Love is Only Sleeping" as a single.
Used in Monkees episodes "Art, For Monkees' Sake", "Monkees Marooned", "A Coffin Too Frequent", "Hitting the High Seas".
Writing Wrongs
Written by Michael Nesmith
Lead vocal/electric guitar/organ/piano: Michael Nesmith
Bass: Richard Dey
Drums/percussion: Eddie Hoh
Recorded at RCA Victor Studios, Hollywood, California; December 3, 1967
Final product is two takes spliced together
I'll Be Back Up On My Feet
Written by Sandy Linzer and Denny Randell
Lead/backing vocals: Micky Dolenz
Guitar: Al Casey, Michael Deasy, Dennis Budimir
Harpsichord: Michael Melvoin
Bass: Max Bennett
Drums: Earl Palmer
Percussion: Brendan Cahill
Tambourine: Milt Holland, Stan Levey
Quica: Milt Holland, Stan Levey
Saxophone: William Hood
Trumpet: Buddy Childers, Oliver Mitchell
Trombone: Louis Blackburn, Lew McCreary
Arrangement: Shorty Rogers
Recorded at RCA Victor Studios, Hollywood, California; March 9 and 14, 1968
Intended for More of The Monkees, then again for Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd.Original version featured in The Monkees episodes "Dance Monkee, Dance" and "Monkees in the Ring".
The Poster
Written by David Jones and Steve Pitts
Lead/backing vocals: Davy Jones
Guitars: Al Casey, Michael Deasy, Howard Roberts
Organ: Don Randi
Bass: Max Bennett, Lyle Ritz
Drums: Hal Blaine
Glockenspiel/percussion/tambourine: Gary Coleman, Gene Estes
Trumpet: Buddy Childers, Clyde Reasinger, Jack Sheldon, Anthony Terran
Trombone: Milt Bernhart, Richard Leith, Lew McCreary, Frank Rosolino
Saxophone: John Lowe
Woodwind: John Lowe
Violin: Nathan Kaproff, George Kast, Marvin Limonick, Alex Murray, Erno Neufeld, Ambrose Russo
Arrangement: Shorty Rogers
Recorded at RCA Victor Studios, Hollywood, California; February 15 and 17, 1968
P.O. Box 9847
Written by Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart
Lead vocal: Micky Dolenz
Backing vocal: Probably Coco Dolenz, Micky Dolenz
Electric guitars: Gerry McGee, Louie Shelton
Bass: Joe Osborn
Tack piano: Bobby Hart
Drums/percussion: Billy Lewis
Violin: Victor Arno, Jack Pepper
Viola: Philip Goldberg
Cello: Raymond Kelley
Marxophone/tabla: unknown
Arrangement: Don McGinnis
Inspired by an idea by Bob Rafelson
Although credited to The Monkees, the song was produced by Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart
Recorded at United Recorders, Hollywood, California; December 26, 1967; February 10, 1968
Magnolia Simms
Written by Michael Nesmith
Lead vocal/guitar: Michael Nesmith
Tack piano: Paul T. Smith
Bass: Max Bennett
Drums: Earl Palmer
Trumpet: Oliver Mitchell
Trombone: Lew McCreary
Woodwinds: Jim Horn, Jack Nimitz
Recorded at RCA Victor Studios, Hollywood, California; December 2, 1967
Recorded as a low-fi song with deliberate surface noise and skipping as if it came from a 78 RPM record. On the stereo mix, this track is heard only on the left channel.
Valleri
Written by Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart
Lead vocal: Davy Jones
Backing vocal: unknown
Electric guitars: Gerry McGee, Louie Shelton
Bass: Joe Osborn
Drums: Billy Lewis
Tambourine: Billy Lewis
Saxophones: Jim Horn, Jay Migliori
Trumpets: Oliver Mitchell, Roy Caton
Trombone: Lew McCreary
Arrangement: Don McGinnis
Although credited to The Monkees, the song was produced by Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart
Recorded at United Recorders, Hollywood, California; December 26 and 28, 1967
Issued as a single as Colgems #1019, February 17, 1968, reaching number three.
Colgems chief Lester Sill added brass section to mix after rejecting initial mix
This mix was used for the episode "Monkee's Blow Their Minds" with the fade-out dropped (a factor which would later be used on compilations).
Featured in The Monkees episode "The Monkees Blow Their Minds"; original version featured in "Captain Crocodile" and "Monkees in Manhattan"
Zor and Zam
Written by Bill Chadwick and John Chadwick
Lead vocal: Micky Dolenz
Electric guitars: Keith Allison, Bill Chadwick
Bass: Chip Douglas, Richard Dey, Max Bennett
Piano: Michael Melvoin
Drums: Hal Blaine, Eddie Hoh, Milt Holland, Stan Levey
Percussion: Micky Dolenz, Hal Blaine, Milt Holland, Stan Levey, Henry Diltz
Gong: Hal Blaine, Milt Holland, Stan Levey
Timpani: Hal Blaine, Milt Holland, Stan Levey
Trombone: Milt Bernhart, Richard Leith, Lew McCreary, Frank Rosolino
Trumpet: Buddy Childers, Clyde Reasinger, Jack Sheldon, Anthony Terran
Violin: Nathan Kaproff, George Kast, Marvin Limonick, Alex Murray, Erno Neufeld, Ambrose Russo
Saxophone/woodwind: John Lowe
Arrangement: Shorty Rogers
Alternate early version featured in The Monkees final episode "The Frodis Caper"
Recorded at RCA Victor Studios, Hollywood, California; January 7, 13, 18 and February 14, 17, 1968
1994 bonus tracks session Information
Alvin
Written by Nicholas Thorkelson
Spoken words: Peter Tork
Recorded at Western Recorders, Hollywood, California; January 20, 1968
I'm Gonna Try
Written by David Jones and Steve Pitts
Lead vocal: Davy Jones
Guitar: Al Casey, Mike Deasey, Howard Roberts
Bass: Lyle Ritz
Drums: Hal Blaine
Harpsichord: Don Randi
Marimba/tambourine: Gary Coleman, Gene Estes
Trombone: Milt Bernhart, Richard Leith, Lew McCreary, Frank Rosolino
Trumpet: Buddy Childers, and Clyde Reasinger, Jack Sheldon, Anthony Terran
Saxophone: John Lowe
Woodwind: John Lowe
Violin: Nathan Kaproff, George Kast, Marvin Limonick, Alex Murray, Erno Neufeld, Ambrose Russo
Recorded at RCA Victor Studios, Hollywood, California; February 15 and 17, 1968
Originally considered for Changes''
Similar music track to Jones/Pitts song "Party", recording during same session
P.O. Box 9847 (early mix)
Moog Synthesizer: Micky Dolenz
Earlier mix features moog synthesizer instead of string section
Recorded at United Recorders, Hollywood, California; December 26, 1967
The Girl I Left Behind Me (second recorded version)
Written by Carole Bayer Sager and Neil Sedaka
Lead vocal: Davy Jones
Other personnel unknown
Recorded at RCA Victor Studios, Hollywood, California; October 31 and November 7 and 21, 1967
Lady's Baby (alternate mix)
Written and produced by Peter Tork
Lead vocal/guitar: Peter Tork
Backing vocal: Karen Harvey Hammer
Electric guitar: Stephen Stills
Bass: Lance Wakely
Drums: Dewey Martin
Sound effects: Justin Hammer
Recorded at RCA Victor Studios, December 1, 17, 21, 1967, and January 14, 19, 24, 1968; Western Recorders, Hollywood, California; February 2 and 7, 1968
Constant production changes and re-recordings resulted in song not being finished in time for release
2010 bonus tracks session information
D. W. Washburn (1968 stereo mix)
Written by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller
Lead vocal: Micky Dolenz
Backing vocal: Unknown
Guitar: Keith Allison, Bill Chadwick
Banjo: Henry Diltz
Bass: Chip Douglas
Drums: Jim Gordon
Tack Piano: Michel Rubini
Glockenspiel: Larry Bunker
Saxophone: Bill Hood
Trumpets: Carroll Lewis, Williamson
Trombone: Lou Blackburn, Herbie Harper
Recorded at RCA Victor Studios, Hollywood, California; February 17 and March 1, 1968
It's Nice To Be with You (1968 stereo mix)
Written by Jerry Goldstein
Lead vocal: Davy Jones
Guitars: James Burton, Mike Deasy, Al Hendrickson, Gerry McGee
Bass: Max Bennett
Drums: Earl Palmer
Keyboard: Michael Melvoin
Violins: Sam Freed, Nathan Kaproff, George Kast, Marvin Limonick, Alex Murray, Erno Neufeld
Cellos: Marie Fera, Jacqueline Lustgarten, Kurt Reher, Eleanor Slatkin
Saxophone: Bill Hood
Trumpets: Buddy Childers, Oliver Mitchell
French horn: Vincent DeRosa, David Duke, Dick Perissi
Trombones: Lou Blackburn, Lew McCreary, Jack Sheldon
Recorded at Western Recorders, Studio 2, February 6, and RCA Victor Studios, Hollywood, California; February 7, 1968
Ceiling in My Room (1967 stereo mix)
Written by Dominick DeMieri, Robert Dick and David Jones
Lead/backing vocals: Davy Jones
Guitars: Dom DeMieri, Eddie Placidi
Bass: Robert Dick
Drums: Kim Capli
Piano: Charlie Smalls
Recorded on November 14, 1967
Auntie's Municipal Court (alternate mix)
Lead/harmony vocals: Michael Nesmith
Additional harmony vocals: Micky Dolenz
Co-lead vocals: Micky Dolenz
Alternate mix featuring Nesmith on lead vocals with extra sound effects during final instrumental, although Dolenz still appears as the lead vocalist briefly during a couple of segments in the final verses at 2:45 and 3:16
Other personnel
Produced by The Monkees (except "Daydream Believer" produced by Chip Douglas)
Recording engineers: Pete Abbot, Hank Cicalo
Music supervision: Lester Sill
Original cover design: Allan Wolsky and friends
Charts
Album
Singles
Certifications
References
External links
The Birds, The Bees & The Monkees 3-CD box set by Rhino
The Monkees albums
1968 albums
Arista Records albums
RCA Records albums
Rhino Records albums
Sundazed Records albums
Colgems Records albums
Albums recorded at United Western Recorders
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Greek New Zealanders () (Ellinozilandoí) refers to New Zealand citizens and residents who are of full or partial Greek descent; either those who immigrated or are New Zealand-born. Large concentrations of the community are to be found in Wellington, and to a lesser extent Christchurch and Auckland. Smaller communities of Greeks reside in Palmerston North, Wanganui, Dunedin, Hamilton, Nelson and Napier. Many Greek New Zealanders maintain their Greek identity through the observation of Greek customs and traditions, and their adherence to their Greek Orthodox (Christian) faith, whilst also assimilating into New Zealand society.
The number of people reporting their ethnicity as Greek in New Zealand was 2,478 in the March 2013 census. An estimated 10,000 to 50,000 New Zealanders have Greek Ancestry.
In the modern era, many Greeks came by way of Australia to New Zealand, coming in waves during the 1950s and 60s. The vast majority of these migrants came to Wellington, which still noticeably oozes with Hellenic heritage and deep roots. Suburbs that became Greek strongholds include Mount Victoria, the streets of which are lined with Greek-planted olive trees (that have produced award-winning olive oil), Strathmore Park, Miramar, Island Bay, Moera, Plimmerton, and Berhampore, the latter of which is where the local Greek football team, Wellington Olympic AFC, is based. Wellington Olympic is one of many local clubs formed by European immigrants during the 20th century, which helped solidify football as a passion of the people in Wellington. Many Greeks found work running fish and chip shops; some of these shops are still run by Greeks (such as ones in Strathmore Park and Plimmerton), but today Chinese New Zealanders run the majority of these takeaway outlets. Concerning Greek food, Hummus is considered a staple food amongst many New Zealanders, Babaganoush and Pita Bread is widely consumed, and Souvlakia is not hard to find at all in Wellington.
Migration
The vast majority of the Greeks immigrating to New Zealand came from the western prefecture of Aetolia-Acarnania, the Ionian Sea islands of Ithaca and Kephalonia, and from the island of Lesbos which is located in the northeastern Aegean Sea. Smaller numbers have come from Macedonia, Epirus, Attica, the Peloponnese, Crete, Romania and Cyprus. Chain migration has been popular.
The first Greek immigrants
It is believed that the first Greek in New Zealand was a Mr Constas, an officer in the merchant navy from Sparta, Laconia which is situated in the southeastern part of the Peloponnese peninsula. He arrived in New Zealand in 1798 aboard a Dutch-flagged merchant ship which later sank in Dunedin. He died in Dunedin in 1840 - the year the Treaty of Waitangi was signed.
In 1832 Captain Economou arrived in New Zealand on a Dutch or British ship. He stayed in New Zealand and married a Māori woman. He assisted his father-in law at the Treaty of Waitangi.
Seaman Nicolas Demetriou Mangos from Syros arrived in New Zealand in 1844. He was 17 years old, and jumped ship because his Dutch captain was reportedly cruel. He was sheltered by an Irish family, and later he married their daughter.
The earliest Greek presence recorded in the New Zealand census was in 1874 when forty men and one woman were reported.
Nikolas Fernandos (or Mantzaris) from the island of Ithaca is considered the first known immigrant to New Zealand. Between 1890 and 1914 Greek immigrants established themselves as fishermen, street hawkers, confectioners and restaurateurs in Wellington, Auckland and Dunedin. Relatives of these early immigrants were encouraged to join them in New Zealand, setting up chain migration from poverty-stricken towns and villages. By 1936 there were 82 Greece born people living in Wellington with other immigrants residing in New Plymouth, Feilding, Palmerston North, Dannevirke, Napier, Hastings, Ashburton, Temuka, Timaru, Waimate and Oamaru.
War refugees
Greeks immigrated to New Zealand for a better life following World War II and the Greek Civil War, fought from 1946 to 1949. New Zealand, a member of the International Refugee Organization, assisted 1026 ethnic Greeks from Romania to settle in NZ in 1951. The displaced persons arrived in Wellington in May, August and December 1951 on the SS GOYA, from Piraeus, Greece. Although most arrivals were placed in jobs in Wellington, some were sent around the country to work in hydroelectric construction and heavy industry where there was a shortage of labour. A commemorative plaque was unveiled on the Wellington waterfront in 2012, close to where the SS GOYA docked in 1951.
John Vakidis' acclaimed New Zealand play 'Tzigane', explores the Greek-Romanian refugee experience of emigrating and living in New Zealand.
The "Golden Age"
A big influx of Greek immigration took place in the 1950s and 1960s due to economic and political problems in Greece. More than seven million Greeks emigrated from Greece during this period, mainly to the United States, Australia, Germany, the United Kingdom, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, France, Switzerland and New Zealand. Amongst those immigrating to New Zealand during this period were 267 young women who arrived between 1962 and 1964 through a New Zealand government scheme to provide domestic staff for hospitals, schools and hotels. The New Zealand Greek community's population peaked in the mid-1960s, with an estimated 5000-6000 Greeks, including New Zealand-born descendants.
Greek Cypriots
Most Greek Cypriots arrived in the late 1930s and after WWII between 1948 and 1960. Some Greek refugees arrived from Greek Cyprus following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974. Greek Cypriots have their own community hall and community association but are full and active members of the Greek Community.
Recent arrivals
Just under 100 Greeks have been granted New Zealand residency in the last 17 years. After 2010 due to the economic crisis in Greece there is a new migratory flow of Greeks to New Zealand.
Dual citizenship
A number of Greek New Zealanders hold both New Zealand and Greek passports. Greek citizenship is acquired by birth by all persons born in Greece, and all persons born with at least one parent who is a registered Greek citizen. Any person who is ethnically Greek born outside Greece may become a Greek citizen through naturalization, providing they can prove a parent or grandparent was born as a national of Greece.
Greek communities
The largest concentration of Greek people reside in the country's capital city, Wellington. It is estimated that 65 percent of all Greek New Zealanders live there. The inner-city suburb of Mount Victoria developed a distinct Greek character after World War II as Greek immigrants clustered together for community support. Today the eastern suburb of Miramar is the city's main Greek enclave, with significant numbers also residing in Hataitai and Seatoun. The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese and the Embassy of Greece are both located in Wellington.
Smaller communities exist in Christchurch, Auckland and Napier/Hastings. Greek Orthodox churches exist in all these centres.
Many Greek New Zealanders enjoy the riches of two cultures - maintaining Greek cultural customs whilst integrating into the Kiwi way of life.
It has been estimated that about 50 percent of marriages of Greek persons are now mixed. It is common for the wedding to take place in the Greek Orthodox Church with the non-Greek non-Christian partner becoming baptised before the marriage.
Employment
Many Greek immigrants established food businesses such as restaurants, grill-rooms and fish and chips shops. Zisis Blades' book Wellington's Hellenic Mile: The Greek Shops of Twentieth Century Wellington documents the many Greek shops of 20th century Wellington. Today many Greeks are tertiary educated - professionals, public servants, tradespeople and business owners.
The Greek Orthodox Church
The Greek Orthodox faith plays a central part in the cultural life of many Greek New Zealanders. From 1924 New Zealand was part of the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia and New Zealand. Until the 1940s when a church was built in Wellington, the all important sacraments of baptism and marriage could only be performed when a priest visited from Australia. In 1970, New Zealand became a separate diocese with its own archbishop. The distinctive Byzantine-syle domed Greek Orthodox Church - The Annunciation of the Virgin Mary on Hania Street (formerly Lloyd Street) in Mount Victoria, Wellington was consecrated in 1970 by Metropolitan Dionysios Psiachas (dec), the first Archbishop of the Holy Metropolis of New Zealand. The current Metropolitan of New Zealand, Bishop Erithron Amfilochios Tsoukos was elected in 2005 and elevated the church on Hania Street to cathedral status. The Holy Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of New Zealand oversees ten churches in New Zealand including the Holy Archangels Monastery which was built in 2009, east of Levin.
Greek organisations
The Panhellenic Club on Marion Street in Wellingtom was the first Greek club, established in 1927. It then moved to Wakefield Street.
Today the largest and most active organisation is the Greek Orthodox Community of Wellington and Suburbs. The incorporated society, established in 1945, is governed by an elected executive which manages the Greek Community Centre on Hania Street in Mount Victoria, Wellington. The Community Centre consists of The Greek Orthodox Cathedral - The Annunciation of the Virgin Mary, the Parthenon Building which houses a functions hall and classrooms, and an adjacent apartment building with meeting rooms. Other cities and regions have active community associations as well, namely, Christchurch, Auckland, the Hutt Valley and Palmerston North.
Greek organisations representing different regional or national sub-groups have helped sustain the culture. In Wellington there are a number of associations whose membership is based on regional origin: namely Macedonia, Crete, Ithaca, Lesbos and Alto-akarnania.
The Hellenic New Zealand Congress was formed in 1994 with the aim to foster better understanding, goodwill and friendly relations between the Hellenic communities and all New Zealanders through the support and promotion of Greek culture, traditions, history and language. Membership is welcomed from all Greeks and New Zealanders.
Greek language
A 1990 study by Maria Verivaki of Greek language ability amongst Greek New Zealanders found that more than half of the community claimed a high level of ability for understanding and speaking Greek with the order of proficiency being: understanding, speaking, reading, writing. There was a decreasing proficiency across each succeeding generation across the four language skills. The study also found a higher level of proficiency for those who visited Greece, attended church or attended Greek language school. The study concluded that exposure to the Greek language seems to be the key to language maintenance in the Greek community of New Zealand.
The Greek Orthodox Community of Wellington has been providing Greek language lessons for children for over 50 years, and more recently for teenagers and adults. The Greek Government generously provides a qualified teacher from Greece, who teaches alongside local Greek people at the Greek community school. Many Greek New Zealanders have installed cable television in their homes, with which they can receive Greek-language news and entertainment channels, in this way strengthening their Greek language skills.
Cultural activities
The different Greek communities, associations, clubs and families enjoy socialising by engaging in social activities that include Greek food and music. Non-Greek New Zealanders enjoy partaking and have come to appreciate the Greek culture through Greek Community organised cultural and fundraising events including:
the commemoration of Greek National days on 25 March and 28 October, and the Battle of Crete in May;
the annual Greek Food Festival in Wellington;
art exhibitions by Greek New Zealand artists;
dance performances;
concerts by local Greek musicians and visiting Greek musicians: George Dalaras (1997), Glykeria (2000), Nana Mouskouri (Farewell Tour, 2005), Vangelis Perpiniadis (1999), Stathis Aggelopoulos and Stelios Perpiniadis (2014).
A Greek band has been operating in various guises in Wellington for the last thirty years. The bands have primarily performed at Gree19k functions in Wellington and across New Zealand. The first known amateur band operated in Wellington in the 1960s with members Taso Soulis (piano accordion) John Zaloumis (lead guitar), Jim Viatos (mandolin), Manoli Haldezos (rhythm guitar) and Gregory Koutopos (percussion) Which gave many nationalities including Yugoslavs Italians and Jewish community and also Greek various types of music which they played at the time, later in the 70s Robert Metohianakis joined the band as they gave the band A Modern Flavour in their repertoire months later George Metohianakis joined the band while one of the members went on a holiday back home. On his returned Taso Soulis decided They want him to stay on so the band became very popular because of the variety of different music played.
In the early 1980s George Metohianakis (lead vocal and bouzouki) Robert Metohianakis (bass) With Jeff Boulieris (drummer) carried on the Greek Band which was started by Taso Souli 'The Greek Band' The band then decided we will bring George Photiadis, Bruce Maniadis and Alex Theodorides the to make the band more versatile which Later released the albums (The Greek Way) (Yia tin Ayape For the Love). In 1985 George Metohianakis decided to move to Australia. Robert Metohianakis and Jeff Boulieris carried on the Greek band until Robert decided to move to Australia as well so the band dispersed
Two years later Mythos Band Came to life with some new blood helloreleased an album in 1987. Most recently the Children of Aphrodite'founded by Andronicos Economous, who along with Alex Theodorides and Doros Kyriakides were performing together from 1977 in the Wellington Greek music scene' has performed at various functions.
Between 1987 and 1989, four Wellington Greeks, Bruce Magiannis, Dimitri Papadopoulos, Tasos Varelas and Costa Christie formed a group named MYTHOS and recorded two albums of original Greek songs penned by Magiannis and Papadopoulos. Although the songs are in Greek they have a contemporary western feel.
The first album, With The Memory, reached No.37 on the album charts from which Air New Zealand chose to feature the track Monaxia on their in flight entertainment for almost two years. TVNZ used the video clip for this song as a filler between programmes for many months.
In 1996 singer Christina Daglas founded To Fos, a Greek music ensemble which, for the next ten years, performed and recorded with an eclectic mix of musicians. In 2001 Daglas released Christina Daglas: Folk Songs of Greece. This CD was very well received both in New Zealand and internationally and led to an invitation to sing at the Nanning International Folk Festival in China and the Beijing International Music Festival. Daglas was for a while a member of Greek Nights an ensemble that performs authentic Greek music and dance at various venues in Auckland.
John Psathas is one of a few New Zealand composers who have made a mark on the international scene, particularly in Europe and North America. He is widely considered one of the three most important living composers of the Greek Diaspora. Psathas' music has been commissioned and performed by many musicians and orchestras around the world including Michael Brecker, Dame Evelyn Glennie, Michael Houstoun, Joshua Redman, The New Zealand String Quartet, Federico Mondelci, the New Zealand Chamber Soloists, the New Zealand Trio, Pedro Carneiro, the Takacs Quartet, the Netherlands Blazers Ensemble, the Halle Orchestra, the Royal Philharmonic, the Melbourne Symphony, the BBC Scottish Symphony, the Auckland Philharmonia, the Vector Wellington Orchestra, and the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra. Psathas composed the ceremonial music for the 2004 Olympic Games.
Sport
A lack of recreational opportunities for Greek youth led Greek Orthodox priest Father Ilias Economou to establish the Olympic football club (formerly called the Christian Youth Football Club) in 1958. Today Wellington Olympic AFC fields an array of senior and junior teams. In 2009 the club's premier team won the Chatham Cup.
In the run-up to the 2004 Athens Olympics a number of successful cultural events were organized, with a substantial contribution from the Greek community. A number of Greek New Zealanders travelled to Greece to work as volunteers during the Games. Greek New Zealander John Psathas composed the music that was played at the Opening and Closing Ceremonies.
In 2009 the Greek community in New Zealand was represented at the Oceania Pan Hellenic Games in Melbourne by a small team of athletes. About 600 athletes of Greek descent from all over Australia and New Zealand competed in a range of sports.
Media
For many years Greeks have had to rely on newspapers and magazines sent by family in Greece/Australia or purchased when on holiday in Greece for Greek news or entertainment. The Wellington Greek community has enjoyed different locally produced non-commercial community newsletters, newspapers and magazines for news from Greece or of Greek relevance, and music and news on the weekly Greek Community, Hellenic Youth and Cypriot radio broadcasts on Wellington Access Radio 738 HzM, hosted by volunteers from the Greek community.
With the advent of the Internet and satellite television, Greek New Zealanders can enjoy a plethora of information and entertainment from the luxury of their homes. ERT World, the international service run by ERT, Greece's public broadcaster and the privately owned Antenna are broadcast in New Zealand.
Political voice
Cyprus
The Greek Cypriot community had a presence in Wellington well before the Second World War. Quite a few of its members served in the New Zealand Army in North Africa, Italy and the Pacific. The Cyprus Community Association was established in 1947 with the idea of helping Cypriot people to keep their identity and culture, and at the same time promote good relations between Cypriots and New Zealanders. The Cyprian Community of New Zealand has a political voice, demonstrating against continued occupation of northern Cyprus by Turkey. On 8 May 1996 the Hon. Annette King, Member of Parliament for Miramar, moved, "That the New Zealand House of Representatives reaffirms its total support for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Republic of Cyprus as the only legitimate authority on the island." The motion was agreed to.
Macedonia
The Greek community in New Zealand joined the worldwide opposition to the post-1991 constitutional name of Greece's northern neighbour, citing historical and territorial concerns resulting from the ambiguity between it and the adjacent Greek region of Macedonia.
Parthenon Marbles
The New Zealand Parthenon Marbles Committee was formed in 2000, as part of a worldwide campaign to seek support for the return of the Parthenon Marbles which were removed by Lord Elgin from Greece in the early 19th century. The 100+ pieces are housed at the British Museum. On 24 May 2007 the New Zealand Parliament agreed to a motion urging the British Government to return the Parthenon Marbles to Greece. Moved by Hon. Marian Hobbs, Labour Member of Parliament for Wellington Central, the motion requested that "the House joins its voice to that of other countries throughout the world and urges the British Government to support the return of the Parthenon Marbles to Greece, stressing the need for the collections of marbles in different locations to be reunited so that the world can see them in their original context in relation to the Temple of Parthenon, as an act of respect to one of the most significant monuments of western heritage." New Zealand joined a growing number of countries and international organisations also calling for their return.
Notable Greek New Zealanders
The Arts
Ray Columbus - singer, songwriter and entertainer. Columbus' great grandfather was Greek.
Konstantin Dimopoulos - sculptor, creator of Pacific Grass, the kinetic sculpture on Cobham Drive adjacent to Wellington Airport
Manos Nathan - clay artist
Christodoulos Moisa - artist, poet, writer, photographer and printmaker.
John Psathas - composer, Professor - School of Music, Humanities and Social Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington
Spiro Zavos - historian, writer and journalist
Business
Elisabeth Findlay - fashion designer, Zambesi
Konstantina Moutos - fashion designer, two-time Supreme Award winner (1984 and 1986) - Benson and Hedges Fashion Design Awards
Margarita Robertson - fashion designer, Nom*D
Terry Serepisos - former owner of Wellington Phoenix Football Club and host of The Apprentice New Zealand.
Vangelis Vitalis - diplomat and trade negotiator; New Zealand Ambassador to the European Union and NATO
Sport
Kosta Barbarouses - footballer
Leo Bertos - footballer
Alex Feneridis - footballer
Themistoklis Tzimopoulos - footballer
New Zealand honours
The New Zealand Royal Honours system is the system of orders, decorations and medals which are awarded to recognise achievements of, or service by, New Zealanders or others in connection with New Zealand.
O.B.E. (Officer of the Order of the British Empire)
Ray Columbus, of Christchurch. Honoured in 1974 for services to the music industry.
O.N.Z.M. (Officer of the New Zealand Order of Merit)
Ioannis John Psathas, of Wellington. Honoured in 2005 for services to music.
Constantine (Costa) Cotsilinis, of Athens, Greece. Honoured in 2007 for services to New Zealand-Greece relations.
Elisabeth Findlay, of Auckland. Honoured in 2008 for services to business and fashion.
Nicolas Calavrias, of Wellington. Honoured in 2011 for services to business.
M.N.Z.M. (Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit)
Constantine (Costa) Cotsilinis, of Athens, Greece. Honoured in 1998 for services to New Zealand interests in Greece.
Panaghis (Peter) Mikelatos (dec.), of Wellington. Honoured in 2003 for services to the Greek community.
Tony Christodoulou, of Nicosia, Cyprus. Honoured in 2007 for services to New Zealand–Cyprus relations.
Q.S.M. (Queen's Service Medal)
Metropolitan Dionysios Psiachas (dec.), of Wellington. Honoured in 1995 for community service.
Dennis Dionysios Soulis, of Wellington. Honoured in 1995 for community service.
Zisis (Bruce) Avangelos Blades (dec.), of Wellington. Honoured in 2004 for community service.
Phroso Dometakis-Bell, of Wellington. Honoured in 2013 for services to the community.
Q.S.O. (Queen's Service Order)
Esther Petritakis, of Wellington. Honoured in 2000 for services to the community.
Stella Bares, of Wellington. Honoured in 2010 for services to the Greek community.
PublicationsOnly works with a Greek theme are listed.Documentary film
Cawthorn, Richard, View from Olympus, 2010. Portrait of Wellington composer John Psathas. The film follows Psathas as he embarks on a series of new projects, both at home and abroad.
Irwin, John, In Rich Regard, Wild Sweet Productions Ltd, 1990. A documentary on the relations between New Zealand and Crete, forged on the battlefields of World War II. The documentary features New Zealand veterans returning to Crete and reuniting with their old Cretan friends.
The Migrating Kitchen Charitable Trust, The Migrating Kitchen, 2007. A DVD showcasing cuisine and personal stories from the Greek, Burmese, Chinese, Russian, Samoan and Somali communities of New Zealand.
Yiannoutsos, Vicky, Visible Passage, Pinflicks, 1987. A personal and poignant documentary film in which elderly women from the Greek Island of Kastos recall past memories, including their resettlement in Wellington and their gradual acceptance into New Zealand society.
Fiction
Christodoulos, Moisa, Blood and Koka Kola - Short Stories, 2013.
Kyriazopoulos, Michael, Cloudy Sunday, 2013.
Music
Daglas, Christina, Christina Daglas: Folk Songs of Greece, Manu Music, 2001.
The Greek Band, The Greek Way, Kiwi/Pacific Records Ltd, 1983.
The Greek Band, Yia Tin Agapi, Kiwi/Pacific Records Ltd, 1984.
The Greek Band, The Greek Band, Kiwi/Pacific Records Ltd, 1985.
Mythos, With the Memory, 1988.
Nederlands Blazers Ensemble (music by John Psathas), Zeibekiko, 2009. A Greek musical celebration covering 2500 years of Greek music, Zeibekiko includes music from the Byzantine era, Taximia, traditional and popular repertoire as well as new music. Psathas has composed new works and arranged some music fragments which survived from classical antiquity.
Psathas, John, View from Olympus: Double Concerto for percussion, piano and orchestra, 2002.
Psathas, John, The New Zeimbekiko, 2011.
Non-fiction
Blades, Zisis Bruce, Wellington's Hellenic mile: The Greek shops of 20th century Wellington: Z. B. Blades, 2005.
Fragiadakis, Georgios. The Greeks in New Zealand. Wellington: Greek Orthodox Community, 1990. (This work is mainly in Greek, but there is some English text.)
Grace, Patricia, Ned and Katina, Penguin Group, 2009. The true story of Ned Nathan, a wounded Māori Battalion soldier, who meets and falls in love with a Cretan woman, Katina.
Verivaki, Maria and Petris, John. Stories of Greek journeys. Wellington: Petone Settlers' Museum, 1991.
Verivaki, Maria. Language maintenance and shift in the Greek community of Wellington, New Zealand. Unpublished MA Thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 1990.
Viatos, Mercina, Argus, Koula & Kondos, Melpi, Favourite Greek recipes 2nd ed., Greek Orthodox Community of Wellington & Suburbs, 1994.
Play
Vakidis, John,Tzigane, Playmarket, 1996
Poetry
Moisa, Christodoulos, "The Desert" published by One Eyed Press, 2010 .
Manasiadis, Vana, Ithaca Island Bay Leaves: a Mythistorima'', Seraph Press, 2009. Part family exploration, part personal narrative, this debut poetry collection weaves the mythic into the everyday and draws on the author's Greek heritage.
See also
European New Zealanders
Europeans in Oceania
Greece–New Zealand relations
Greek Australians
Greek diaspora
Greeks in Hawaii
Greeks
Immigration to New Zealand
New Zealanders
Pākehā
Wellington Olympic AFC
External links
A collection of photographs of the Wellington Greek Community in 1974
Official website for the Greek community of Wellington
Faith, food and football - Wellington's Greek community (television news item, 2010)
A Collection Of Memories 1962 - 1992 / Greek Community Wellington NZ
List of Greek organisations in New Zealand
Bilateral relations between Greece and New Zealand
Wellington Greek band Mythos (music video, 1988)
Wellington Greek band Mythos (music video, 1988)
Wellington's The Greek Band (music video, 1985)
A Greek documentary video about the Greeks in New Zealand (Part 1), (documentary video, 2013)
A Greek documentary video about the Greeks in New Zealand (Part 2), (documentary video, 2013)
The history of Wellington's Greek community (from 1923 to 1974), (documentary video, 2020)
Official website for the Greek community of Auckland
Hellenic New Zealand Congress
The Greeks and New Zealand – A True Love Story
Beautiful bits of Greece in Wellington NZ
Once were Greeks … the Hellenes of Auckland and New Zealand
Great interest from Greeks to move to New Zealand
References
New Zealand
European New Zealander
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William Kurelek, (March 3, 1927 – November 3, 1977) was a Canadian artist and writer. His work was influenced by his childhood on the prairies, his Ukrainian-Canadian roots, his struggles with mental illness, and his conversion to Roman Catholicism.
Early life
William Kurelek was born near Whitford, Alberta in 1927, the oldest of seven children in a Ukrainian immigrant family: Bill, John, Winn, Nancy, Sandy, Paul, Iris. His father, Dmytro Kurelek, was born in Boriwtsi, Bukovina. Mary Huculak, his mother, was born in Canada, and received her elementary education in a local rural school. Her family had come with the first wave of Ukrainian immigration to Canada and was also from Boriwtsi. Dmytro and Mary were cousins. Dmytro arrived to work on the Huculak farm early in 1923. The couple married in the summer of 1925, his mother not quite nineteen at the time.
His family lost their grain farm during the Great Depression and moved to a six-hundred-acre former dairy farm near Stonewall, Manitoba, around 1933. A cousin let the family off from his wagon at the gate of their new farm in pitch darkness. The back of their farm bordered on the bog, today Oak Hammock Marsh. Some of his paintings in the books A prairie boy's summer, and A prairie boy's winter, depict Kurelek and other children in the setting of the bogland. Treelines along the horizon recorded by him in these paintings are still recognizable in the area.
"Victoria School could be seen from our milkhouse a mile away." It was the one-room schoolhouse that Kurelek and his brother, John, attended. When about to enter high school, their father announced that they would do so in Winnipeg, where he purchased a house on Burrows Ave., seeing this as the economically wiser course than throwing money away on rent. Weekends, food was brought in by their parents from the farm to help offset the cost of living in the city. Eventually, their sister Winnie joined her brothers. They attended Isaac Newton High School a few blocks away. Kurelek was at the top of his class in German, and did well in all the other subjects. Just around the corner from the house was St. Mary The Protectoress Ukrainian Orthodox church where he attended Ukrainian school, and found a very positive father figure in Rev. P. Majewsky.
Kurelek graduated from high school in 1946, and enrolled in the fall of that year in the Arts General Course at the University of Manitoba, graduating with his degree in May 1949. By this time the family farm had been sold and his father had moved the family to Vinemount, Ontario near Hamilton. Kurelek had developed an early interest in art, which was not encouraged by his hard-working parents. Despite this, he enrolled at the Ontario College of Art in Toronto. His explanation to his father was that there was money to be made in commercial art. In fact, he had no intention of going into commercial art. During this time, he worked at odd jobs to support himself, such as at a carwash on University Ave. At the OCA, he found himself to be the only student with a university degree. Here, he studied the great contemporary Mexican artists: Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco. His innate appeal and love of murals may have originated in his boyhood, when in his absence his father ventured one day upstairs and into his son's room to discover, much to his horror, the walls covered in unseemly illustrations. Kurelek's friends at the OCA told him about a School of Fine Arts in San Miguel, Mexico, which might grant him a scholarship if he produced something worthwhile. Fired by the thought of studying with one of the great Mexican mural painters, he painted his first self-portrait. Though he studied at the Ontario College of Art in Toronto and at the Instituto Allende in Mexico, he was primarily self-taught from books. Zaporozhian Cossacks, a gift to his father, is the last painting Kurelek did before leaving for Europe for the first time, and shows the influence of the Mexican muralists on his work.
England
By his mid-twenties he had moved to England. In 1952, suffering from clinical depression and emotional problems, he admitted himself into the Maudsley Psychiatric Hospital in London. There he was treated for schizophrenia. In hospital he painted, producing The Maze, a dark depiction of his tortured youth. His experience in the hospital was documented in the LIFE Science Library book The Mind, published in 1965.
At Maudsley, Margaret Smith, Kurelek's occupational therapist would change the course of Kurelek's spiritual life. One day, she brought him a book of poems, wrapped in a dust jacket that she had made herself out of a Catholic newspaper. "I was a staunch atheist at the time…," Kurelek recalled, and upon discovering her Catholic faith, teased her about it. Later, he asked her if she was praying for him, and she answered, "Yes, I am." From here, they began to attend church services together. He took a correspondence course from the church, and met with Father Edward Holloway, a theologian trained at the English College in Rome, who helped him over some final stumbling blocks. In February 1957, Kurelek entered the Roman Catholic Church by a ceremony of conditional baptism. Margaret Smith, and his friend David John, a sculptor who did work for the church, were his godparents.
He was transferred from the Maudsley Hospital to the Netherne Hospital, where he stayed from November 1953 to January 1955, to work with Edward Adamson (1911–1996), a pioneer of art therapy. At Netherne he produced three masterpieces - Where Am I? Who Am I? Why Am I? (donated to the American Visionary Arts Museum by Adamson at its inauguration in 1995), I Spit On Life, and A Ball of Twine and Other Nonsense. In 1984, when the Adamson Collection was exhibited as Selections from the Edward Adamson Collection, at the Art Gallery of Ontario, Adamson donated to the Ontario Psychiatric Association a large pencil drawing by Kurelek of one of the interiors of Netherne Hospital, showing a group of patients at leisure.
Framer
By the end of 1956, Kurelek was working for F.A. Pollak Limited, an elegant framing shop near Buckingham Palace. He worked here for 25 months. Frederick Pollak, an Austrian Jew, who had fled from Germany in the thirties and settled in London in 1938 establishing his shop for the framing and restoration of antiques, had made frames for the Louvre. Framing was an art that dated back to the Renaissance, and a single frame could cost thousands of pounds and require months of work. Pollak's became another school for Kurelek, where he learned the closely guarded secrets of gilding, which eventually found their way into his techniques as a painter. His apprenticeship at Pollak's, building and restoring frames, would serve him in a practical way until a few years before his death. When he returned to Canada in 1959, the Isaacs Gallery in Toronto immediately recognized the skills in framing that he had acquired in Europe. In later years, Avrom Isaacs commented that Kurelek would take more time building a frame than actually painting its canvas. Isaacs became Kurelek's agent for life; it was a business arrangement that remained unwritten. Glimmering Tapers round the Day's Dead Sanctities from 1970 is part of his Nature, Poor Stepdame series, and indicates that he was still building frames for his own paintings though quite renowned as an artist by this time.
Canadian artist
Kurelek's first exhibition at the Isaac's Gallery was from March 26 to April 7, 1960. The show had 20 paintings. Among them, both his self-portraits (1950, and 1957); 3 Trompe-l'œil, paintings of a kind which had won him a place for three years in succession in the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition; Remorse from his hospital period; the Brueghel-like Farm Children's Games in Western Canada, a forerunner of his children's paintings to come; Saw-Sharpener, a look at his days as a lumberjack; When I Have Come Back Home; The Modern Tower of Babel; Behold Man Without God, this last reflecting the beginning of a change in attitude to prayer and the church. Though he was working on his The Passion of Christ According to St. Matthew series by this time, none of these religious paintings were included as they would be unsaleable. Canadian poet John Robert Colombo, for whom Kurelek had recently illustrated his first book of poetry, best describes the opening: "There were a lot of strange looking people, not the usual art crowd. Bill looked terribly out of place at his own opening. He had a reddish complexion and looked like a lumberjack; he looked as if he were in the wrong country, the wrong century, the wrong situation. It didn't look as if he had produced this work!" The Isaacs' popular opening nights drew city sophisticates, affecting the bohemian dress of their day. This time they contrasted sharply with Kurelek, his parents, and their Ukrainian friends. Nonetheless, it was the largest crowd the gallery had ever drawn, and by the following year the Isaac's Gallery had moved into a larger building.
In 1961, the women's committee of the Art Gallery of Ontario invited the prestigious Alfred Barr from the Museum of Modern Art in New York City to visit and select a Canadian painting for his museum's collection. At that time abstract expressionism was in vogue. Barr arrived and astonished them by choosing a painting by Kurelek: Hailstorm in Alberta. When the ladies committee telephoned Kurelek to come to the AGO to meet with Barr, he did not even know that Av Isaacs had entered one of his paintings into the competition. Living economically at the time, Kurelek offered to take a streetcar, but they talked him into taking a cab which was sent for him.
Kurelek first visited the Catholic Information Centre at Bathurst and Bloor streets in Toronto in November 1959. Its emphasis at the time was the instruction and encouragement of converts, which fit in with his recent conversion. He soon found himself attending twice a week, helping out on one of its committees. Here he met Jean Andrews: "She not only had a charming smile, she was a real beauty too." Jean was a nurse, Anglo-Canadian, and part of Our Lady of the Wayside Praesidium at the centre, "it was devoted to rehabilitating prostitutes and dope addicts - a rather brave kind of Christian charity work that I admired." In her mid-thirties, about the same age as him, she was interested in children and having a family of her own. Their courtship was encouraged by the centre and on October 8, 1962, the couple wed. He titled a painting of his wife which he did the year they were married: Mendelssohn in Canadian Winter, as she enjoyed listening to Mendelssohn's violin concerto very much. In it, his wife was seated in a plain church-basement background; five years later he repainted the background to the current one portending a gloomy future, in keeping with his didactic work. The atmosphere that it most likely had originally was that of Green Sunday as this painting pre-dates his didactic period.
Kurelek's marriage was swiftly fruitful, with three children born by 1966. They would go on to adopt a fourth child.
Didactic Art
In May 1963, Kurelek's "Experiments in Didactic Art" exhibition opened at the Isaac's gallery, with the new works: The Day the Bomb Fell on Hamilton, Hell, The Wage of Sin Is Death, and Dinnertime on the Prairies. About Dinnertime on the Prairies, Paul Duval wrote, "I cannot recall any Canadian religious painting to equal it for sheer dramatic impact." John Robert Colombo wrote about this painting: "an almost perfect combination of the prairies and the religious image". Elizabeth Kilbourn wrote about the show: "If this is didactic art, I would willingly expose myself to more even at the risk of conversion." In 1964, on a trip back to Stonewall and the bog, Kurelek's diary records him still struggling with how to fuse his religious message with his nature paintings. Harry Malcolmson had the answer for him when he gave him a negative review in the next didactic show of 1966. Malcolmson wrote: "satire generally implies making a point by indirection. There is about as much indirection in Kurelek's sledge hammer attack as in the Ten Commandments…. This is not so much an art show as a fire and brimstone sermon exhorting us to right conduct." Kurelek took this criticism to heart and in the didactic shows following, made his paintings subtler and borrowed long poetic titles for them, i.e. from the poet Francis Thompson's poem "The Hound of Heaven" for his Nature, Poor Stepdame series. Thy Young Skyey Blossoms from this series illustrates the more poetic approach to his didactic paintings.
Ethnicity
Alongside his didactic paintings, Kurelek was also continuing with his more conventional ones, in the fall of 1964 twenty paintings to honour his father, and a couple of years later another to honour his mother, though in the latter he could not restrain sermonizing outright in write-ups for the paintings. His lengthy awkward sermons placed Christianity before the hardship of pioneer women. "Mercifully, the texts had very little circulation, and the paintings were praise indeed for the pioneer women who helped to build this country." Kurelek's awareness of his Ukrainian ethnicity began in 1964 with his first return to the prairies to paint since leaving in 1949. His painting Manitoba Party is at the beginning of this period (he paints himself as a child hiding under the table inside the tent). This growing ethnic awareness in himself was met by a growing social awareness in the Ukrainian community, and in 1965, Anna Balan, Olga Hamara, and Stella Olynyk from the Ukrainian Women's Association of Canada approached him for a series for the Canadian Centennial in 1967, intended to celebrate Ukrainian women and how they helped to shape Canadian pioneer life. The ladies wanted to upgrade their community from the folk arts, and invited Kurelek to help. He titled his series: "Ukrainian Woman Pioneer in Canada". His write-up this time simply thanked the ladies of UWAC for their help along the way with the project.
Originally Ukrainian Orthodox, and briefly a professed atheist, Kurelek, converted to the Roman Catholic Church in 1957, by 1959 had started on his St. Matthew's Passion series, 160 paintings on the Passion of Christ. He completed it in 1970. All 160 paintings inaugurated the opening of the new St.Vladimir's Institute in Toronto, as its first art show on February 26, 1970. The Kolankiwskys, who attended the opening, showed up at suppertime on the Kureleks' doorstep. They were planning to open an Art Gallery in Niagara Falls and wanted to purchase the entire series. Having no hope of selling any of these paintings, now with an entire gallery to be devoted to them, Kurelek saw this as nothing less than a miracle. That same year the Kolankiwskys organized a three-week tour of Soviet Ukraine, of the art galleries and churches. Kurelek went along, and was allowed by the Soviet authorities to visit his father's village, see the house where his father was born, and spend four brief hours with his relatives.
Author
Kurelek met May Cutler in June 1971. They were introduced by Mira Godard during his exhibition of "The Last Days" series at the Marlborough Godard Gallery in Montreal, Quebec. Cutler wondered if he would do a children's book for her. That book became A prairie boy's winter, his first book as a published author. Two years later the twenty original paintings for the book were exhibited at this same gallery. The ten made available for sale were gone in half an hour. People unable to buy one traveled to Toronto, where the other ten were sold just as quickly the following week at the Isaacs' Gallery. On the heels of this success, a series of other Kurelek books by Tundra quickly followed. Cutler wrote later to Robert Fulford that she was the first person ever to ask Kurelek to do a book: "Now everyone wants Kurelek to do books." He wrote and illustrated a series of children's books, several of which have become modern classics. In 1974 he illustrated a new edition of W. O. Mitchell's Who Has Seen the Wind. He won the Amelia Frances Howard-Gibbon Illustrator's Award for A Prairie Boy's Winter in 1974 and A Prairie Boy's Summer in 1976.
Kurelek's personal ethnic awareness translated into a growing recognition of others' ethnicity. In 1973 at a conference on ethnic studies in Toronto, Kurelek met Abe Arnold who became his collaborator on the book Jewish Life in Canada. Helen Worthington of the Toronto Star called them Canada's odd couple. "One is a shy, sensitive, introverted and devout Ukrainian Catholic; the other is a brash, energetic, outgoing, and committed Jew." Kurelek's wife's Irish ancestry prompted him to work on an Irish series of paintings, and Quebec separatism, a French-Canadian in the hope of promoting peace. His bewilderment, that neither of these last two series found a publisher, overlooked that the success of the Jewish series was due to Abe Arnold's great efforts and promotion of it. Kurelek went on to do an Inuit series, travelling in Oct. 1975 to Pangnirtung in the Northwest Territories at that time, today Nunavut.
Kurelek also did a series of 20 paintings depicting the Nativity as if Christ had been born in various Canadian settings: an igloo, a trapper's cabin, a boxcar, a motel. He maintained a cottage near Combermere, Ontario, where he got his inspiration for a book of paintings entitled The Polish Canadians, and was a friend of the nearby Madonna House Apostolate. His visits to Ukraine in 1970 and again in 1977, were published posthumously in To My Father's Village.
Travels
Kurelek hitchhiked from Canada to Mexico in 1950 and the Instituto Allende in San Miguel. In 1952, he arrived in England at the Maudsley Hospital. While here, he took a three-week trip to Europe to look for a school of art where he might study. He went to Vienna, behind the Iron Curtain, and saw the eight large Brueghels on display at the Kunsthistorisches Museum. In Belgium and the Netherlands, he saw Van Eyck's altarpiece, as well as paintings by Bosch and Brueghel. While in London, he spent time at the art galleries: the Tate; the National Gallery that carried Vincent van Gogh and Bosch's The Mocking of Christ.
Following his conversion, he visited Lourdes in 1958, and took a trip to the Holy Land in 1959, which in itself was somewhat of an adventure. First taking the Orient Express, again behind the Iron Curtain, through Yugoslavia and Turkey, he had himself smuggled into the Holy Land on an American grain cargo boat from İskenderun to Beirut. Then, by plane he went to Jerusalem. Here he visited the sites of Calvary and Christ's tomb combined by that time into the Church of the Holy Sepulchre; the Upper Room, scene of the Last Supper; the Garden of Gethsemane; Lazarus's tomb in Bethany on the other side of Mount Olivet; and Bethlehem, with its Church of the Nativity; before trekking by foot over the strip of no man's land into Israel, conscious all the time of traversing holy ground, the road the Holy Family had traveled. His experience of the Holy Land, which in his eyes had changed little from two thousand years earlier, is reflected in the faces, places, and landscapes depicted in his series The Passion of Christ According to St. Matthew. He returned to London by way of Rome.
In 1969, he took a trip around the world, stopping in South Africa to visit his sister Sandy, then to Calcutta to visit a mission school in Darjeeling, and finally to Hong Kong to visit his foster-child. In 1970, he took his first trip of two to visit his father's village in Soviet Ukraine. In Canada, he travelled to all the places that are found in his paintings.
Last years
The split in Kurelek between his creativity and religion continued to the end of his life. In 1975, while on a pilgrimage to Lourdes again, he completed 73 illustrations for Bohdan Melnyk's translation of Ivan Franko's Fox Mykyta. Initially, he knew nothing about Franko, but when suggested that the Ukrainian classic should be part of mainstream culture, went ahead with the project. "Since greed, hypocrisy, opportunism are often self-defeating, Fox astutely plays upon these moral flaws. The drawings sparkle with energy, humor, and hard-won wisdom of both Franko and Kurelek." Having finished the illustrations, Kurelek read the book more closely and voiced the concern that Franko's fox was using clerical disguises for selfish ends. He held up the publication of the book and it was only published posthumously.
In 1976, a similar drama unfolded with author Gloria Kupchenko Frolick and her novella The Chicken Man. Kurelek completed 15 paintings to illustrate it, and then had second thoughts. "If she wished to use his work to illustrate her fiction, she would have to change the text, turning the abortion into a miscarriage performed by an unqualified midwife." Despite his knowing that it was based on a real story. The author changed the story to the illustrator's liking, and it was published.
In January 1976, Kurelek painted the mural at the St. Thomas More College Chapel in Saskatoon. It was a culmination of many influences, the Mexican muralists, Breughel, and his Christianity. Having trouble with heights, his assistant Geralyn Jansen climbed to the apex and painted God into the mural in the aniconic image of the sun.
Kurelek was made a member of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts. In 1976, he was made a Member of the Order of Canada. He died of cancer in Toronto in 1977. His archives, and a substantial body of his work, including the Passion series mentioned above, are held at Niagara Falls Art Gallery and Archives Canada.
In Popular Culture
In 1981, the heavy rock band Van Halen released their fourth album titled "Fair Warning", with a cover that features several closeup details of William Kurelek's painting "The Maze" from 1953.
Publications
Solo works
O Toronto (1973). Toronto: New Press.
Someone With Me: An Autobiography (1973). Ithaca, New York: Centre for Improvement of Undergraduate Education, Cornell University.
Someone With Me: An Autobiography (1980). Toronto, McClelland and Stewart, 1980. .
A Prairie Boy's Winter (1973). .
Lumberjack (1974).
German: Die Holzfäller. Transl. Ilse Stasmann. Jungbrunnen, Vienna 1982
A Prairie Boy's Summer. (1975). .
The Passion of Christ (1975). Niagara Falls: Niagara Falls Art Gallery & Museum.
Kurelek's Canada (1975). Toronto: Pagurian Press Limited.
The Last of the Arctic (1976). Toronto: Pagurian Press Limited.
A Northern Nativity (1976). .
Fields (1976). Montreal: Tundra Books.
Someone With Me: An Autobiography (1980). (revised condensed reprint) Toronto: McClelland and Stewart.
The Ukrainian Pioneer (1980). Niagara Falls: Niagara Falls Art Gallery. Based on the 1971 mural of the same title.
The Polish Canadians (1981). Montreal: Tundra Books.
Someone with Me (reprint) (1988). Niagara Falls: Niagara Falls Art Gallery.
To My Father's Village (1988). Montreal: Tundra Books. .
In collaboration
They Sought A New World (1985) Montreal: Tundra Books. Text by Margaret Engelhart, with snippets of the artist's commentary and paintings illustrating Engelhart's text.
With historian Abraham Arnold. Jewish Life In Canada (1976). Edmonton: Hurtig Publishers.
Kurelek Country (1999) Toronto: Key Porter Books. Preface by his dealer, Av Isaacs; biographical essay by historian Ramsay Cook.
With Joan Murray (1983). Kurelek's Vision of Canada. Edmonton: Hurtig Publishers. Exhibition catalogue.
Works illustrated by him
Kupchenko-Frolick, G. (1989). The Chicken Man. Stratford, Ontario: Williams-Wallace Publishers.
Ivan Franko. (1978). Fox Mykyta. Montreal: Tundra Books. (72 illustrations.)
Mitchell, W.O. (1976). Who Has Seen the Wind. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada.
De Marco, D. (1974). Abortion in Perspective. Cincinnati: Hiltz & Hayes Publishing. (Section head illustrations.)
Exhibitions
Kurelek: The Messenger. Touring Winnipeg, Victoria, and Hamilton 2011–2012.
Kurelek from the Community: An autobiography through his art and writings, Ukrainian Cultural Heritage Village, 2012
Vanishing Point: A Rural Perspective. Alberta Government House, 2010–2012.
In 2020, Kurelek was in a group show titled Next Year's Country, linked with artists as seemingly distant as Louise Noguchi at Remai Modern, Saskatoon.
Film and video about him
Artist's Studio, a film by Halya Kuchmij.
William Kurelek's The Maze (1969 & 2011). Directed by Robert M. Young and David Grubin, produced and reimagined by Nick Young and Zack Young. 65 minutes. MachinEyes.
Kurelek (1967). Directed by William Pettigrew. 10 minutes, 7 seconds, color. National Film Board of Canada.
Pacem in Terris (circa 1970). Directed by John Giffin, written by Murray Abraham. 14 minutes, 23 seconds, color. Film Arts.
The Ukrainian Pioneers (1975). Directed by John Giffin, written by Juliette Mannock. 13 minutes, 51 seconds, color. Film Arts.
See also
References
Further reading
Ewanchuk, Michael. William Kurelek: The Suffering Genius. Steinbach, Manitoba: Perksen Printers and Michael Ewanchuk Publishing, 1996.
P. Morley. Kurelek. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, 1986.
Friesen, I. Earth Hell & Heaven In the Art of William Kurelek. Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic Press, 1997.
Kear, Andrew. William Kurelek: Life & Work. Toronto: Art Canada Institute, 2017.
Orford, Emily-Jane Hills. "The Creative Spirit: Stories of 20th Century Artists". Ottawa: Baico Publishing, 2008. .
Pomedli, M. William Kurelek's Huronia Mission Paintings. Lampeter, Dyfed, Wales: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1991.
Cutler, May. Breaking Free: The Story of William Kurelek. Tundra Books, 2002.
Dedora, Brian. With WK in the Workshop: A Memoir of William Kurelek. Aya Press / The Mercury Press, 1989.
External links
William Kurelek, Life & Work by Andrew Kear
with interactive gallery
Kurelek (English Version), 1967 film at National Film Board of Canada (nfb.ca)
Her Excellency Sharon Johnston shares her thoughts on "William Kurelek’s The Maze"
Brian Dedora (who worked with Kurelek at the Isaacs Gallery) shares his thoughts on "William Kurelek’s A Tale of a Dog"
Heroes of Lore and Yore: Canadian Heroes in Fact and Fiction, National Library of Canada, digitization of a NLC exhibition (website archived 1998; website archived 2001)
(under "Kurelek, William, 1927–" without "1977", previous page of browse report)
1927 births
1977 deaths
20th-century Canadian painters
Canadian male painters
Artists from Manitoba
Canadian children's writers
Canadian people of Ukrainian descent
Canadian Roman Catholics
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Eastern Orthodoxy
Former Ukrainian Orthodox Christians
Members of the Order of Canada
Members of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts
Instituto Allende alumni
People from Lamont County
People with schizophrenia
Deaths from cancer in Ontario
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Adiguna Sutowo (31 May 1958 – 18 April 2021) was an Indonesian businessman and convicted murderer, whose business group’s interests included Hard Rock Cafe Jakarta. He was found guilty in 2005 of murdering a waiter at the Sutowo family's Jakarta Hilton Hotel (subsequently renamed Sultan Hotel). He was sentenced to seven years in jail but was released in less than three years. He died on 18 April 2021 at Jakarta's Pertamina Hospital.
Early life and education
Adiguna was born in Jakarta on 31 May 1958. He is the youngest of seven children born to Ibnu Sutowo and Zaleha. His siblings are: Nuraini Zaitun Kamarukmi Luntungan, Endang Utari Mokodompit, Widarti, Pontjo Nugro Susilo, Sri Hartati Wahyuningsih, and Handara.
His father headed state oil and gas company Pertamina from 1957 until 1976, by which time his corrupt mismanagement had enabled him to amass an enormous family fortune and nearly bankrupted the company, despite the global oil boom of the 1970s.
Adiguna attended Senior High School IV in Gambir, Central Jakarta. As the youngest son, he was reportedly spoiled by his mother and was allowed to drive his own Mercedes-Benz sports car to school. A former high school classmate recalled Adiguna often skipped class to go hunting in the jungle with his gang but managed to keep his grades up.
Adiguna attended the University of Southern California to study business. He returned to Indonesia in 1981 to commence his business career.
2004 Kemang gun incident
In October 2004, Adiguna threatened to kill David Reynaldo Titawono (then 22), the nephew of rock musician Achmad Albar and singer Camelia Malik. The incident took place in Kemang, South Jakarta, reportedly at a property of Indonesian KFC franchise owner Ricardo Gelael, who is the husband of Albar’s ex-wife, Rini S. Bono. Some accounts said Adiguna, who was accompanied by his bodyguards, shot David through or near his ear. After the incident, police revoked Adiguna’s firearms license and confiscated a gun that fired rubber bullets.
According to local media reports, an altercation had occurred between David and one of Adiguna's nephews, prompting Adiguna to intervene. Ricardo Gelael did not report the incident to police, but the family of Albar did. Adiguna and Ricardo were then questioned at Jakarta Police headquarters, but the case was later settled by the two families and the Albar family retracted the police report. Camelia Malik confirmed to Gatra magazine that “Adiguna accidentally shot my nephew with an air rifle, and only about his ears."
New Year's Day murder
At about 4:47am on 1 January 2005, Adiguna shot dead a waiter, Yohanes Brachmans Haerudy Natong, better known as Rudy, at Jakarta Hilton Hotel’s Island Bar Fluid Club & Lounge, located on the first floor of the hotel.
Adiguna had celebrated the New Year at Jakarta's Dragonfly nightclub with his second wife, Vika Dewayani, and their companions Novia Herdiana alias Tinul and Thomas 'Tom' Edward Sisk. The group then went to the Hilton Hotel, where they first went to Adiguna's room. Some time after 3:00am, Adiguna, Tinul and Tom left the room and went to the Fluid Club, where they chatted with other people present. Tom went to the lounge, while at about 4:40am, Adiguna sat at the bar and Tinul stood beside him. Tinul ordered a vodka tonic for Adiguna and a lychee martini for herself. She asked Rudy if the drinks could be charged to her room. Rudy told her that was not possible, so Tinul settled the Rp150,000 bar tab with her HSBC Visa card. Adiguna then ordered another round of the same two drinks and attempted to pay with his BCA debit card. Rudy took the card and asked the cashier Hari Suprasto if it could be used. Hari replied the machine was not available. Rudy then returned the card to Tinul, who gave it to Adiguna. Rudy explained the card could not be accepted because the bar did not have a machine that could process it. The rejection upset Tinul. “Don’t you know who he is? He’s the biggest shareholder of this hotel!” she said, pointing at Adiguna, who was seated next to her.
Adiguna then was angered, stood up, took out a Smith & Wesson .22-caliber pistol from his trousers and held the gun at Rudy’s forehead. Police said Adiguna pulled the trigger twice, but no bullet fired until he pulled the trigger a third time, shooting Rudy in the head. The waiter collapsed and began to die. Adiguna then wiped the gun handle, handed the pistol to a disc jockey Werner Saferna alias Wewen, who was standing about one meter away. Adiguna then left the club.
Rudy’s body was carried out of the bar and taken to the hotel's Sutowo-Sutowo Medical Clinic. The body was later taken to Mintohardjo Naval Hospital on Jalan Bendungan Hilir, where Rudy was pronounced dead. His body was guarded by two Hilton security guards and a Fluid Club guard. Rudy’s fiancee, Riska Leliana, complained that the club's management had not apologized or offered any sympathy over the murder.
Later on 1 January, Jakarta Police declared Adiguna a suspect. His hotel room, Room 1564, contained 19 bullets of the type that had killed Rudy. The bullets had been hidden in the toilet. Media reports, quoting initial police findings, said Adiguna was high on crystal methamphetamine and alcohol at the time of the killing. Adiguna had a nosebleed on the morning of the murder. Police found bloodstained towels, tissues and a handkerchief in his room at the Hilton. Police initially thought the blood might have come from Rudy, but a forensic examination indicated the blood came from Adiguna. Detikcom online news portal quoted a police source as saying the nosebleed could have been the result of nasal inhalation of narcotics because the suspect had a propensity for that method of drug taking.
Adiguna denied shooting Rudy. He told police he had only passed through Fluid Club looking for his daughter. He denied sitting at the bar. He denied talking to Tinul. He denied carrying a pistol. He claimed he had helped to carry Rudy, which caused blood to get on his shirt. However, his lawyer said the blood on the shirt had come Adiguna and not from Rudy.
Wewen, who had received the murder weapon from Adiguna, kept the pistol at his house for five days before handing it over to police and giving a statement. A police ballistics examination matched the pistol to the bullet fired into Rudy’s head.
The Jakarta Post newspaper and detikcom online news portal in January 2005 quoted police as claiming that Adiguna was a cocaine user. His lawyer denied that Adiguna uses narcotics. National Police chief of detectives Commissioner General Suyitno Landung Sudjono in January 2005 said samples of Adiguna's blood and urine tested positive to illegal drugs: methamphetamine and phenmetrazine.
By early February 2005, police said they were still gathering evidence and awaiting results to charge Adiguna with narcotics offenses, separate from the murder and firearm charges. Police later claimed that subsequent tests of Adiguna's fingernail and hair samples were negative, so the drugs charges were withdrawn. Police Detective chief Suyitno Landung, who was later jailed for taking bribes in a separate case, declined to explain why the results were different from the blood and urine tests.
The Hilton, rebadged ‘The Sultan’ in the aftermath of the killing, is owned by Adiguna's older brother Pontjo Nugro Susilo, who is more commonly known as Pontjo Sutowo.
The 25-year-old victim, Rudy, was from a low-income family on Flores island in East Nusa Tenggara province and had been working part-time at the Hilton to support his law studies at Jakarta's Bung Karno University. He also supported his two younger siblings. He was due to have graduated in 2005. His parents were initially informed he had been shot dead during a protest against fuel price rises in Jakarta.
Before Adiguna’s trial commenced, his brother Pontjo Sutowo traveled to Flores, where he presented Rudy’s family with a traditional condolence gesture of a cow's head. He also handed over an undisclosed amount of money. Rudy's father wrote a letter, later produced in court, asking the judges to give as light a sentence as possible to Adiguna.
Following his arrest, Adiguna was initially detained at Jakarta Police detention center. He was later transferred to Jakarta's Salemba jail, where he stayed in Block K, which is described as the "executive wing". Other high-profile inmates of Block K at the time included Aceh governor Abdullah Puteh and Golkar Party tycoon Nurdin Halid. Lawyer Amir Karyatim said Adiguna was able to laugh in the jail and could order coffee from Starbucks and nasi padang.
Murder trial
Prosecutors delayed the start of Adiguna’s trial on the grounds that he required hospitalization because of an “asthma attack”. After the trial commenced on 22 March 2005 at Central Jakarta District Court, he was “too sick” to attend some sessions. On other occasions, he arrived late to the court.
Despite being absent on medical grounds, he did have supporters present. These supporters were often dressed in white robes and described by the media as "hired thugs" trying to intimidate the Christian victim's family and the judges.
The charge of murder with intent but without premeditation carries a maximum sentence of 20 years, while illegal possession of an unregistered firearm and ammunition carries a maximum sentence of life imprisonment. Rudy’s fiancee, Riska Leliana, said she hoped Adiguna would get the death penalty, but she was pessimistic about the Indonesian legal system. Prosecutors recommended a life sentence.
In preparing the case, police had taken statements from 20 witnesses over the murder. Many of the witnesses subsequently retracted their statements or gave conflicting testimony during the trial.
Tinul retracted her police statements, in which she had admitted to witnessing the murder. She told the court that she had asked “the waiter” whether she could charge the drinks to her room, and he had told her that she could not. She said she then handed the vodka tonic to Adiguna and told him she could not charge his drink to her room, but she had already paid for it. She then claimed she got up and walked away, heard a gunshot and ran away without looking back. Then she claimed she informed Adiguna’s wife Vika that “something has happened downstairs and I am worried about Guna”.
Harry Gunawan Isa, the head of bar housekeeping, also changed his account. He initially told police he saw someone who 50% resembled Adiguna point a pistol at Rudy, then heard two clicking noises followed by a gunshot and realized Rudy had been shot in the head. But in court he denied hearing any clicking noises and said he was no longer certain the gunman resembled Adiguna.
Disk jockey, Werner Saferna alias Wewen (35 at the time), also gave testimony that conflicted with his original police statement. He told police he saw Adiguna shoot Rudy and saw the waiter fall to the floor. He said Adiguna then pushed the pistol into his hand and left. But in court, Wewen claimed he only glimpsed Adiguna’s hand pointing the pistol at Rudy’s head.
Adiguna was identified in court as the murderer by Cut Nina, a bartender on duty on the morning of the killing. She was standing two meters from Rudy when he was shot. She said she had heard Tinul attempt to intervene in an argument between Adiguna and Rudy, moments before the shooting. Fluid Club general manager Yerry Eka Nugraha testified in court that three of his staff had immediately after the shooting informed him that Adiguna shot Rudy.
On 16 June 2005, Central Jakarta District Court sentenced Adiguna to seven years in jail for murder with intent but without premeditation and illegal possession of an unregistered firearm and ammunition. Presiding judge Lilik Mulyadi said that although all of the accusations against Adiguna had been "legitimately proven", there were several mitigating factors to warrant a light sentence. The judge listed the extenuating circumstances as: Adiguna was still young, he had a family, he had been polite during the trial, it was his first offense, he had already been “morally punished” by media coverage, and his family had apologized for the murder. Adiguna was 47 at the time of sentencing. He never confessed in court to the crime. He was often absent from the court, but often deployed his supporters to the courthouse.
Lawyer Hendrik Jehaman, representing Rudy's family, said the judges had been influenced by the prominent stature of the defendant. Defense lawyer Mohammad Assegaf said seven years was unfair and he would appeal to Jakarta High Court. Chief prosecutor Andi Herman said the low sentence was “no problem, it's normal".
Indonesian law expert Tim Lindsey from Melbourne University said although it would have been inconceivable that "a son of a person like Ibnu Sutowo would have been convicted at all" under the Suharto era, "the sentence of seven years is absurdly light for such a violent and unprovoked and brutal murder".
Appeals, remissions and release
Adiguna appealed at Jakarta High Court, which in August 2005 upheld his seven-year sentence. He then appealed at the Supreme Court, which in January 2006 also upheld the sentence. A panel of three Supreme Court judges - Mariana Sutadi, Atja Sondjaja and Mieke Komar - said the rulings of the two lower courts were correct. They said the forgiveness letter from Rudy's father could not be considered, and that the Supreme Court could only consider a request for "relief" if there had been an error in the application of the law by the lower courts.
On 17 August 2006, Adiguna received a three-month sentence remission in connection with national Independence Day celebrations.
After the rejection of his first Supreme Court appeal, Adiguna filed a second appeal to the Supreme Court. In November 2007, a panel of three Supreme Court judges – Parman Soeparman, Djoko Sarwoko and Moegiharjo – reduced Adiguna’s sentence to four years, making him due for release in 2009. He was released on 14 December 2007 after the Justice Ministry gave him remissions on the grounds of good behavior. He had served fewer than three years in jail.
Following his release from jail, Adiguna was seen at Jakarta’s upmarket nightclubs. Jakarta Social Blog, a website devoted to the revels of the city’s wealthiest families, reported on Adiguna’s birthday party at the exclusive Blowfish Kitchen & Bar in May 2008 and listed a string of celebrity attendees. The report attracted critical comments, but these were outnumbered by people posting in Adiguna’s defense with comments such as “he’s accepted his mistake… he knows what he’s done is wrong (plus when he did it he wasn’t exactly “himself”)… now let him move on with his life & live a normal life.”
Attack on second wife’s house
In October 2013, Adiguna was the subject of renewed media attention after a violent incident outside the house of his second wife, Vika Dewayani, in Pulomas, East Jakarta. Police said Adiguna’s driver, Dalyono, had on 25 October picked up Adiguna and a woman named Anastasia Florina “Flo” Limasnax from the Four Seasons Apartments and taken them to Bengkel Cafe at Pacific Place mall until 1.30am on 26 October, and later drove them to Pulomas.
Dalyono told police that Adiguna and Flo were intoxicated and when they arrived outside Vika’s house at about 2:00am, Flo ordered the driver to get out and open the gate, whereupon she got behind the wheel, crashed into the fence and rammed three of Adiguna’s luxury cars. Reports quoted Adiguna’s sister-in-law Sinta Saras as saying Flo was hysterical, screaming that she wanted to kill Vika. Vika was in Bali at the time of the attack, while the couple's two children were in the United States. Later, Vika filed a police complaint against Flo, who at the time was married to Satriyo “Piyu” Yudi Wahono, the lead guitarist of pop band Padi.
On 31 October, Adiguna and Piyu held a press conference. Piyu denied that Flo was involved in the incident at Vika's house. Then, Adiguna shouted at reporters and bashed his fist on a table, insisting he had smashed up his own cars because Vika was having an affair.
In November 2013, when questioned by police, Adiguna admitted he had been having an extra-marital affair with Flo for the past three years. Police said Adiguna and Flo had gone to Vika's house with the intention of telling her about the affair. Police spokesman Rikwanto confirmed Flo went berserk at the house, took the wheel of the car, smashed into the fence and rammed three cars on the property. Police said Adiguna told them he was asleep in the silver Mercedes throughout the attack and had not ordered Flo to cause the damage. "The initial plan to explain their increasingly close relationship to Vika was eventually canceled," said Rikwanto.
Police named Flo a suspect in the destruction of Vika's property. Flo's father then met with Vika to negotiate a peace letter, which was sent to police. Vika subsequently retracted her police report accusing Flo of vandalism.
On 11 February 2004, Vika sought police protection. Her lawyer alleged that Adiguna had threatened to throw her out of the house, which was owned by one of Adiguna’s subsidiary companies.
On 23 September 2015, Flo filed for divorce against Piyu at South Jakarta District Court, accusing him of failing to provide physical and mental support for the past two years. Piyu denied being at fault. Piyu’s lawyer would neither confirm nor deny an allegation that Piyu had been offered Rp9 billion to end his marriage with Flo. The couple eventually divorced on 15 February 2016.
Business career
Adiguna’s business interests covered machinery, shipping, pharmaceuticals, property and hospitality, entertainment, media, automotive and explosives.
Adiguna was involved from a young age in his family's Nugra Santana Group, which inherited assets from family patriarch, Ibnu Sutowo, a three-star general who was viewed as the “treasurer” of the Suharto administration, as he led Pertamina, which generated revenue during the oil boom of the 1970s.
Upon completing university in Los Angeles in 1981, Adiguna returned to Indonesia to become president director of PT Adiguna Mesintani, which distributes diesel engine generators used to power hotels, factories and other enterprises. The company also manufactures heavy equipment used in offshore oil drilling activities.
He went on to manage PT Santana Petroleum Equipment and shipping company PT Pelayaran Umum Indonesia (Pelumin), from which Pertamina leased several tankers. Pelumin had three tankers with a capacity of 35,000 tons.
Adiguna partnered with Tommy Suharto and Soetikno Soedarjo at PT Mahasarana Buana (Mabuha) as Fokker's aircraft agent and sold 15 aircraft to Tommy Suharto's Sempati and Pelita Air Service in September 1985.
Adiguna owned an explosives supply company, as well as an explosives storage warehouse on Momoi Island, near Batam.
In 1993, Adiguna established PT Mugi Rekso Abadi (MRA) with Soetikno Soedardjo and Ongky Soemarmo (who was executive director of Tommy Suharto's Humpuss Group). In October 1992, the colleagues had established the Jakarta franchise of Hard Rock Cafe. The founding majority shareholders were Adiguna and Soetikno. Other shareholders included Irwan Subiarto, Ongky Soemarno and Yapto Suryosumarno.
MRA Group’s website in 2019 proclaimed: “Leading the drive at MRA are energetic, dedicated executives, exemplified by Adiguna Sutowo & Soetikno Soedarjo. They embody the character of an excellent young management team: a sense of intelligent restlessness.” The group's operations have covered restaurants, magazines and radio stations, luxury vehicles, entertainment and hotels.
Adiguna's son Maulana Indraguna Sutowo became CEO of MRA Group in January 2017.
Adiguna headed PT Suntri Sepuri, a pharmaceuticals company founded in 1998. It produces antibiotics, capsules, tablets, syrups and other medicines.
His other business interests included PT Adiguna Shipyard and PT Indobuild Co. The Sutowo family’s hotels included: Jakarta Hilton International (renamed the Sultan Hotel and Residence), Lagoon Tower Hilton, The Hilton Residence, Patra Surabaya Hilton, and Bali Hilton. Adiguna also owns Four Seasons Hotel and Four Seasons Apartment in Bali. He bought the Regent Hotel in Kuningan, Jakarta, and renamed it the Four Seasons Hotel.
The Nugra Santana group was hit hard by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. Bank Pacific, led by Adiguna’s sister Endang Utari Mokodompit, was liquidated by the government in November 1997.
KPK summonses
On 20 March 2018, Adiguna failed to meet a summons by the Corruption Eradication Commission (KPK) for questioning as a witness over alleged corruption and money laundering in Garuda Indonesia's procurement of aircraft and engines from Airbus SAS and Rolls-Royce PLC. Adiguna was re-summoned to appear on 11 April 2018 and again failed to appear, claiming to be ill. His son, Maulana Indraguna, was summoned over the same case and did appear for questioning on 10 April 2018. The two suspects in the Garuda bribery case were Emirsyah Satar and Soetikno Soedarjo, the latter being Adiguna's business partner. On 8 May 2020, Emirsyah was sentenced to 8 years in prison and fined Rp1 billion, while Soetikno Soedarjo was sentenced to 6 years in prison and fined Rp1 billion.
Racing career
Adiguna was a professional car racer from the 1970s to the 1990s. His racing contemporaries included Tommy Soeharto, Ricardo Gelael, Soetikno Soedardjo and Onky Soemarno. In the 1990s, his co-driver was sometimes prominent rally driver Chepot Haniwiano. He competed in the Presidential Cup series seven times in the 1970s and 1980s.
The Jakarta Post quoted a rally driver as saying that Adiguna always got what he wanted and would do anything to get it. If someone was in his way on the racetrack, he would push them out of the way.
Adiguna was a chairman of the DKI Jaya chapter of the Indonesian Motorsports Association (IMI) for two terms, from 1989 to 1993 and from 1993 to 1997.
Adiguna had been a member of the Indonesian Shooting and Hunting Association (Perbakin).
FKPPI
From 1993 to 1997, Adiguna was a deputy chairman of the Young Generation of the Communication Forum of Indonesian Veterans' Children (Gema FKPPI). FKPPI is a grouping of entrepreneurs whose business success has been attributed to their influential military parents. From February 1998 to October 2003, Adiguna was general chairman of Gema FKPPI. He was succeeded by his brother Pontjo Sutowo, who headed FKPPI from 2003 to 2008, during which period Adiguna was a deputy chairman. FKPPI promotes the values of state ideology Pancasila to counter terrorism, radicalism, and separatism. It has also blamed Indonesia’s problems on communists and foreigners. After his release from jail, Adiguna remained a deputy chairman of FKPPI.
Family
In 1977, while still at high school, Adiguna married Indriana, the daughter of a former aide of president Suharto. They had three children. Their eldest son, Adri, died in 1993 in a traffic accident while driving a Mercedes-Benz on Jalan Sudirman, Jakarta. Their second son, Indraguna Maulana (born 1982), in 2010 married actress and model Dian Sastrowardoyo.
In 1990, Adiguna married his second wife, Vika, the niece of Bharata Band vocalist and bass player Harry Bharata. They had two children: Cecile Seruni and Herwinto. Ibnu Sutowo’s extended family reportedly disapproved of the marriage. Cecile in 2015 married Loed Fabian Mamoto, the son of senior policeman Inspector General Benny Mamoto, who previously headed the National Narcotics Agency's eradication task force.
Death
Adiguna died at 4:04am on 18 April 2021 at Jakarta's Pertamina Hospital of undisclosed causes. He was taken to a funeral home in Menteng, before being buried later that day at Jakarta's Tanah Kusir cemetery. The burial was tightly guarded by members of FKPPI and Pemuda Pancasila. Among the mourners who scattered flowers over the grave were Dian Sastrowardoyo and Jakarta Regional Legislative Assembly chairman Prasetyo Edi Marsudi of the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle. Prasetyo praised Adiguna as "a good person" with whom he shared many memories.
Among the floral bereavement boards displayed at the funeral home and the cemetery were those in the names of: former state intelligence chief A.M. Hendropriyono, Golkar Party politician Hayani Isman, Indonesian National Board for Disaster Management (BNPB) head Lieutenant General Doni Monardo, former Army Special Forces (Kopassus) chief Major Geneneral Madsuni, and People's Consultative Assembly speaker Bambang Soesatyo's Justice Building Solidarity Movement (Gerak BS).
References
1958 births
Living people
Indonesian racing drivers
Indonesian socialites
Indonesian people convicted of murder
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X-Men: Apocalypse is a 2016 American superhero film directed and produced by Bryan Singer and written by Simon Kinberg from a story by Singer, Kinberg, Michael Dougherty, and Dan Harris. The film is based on the fictional X-Men characters that appear in Marvel Comics. It is the sixth mainline installment in the X-Men film series and the ninth installment overall. It is the sequel to X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014) and stars James McAvoy, Michael Fassbender, Jennifer Lawrence, Oscar Isaac, Nicholas Hoult, Rose Byrne, Tye Sheridan, Sophie Turner, Olivia Munn, and Lucas Till. In the film, the ancient mutant En Sabah Nur / Apocalypse is inadvertently revived in 1983, and he plans to wipe out modern civilization and take over the world, leading the X-Men to try to stop him and defeat his team of mutants.
The film was announced by Singer in December 2013, with Kinberg, Dougherty, and Harris attached to develop the story. Casting began in October 2014, while principal photography commenced in April 2015 in Montreal and ended in August of the same year.
X-Men: Apocalypse premiered in London on May 9, 2016, and was released in the United States on May 27, 2016 in 3D and 2D, and in IMAX 3D in select international markets. The film received mixed reviews, with critics praising its themes and acting performances, while criticizing its overloaded action and the portrayal of Apocalypse. A sequel, titled Dark Phoenix, was released on June 7, 2019.
Plot
In 3600 B.C., the aged but powerful mutant En Sabah Nur rules ancient Egypt. Following a ceremony in which his consciousness is transferred into another man’s body in order to gain his healing factor, he and his four followers are ambushed. In the process his followers are killed and he is entombed alive.
In 1983, Alex Summers takes his brother Scott to Professor Charles Xavier's educational institute, hoping that Xavier and Hank McCoy will teach him to control his mutation for shooting optic beams. Scott meets the telepathic and telekinetic Jean Grey, and the two develop an attraction.
En Sabah Nur is awakened by a group of worshippers. He befriends orphan Ororo Munroe and learns about humanity. Deciding that humanity has lost its way, he plans to remake the world. Munroe becomes his follower after he enhances her power.
In East Berlin, shape-shifting mutant Raven discovers Kurt Wagner, a mutant who can teleport. Raven requests black marketeer Caliban to transport Kurt to America. En Sabah Nur recruits Psylocke and Angel and enhances both of their powers.
In Communist Poland, Erik Lehnsherr lives happily with his wife and daughter. During the worldwide disturbances caused by En Sabah Nur, Erik uses his powers to save a coworker during an earthquake, prompting the militia to capture him. They hold his daughter hostage in the forest in exchange for him to turn himself in. As tensions rise, Erik's daughter begins to displays mutant powers, and the militia kill his wife and daughter. In despair, Erik kills the entire militia.
En Sabah Nur takes Erik to Auschwitz and shows him the true extent of his powers. Erik destroys the camp and joins En Sabah Nur. When Xavier contacts Erik, En Sabah Nur remotely accesses Cerebro, the device Xavier uses to locate mutants, and forces Xavier to make the global superpowers launch their entire nuclear arsenals into space to prevent interference with En Sabah Nur's plan. He and his Four Horsemen arrive at the mansion and kidnap Xavier. Attempting to stop them, Alex causes an explosion that destroys the mansion. Peter Maximoff arrives and uses his super-speed to evacuate everyone except Alex, who dies in the explosion. Colonel William Stryker's forces capture Hank, Raven, Peter, and Moira, and take them for interrogation. Scott, Jean, and Kurt follow covertly and liberate their comrades using Stryker's experiment Weapon X (Wolverine), whose memories Jean partially restores.
Erik uses his powers to alter the Earth's magnetic field, causing destruction across the planet. En Sabah Nur plans to transfer his consciousness into Xavier's body to gain his psychic powers. Xavier sends a telepathic distress call to Jean and the others, who travel to Cairo to battle En Sabah Nur and his mutants. They rescue Xavier and flee in a plane. When Angel and Psylocke attack the plane, Nightcrawler teleports his friends away. Psylocke jumps to safety, but Angel is killed in the plane crash.
Erik and Ororo turn on En Sabah Nur and, with Scott's help, keep him occupied physically while Xavier fights him telepathically in the astral plane. Xavier begs Jean to unleash the full strength of her abilities, and she incinerates En Sabah Nur. Psylocke escapes. Xavier and Moira rekindle their relationship. Erik and Jean help reconstruct the school, but Erik refuses Xavier's offer to stay and help teach. Peter decides not to tell Erik yet that he is Erik's son. Using confiscated Sentinels, Hank and Raven train the new X-Men recruits: Scott, Jean, Ororo, Kurt, and Peter.
In a post-credits scene, men in black suits visit the Weapon X facility to retrieve an X-ray and a blood sample marked "Weapon X", on behalf of the Essex Corporation.
Cast
James McAvoy as Professor Charles Xavier: A pacifist mutant and the world's most powerful telepath, who is the founder of Xavier's School for Gifted Youngsters and leads the team of mutants known as the X-Men, in order to protect humankind and battle against the deadly enemy within. During the latter part of the film's production, McAvoy shaved his head for the role.
Michael Fassbender as Erik Lehnsherr / Magneto: A mutant Auschwitz survivor with the ability to control magnetic fields and manipulate metal, who was once Xavier's closest ally and best friend, until his belief that mankind and mutantkind would never coexist led to their separation. He is globally infamous for attempting to assassinate U.S. President Richard Nixon on live broadcast 10 years prior.
Bill Milner appears in archival footage as a Young Erik.
Jennifer Lawrence as Raven Darkholme / Mystique:A mutant with shapeshifting abilities, globally renowned for saving Nixon's life 10 years prior. She was once Xavier's closest ally and his adoptive sister. Lawrence said, "she hears about what happened to Erik and she wants to seek him out and help him."
Nicholas Hoult as Hank McCoy / Beast: A mutant with leonine attributes, prehensile feet and superhuman physical abilities. Hank acts as a teacher in Xavier's school and he builds inventions for troubled students. He also built the X-Jet.
Oscar Isaac as En Sabah Nur / Apocalypse: Born in ancient times, and presumably the world's first mutant, he has a variety of destructive superhuman abilities, including telekinesis, cyberpathy, teleportation, and the ability to augment other mutants' abilities, as a result of being able to amass powers when transferring his consciousness from one body to another. Isaac described Nur as the "creative-slash-destructive force of the Earth." He added, "When things start to go awry, or when things seem like they're not moving towards evolution, [En Sabah Nur] destroys those civilizations." Isaac had to go through extensive makeup and prosthetics applications, and wore high-heeled boots to appear taller and a 40-pound suit. The full costume was uncomfortable, particularly in the humid environment of the outdoor scenes, which forced Isaac to go to a cooling tent between takes. Nur's previous old-form (seen at the beginning of the film) was played by Berdj Garabedian, a 70-year-old Canadian real estate agent, and avid silver screen fan in his first credited film role.
Rose Byrne as Moira MacTaggert: A CIA operative who first met and fell in love with Xavier in First Class, where he wiped portions of her memories of him and the X-Men at the end. Simon Kinberg said they are "essentially, strangers" when they meet in this film.
Evan Peters as Peter Maximoff / Quicksilver: A mutant who can move, think, and perceive at hypersonic speeds, and the son of Magneto.
Josh Helman as Colonel William Stryker: A military officer who hates mutants and has, in the ten years since Days of Future Past, been developing his own plans for resolving "the mutant problem".
Sophie Turner as Jean Grey: A mutant who is scared of her telepathic and telekinetic power, and one of Charles Xavier's most prized students. Turner states that she was cast in the film because of the "dark side" of her character Sansa Stark in Game of Thrones. She compared Jean to Sansa and described being an outcast in the human world who struggles with her power and gift, the same way Sansa, who wanted to live a normal life, felt. Turner learned archery in preparation for the role.
Tye Sheridan as Scott Summers / Cyclops: A mutant who fires destructive optic beams and wears a ruby visor or sunglasses to stabilize and contain them, and who is the younger brother of Havok. Sheridan describes Cyclops as "angry and a bit lost". He added, "He's now learning about being a mutant and trying to handle his powers."
Lucas Till as Alex Summers / Havok: A mutant who has the ability to absorb energy and release it with destructive force from his body, and the older brother of Cyclops.
Kodi Smit-McPhee as Kurt Wagner / Nightcrawler: A German teleporting mutant and one of Charles Xavier's new students. Singer said Nightcrawler is a source of comic relief.
Ben Hardy as Angel: A mutant with bird-like feathered wings who gains metallic wings that can shoot razor sharp feather-projectiles, similar to his Archangel counterpart in the comics. Hardy practiced indoor skydiving in preparation for his role.
Alexandra Shipp as Ororo Munroe / Storm: A young mutant orphan who can control weather. Storm is discovered by Apocalypse in Cairo. Shipp partially shaved her head to sport a Mohawk for the role.
Lana Condor as Jubilee: A mutant student at Charles's school who has the ability to create psionic energy plasmoids. Discussing her first day on X-Men: Apocalypse, Condor says, "I was very new and it was my first role. I'd never been on a set before or in front of a camera, so I didn't know what to expect. The first day we shot scenes in an 80s-themed mall with hundreds of extras in 80s gear, plus crew and cameras. It was surreal ... It's a lot easier when you have the costume, as that helps bring everything to life. She has her iconic yellow jacket, which is a staple. It's very bold and confident, like her. A lot of her costumes are super 80s. I also listened to music from the 80s and that helped."
Olivia Munn as Psylocke: A mutant with psionic abilities. Her abilities include projecting purple psychic energy, usually into the form of an energy blade that can burn through metal. Munn described Psylocke as "very lethal, very powerful and very strong." She practiced sword fighting in preparation for the role.
Carolina Bartczak as Magda Gurzsky: The wife of Erik Lehnsherr and mother of their mutant daughter Nina Gurzsky. Magda and Erik live happily in Poland together hidden away from the world. She and her daughter are killed when a militia comes looking for Erik after he accidentally exposes who he is while trying to save a coworker.
Additionally, Tómas Lemarquis portrays Caliban, a mutant with the ability to sense and track other mutants, and wrestler "Giant" Gustav Claude Ouimet plays The Blob, Angel's opponent in an underground fight club. Monique Ganderton, Warren Scherer, Rochelle Okoye, and Fraser Aitcheson play Apocalypse's prior lieutenants, Death, Pestilence, Famine, and War respectively. Zehra Leverman reprised her role as Quicksilver's mother, Ms. Maximoff
Hugh Jackman makes an uncredited appearance as Logan / Wolverine, in his Weapon X form. In that same scene, director Bryan Singer cameos as a guard who is killed by Wolverine as he attempts to escape the complex. X-Men co-creator Stan Lee and his wife Joan B. Lee make a cameo appearance together, as bystanders witnessing the launch of nuclear missiles worldwide; this was Joan's last film before her death the following year. Željko Ivanek cameos as a Pentagon scientist. In a deleted scene, Scott shows Jean a record from Dazzler. The scene is not in the theatrical film, but is included on the home video release.
Journalist Jessica Savitch and actors Leslie Parrish and Michael Forest (appearing in footage with dialogue from the 1967 Star Trek episode "Who Mourns for Adonais?") also appear in cameos
Production
Development
The film was announced by Bryan Singer in December 2013 via Twitter, before Days of Future Past was released to theaters. In the same month, Simon Kinberg, Dan Harris, and Michael Dougherty were revealed by Singer to be attached to work on the film's story. According to Singer, the film would focus on the origin of the mutants, and features the younger versions of Cyclops, Jean Grey, and Storm. Singer also said that he was considering Gambit and a younger version of Nightcrawler to appear. According to Kinberg, it would take place in 1983, and completes a trilogy that began with 2011's X-Men: First Class. In September 2014, 20th Century Fox officially announced that Singer would direct the film. Singer has called the film "kind of a conclusion of six X-Men films, yet a potential rebirth of younger, newer characters" and the "true birth of the X-Men".
Writing
Singer said that Apocalypse is the main focus of the film. Kinberg said that the younger versions of Scott Summers, Storm, and Jean Grey appearing in the film are "as much a part of the film as the main cast". He described Summers as "not yet the squeaky-clean leader", Storm as a "troubled character who is going down the wrong path in life", and Grey as "complex, interesting and not fully mature." Kinberg also said that the film delivers on the dramatic story and emotion of the last two films and that it acts like the culmination of the main characters portrayed by Lawrence, McAvoy, Fassbender, and Hoult. Kinberg said First Class, Days of Future Past, and Apocalypse formed a trilogy about Mystique, explaining,
She starts in First Class entirely on Charles' side, ends up following Erik, and we then find her in Days of Future Past and she's on her own because Erik is gone. She's on her own side in that movie but is drawn toward Charles by the end of the film and shoots Erik. Then in Apocalypse she comes back to Charles. There's a full circle narrative over the span of this little trilogy that is about Mystique from beginning with Charles in the mansion and ending with Charles in the mansion, but not as the same timid little girl we met in First Class.
Kinberg was paid $8 million for writing the script, the same amount he received for X-Men: Days of Future Past. The plot was partially inspired by the 1986 X-Men story arc "The Fall of the Mutants".
Casting
In October 2014, casting for X-Men: Apocalypse began. In November, Singer confirmed that Oscar Isaac would portray Apocalypse. In January 2015, Singer announced that Alexandra Shipp, Sophie Turner, and Tye Sheridan would portray young Storm, Jean, and Cyclops, respectively. The same month, Kinberg confirmed that Rose Byrne would reprise her role as Moira MacTaggert in the film. In February, Kodi Smit-McPhee was cast as Nightcrawler and Ben Hardy was cast in an unspecified role. In March, Singer announced that Lana Condor was cast as Jubilation Lee. In April, Singer confirmed that Hardy would portray Angel, Olivia Munn would portray Psylocke, and Lucas Till would return as Havok. In May, Singer announced that the mutant Caliban would appear in the film. In July, Hoult revealed on Conan that Josh Helman would return as William Stryker. In April 2016, Hugh Jackman confirmed that he would make a cameo appearance as Logan / Wolverine.
Filming
Principal photography commenced on April 27, 2015, in Montreal, Canada. In late August, the first-unit production for the film wrapped. Additional filming took place in January 2016.
Australia-based Rising Sun Pictures provided, as it did for X-Men: Days of Future Past, the effects for Quicksilver's time-stopping, quick motion effects in the mansion rescue scene, and also other effects, including when Cyclops splits Professor Xavier's favorite tree in half. Aerial footage of snow-capped mountains as Stryker traveled in his helicopter to the secret base was provided by SmartDrones of St. Albert, Alberta, Canada. Singer had at one point left the production for 10 days, forcing screenwriter Simon Kinberg to fill in as director. Singer claimed he had a thyroid issue and had to be treated in L.A.
Music
On March 2, 2015, it was announced that John Ottman, who composed the scores for X2 and X-Men: Days of Future Past, would return to write and compose the score for Apocalypse. On May 20, 2016, the official soundtrack was released as a digital download. In addition to Ottman's score, the film features a remix of the second movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's seventh symphony entitled "Beethoven Havok" and two songs contemporary to the film's 1983 setting, "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)" by Eurythmics and "The Four Horsemen" by Metallica.
Visual effects
The visual effects are provided by Moving Picture Company and Hydraulx and Supervised by Anders Langlands and Colin Strause with help from Digital Domain, Cinesite, and Rising Sun Pictures.
Marketing
In July 2015, Singer, Lee, Hugh Jackman, and cast members McAvoy, Fassbender, Lawrence, Isaac, Hoult, Munn, Peters, Smit-McPhee, Turner, Sheridan, Shipp, Condor, Till, and Hardy gave a presentation at the 2015 San Diego Comic-Con International, together with the release of the film's first teaser poster, featuring En Sabah Nur and a wreckage of the X-Mansion. Footage from the film was screened.
In October 2015, Mars Chocolate partnered with 20th Century Fox for the marketing of the film, using M&M chocolates in their promotional materials. The deal included retail displays and special packaging markings, TV and cinema commercials, and social media posts featuring M&M's characters mixed with elements of the X-Men. The first image of M&M candies wearing Storm and Magneto costumes was released on the day of the announcement.
In December 2015, Kia Motors collaborated with 20th Century Fox to create a custom Kia Sportage to promote the film. Designed after Mystique, the car was revealed at the 2016 Australian Open. It is Kia's second "X-Car" project after the Kia Sorento customized for the home media release of Days of Future Past and the 2015 Australian Open. A trailer released in the same month received criticism from Rajan Zed, a United States-based Hindu cleric, who stated that the part where Apocalypse claims himself to have been called "Krishna" was an offense to the Hindu religion, and demanded that Singer remove all references to Krishna from the trailer, and the film itself. The references to Krishna were removed from the film's final cut. On January 4, 2016, Kia Motors released the first promo video of the car, featuring Spanish tennis player Rafael Nadal.
Concerning the character Apocalypse, the director Bryan Singer has said,
In April 2016, Coldwell Banker partnered with 20th Century Fox to list the X-Mansion for $75 million. The fictional listing included a video tour of the mansion and stories of the home from the perspective of characters such as Charles Xavier and Scott Summers. The fake property was listed by agent Kala V. Rhomedren, an anagram for Raven Darkholme. That same month, Fox released a faux TV show called "In the Footsteps of ..." narrated by George Takei which is inspired by the classic TV series In Search of ... that focus on En Sabah Nur's origins. In May 2016, Fox released a faux TV commercial for the Xavier School for Gifted Youngsters with Lana Condor as Jubilee. They also released a video voiced mail message a week later and a faux TV show called Fables of the Flush & Fabulous with Robin Leach which is inspired by Leach's show Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous.
Billboard controversy
Billboards in Los Angeles and New York City promoting the film garnered controversy for showing an image of Apocalypse choking Mystique, with critics saying the ad advocates violence against women. Among those opposed to the material was actress Rose McGowan, who told The Hollywood Reporter: "There is a major problem when the men and women at 20th Century Fox think casual violence against women is the way to market a film. There is no context in the ad, just a woman getting strangled. The fact that no one flagged this is offensive and frankly, stupid." In apologizing for the billboard, Fox said it intended to remove the image from circulation.
Release
X-Men: Apocalypse had its world premiere in London on May 9, 2016. The film was released in 20,796 screens across 76 international markets on May 18, 2016, one week before its North American debut. Apocalypse was issued triple 3D, 4DX, and 2D formats, and in IMAX 3D in select international markets, using the DMR process. It opened in Korea on May 25 and in China on June 3. It was released in Japan on August 11.
Home media
The film was released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on digital download on September 9, 2016, and on DVD, Blu-ray, 3D Blu-Ray, and Ultra HD Blu-ray on October 4, 2016. The film topped the national home video sales charts for the week ending on October 9, 2016.
X-Men: Apocalypse was released on The Walt Disney Company's streaming service Disney+ on July 17, 2020.
Reception
Box office
X-Men: Apocalypse grossed $155.4 million in the U.S. and Canada and $388.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $543.9 million against a budget of $178 million. The film is the fourth-highest-grossing film in the X-Men series (without adjusting for inflation), behind Deadpool, Logan, and X-Men: Days of Future Past. It made 27% less than Days of Future Past.
X-Men: Apocalypse opened in the United States on May 27, 2016 alongside Alice through the Looking Glass and was projected to gross around $80 million from 4,150 theaters in its opening weekend, and up to $100 million over the four day Memorial Day weekend. It made $8.2 million from Thursday previews at 3,565 theaters (better than its predecessor at $8.1 million). On its opening day it earned $26.4 million (including previews), the fourth-lowest opening day amount of the franchise. In its opening weekend, it grossed $65.8 million. Over the four-day Memorial weekend it earned $79.8 million, including $9 million from 480 premium large format screens and $19 million from RealD screens. In its second weekend the film grossed $22.3 million (a drop of 66.1%), finishing second at the box office behind Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows.
Elsewhere, X-Men: Apocalypse was released one week before the United States in 76 markets, and grossed $101.5 million from 20,796 screens over the May 18 weekend. It debuted at no. 1 in 71 of those markets, with IMAX contributing $5 million from 246 screens in 57 markets, while RealD took in $18.4 million. It broke opening records for Fox in the Philippines ($4.9 million), India ($3.4 million), Indonesia ($3.1 million), Singapore ($2.8 million), Thailand ($2.7 million) and Colombia ($1.9 million), and had the biggest opening in the X-Men franchise in 33 markets, including Russia ($6.5 million). Its top openings were the United Kingdom ($10.5 million), Mexico ($8.6 million), Brazil ($6.6 million), Russia ($6.5 million) and France ($5.9 million). It opened in China on June 3 and brought in $59 million, the second-largest Fox opening in China and $20 million more than Days of Future Past. It opened next in Japan on August 11.
Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, X-Men: Apocalypse holds an approval rating of 47% based on 334 reviews, with an average rating of 5.64/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Overloaded action and a clichéd villain take the focus away from otherwise strong performers and resonant themes, making X-Men: Apocalypse a middling chapter of the venerable superhero franchise." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 52 out of 100, based on 48 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale, while those at PostTrak gave it an overall positive score of 81% and a "definite recommend" of 62% .
Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club commented, "Much of what makes X-Men: Apocalypse legitimately interesting also makes it frustrating and lopsided, since Singer and screenwriter-producer Simon Kinberg remain committed to the structure of an overlong comic-book blockbuster, complete with a climax in which the world has to be saved using as many different colors of energy beam as possible." Mike Ryan of Uproxx disparaged the film's story as redundant and stale, arguing "I get it: Life is hard for mutants. We all get it. It's literally the only thing mutants ever seem to talk about. It is odd that other superheroes seem to get to have some fun, but never the X-Men. Here we are, 16 years later, and everyone involved is still sad. It feels repetitive." Scott Mendelson of Forbes wrote, "X-Men: Apocalypse is the kind of weightless, soulless trifle of a bore that makes comic book superhero movies look bad and makes me not look forward to the next installment." Helen O'Hara of Empire criticized the performances of the main cast and stated that the film felt "messier and heavier than Days of Future Past."
On the other hand, Mick LaSalle from the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film a positive review, calling it "a thinking person's action movie" and complimenting its high stakes. Richard Roeper called the film "a visual feast" and lauded its cast, saying "Even the hardcore geeks who like to get their Comic-Con on, might be feeling a little superhero fatigue right about now. Still. You owe it to yourself to see Quicksilver do his thing."
Accolades
Sequel
In May 2016, Simon Kinberg said the next X-Men film would be set in the 1990s. He separately said the post-credits scene mentioning the Essex Corporation was related to Logan (2017), and that it could have ties to Gambit as well as the following X-Men film. Bryan Singer said he would be interested in having the villain Proteus in an X-Men film. He also said he would be stepping away from the franchise, but could envision returning later in some capacity. Amidst allegations of sexual abuse in 2017, Singer was removed from production after being involved in the earliest production stage. The film's sequel, Dark Phoenix, was released on June 7, 2019.
References
External links
2016 films
2016 3D films
2010s adventure films
2016 science fiction action films
2010s superhero films
Fiction set in the 4th millennium BC
20th Century Fox films
TSG Entertainment films
American films
American science fiction films
American science fiction action films
American sequel films
American action adventure films
Apocalyptic films
Bad Hat Harry Productions films
Cold War films
English-language films
Films about the Central Intelligence Agency
Films about nuclear war and weapons
Films about shapeshifting
Films about telekinesis
Films directed by Bryan Singer
Films produced by Bryan Singer
Films produced by Lauren Shuler Donner
Films produced by Simon Kinberg
Films scored by John Ottman
Films set in 1983
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Films shot in Montreal
God in fiction
Superhero adventure films
Films with screenplays by Michael Dougherty
Films with screenplays by Dan Harris (screenwriter)
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Films with screenplays by Bryan Singer
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X-Men (film series)
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse in popular culture
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Junagadh () is the headquarters of Junagadh district in the Indian state of Gujarat. Located at the foot of the Girnar hills, southwest of Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar (the state capital), it is the seventh largest city in the state.
Literally translated, Junagadh means "Old Fort".
After a brief struggle between India and Pakistan, Junagadh voted to join India in a plebiscite held on 20 February 1948. It was a part of Saurashtra state and later Bombay state. In 1960, in consequence of the Maha Gujarat movement, it became part of the newly formed Gujarat state.
History
Early history
An early structure, Uparkot Fort, is located on a plateau in the middle of town. It was originally built in 319 BCE during the Mauryan dynasty by Chandragupta. The fort remained in use until the 6th century, when it was abandoned for about 300 years, then rediscovered by the Chudasama ruler Graharipu in 976 CE. The fort was subsequently besieged 16 times over an 1000-year period. One unsuccessful siege lasted twelve years.
Within of Uparkot Fort is an inscription with fourteen Edicts of Ashoka on a large boulder. The inscriptions are in Brahmi script in a language similar to Pali and date from 250 BCE. On the same rock there is a later inscription in Sanskrit, which was added around 150 CE by Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I, the Saka (Scythian) ruler of Malwa, and a member of the Western Kshatrapas dynasty, and which has been described as "the earliest known Sanskrit inscription of any extent". Another inscription dates from about 450 CE and refers to Skandagupta, the last Gupta emperor. Old rock-cut Buddhist caves in this area, dating from well before 500 CE, have stone carvings and floral work. There are also the Khapra Kodia Caves north of the fort, and the Bava Pyara Caves south of the fort. The Bava Pyara caves contain artworks of both Buddhism and Jainism.
The Maitraka dynasty ruled Gujarat from 475 to 767 CE. The founder of the dynasty, General Bhatarka, military governor of Saurashtra peninsula under the Gupta empire, established himself as the independent ruler of Gujarat around the last quarter of the 5th century.
Chudasama dynasty
The early history of the Chudasama dynasty – which ruled Saurashtra from Junagadh – is almost lost. The bardic legends differ very much in the names, order, and numbers of early rulers; so they are not considered reliable. According to tradition, the dynasty is said to have been founded in the late 9th century by Chudachandra. Subsequent rulers – such as Graharipu, Navaghana, and Khengara – were in conflict with the Chaulukya rulers Mularaja and Jayasimha Siddharaja; and Saurashtra was briefly governed by Chaulukya governors during this period. These events are recorded in contemporary and later Jain chronicles.
After the end of the rule of the Chaulukyas and their successors, the Vaghela dynasty, in Gujarat, the Chudasamas ruled independently, or as vassals of successor states, the Delhi Sultanate and the Gujarat Sultanate. Mandalika I was the first Chudasama ruler known from inscriptions; and during his reign, Gujarat was invaded by the Khalji dynasty of Delhi. The last king of the dynasty, Mandalika III, was defeated, and forcibly converted to Islam, in 1472 by Gujarat Sultan Mahmud Begada, who annexed the state.
The Uparkot Fort of Junagadh was occupied by the Chudasamas during the reign of Graharipu. It is said to have been later rebuilt by Navaghana, who had transferred his capital from Vamanasthali to Junagadh. He is also credited with construction of the stepwells Navghan Kuvo and Adi Kadi Vav in the fort. His descendant Khengara is attributed with building a stepwell, Ra Khengar Vav, on the way to Vanthali from Junagadh.
Gujarat sultanate
Sultan Mahmud Begada changed the name of Junagadh to Mustafabad and built the fortifications around the town and the mosque in Uparkot Fort.
Under the Gujarat Sultanate, Junagadh was governed by an official, styled thanadar (commander), appointed directly by Ahmedabad. This official collected the tribute and revenue of the crown domain. The first thanadar was Tatar Khan, an adopted son of the Sultan and after him Mirza Khalil, the eldest son of the Sultan who afterwards succeeded him under the title of Sultan Muzaffar. Prince Khalil during his tenure of office founded the village called Khalilpur. The Sultan also installed Bhupatsingh, the son of the last Chudasama king, Mandalika III, in Junagadh as a jagirdar (feudal lord). The jagir allotted to Bhupatsingh was the Sil Bagasra Chovisi; and his descendants were known as Raizada. They continued to rule there. Bhupatsingh was succeeded by his son Khengar.
After the accession of Sultan Muzafar, and indeed during the latter part of Sultan Mahmud's reign, the seat of government was removed from Junagadh to Diu owing to the importance of that island as a naval station and to check the ravages of the Portuguese. Tatarkhan Ghori was left at Junagadh by Malik Eiaz who himself resided at Diu. After the disgrace and death of Malik Eiaz, Tatarkhan Ghori became independent at Junagadh; and after the death of Sultan Bahadur, the Ghori family reigned independently at Junagadh, though still owing a nominal allegiance to the successive Sultans at Ahmadabad. This state of affairs continued until the first conquest of Gujarat by the Mughal emperor Akbar, when Aminkhan Ghori had succeeded his father Tatarkhan at Junagadh.
When the Portuguese took over the ports of Diu and Daman in the 16th century, a fifteen-foot cannon, made in Egypt in 1531, was abandoned by a Turkish admiral opposing the Portuguese forces at Diu, which is now at Uparkot Fort.
Under the Mughal Empire
Ghori rule
In 1525, Khengar was succeeded by his son Noghan. Tatarkhan Ghori had now become almost independent. In his time Jam Raval conquered Halar and built Navanagar. In 1551, Noghan was succeeded by his son Shrisingh, who lived till 1586. During this time, Tatarkhan Ghori died and was succeeded by his son Aminkhan Ghori. In his time, Akbar conquered Gujarat, although Sorath yet remained independent under the Ghori rule. The exact date of Tatarkhan Ghori's death is not known; but from the mention of Aminkhan as his successor, it must have been from about 1570 to 1575. On the return of Emperor Akbar to Agra in 1573, after the defeat and death of Muhammad Husain Mirzah and Ikhtiyar ul Mulk, he gave orders that Sorath should be conquered from Aminkhan Ghori. Vazir Khan attempted it but was unequal to the task. Great confusion existed now in Sorath. The Moghal conquest of Gujarat, the collapse of the power of the Gujarat Sultans, the encroachments of the Jam, and the assumption of independence by the Ghori all augmented the confusion afterwards increased by the escape of Sultan Muzaffar in 1583 and subsequent partisan warfare.
During these disturbances Amin Khan Ghori and his son Daulat Khan Ghori espoused the cause of Muzafar, as did the Jam and Loma Khuman of Kherdi. The exact date of Amin Khan Ghori's death is not known but it was about 1589–90. Raizada Khengar also warmly espoused Mnzafar's side. After the siege and capture of Junagadh in 1591–92 by Naurang Khan, Syad Kasim, and Gnjar Khan; Khengar was dismissed to his estate of Sil Bagasra, and the Raizada ceased to rule at Junagadh. Daulat Khan Ghori died of his wounds during the siege, and henceforth Junagadh became the seat of the imperial faujdars (garrison commanders) of Sorath in subordination to the imperial viceroy at Ahmedabad.
Imperial rule
The first faujdar of Junagad was Naurang Khan and, next, Syad Kasim. The most famous were (1) Mirzah Isa Tarkhan (2) Kutb ud din Kheshgi, and (3) Sardarkhan. Of these Mirzah Isa Tarkhan ruled Sorath from about 1633–34 to 1642, when he was appointed viceroy of Gujarat. On this occasion he left his son Inayat Ullah as faujdar at Junagadh while he himself conducted the government of Gujarat from its capital, Ahmedabad. In Mirzah Isa Tarkhan's time the fortifications of Junagadh were entirely repaired. Kutb ud din was another faujdar, and his tenure of office lasted from about 1653 to 1666. In about 1664, he conquered Navanagar and annexed it to the imperial domain. Sardarkhan also distinguished himself while faujdar of Sorath, both by the firmness of his rule and by his construction (1681, AH 1092) of the Sardar Baug (palace) and excavation of the Sardar Talav (main gate). He built a mausoleum for himself in the Sardar Baug, but he died at Thatta, in Sindh, and is said to have been buried there and not at Junagadh. He was faujdar from about 1666 to 1686, but in 1670 he went for a short time to Idar and was replaced by Syad Dilerkhan. The last of the faujdar s was Sherkhan Babi, who became independent and assumed the title of Nawab Bahadur Khan.
Junagadh state
In 1730, Mohammad Sher Khan Babi, who owed allegiance to the Mughal governor of Gujarat Subah, founded the state of Junagadh by declaring independence after the invasion by the Maratha Gaekwad dynasty. Babi founded the Babi Dynasty of Junagadh State. His descendants, the Babi Nawabs of Junagadh—who were Babi or Babai pashtuns from Afghanistan—conquered large territories in southern Saurashtra and ruled for the next two centuries, first as tributaries of Marathas, and later under the suzerainty of the British, who granted the honor of a 13-gun salute.
1730–1758 – Mohammad Bahadur Khanji or Mohammad Sher khan Babi
1758–1774 – Mohammad Mahabat Khanji I
1774–1811 – Mohammad Hamid Khanji I
1811–1840 – Mohammad Bahadur Khanji II
1840–1851 – Mohammad Hamid Khanji II
1851–1882 – Mohammad Mahabat Khanji II
1882–1892 – Mohammad Bahadur Khanji III
1892–1911 – Mohammad Rasul Khanji
1911–1948 – Mohammad Mahabat Khanji III
British period
In 1807, Junagadh State became a British protectorate. The East India Company took control of the state by 1818, but the Saurashtra area was never directly administered by the British, who instead divided the territory into more than one hundred princely states, which remained in existence until 1947. The present old-town, developed during the 19th and 20th centuries, constituted one of those princely states.
The Shri Swaminarayan Mandir temple in Junagadh was constructed on land presented by Jinabhai (Hemantsingh) Darbar of Panchala, and dedicated on 1 May 1828. Swaminarayan appointed Gunatitanand Swami as the first mahant (religious and administrative head of a temple), who served in this role and preached there for over 40 years.
Annexation by India
During the period just before the independence and partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, the 562 princely states that had existed outside British India, but under British suzerainty, were given the choice of acceding to either India or Pakistan, or to remaining apart. Although the states were theoretically free to choose, Earl Mountbatten stated that "geographic compulsions" meant that most of them would choose India. Mountbatten took the position that only states that shared a common border with Pakistan should choose to accede to it, but he had no power to impose this point of view on the states.
On 15 September 1947, Nawab Mohammad Mahabat Khanji III of Junagadh – which, although located at the south-western end of Gujarat, had no common border with Pakistan – chose to accede to Pakistan, ignoring Mountbatten's views and arguing that Junagadh could access Pakistan by sea. The rulers of two states that were subject to the suzerainty of Junagadh — Mangrol and Babariawad — reacted by declaring their independence from Junagadh and acceding to India. In response, the nawab's forces militarily occupied the two states. Rulers of other neighbouring states reacted angrily, sent troops to the Junagadh frontier, and appealed to the government of India for assistance. A group of Junagadhis, led by Samaldas Gandhi, formed a government-in-exile, the Aarzi Hukumat ("temporary government").
India asserted that Junagadh was not contiguous to Pakistan and, believing that if Junagadh was permitted to accede to Pakistan communal tension already simmering in Gujarat would worsen, refused to accept the nawab's accession to Pakistan. The Indian government pointed out that the state was 96% Hindu, and called for a plebiscite to decide the question of accession. India cut off supplies of fuel and coal to Junagadh, severed air and postal links, sent troops to the frontier, and occupied the principalities of Mangrol and Babariawad, which had acceded to India.
Pakistan agreed to discuss a plebiscite, subject to the withdrawal of Indian troops, a condition India rejected. On 26 October, the nawab and his family fled to Pakistan following clashes between Junagadhi and Indian troops.
On 7 November, Junagadh's court, facing collapse, invited the government of India to take over the state's administration. The Dewan of Junagadh, Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, the father of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, decided to invite the Government of India to intervene and wrote a letter to Mr. Buch, the regional commissioner of Saurashtra in the government of India to this effect.
The government of India rejected the protests of Pakistan and accepted the invitation of the dewan to intervene. A plebiscite was conducted in February 1948, but it was not internationally monitored. Pakistan claims were not based on the plebiscite but on the logic of the Kashmir annexation, which went almost unanimously in favour of accession to India. Junagadh became a part of the Indian state of Saurashtra until 1 November 1956, when Saurashtra became part of Bombay state. In 1960, Bombay state was split into the linguistic states of Maharashtra and Gujarat, in which Junagadh was located.
Pakistan's government has maintained its territorial claim on Junagadh, along with Manavadar and Sir Creek in Gujarat, on its official political map.
Timelines
Ruling dynasties
Accession to India
15 Aug 1947 Accedes to Pakistan.
15 Sep 1947 Accession to Pakistan accepted.
9 Nov 1947 Occupied by India.
10 Nov 1947 Rescinds accession to Pakistan, accedes to India.
24 Feb 1948 Referendum approves accession to India.
25 Feb 1948 Accession to India in effect.
Geography
Junagadh city is located at at the foot of Mount Girnar, with the Arabian sea to the southwest, Porbandar to the north, and Amreli to the east. It has an average elevation of .
Junagadh city has two rivers, the Sonrakh and the Kalwo, which is polluted from city sewers. The city has several lakes: Narsinh Mehta Sarovar, Damodarji, Sudarshan Lake, etc. Willingdon Dam, Hasnapur Dam, and Anandpur Weir are the main water sources for the city. Groundwater supply is widely available in the city, with wells throughout.
Junagadh's soil is similar to that of the rest of Junagadh district. It is deep- to medium-black coastal alluvium, due to its proximity to the sea, long shoreline, and nearby mountain ridge. Because of many fault lines in the vicinity, Junagadh is in a seismically active zone. Junagadh lies in a Seismic Zone III region, which means earthquakes up to magnitude 6.5 on the Richter-scale may be expected.
Climate
Junagadh has a tropical wet and dry climate (Aw) bordering on a hot semi-arid climate (BSh), with two distinct seasons: a dry season from October to May, and a wet season from June to September. The close proximity of the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Cambay affect the climate. In the summer months, temperatures range from . In the winter, they range from . From June to September the city is drained by the southwest monsoon. Rainfall averages annually. The greatest rainfall in a calendar year——was recorded in 1983.
Demographics
2011 census, Junagadh municipality had a population of 319,462. The municipality had a sex ratio of 955 females per 1,000 males and 9% of the population were under six years old. The effective literacy rate was 88%; male literacy was 92.46% and female literacy was 83.38%.
Junagadh has relatively low to medium housing and land costs in comparison to cities like Rajkot. The city is rapidly expanding, and available land inside the city limits is now limited. Total area under slums is (14.5% of the total municipal area) and the total slum population accounts for around 25% of the total population.
The religions represented in Junagadh includes Hindus, Muslims, Jains, Christians, and Buddhists. Among these Hindus are the majority and Muslims are the largest minority group. Jains and Christians are present in considerable numbers. Sikhs and Parsis are very few in number. There are Tibetan migrants who practice Buddhism. The main language group is Gujarati. Others are Hindi and Sindhi. A small community of African origin, known as "Siddis", resides in and around the Gir Sanctuary, but some of them have moved to the city. There are around 8816 Siddi in the state and 65% of them reside in Junagadh. Swaminarayan Hinduism is also widely followed in the city. There are two Swaminarayan temples in the city: the old temple is managed by the Vadtal diocese and the new temple is managed by Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha.
Administration
The city is divided into the main city, which is centered on Mahatma Gandhi (M.G.) Road and Kalwa Chowk; Gandhigram; Zanzarda Road; Talaw Darwaza; the bus stand; Sakkar Baug; Timbawadi; Joshipara; and Girnar Taleti. The city is administered by the Junagadh Municipal Corporation.
The politics of Junagadh city has always been closely contested between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Bharatiya Janta Party (BJP). Other national parties are the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), the Communist Party of India, and the Nationalist Congress Party. Regional parties active in Junagadh are the Mahagujarat Janta Party, the Samata Party, and the Republic Party of India. Junagadh has 194,196 registered voters, of which 100,050 are male and 94,146 female.
Junagadh has one state-assembly constituency. The BJP won this seat in the 2007 election, with 52.36% of the 118,888 votes cast, with the next largest vote being 26.32% for the INC candidate. Election for the state assembly is held every 5 years.
The Junagadh Municipal Corporation has 17 wards and total of 51 seats. In the 2009 municipal elections the INC won 26 seats, BJP 21 seats, BSP 3 seats and 1 went to an independent. While the majority of the seats went to the INC, the BJP candidates received more votes: 134,739, or 45.62% of the total, the INC receiving 120,533, 40.81%. The Mayor, Deputy Mayor has terms of 2 and a half years.
Utilities
Junagadh's population of 320,250 requires of water per day, which is supplied through 25,000 tap connections to three major surface water sources, namely Aanandpur Weir, Hasanapur Dam, and Wellingdon Dam, as well as to 32 wells. Junagadh has more than 1000 hand pumps and 200 stand posts situated throughout the city drawing from groundwater sources.
In January 2004, Junagadh city increased its area from to by annexing eight grampanchayats and one municipality. The newly acquired area has its own groundwater supply system of bore wells.
The city generates approximately of solid waste daily, which is within the recommended limit, of per capita, per day, for domestic waste. The waste is collected by deploying 400 wheel barrows (six containers) as per supreme court guidelines and Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW) rule 2000. The municipal council has set up 800 community bins for solid waste collection. It covers 90% of city area. Junagadh's drainage system is long but it serves only 67% of the total area and 60% of the population.
The Paschim Gujarat Vij Company Ltd. (P.G.V.C.L.), a state-run electricity company, provides electric power. Telecom service is provided mainly by Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (B.S.N.L.); other service providers include Reliance and Tata. Cell-phone coverage is extensive and the main service providers are Vodafone, B.S.N.L., Airtel, Idea, and Tata Docomo. B.S.N.L. also provides broadband service.
The city has a good network of street lights. There is a total of 12,545 tube lights and 1523 central sodium street lights. A Solar power project has been approved for Narsinh Mehta Sarovar.
Transport
Junagadh is connected to Rajkot, Ahmedabad, and Veraval by National Highway 8D (NH8D). The city is connected to Mount Girnar by road, as well as to Bilkha and the Sasan Gir Lion Sanctuary in the south. Junagadh City Bypass on NH8D obviates the need for through-traffic to enter the city. Ferguson Bridge connects the parts of the city on either side of the Kalwo River. Another bridge spans the Sonrakh River in the northern outskirts of the city. Rickshaws are the generally preferred mode of transportation.
The Girnar ropeway is a aerial tramway located in Bhavnath locality of Junagadh city.
Economy
Due to its mountainous geography and forest reserves, Junagadh lacks major industries or plants. The main economic sectors are the mineral-based cement industry, agriculture-based industries, and the power sector. The presence of large reserves of limestone makes the cement industry a thriving industrial sector. Major crops produced in the district are wheat, oil seeds, cotton, mangoes, bananas, onions, and brinjal (eggplant). The total production of oilseeds in Junagadh in 2006–07 was 464,400 metric tons, which was the highest in the state. Junagadh is the largest producer of groundnut and garlic in the state, contributing 26% and 34%, respectively, of total production. Junagadh has Asia's largest ground-nut research laboratory. Mangoes and onions are grown in large quantities in the district.
Some of the large-scale industry present in Junagadh are Mother Dairy Fruit & Vegetable Pvt Ltd (popularly known as Junagadh Dairy in the region), Agro Marine Exports, Creative Castings Ltd., and Austin Engineering. With an investment of INR 4,000 crore (US$975.6million), JSW Power Co. had proposed to set up a coal-based power plant at Simar Village, in Junagadh, but due to difficulties in establishing a port there, it has been shifted to the port of Dahej. Under the new government policy of encouraging biotechnology, Junagadh has been identified as an agriculture biotechnology zone. This will boost the establishment of agro-biotech industries in the district.
Junagadh boasts of some of the best tourist destinations in the state, so tourism is considered to be a progressing sector. The state government has sanctioned the development of a Circuit Tourism project at Junagadh.
Education
Junagadh is an education hub where people from nearby towns and villages come to study.
Schools in Junagadh are either municipal schools run by the municipal council or private schools run by trusts or individuals, which in some cases receive financial aid from the government. The schools are affiliated either with the Gujarat Secondary and Higher Secondary Education Board, the Central Board of Secondary Education, or the International General Certificate of Secondary Education. English and Gujarati are the predominant languages of instruction.
The city is home to Junagadh Agricultural University.
Culture
Established in 1863, Junagadh's Sakkarbaug Zoological Garden, also known as the Sakkarbaug Zoo, is around 210 acre (84 hectares) in size. The zoo provides purebred Asiatic lions for the Indian and international critically endangered species captive breeding programs. Currently, it is the only zoo in the country to house African cheetahs. The zoo also has museum of natural history.
Junagadh's many ruling dynasties—such as Babi Nawabs, Vilabhis, Kshatraps, Mauryas, Chudasamas, Gujarat Sultans—and its religious groups have influenced the architectural syles of Junagadh.
The Junagadh Buddhist Cave Groups, with their intricately carved gateways, Chaitya halls, sculptured pillars, and sanctums are classic examples of rock-cut architecture. The Chudama Rajputs left specimens of their architectural style in Nabghan Kuvo and Adi Kadi Vav. Religious monuments such as the Jami Masjid remind us of Muslim architectural patterns. The Ashokan edicts is a classic example of old rock engraving styles. The Maqbaras and numerous age-old palaces in Junagadh tell the story of its rich historical and architectural past.
About east of Junagadh and west of the foot of Girnar Hill is an edict of Emperor Ashoka, inscribed on an uneven rock and dating from the 3rd century BC. The Ashokan edicts impart moral instructions on dharma, harmony, tolerance, and peace. The rock has a circumference of , a height of , and bears inscriptions in Brāhmī script etched with an iron pen.
The people of Junagadh celebrate both Western and Indian festivals. Diwali, Maha Shivaratri, Holi, Janmastami, Muharram, Navratri, Christmas, Good Friday, Dussera, Muharram, and Ganesh Chaturthi are some of the popular festivals in the city.
The Shivaratri Mela is organized at the foot of Mount Girnar (Talati) in the month of Maha (9th day of the month of Maagha). The mela lasts for the next five days. About 500,000 people visit Junagadh on this occasion. The Girnar Parikrama is also organized annually. It starts in the month of Kartik and draws 1 to 1.5 million people. People walk the periphery of the Girnar Hills on foot (about ). Muharram is celebrated by Muslims. The sej, which belonged to the peers or gurus of the nawabs, has been taken out; and a fair has been organized. Apart from these religious and national festivals, Junagadh annually celebrates its accession to India on 9 November 1947 as the independence day of the city. 1 May is Gujarat day, to celebrate the formation of Gujarat state on 1 May 1960.
See also
Girnar
Gir Forest National Park
Damodar Kund
Radha Damodar Temple, Junagadh
Baradiya
References
External links
Former capital cities in India
Saurashtra (region)
Cities and towns in Junagadh district
Territorial disputes of Pakistan
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Islanding is the condition in which a distributed generator (DG) continues to power a location even though external electrical grid power is no longer present. Islanding can be dangerous to utility workers, who may not realize that a circuit is still powered, and it may prevent automatic re-connection of devices. Additionally, without strict frequency control, the balance between load and generation in the islanded circuit can be violated, thereby leading to abnormal frequencies and voltages. For those reasons, distributed generators must detect islanding and immediately disconnect from the circuit; this is referred to as anti-islanding.
A common example of islanding is a distribution feeder that has solar panels attached to it. In the case of a power outage, the solar panels will continue to deliver power as long as irradiance is sufficient. In this case, the circuit detached by the outage becomes an "island". For this reason, solar inverters that are designed to supply power to the grid are generally required to have some sort of automatic anti-islanding circuitry.
Some designs, commonly known as a microgrid, allow for intentional islanding. In case of an outage, a microgrid controller disconnects the local circuit from the grid on a dedicated switch and forces the distributed generator(s) to power the entire local load.
In nuclear power plants, islanding is an exceptional mode of operation of a nuclear reactor. In this mode, the power plant is disconnected from the grid, and power for cooling systems comes from the reactor itself. For some reactor types, islanding is part of the normal procedure when the power plant disconnects from the grid, in order to quickly recover electricity production. When islanding fails, emergency systems (such as diesel generators) take over. For instance, French nuclear power plants conduct islanding tests every four years. The Chernobyl disaster was a failed islanding test.
Islanding basics
Electrical inverters are devices that convert direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). Grid-interactive inverters have the additional requirement that they produce AC power that matches the existing power presented on the grid. In particular, a grid-interactive inverter must match the voltage, frequency and phase of the power line it connects to. There are numerous technical requirements to the accuracy of this tracking.
Consider the case of a house with an array of solar panels on the roof. Inverter(s) attached to the panels convert the varying DC current provided by the panels into AC power that matches the grid supply. If the grid is disconnected, the voltage on the grid line might be expected to drop to zero, a clear indication of a service interruption. However, consider the case when the house's load exactly matches the output of the panels at the instant of the grid interruption. In this case the panels can continue supplying power, which is used up by the house's load. In this case there is no obvious indication that an interruption has occurred.
Normally, even when the load and production are exactly matched, the so-called "balanced condition", the failure of the grid will result in several additional transient signals being generated. For instance, there will almost always be a brief decrease in line voltage, which will signal a potential fault condition. However, such events can also be caused by normal operation, like the starting of a large electric motor.
Methods that detect islanding without a large number of false positives constitute the subject of considerable research. Each method has some threshold that needs to be crossed before a condition is considered to be a signal of grid interruption, which leads to a "non-detection zone" (NDZ), the range of conditions where a real grid failure will be filtered out. For this reason, before field deployment, grid-interactive inverters are typically tested by reproducing at their output terminals specific grid conditions and evaluating the effectiveness of the islanding methods in detecting islanding conditions.
Questionable rationale
Given the activity in the field, and the large variety of methods that have been developed to detect islanding, it is important to consider whether or not the problem actually demands the amount of effort being expended. Generally speaking, the reasons for anti-islanding are given as (in no particular order):
Safety concerns: if an island forms, repair crews may be faced with unexpected live wires
End-user equipment damage: customer equipment could theoretically be damaged if operating parameters differ greatly from the norm. In this case, the utility is liable for the damage.
Ending the failure: Reclosing the circuit onto an active island may cause problems with the utility's equipment, or cause automatic reclosing systems to fail to notice the problem.
Inverter confusion: Reclosing onto an active island may cause confusion among the inverters.
The first issue has been widely dismissed by many in the power industry. Line workers are already constantly exposed to unexpectedly live wires in the course of normal events (i.e. is a house blacked out because it has no power, or because the occupant pulled the main breaker inside?). Normal operating procedures under hot-line rules or dead-line rules require line workers to test for power as a matter of course, and it has been calculated that active islands would add a negligible risk. However, other emergency workers may not have time to do a line check, and these issues have been extensively explored using risk-analysis tools. A UK-based study concluded that "The risk of electric shock associated with islanding of PV systems under worst-case PV penetration scenarios to both network operators and customers is typically <10−9 per year."
The second possibility is also considered extremely remote. In addition to thresholds that are designed to operate quickly, islanding detection systems also have absolute thresholds that will trip long before conditions are reached that could cause end-user equipment damage. It is, generally, the last two issues that cause the most concern among utilities. Reclosers are commonly used to divide up the grid into smaller sections that will automatically, and quickly, re-energize the branch as soon as the fault condition (a tree branch on lines for instance) clears. There is some concern that the reclosers may not re-energize in the case of an island, or that the rapid cycling they cause might interfere with the ability of the DG system to match the grid again after the fault clears.
If an islanding issue does exist, it appears to be limited to certain types of generators. A 2004 Canadian report concluded that synchronous generators, installations like microhydro, were the main concern. These systems may have considerable mechanical inertia that will provide a useful signal. For inverter-based systems, the report largely dismissed the problem, stating: "Anti-islanding technology for inverter based DG systems is much better developed, and published risk assessments suggest that the current technology and standards provide adequate protection while penetration of DG into the distribution system remains relatively low." The report also noted that "views on the importance
of this issue tend to be very polarized," with utilities generally considering the possibility of occurrence and its impacts, while those supporting DG systems generally use a risk based approach and the very low probabilities of an island forming.
An example of such an approach, one that strengthens the case that islanding is largely a non-issue, is a major real-world islanding experiment that was carried out in the Netherlands in 1999. Although based on the then-current anti-islanding system, typically the most basic voltage jump-detection methods, the testing clearly demonstrated that islands could not last longer than 60 seconds. Moreover, the theoretical predictions were true; the chance of a balance condition existing were on the order of 10−6 a year, and that the chance that the grid would disconnect at that point in time was even less. As an island can only form when both conditions are true, they concluded that the "Probability of encountering an islanding is virtually zero"
Nevertheless, utility companies have continued to use islanding as a reason to delay or refuse the implementation of distributed generation systems. In Ontario, Hydro One recently introduced interconnection guidelines that refused connection if the total distributed generation capacity on a branch was 7% of the maximum yearly peak power. At the same time, California sets a limit of 15% only for review, allowing connections up to 30%, and is actively considering moving the review-only limit to 50%.
The issue can be hotly political. In Ontario in 2009 and subsequently, a number of potential customers taking advantage of a new Feed-in tariff program were refused connection only after building their systems. This was a problem particularly in rural areas where numerous farmers were able to set up small (10 kWp) systems under the "capacity exempt" microFIT program only to find that Hydro One had implemented a new capacity regulation after the fact, in many cases after the systems had been installed.
Islanding for backup power
Because of the greatly increased use of Public Safety Power Shutoff (PSPS) and other power grid shutdowns by utilities, the need for backup and emergency power for homes and businesses has greatly increased over the past several years. For example, some shutdowns by California utility PG&E have lasted for days as PG&E attempts to prevent wildfires from starting during dry and windy climate conditions. To fill this need to backup grid power, solar power systems with battery backup and islanding inverters are finding heavily increased demand by home and business owners. During normal operation when grid power is present, the inverters can grid tie to feed power provided by solar panels to the loads in the home or business, and thereby lower the amount of power which is consumed from the utility. If there is extra power available from the solar panels it can be used to charge batteries and/or feed power into the grid to in effect sell power to the utility. This operation can reduce the cost of power that the owner has to purchase from the utility and help offset the purchase and installation costs of the solar power system.
Modern inverters can automatically grid tie when grid power is present, and when grid power is lost or not of acceptable quality these inverters operate in conjunction with a transfer switch to isolate the home or business electrical system from the grid and the inverter supplies power to that system in an island mode. While most homes or businesses can present a larger load than the inverter is capable of supplying, load shedding is accomplished by varying the frequency of the A.C. power output from the inverter (only in island mode) in response to the load on the inverter in a fashion such that the A.C. power frequency represents that loading. Load modules installed in the power feed to large loads like air conditioners and electric ovens measure the A.C. power frequency from the islanding inverter and disconnect those loads in a priority sequence as the inverter nears its maximum power output capability. For example, when the inverter power output is below 50% of inverter's maximum output capability, the A.C. power frequency is maintained at the standard frequency (e.g. 60 Hz) but as the power output increases above 50%, the frequency is lowered linearly by up to 2 Hz (e.g. from 60 Hz to 58 Hz) when the inverter output reaches its maximum power output. Because of the ease and accuracy of inverter A.C. power frequency control in islanding mode, this frequency control is an inexpensive and effective way of conveying the inverter loading to every corner of the electrical system it powers. A load module for a low priority load will measure this power frequency and if the frequency is lowered by 1 Hz or greater for example (e.g. lower than 59 Hz) the load module disconnects its load. Several load modules, each of which operates at a different frequency based on the priority of its load, can operate to keep the total load on the inverter below its maximum capability.
These islanding inverter solar power systems allow all loads to potentially be powered, just not all at the same time. These systems provide a green, reliable and cost effective backup power alternative to internal combustion engine powered generators. The islanding inverter systems operate automatically when grid power fails to ensure that critical electric loads like lighting, fans for building heating systems and food storage devices continue to operate throughout the outage, even if nobody is present in the business or the home occupants are sleeping.
Islanding detection methods
Detecting an islanding condition is the subject of considerable research. In general, these can be classified into passive methods, which look for transient events on the grid, and active methods, which probe the grid by sending signals of some sort from the inverter or the grid distribution point. There are also methods that the utility can use to detect the conditions that would cause the inverter-based methods to fail, and deliberately upset those conditions in order to make the inverters switch off. A Sandia Labs Report covers many of these methodologies, both in-use and future developments. These methods are summarized below.
Passive methods
Passive methods include any system that attempts to detect transient changes on the grid, and use that information as the basis as a probabilistic determination of whether or not the grid has failed, or some other condition has resulted in a temporary change.
Under/over voltage
According to Ohm's law, the voltage in an electrical circuit is a function of electric current (the supply of electrons) and the applied load (resistance). In the case of a grid interruption, the current being supplied by the local source is unlikely to match the load so perfectly as to be able to maintain a constant voltage. A system that periodically samples voltage and looks for sudden changes can be used to detect a fault condition.
Under/over voltage detection is normally trivial to implement in grid-interactive inverters, because the basic function of the inverter is to match the grid conditions, including voltage. That means that all grid-interactive inverters, by necessity, have the circuitry needed to detect the changes. All that is needed is an algorithm to detect sudden changes. However, sudden changes in voltage are a common occurrence on the grid as loads are attached and removed, so a threshold must be used to avoid false disconnections.
The range of conditions that result in non-detection with this method may be large, and these systems are generally used along with other detection systems.
Under/over frequency
The frequency of the power being delivered to the grid is a function of the supply, one that the inverters carefully match. When the grid source is lost, the frequency of the power would fall to the natural resonant frequency of the circuits in the island. Looking for changes in this frequency, like voltage, is easy to implement using already required functionality, and for this reason almost all inverters also look for fault conditions using this method as well.
Unlike changes in voltage, it is generally considered highly unlikely that a random circuit would naturally have a natural frequency the same as the grid power. However, many devices deliberately synchronize to the grid frequency, like televisions. Motors, in particular, may be able to provide a signal that is within the NDZ for some time as they "wind down". The combination of voltage and frequency shifts still results in a NDZ that is not considered adequate by all.
Rate of change of frequency
In order to decrease the time in which an island is detected, rate of change of frequency has been adopted as a detection method. The rate of change of frequency is given by the following expression:
where is the system frequency, is the time, is the power imbalance (), is the system capacity, and is the system inertia.
Should the rate of change of frequency, or ROCOF value, be greater than a certain value, the embedded generation will be disconnected from the network.
Voltage phase jump detection
Loads generally have power factors that are not perfect, meaning that they do not accept the voltage from the grid perfectly, but impede it slightly. Grid-tie inverters, by definition, have power factors of 1. This can lead to changes in phase when the grid fails, which can be used to detect islanding.
Inverters generally track the phase of the grid signal using a phase locked loop (PLL) of some sort. The PLL stays in sync with the grid signal by tracking when the signal crosses zero volts. Between those events, the system is essentially "drawing" a sine-shaped output, varying the current output to the circuit to produce the proper voltage waveform. When the grid disconnects, the power factor suddenly changes from the grid's (1) to the load's (~1). As the circuit is still providing a current that would produce a smooth voltage output given the known loads, this condition will result in a sudden change in voltage. By the time the waveform is completed and returns to zero, the signal will be out of phase.
The main advantage to this approach is that the shift in phase will occur even if the load exactly matches the supply in terms of Ohm's law - the NDZ is based on power factors of the island, which are very rarely 1. The downside is that many common events, like motors starting, also cause phase jumps as new impedances are added to the circuit. This forces the system to use relatively large thresholds, reducing its effectiveness.
Harmonics detection
Even with noisy sources, like motors, the total harmonic distortion (THD) of a grid-connected circuit is generally unmeasurable due to the essentially infinite capacity of the grid that filters these events out. Inverters, on the other hand, generally have much larger distortions, as much as 5% THD. This is a function of their construction; some THD is a natural side-effect of the switched-mode power supply circuits most inverters are based on.
Thus, when the grid disconnects, the THD of the local circuit will naturally increase to that of the inverters themselves. This provides a very secure method of detecting islanding, because there are generally no other sources of THD that would match that of the inverter. Additionally, interactions within the inverters themselves, notably the transformers, have non-linear effects that produce unique 2nd and 3rd harmonics that are easily measurable.
The drawback of this approach is that some loads may filter out the distortion, in the same way that the inverter attempts to. If this filtering effect is strong enough, it may reduce the THD below the threshold needed to trigger detection. Systems without a transformer on the "inside" of the disconnect point will make detection more difficult. However, the largest problem is that modern inverters attempt to lower the THD as much as possible, in some cases to unmeasurable limits.
Active methods
Active methods generally attempt to detect a grid failure by injecting small signals into the line, and then detecting whether or not the signal changes.
Negative-sequence current injection
This method is an active islanding detection method which can be used by three-phase electronically coupled distributed generation (DG) units. The method is based on injecting a negative-sequence current through the voltage-sourced converter (VSC) controller and detecting and quantifying the corresponding negative-sequence voltage at the point of common coupling (PCC) of the VSC by means of a unified three-phase signal processor (UTSP). The UTSP system is an enhanced phase-locked loop (PLL) which provides a high degree of immunity to noise, and thus enables islanding detection based on injecting a small negative-sequence current. The negative-sequence current is injected by a negative-sequence controller which is adopted as the complementary of the conventional VSC current controller. The negative-sequence current injection method detects an islanding event within 60 ms (3.5 cycles) under UL1741 test conditions, requires 2% to 3% negative-sequence current injection for islanding detection, can correctly detect an islanding event for the grid short circuit ratio of 2 or higher, and is insensitive to variations of the load parameters of UL1741 test system.
Impedance measurement
Impedance Measurement attempts to measure the overall impedance of the circuit being fed by the inverter. It does this by slightly "forcing" the current amplitude through the AC cycle, presenting too much current at a given time. Normally this would have no effect on the measured voltage, as the grid is an effectively infinitely stiff voltage source. In the event of a disconnection, even the small forcing would result in a noticeable change in voltage, allowing detection of the island.
The main advantage of this method is that it has a vanishingly small NDZ for any given single inverter. However, the inverse is also the main weakness of this method; in the case of multiple inverters, each one would be forcing a slightly different signal into the line, hiding the effects on any one inverter. It is possible to address this problem by communication between the inverters to ensure they all force on the same schedule, but in a non-homogeneous install (multiple installations on a single branch) this becomes difficult or impossible in practice. Additionally, the method only works if the grid is effectively infinite, and in practice many real-world grid connections do not sufficiently meet this criterion.
Impedance measurement at a specific frequency
Although the methodology is similar to Impedance Measurement, this method, also known as "harmonic amplitude jump", is actually closer to Harmonics Detection. In this case, the inverter deliberately introduces harmonics at a given frequency, and as in the case of Impedance Measurement, expects the signal from the grid to overwhelm it until the grid fails. Like Harmonics Detection, the signal may be filtered out by real-world circuits.
Slip mode frequency shift
This is one of the newest methods of islanding detection, and in theory, one of the best. It is based on forcing the phase of the inverter's output to be slightly mis-aligned with the grid, with the expectation that the grid will overwhelm this signal. The system relies on the actions of a finely tuned phase-locked loop to become unstable when the grid signal is missing; in this case, the PLL attempts to adjust the signal back to itself, which is tuned to continue to drift. In the case of grid failure, the system will quickly drift away from the design frequency, eventually causing the inverter to shut down.
The major advantage of this approach is that it can be implemented using circuitry that is already present in the inverter. The main disadvantage is that it requires the inverter to always be slightly out of time with the grid, a lowered power factor. Generally speaking, the system has a vanishingly small NDZ and will quickly disconnect, but it is known that there are some loads that will react to offset the detection.
Frequency bias
Frequency bias forces a slightly off-frequency signal into the grid, but "fixes" this at the end of every cycle by jumping back into phase when the voltage passes zero. This creates a signal similar to Slip Mode, but the power factor remains closer to that of the grid's, and resets itself every cycle. Moreover, the signal is less likely to be filtered out by known loads. The main disadvantage is that every inverter would have to agree to shift the signal back to zero at the same point on the cycle, say as the voltage crosses back to zero, otherwise different inverters will force the signal in different directions and filter it out.
There are numerous possible variations to this basic scheme. The Frequency Jump version, also known as the "zebra method", inserts forcing only on a specific number of cycles in a set pattern. This dramatically reduces the chance that external circuits may filter the signal out. This advantage disappears with multiple inverters, unless some way of synchronizing the patterns is used.
Utility-based methods
The utility also has a variety of methods available to it to force systems offline in the event of a failure.
Manual disconnection
Most small generator connections require a mechanical disconnect switch, so at a minimum the utility could send a repairman to pull them all. For very large sources, one might simply install a dedicated telephone hotline that can be used to have an operator manually shut down the generator. In either case, the reaction time is likely to be on the order of minutes, or hours.
Automated disconnection
Manual disconnection could be automated through the use of signals sent through the grid, or on secondary means. For instance, power line carrier communications could be installed in all inverters, periodically checking for signals from the utility and disconnecting either on command, or if the signal disappears for a fixed time. Such a system would be highly reliable, but expensive to implement.
Transfer-trip method
As the utility can be reasonably assured that they will always have a method for discovering a fault, whether that be automated or simply looking at the recloser, it is possible for the utility to use this information and transmit it down the line. This can be used to force the tripping of properly equipped DG systems by deliberately opening a series of recloser in the grid to force the DG system to be isolated in a way that forces it out of the NDZ. This method can be guaranteed to work, but requires the grid to be equipped with automated recloser systems, and external communications systems that guarantee the signal will make it through to the reclosers.
Impedance insertion
A related concept is to deliberately force a section of the grid into a condition that will guarantee the DG systems will disconnect. This is similar to the transfer-trip method, but uses active systems at the head-end of the utility, as opposed to relying on the topology of the network.
A simple example is a large bank of capacitors that are added to a branch, left charged up and normally disconnected by a switch. In the event of a failure, the capacitors are switched into the branch by the utility after a short delay. This can be easily accomplished through automatic means at the point of distribution. The capacitors can only supply current for a brief period, ensuring that the start or end of the pulse they deliver will cause enough of a change to trip the inverters.
There appears to be no NDZ for this method of anti-islanding. Its main disadvantage is cost; the capacitor bank has to be large enough to cause changes in voltage that will be detected, and this is a function of the amount of load on the branch. In theory, very large banks would be needed, an expense the utility is unlikely to look on favourably.
SCADA
Anti-islanding protection can be improved through the use of the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems already widely used in the utility market. For instance, an alarm could sound if the SCADA system detects voltage on a line where a failure is known to be in progress. This does not affect the anti-islanding systems, but may allow any of the systems noted above to be quickly implemented.
References
Bibliography
Ward Bower and Michael Ropp, "Evaluation of Islanding Detection Methods for Utility-Interactive Inverters in Photovoltaic Systems", Sandia National Laboratories, November 2002
Bas Verhoeven, "Probability of Islanding in Utility Network due to Grid Connected Photovoltaic Power Systems", KEMA, 1999
H. Karimi, A. Yazdani, and R. Iravani, Negative-Sequence Current Injection for Fast Islanding Detection of a
Distributed Resource Unit, IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics, VOL. 23, NO. 1, JANUARY 2008.
Standards
IEEE 1547 Standards, IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems
UL 1741 Table of Contents, UL 1741: Standard for Inverters, Converters, Controllers and Interconnection System Equipment for Use With Distributed Energy Resources
Further reading
"First-Ever Islanding Application of an Energy Storage System"
External links
Distributed Energy Resources
Sandia National Laboratories
Electric power distribution
Electric power
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The black rhinoceros or hook-lipped rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) is a species of rhinoceros, native to eastern and southern Africa including Angola, Botswana, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Eswatini, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Although the rhinoceros is referred to as black, its colours vary from brown to grey.
The other African rhinoceros is the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum). The word "white" in the name "white rhinoceros" is often said to be a misinterpretation of the Afrikaans word (Dutch ) meaning wide, referring to its square upper lip, as opposed to the pointed or hooked lip of the black rhinoceros. These species are now sometimes referred to as the square-lipped (for white) or hook-lipped (for black) rhinoceros.
The species overall is classified as critically endangered (even though the south-western black rhinoceros is classified as near threatened). Three subspecies have been declared extinct, including the western black rhinoceros, which was declared extinct by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 2011.
Taxonomy
The species was first named Rhinoceros bicornis by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema naturae in 1758. The name means "double-horned rhinoceros". There is some confusion about what exactly Linnaeus conceived under this name as this species was probably based upon the skull of a single-horned Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), with a second horn artificially added by the collector. Such a skull is known to have existed and Linnaeus even mentioned India as origin of this species. However he also referred to reports from early travellers about a double-horned rhino in Africa and when it emerged that there is only one, single-horned species of rhino in India, Rhinoceros" bicornis was used to refer to the African rhinos (the white rhino only became recognised in 1812). In 1911 this was formally fixed and the Cape of Good Hope officially declared the type locality of the species.
Subspecies
The intraspecific variation in the black rhinoceros has been discussed by various authors and is not finally settled. The most accepted scheme considers seven or eight subspecies, of which three became extinct in historical times and one is on the brink of extinction:
Southern black rhinoceros or Cape black rhinoceros (D. b. bicornis) – Extinct. Once abundant from the Cape of Good Hope to Transvaal, South Africa and probably into the south of Namibia, this was the largest subspecies. It became extinct due to excessive hunting and habitat destruction around 1850.
North-eastern black rhinoceros (D. b. brucii) – Extinct. Formerly central Sudan, Eritrea, northern and southeastern Ethiopia, Djibouti and northern and southeastern Somalia. Primal populations in northern Somalia vanished during the early 20th century.
Chobe black rhinoceros (D. b. chobiensis) – A local subspecies restricted to the Chobe Valley in southeastern Angola, Namibia (Zambezi Region) and northern Botswana. Nearly extinct, possibly only one surviving specimen in Botswana.
Uganda black rhinoceros (D. b. ladoensis) – Former distribution from South Sudan, across Uganda into western Kenya and southwesternmost Ethiopia. Black rhinos are considered extinct across most of this area and its conservational status is unclear. Probably surviving in Kenyan reserves.
Western black rhinoceros (D. b. longipes) – Extinct. Once lived in South Sudan, northern Central African Republic, southern Chad, northern Cameroon, northeastern Nigeria and south-eastern Niger. The range possibly stretched west to the Niger River in western Niger, though this is unconfirmed. The evidence from Liberia and Burkina Faso mainly rests upon the existence of indigenous names for the rhinoceros. A far greater former range in West Africa as proposed earlier is doubted by a 2004 study. The last known wild specimens lived in northern Cameroon. In 2006 an intensive survey across its putative range in Cameroon failed to locate any, leading to fears that it was extinct in the wild. On 10 November 2011 the IUCN declared the western black rhinoceros extinct.
Eastern black rhinoceros (D. b. michaeli) – Had a historical distribution from South Sudan, Uganda, Ethiopia, down through Kenya into north-central Tanzania. Today, its range is limited primarily to Kenya and Tanzania.
South-central black rhinoceros (D. b. minor) – Most widely distributed subspecies, characterised by a compact body, proportionally large head and prominent skin-folds. Ranged from north-eastern South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal) to northeastern Tanzania and southeastern Kenya. Preserved in reserves throughout most of its former range but probably extinct in eastern Angola, southern Democratic Republic of Congo and possibly Mozambique. Extinct but reintroduced in Malawi, Botswana, and Zambia. It also ranges in parts of Namibia and inhabit national parks in South Africa.
South-western black rhinoceros (D. b. occidentalis) – A small subspecies, adapted to survival in desert and semi-desert conditions. Originally distributed in north-western Namibia and southwestern Angola, today restricted to wildlife reserves in Namibia with sporadic sightings in Angola. These populations are often erroneously referred to D. b. bicornis or D. b. minor but represent a subspecies in their own right.
The most widely adopted alternative scheme only recognizes five subspecies or "eco-types": D. b. bicornis, D. b. brucii, D. b. longipes, D. b. michaeli, and D. b. minor. This concept is also used by the IUCN, listing three surviving subspecies and recognizing D. b. brucii and D. b. longipes as extinct. The most important difference to the above scheme is the inclusion of the extant southwestern subspecies from Namibia in D. b. bicornis instead of in its own subspecies, whereupon the nominal subspecies is considered extant.
Evolution
The rhinoceros originated in the Eocene about fifty million years ago alongside other members of Perissodactyla. Ancestors of the black and the white rhinoceros were present in Africa by the end of the Late Miocene about ten million years ago. The two species evolved from the common ancestral species Ceratotherium neumayri during this time. The clade comprising the genus Diceros is characterised by an increased adaptation to browsing. Between four and five million years ago, the black rhinoceros diverged from the white rhinoceros. After this split, the direct ancestor of Diceros bicornis, Diceros praecox was present in the Pliocene of East Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania). D. bicornis evolved from this species during the Late Pliocene – Early Pleistocene, with the oldest definitive record at the Pliocene–Pleistocene boundary c. 2.5 million years ago at Koobi Fora, Kenya.
Description
An adult black rhinoceros stands high at the shoulder and is in length. An adult typically weighs from , however unusually large male specimens have been reported at up to . The cows are smaller than the bulls. Two horns on the skull are made of keratin with the larger front horn typically long, exceptionally up to .
The longest known black rhinoceros horn measured nearly in length. Sometimes a third, smaller horn may develop. These horns are used for defense, intimidation, and digging up roots and breaking branches during feeding. The black rhino is smaller than the white rhino and close in size to the Javan rhino of Indonesia. It has a pointed and prehensile upper lip, which it uses to grasp leaves and twigs when feeding, whereas the white rhinoceros has square lips used for eating grass. The black rhinoceros can also be distinguished from the white rhinoceros by its size, smaller skull, and ears; and by the position of the head, which is held higher than the white rhinoceros, since the black rhinoceros is a browser and not a grazer.
Their thick-layered skin helps to protect black rhinos from thorns and sharp grasses. Their skin harbors external parasites, such as mites and ticks, which may be eaten by oxpeckers and egrets. Such behaviour was originally thought to be an example of mutualism, but recent evidence suggests that oxpeckers may be parasites instead, feeding on rhino blood. It is commonly assumed that black rhinos have poor eyesight, relying more on hearing and smell. However, studies have shown that their eyesight is comparatively good, at about the level of a rabbit. Their ears have a relatively wide rotational range to detect sounds. An excellent sense of smell alerts rhinos to the presence of predators.
Distribution
Prehistorical range
As with many other components of the African large mammal fauna, black rhinos probably had a wider range in the northern part of the continent in prehistoric times than today. However this seems to have not been as extensive as that of the white rhino. Unquestionable fossil remains have not yet been found in this area and the abundant petroglyphs found across the Sahara desert are often too schematic to unambiguously decide whether they depict black or white rhinos. Petroglyphs from the Eastern Desert of southeastern Egypt relatively convincingly show the occurrence of black rhinos in these areas in prehistoric times.
Historical and extant range
The natural range of the black rhino included most of southern and eastern Africa, but it did not occur in the Congo Basin, the tropical rainforest areas along the Bight of Benin, the Ethiopian Highlands, and the Horn of Africa. Its former native occurrence in the extremely dry parts of the Kalahari desert of southwestern Botswana and northwestern South Africa is uncertain. In western Africa it was abundant in an area stretching east to west from Eritrea and Sudan through South Sudan to southeastern Niger, and especially around Lake Chad. Its occurrence further to the west is questionable, though often purported to in literature.
Today it is totally restricted to protected nature reserves and has vanished from many countries in which it once thrived, especially in the west and north of its former range. The remaining populations are highly scattered. Some specimens have been relocated from their habitat to better protected locations, sometimes across national frontiers. The black rhino has been successfully reintroduced to Malawi since 1993, where it became extinct in 1990. Similarly it was reintroduced to Zambia (North Luangwa National Park) in 2008, where it had become extinct in 1998, and to Botswana (extinct in 1992, reintroduced in 2003).
In May 2017, 18 eastern black rhinos were translocated from South Africa to the Akagera National Park in Rwanda. The park had around 50 rhinos in the 1970s but the numbers dwindled to zero by 2007. In September 2017, the birth of a calf raised the population to 19. The park has dedicated rhino monitoring teams to protect the animals from poaching.
In October 2017, The governments of Chad and South Africa reached an agreement to transfer six black rhinos from South Africa to Zakouma National Park in Chad. Once established, this will be the northernmost population of the species. The species was wiped out from Chad in the 1970s and is under severe pressure from poaching in South Africa. The agreement calls for South African experts to assess the habitat, local management capabilities, security and the infrastructure before the transfer can take place.
Behavior
Black rhinos are generally thought to be solitary, with the only strong bond between a mother and her calf. In addition, bulls and cows have a consort relationship during mating, also subadults and young adults frequently form loose associations with older individuals of either sex. They are not very territorial and often intersect other rhino territories. Home ranges vary depending on season and the availability of food and water. Generally they have smaller home ranges and larger density in habitats that have plenty of food and water available, and vice versa if resources are not readily available. Sex and age of an individual black rhino influence home range and size, with ranges of cows larger than those of bulls, especially when accompanied by a calf. In the Serengeti home ranges are around , while in the Ngorongoro it is between . Black rhinos have also been observed to have a certain area they tend to visit and rest frequently called "houses" which are usually on a high ground level. These "home" ranges can vary from 2.6 km2 to 133 km2 with smaller home ranges having more abundant resources than larger home ranges.
Black rhinos in captivity and reservations sleep patterns have been recently studied to show that males sleep longer on average than females by nearly double the time. Other factors that play a role in their sleeping patterns is the location of where they decide to sleep. Although they do not sleep any longer in captivity, they do sleep at different times due to their location in captivity, or section of the park.
Black rhinos have a reputation for being extremely aggressive, and charge readily at perceived threats. They have even been observed to charge tree trunks and termite mounds. Black rhinos will fight each other, and they have the highest rates of mortal combat recorded for any mammal: about 50% of males and 30% of females die from combat-related injuries. Adult rhinos normally have no natural predators, thanks to their imposing size as well as their thick skin and deadly horns. However, adult black rhinos have fallen prey to crocodiles in exceptional circumstances. Calves and, very seldom, small sub-adults may be preyed upon by lions as well.
Black rhinos follow the same trails that elephants use to get from foraging areas to water holes. They also use smaller trails when they are browsing. They are very fast and can get up to speeds of running on their toes.
While it was assumed all rhinoceros are short-sighted, a study involving black rhinoceros retinas suggests they have better eyesight than previously assumed.
Diet
Black rhinos are herbivorous browsers that eat leafy plants, branches, shoots, thorny wood bushes, and fruit. The optimum habitat seems to be one consisting of thick scrub and bushland, often with some woodland, which supports the highest densities. Their diet can reduce the amount of woody plants, which may benefit grazers (who focus on leaves and stems of grass), but not competing browsers (who focus on leaves, stems of trees, shrubs or herbs). It has been known to eat up to 220 species of plants. They have a significantly restricted diet with a preference for a few key plant species and a tendency to select leafy species in the dry season. The plant species they seem to be most attracted to when not in dry season are the woody plants. There are 18 species of woody plants known to the diet of the black rhinoceros, and 11 species that could possibly be a part of their diet too. Black rhinos also have a tendency to choose food based on quality over quantity, where researchers find more populations in areas where the food has better quality. In accordance with their feeding habit, adaptations of the chewing apparatus have been described for rhinos. The black rhinoceros has a twophased chewing activity with a cutting ectoloph and more grinding lophs on the lingual side. The black rhinoceros can also be considered a more challenging herbivore to feed in captivity compared to its grazing relatives. They can live up to 5 days without water during drought. Black rhinos live in several habitats including bushlands, Riverine woodland, marshes, and their least favorable, grasslands. Habitat preferences are shown in two ways, the amount of sign found in the different habitats, and the habitat content of home ranges and core areas. Habitat types are also identified based on the composition of dominant plant types in each area. Different subspecies live in different habitats including Vachellia and Senegalia savanna, Euclea bushlands, Albany thickets, and even desert.
They browse for food in the morning and evening. They are selective browsers but, studies done in Kenya show that they do add the selection material with availability in order to satisfy their nutritional requirements. In the hottest part of the day they are most inactive- resting, sleeping, and wallowing in mud. Wallowing helps cool down body temperature during the day and protects against parasites. When black rhinos browse they use their lips to strip the branches of their leaves. Competition with elephants is causing the black rhinoceros to shift its diet. The black rhinoceros alters its selectivity with the absence of the elephant.
There is some variance in the exact chemical composition of rhinoceros horns. This variation is directly linked to diet and can be used as a means of rhino identification. Horn composition has helped scientists pinpoint the original location of individual rhinos, allowing for law enforcement to more accurately and more frequently identify and penalize poachers.
Communication
Black rhinos use several forms of communication. Due to their solitary nature, scent marking is often used to identify themselves to other black rhinos. Urine spraying occurs on trees and bushes, around water holes and feeding areas. Cows urine spray more often when receptive for breeding. Defecation sometimes occurs in the same spot used by different black rhinos, such as around feeding stations and watering tracks. Coming upon these spots, rhinos will smell to see who is in the area and add their own marking. When presented with adult feces, bulls and cows respond differently than when they are presented with subadult feces. The urine and feces of one black rhinoceros helps other black rhinoceroses to determine its age, sex, and identity. Less commonly they will rub their heads or horns against tree trunks to scent-mark.
The black rhino has powerful tube-shaped ears that can freely rotate in all directions. This highly developed sense of hearing allows black rhinos to detect sound over vast distances.
Reproduction
The adults are solitary in nature, coming together only for mating. Mating does not have a seasonal pattern but births tend to be towards the end of the rainy season in more arid environments.
When in season the cows will mark dung piles. Bulls will follow cows when they are in season; when she defecates he will scrape and spread the dung, making it more difficult for rival adult bulls to pick up her scent trail.
Courtship behaviors before mating include snorting and sparring with the horns among males. Another courtship behavior is called bluff and bluster, where the black rhino will snort and swing its head from side to side aggressively before running away repeatedly. Breeding pairs stay together for 2–3 days and sometimes even weeks. They mate several times a day over this time and copulation lasts for a half-hour.
The gestation period for a black rhino is 15 months. The single calf weighs about at birth, and can follow its mother around after just three days. Weaning occurs at around 2 years of age for the offspring. The mother and calf stay together for 2–3 years until the next calf is born; female calves may stay longer, forming small groups. The young are occasionally taken by hyenas and lions. Sexual maturity is reached from 5 to 7 years old for females, and 7 to 8 years for males. The life expectancy in natural conditions (without poaching pressure) is from 35 to 50 years.
Conservation
For most of the 20th century the continental black rhino was the most numerous of all rhino species. Around 1900 there were probably several hundred thousand living in Africa. During the latter half of the 20th century their numbers were severely reduced from an estimated 70,000 in the late 1960s to only 10,000 to 15,000 in 1981. In the early 1990s the number dipped below 2,500, and in 2004 it was reported that only 2,410 black rhinos remained. According to the International Rhino Foundation—housed in Yulee, Florida at White Oak Conservation, which breeds black rhinos—the total African population had recovered to 4,240 by 2008 (which suggests that the 2004 number was low). By 2019 the population of 5,500 was either steady or slowly increasing.
In 1992, nine black rhinos were brought from Chete National Park, Zimbabwe to Australia via Cocos Island. After the natural deaths of the males in the group, four males were brought in from United States and have since adapted well to captivity and new climate. Calves and some subadults are preyed on by lions, but predation is rarely taken into account in managing the black rhinoceros. This is a major flaw because predation should be considered when attributing cause to the poor performance of the black rhinoceros population. In 2002 only ten western black rhinos remained in Cameroon, and in 2006 intensive surveys across its putative range failed to locate any, leading to fears that this subspecies had become extinct. In 2011 the IUCN declared the western black rhino extinct. There was a conservation effort in which black rhinos were translocated, but their population did not improve, as they did not like to be in an unfamiliar habitat.
Under CITES Appendix I all international commercial trade of the black rhino horn is prohibited since 1977. China though having joined CITES since 8 April 1981 is the largest importer of black rhino horns. However, this is a trade in which not only do the actors benefit, but so do the nation states ignoring them as well. Nevertheless, people continue to remove the rhino from its natural environment and allow for a dependence on human beings to save them from endangerment. Parks and reserves have been made for protecting the rhinos with armed guards keeping watch, but even still many poachers get through and harm the rhinos for their horns. Many have considered extracting rhino horns in order to deter poachers from slaughtering these animals or potentially bringing them to other breeding grounds such as the US and Australia. This method of extracting the horn, known as dehorning, consists of tranquilizing the rhino then sawing the horn almost completely off to decrease initiative for poaching, although the effectiveness of this in reducing poaching is not known and rhino mothers are known to use their horns to fend off predators.
The only rhino subspecies that has recovered somewhat from the brink of extinction is the southern white rhinoceros, whose numbers now are estimated around 14,500, up from fewer than 50 in the first decade of the 20th century.
But there seems to be hope for the black rhinoceros in recovering their gametes from dead rhinos in captivity. This shows promising results for producing black rhinoceros embryos, which can be used for testing sperm in vitro.
A January 2014 auction for a permit to hunt a black rhinoceros in Namibia sold for $350,000 at a fundraiser hosted by the Dallas Safari Club. The auction drew considerable criticism as well as death threats directed towards members of the club and the man who purchased the permit. This permit was issued for 1 of 18 black rhinoceros specifically identified by Namibia's Ministry of Environment and Tourism as being past breeding age and considered a threat to younger rhinos. The $350,000 that the hunter paid for the permit was used by the Namibian government to fund anti-poaching efforts in the country.
In 2022 South Africa granted permits to hunt 10 black rhinos stating population is growing.
Threats
Today, there are various threats posed to black rhinos including habitat changes, illegal poaching, and competing species. Civil disturbances, such as war, have made mentionably negative effects on the black rhinoceros populations in since the 1960s in countries including, but not limited to, Chad, Cameroon, Rwanda, Mozambique, and Somalia. In the Addo Elephant National Park in South Africa, the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana) is posing slight concern involving the black rhinoceroses who also inhabit the area. Both animals are browsers; however, the elephant's diet consists of a wider variety of foraging capacity, while the black rhinoceros primarily sticks to dwarf shrubs. The black rhinoceros has been found to eat grass as well; however, the shortening of its range of available food could be potentially problematic.
Black rhinos face problems associated with the minerals they ingest. They have become adjusted to ingesting less iron in the wild due to their evolutionary progression, which poses a problem when placed in captivity. These rhinoceroses can overload on iron, which leads to build up in the lungs, liver, spleen and small intestine.
Not only do these rhinoceros face threats being in the wild, but in captivity too. Black rhinoceros have become more susceptible to disease in captivity with high rates of mortality.
Illegal poaching for the international rhino horn trade is the main and most detrimental threat. The killing of these animals is not unique to modern-day society. The Chinese have maintained reliable documents of these happenings dating back to 1200 B.C. The ancient Chinese often hunted rhino horn for the making of wine cups, as well as the rhino's skin to manufacture imperial crowns, belts and armor for soldiers. A major market for rhino horn has historically been in the Middle East nations to make ornately carved handles for ceremonial daggers called jambiyas. Demand for these exploded in the 1970s, causing the black rhinoceros population to decline 96% between 1970 and 1992. The horn is also used in traditional Chinese medicine, and is said by herbalists to be able to revive comatose patients, facilitate exorcisms and various methods of detoxification, cure fevers, and aid male sexual stamina and fertility. It is also hunted for the Chinese superstitious belief that the horns allow direct access to Heaven due to their unique location and hollow nature. The purported effectiveness of the use of rhino horn in treating any illness has not been confirmed, or even suggested, by medical science. In June 2007, the first-ever documented case of the medicinal sale of black rhino horn in the United States (confirmed by genetic testing of the confiscated horn) occurred at a traditional Chinese medicine supply store in Portland, Oregon's Chinatown.
References
Further reading
External links
Black Rhino Info & Black Rhino Pictures on the Rhino Resource Center website.
WildLifeNow Website for the Tony Fitzjohn/George Adamson African Wildlife Preservation Trust, supporting the Mkomazi Game Reserve and Mkomazi Rhino Sanctuary in Tanzania
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Species Profile
Sebakwe Black Rhino Trust dedicated to black rhino conservation in Zimbabwe
A Radiolab interview with the man that won the auction to hunt a black rhino
black rhinoceros
EDGE species
Fauna of East Africa
Mammals of Southern Africa
Mammals of Sub-Saharan Africa
Critically endangered fauna of Africa
black rhinoceros
black rhinoceros
Species endangered by use in wearables
Species endangered by human consumption for medicinal or magical purposes
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The 10th Battalion, Middlesex Regiment, was an infantry unit of Britain's Territorial Force from 1908 to 1920. Based in Ravenscourt Park, West London, its part-time soldiers saw service at Gallipoli, in Palestine, and on the Western Front during World War I. After the war the battalion was amalgamated into a unit of the new Royal Corps of Signals.
Origin
When the former Volunteer Force was subsumed into the new Territorial Force (TF) under the Haldane Reforms in 1908, the 2nd (South) Middlesex Volunteer Rifle Corps and the 4th Middlesex Volunteer Rifle Corps (The Kensington Rifles) were reorganised to form the 13th (Kensington) Battalion in the new London Regiment. This amalgamation, with its loss of traditions of their old unit, was not popular with the 2nd (South) Middlesex, and about 300 officers and men left to form the nucleus of the 10th Battalion, Duke of Cambridge's Own (Middlesex Regiment). This was considered a new unit, and was not allowed to retain the battle honour that detachments of the 2nd (South) Middlesex had won for service in the Second Boer War. However, the 2nd Middlesex's Honorary Colonel, Lord Wolverton, and Regular Army adjutant, Captain J.F.C. Fuller, continued in their positions with the 10th Middlesex and helped to set up the new unit. (Fuller later became a noted military writer and theoretician, and claimed that his post with the 10th Middlesex inspired him to study soldiering seriously.)
The new battalion established its headquarters (HQ) with C–H Companies at Stamford Brook Lodge, Ravenscourt Park; A Company was based at St John's College, Battersea, and B Company at St Mark's College, Chelsea, in King's Road. The St Pauls School Cadet Corps transferred its affiliation from the 2nd (South) Middlesex to the new unit. Together with the 7th, 8th and 9th Bns, the 10th Battalion formed the Middlesex Brigade of the TF's Home Counties Division.
World War I
Mobilisation
When mobilisation orders arrived on 4 August 1914 about half of 10th Battalion were with the Home Counties Division at its annual training, marching from Aldershot to Salisbury Plain. The Middlesex Brigade was at Larkhill, and 10th Battalion had to lay out in the rain outside Amesbury station before it could entrain at 05.30 on 5 August. It then returned to Ravenscourt Park and together with the men who could not attend camp it mobilised under Lieutenant-Colonel C.R. Johnson, TD, who had been its Commanding Officer (CO) since 27 July 1912. The battalion moved to its war station at Sheerness the same day, leaving an officer to enlist the 300 or so men required to bring the battalion up to its war establishment. This was quickly accomplished from the flood of volunteers coming forwards.
On 10 August, units of the Territorial Force were invited to volunteer for overseas service, and on 31 August, the formation of a reserve or 2nd Line unit was authorised for each 1st Line unit where 60 per cent or more of the men had volunteered. The titles of these 2nd Line units would be the same as the original, but distinguished by a '2/' prefix. The Home Service-only and under-age men, together with the recruits who were coming forward, remained at the depot to form the 2/10th Bn, which came into existence on 12 September under the command of Lt-Col Johnson and was almost at full strength by the end of October. Subsequently, 3/10th and 4/10th Battalions were formed.
1/10th Battalion
Two 1st Line TF battalions of the Middlesex Regiment left in early September 1914 to relieve Regular battalions in the Gibraltar garrison, then in October the rest of the Home Counties Division was ordered to India to relieve Regular troops there. The 1/10th Middlesex embarked at Southampton on 29 October in the transport Royal George, and disembarked at Bombay on 2 December. On arrival, the Home Counties Division was split up and the battalions were distributed to stations all over India. By May 1915, the 1/10th Bn was at Fort William (Calcutta), with 'hill parties' (convalescents and leave men) at Darjeeling. For the next four years the 1/10th Bn acted as a peacetime garrison, while suffering a steady drain of its best men to officer training and other duties. For example, on 5 November 1917 the battalion supplied a draft of 100 men to the 1/9th Middlesex to bring that battalion up to full strength to take part in the Mesopotamian campaign.
2/10th Battalion
The 2/10th Battalion joined the 2nd Middlesex Brigade, which was close to full strength by 22 October 1914, and the 2nd Home Counties Division began to form in the Windsor area soon afterwards. Training was hampered by lack of modern arms and equipment: only a few old .256-in Japanese Ariska rifles were available for the infantry. However, in this half-trained and -equipped state, the 2/10th Middlesex was sent on 24 April 1915to join the Welsh Border Brigade in the Welsh Division, which was preparing to go overseas. The Welsh Border Brigade had sent its 1st Line battalions to reinforce Regular divisions on the Western Front and was being reconstituted at Cambridge with 2nd Line Home Counties battalions; soon afterwards it was renumbered 160th Brigade when the division became the 53rd (Welsh) Division.
In May the division moved to Bedford to continue its training, and on 2 July was reported fit for service in the Mediterranean. The battalion entrained for Devonport Dockyard on 17 July and embarked on HM Transport Huntsgreen (formerly the German Norddeutscher Lloyd shipping line's Derfflinger). It disembarked in Alexandria on 1 August and moved to Port Said.
Gallipoli
The 53rd (W) Division was destined as reinforcements for the Gallipoli Campaign. After sailing to Lemnos and then Imbros, the battalion landed on C Beach at Suvla Bay at about midnight on 8 August under the command of Lt-Col C.H. Pank. It began beach fatigues under shellfire before moving to the western slopes of Lala Baba at nightfall on 9 August. The landing had been chaotic, but 53rd (W) Division was ordered to attack the W Hills the following day to recover the position. The first phase of the attack, on Scimitar Hill, was to be carried out by 159th (Cheshire) Brigade, after which 158th (North Wales) Bde reinforced by 2/10th Middlesex from 160th Bde would pass through to attack the Anafarta Spur. 2/10th Middlesex set off at dawn across a salt lake to join the firing line at Chocolate Hill, with no cover and under heavy shelling, machine gun and rifle fire, and from Chocolate Hill the firing line was unable to advance to Scimitar Hill. A second attack was ordered for 16.30, but the only troops to advance were two companies of the 2/10th, who went forward about before discovering that they were unsupported and fell back, having lost further casualties.
The companies were gathered during the night and the battalion was moved a few hundred yards to its left, where it dug in until relieved on 13 August. It then returned to the beach and fatigue duties until the end of the month, under continual shellfire during daylight hours. From then on the battalion endured spells in the front line alternating with digging positions in the rear. By the end of October it was reduced by battle casualties and sickness to about half of its pre-landing strength. In November the 2/10th Middlesex was reinforced by four officers and 200 men from the 9th Bn Sherwood Foresters in 11th (Northern) Division. The battalion was evacuated to Lemnos aboard the El Kahirah on 13 December.
Palestine
From Lemnos the 53rd Division was shipped to Alexandria, and began a long period of rest and recuperation guarding the Nile Valley in Egypt. When the Turkish Army attacked the Suez Canal defences in August 1916, leading to the Battle of Romani, only part of 53rd Division was actually engaged, but the 2/10th Middlesex was present and so was later awarded the battle honour for Rumani.
The British opened the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in March 1917 when the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) advanced towards Gaza, with 53rd Division in the Desert Column. The 1st Battle of Gaza began at 03.30 on 26 March, when 160th Brigade started to cross Wadi Ghuzzee. Shortly afterwards, fog began to roll in from the sea, slowing the advance, but the attack began shortly after 11.45. By 13.30 the brigade had captured 'The Labyrinth', a maze of entrenched gardens, but 2/10th Middlesex's further advance was slowed up by four belts of barbed wire and at 15.30 it requested reinforcements and ammunition; two companies of 2/4th Queens (Royal West Surrey Regiment) arrived at 17.00. By 18.30 the whole position had been secured. But events had not gone so well elsewhere, and the brigade's advanced positions were still outflanked. At 19.00 the Middlesex's CO reported that unless reinforced, his position was untenable; nevertheless, he was ordered to consolidate. However 160th Bde was ordered to pull back at midnight, and by 04.30 on 27 March 2/10th Middlesex was back on its starting position behind Wadi Ghuzzee. The battalion's casualties amounted to four officers killed and five wounded, 14 other ranks (ORs) killed, 108 wounded and 22 missing.
A second attempt to take Gaza began on 17 April, and the 53rd Division attacked in the second phase on 19 April. The objective for 160th Brigade was Samson Ridge, and 2/10th Bn set out at 07.15 towards the right hand Redoubt on the ridge. The attack proceeded slowly, held up by machine gun fire, the top eventually being taken at the point of the bayonet. However, the attack elsewhere failed, and the troops dug in at the end of the day. The battalion had lost 2 officers killed and 7 wounded, 35 ORs killed or died of wounds, 6 missing and 132 wounded.
There followed a pause of several months while the EEF was reorganised. The 2/10th Bn's CO, Lt-Col V.L. Pearson, was promoted to command 160th Bde and was replaced by Major A.P. Hohler. The battalion participated in a number of raids, including the capture of Sugar Loaf Hill on 15 August. It was then withdrawn from the line for intensive training. On 24 October it returned to take up outpost positions before the 3rd Battle of Gaza opened on 31 October. This operation involved other formations outflanking the Gaza–Beersheba line, after which 2/10th Bn advanced its outposts on 1 and 2 November. 53rd Division was sent on 3 November to take the heights of Tel el Khuweilfe. 160th Brigade moved up a slight valley on the right, but found the enemy in strength, and holding the water supplies. The attack was renewed unsuccessfully the following day. The division kept up the pressure: on 6 November it fended off attack after attack on its advanced positions, quickly regaining them when pushed off; 2/10th Middlesex was in reserve for this action. Eventually the Turks were forced to evacuate the position after being outflanked elsewhere. 2/10th Battalion moved forwards to occupy the high ground during daylight on 13 and 14 November during the Action of El Mughar, for which it received the battle honour, though not actually engaged.
By early December the EEF was working round Jerusalem with 53rd (W) Division advancing towards Bethlehem as flank guard. 2/10th Middlesex and 2/4th Queen's were ordered to capture the hills at Beit Jala on 8 December and advanced under shellfire that was so accurate that the Middlesex had to pass one road junction by rushes by small parties. But the two battalions found the objective unoccupied. Jerusalem fell the following day. On 21 December, 160th Brigade carried out a minor operation at Ras ez Zamby near Jericho. At 05.00 2/4th Queens captured a Turkish post, and the Turks fell back to 'White Hill'. A company of 2/10th Middlesex, together with one of 2/4th Queen's, then took this position after fierce close fighting with bombs, bayonets, and clubbed rifles. On 27 December the Turks made a strong counter-attack towards Jerusalem; although 2/4th Queen's withdrew from White Hill, its machine guns prevented the Turks from holding it in force, and 2/10th Middlesex recaptured Ras ez Zamby. Meanwhile, a detached company of 2/10th Bn successfully held the Monastery at Deir Obeid for 12 hours against a separate Turkish attack, despite two Turkish field guns being brought up to breach the walls. Shortly afterwards the Turkish attackers were dispersed by British artillery, who also silenced another artillery attack the following day.
160th Brigade was rested for the first 10 days of January 1918, but after returning to the front east of Jerusalem it carried out a small operation to advance the line on 18 January, with two platoons of D Company, 2/10th Middlesex, assisting 2/4th Bn Royal West Kent Regiment. The EEF began a new operation on 19 February with Jericho as its objective. 2/10th Middlesex moved out at 22.00 the previous night to secure a crossing over the Wadi Asa. When the attack began at 05.30 on 19 February, C Company launched the battalion's attack towards the village of Rammun, but was held up by a group of Turks with a machine gun. Two platoons of D Company were sent up as reinforcements, and the village and high ground as taken by 08.45. The battalion then held it during the day under heavy shellfire. The following night was quiet: patrols found no sign of the enemy, and on 21February Jericho was occupied by the EEF. The 2/10th Bn then advanced its positions under cover of bad weather. It then spent the first part of March roadmaking while the EEF advanced methodically towards the River Jordan.
During the subsequent operations in the Judaean Hills, 53rd Division was ordered to capture Tell 'Asur. This led to further heavy fighting, with half of 2/10th Bn marching by night to drive off a Turkish counter-attack at 04.55 on 10 March. 160th Brigade forced its way steadily forward over broken ground on 11 March to reach the hills beyond. On 12 March C Company assisted 2/4th West Kents in an unsuccessful attempt to take an unreconnoitred position.
The EEF then prepared to cross the Jordan on 21 March. A platoon of 2/10th Middlesex with two machine guns was ordered to make a feint crossing at the Auja ford while 'Shea's Group' threw troops across at other points. While Shea's Group carried out its trans-Jordan raid, 2/10th Middlesex remained west of the river skirmishing against the Turkish cavalry screen on 29 and 30 March. Otherwise the battalion was engaged mainly in roadmaking. Further skirmishing occurred on 22 April, when the battalion pushed an outpost forwards to 'Round Hill', which overlooked the Jordan, on 2 May when C Company drive off an attack on 'Ide Hill', and on 22/23 May when A and B Companies carried out a night raid on 'Fife Knoll'.
The summer saw the battalion alternating between holding the line and being in reserve. Lieutenant-Col Hohler left to command 160th Bde and Maj C. Jarrett assumed command. By now the EEF was suffering a manpower shortage, and on 19 August 1918 the 2/10 Bn left 160th Bde and moved back to El Qantara, Egypt, where it was broken up to provide drafts for other units.
3/10th Battalion
The 3/10th Battalion was formed in May 1915 from details and surplus men from the 2/10th when that battalion was warned for overseas service. It was stationed at Ashford, then at Staines and Reigate, but real training began at Bulmer Camp, Brighton. By November 1915 it had joined 2nd Middlesex Bde (now numbered 201st (2/1st Middlesex) Brigade at Tonbridge. The 2nd Home Counties Division (now 67th (2nd Home Counties) Division) formed part of Second Army in Central Force. 67th (2nd HC) Division had the dual role of home defence and supplying drafts to units serving overseas. It was twice warned for service in Ireland and in April 1917 for service with the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) on the Western Front, but these deployments never materialised and the division spent the whole war in England. By September 1916 it was stationed with 201st Bde round Bourne Park and Barham in Kent.
Few 3rd Line TF battalions saw service overseas, but in May 1917 the 3/10th Middlesex left 67th (HC) Division and embarked at Southampton for France. Landing at Le Havre on 1 June it moved to Hesdin where it joined 1st South African Brigade in 9th (Scottish) Division on 6 June. At first it was employed in the old German front line providing digging and wiring parties for the Royal Engineers (RE) constructing new defences. The companies then took turns in the front line for instruction in trench warfare, suffering a few casualties. On 23 July the battalion was attached to 4th Division in the Arras sector, and formally transferred to its 10th Bde on 2 August. The battalion carried out a few fighting patrols during the summer months
Ypres
4th Division now entered the Third Ypres Offensive. After 10 days' training, the battalion moved into camp at Elverdinghe in the Ypres Salient on 29 September. That night the camp was bombed, 7 ORs being killed and 42 wounded. On 3/4 October it moved up to the front line near Langemarcke, from which it was the division was to launch its attack (part of the Battle of Broodseinde) on 4 October. 10th Brigade attacked at 06.00 from Eagle Trench, with 3/10th Middlesex supporting 2nd Bn Seaforth Highlanders. The Seaforths attacked over difficult, heavily shelled ground, behind a 'very ragged' barrage, crossed 19 Metre Hill and got about 80 yards down its forward slope. 3/10th Middlesex was about 150 yards behind, and dealt with a concrete pillbox on the left flank. By 09.30 the advance had stalled. Lying out on the open forward slope, the Seaforths and Middlesex were raked by machine gun fire. Unable to advance, the advanced companies had to withdraw in the face of German counter-attacks at 15.00. 3/10th Middlesex held its line of shell-holes, but despite holding the enemy was unable to obtain any support or ammunition. Finally at 03.15 on 5 October some ammunition arrived, enabling the remnants of the two battalions to maintain their position through the day and following night. At 00.15 on 6 October the battalion was relieved, and the survivors carried their wounded out of action. The battalion had suffered casualties of 12 officers and 365 ORs out of 30 officers and 492 ORs who had gone into action. 10th Brigade was not engaged in the subsequent attacks made by 4th Division, though 3/10th Middlesex provided some carrying parties for the RE and Machine Gun Corps during the Battle of Broodseinde and suffering further casualties.
After the terrible casualties of 1917, the BEF was forced to reduce the establishment of an infantry brigade from four to three battalions. On 20 February 1918 the bulk of 3/10th Bn was drafted to reinforce other battalions. The residue combined with those of the Household Battalion to form the 11th Entrenching Bn, which carried out labour duties until the men were required as reinforcement drafts.
4/10th Battalion
Like the 3/10th Bn, the 4/10 Middlesex was formed in May 1915 with the role of training drafts for the battalions serving overseas. It moved to Cambridge, and was later stationed at Purfleet in Essex. On 8 April 1916 it was redesignated 10th Reserve Bn, Middlesex Regiment, and in September was absorbed into the 7th Reserve Bn.
Disbandment
When the TF was reformed as the Territorial Army in 1920–21, 10th Bn Middlesex Regiment was merged with the Brighton-based former Home Counties Divisional Signal Company of the Royal Engineers to form 44th (Home Counties) Divisional Signals in the new Royal Corps of Signals. The new unit was based at the 10th Middlesex's drill hall at Stamford Brook Lodge, (though the original drill hall building may have been demolished in 1921) with a company at Brighton.
Honorary Colonel
Frederick, 4th Lord Wolverton, who had been Honorary Colonel of the 2nd (South Middlesex) VRC since 29 August 1903, continued in that role with the 10th Bn Middlesex Regiment.
Battle honours
The 10th Battalion contributed the following Battle honours to the Middlesex Regiment:
2/10th Battalion: Suvla, Landing at Suvla, Scimitar Hill, Gallipoli 1915, Rumani, Egypt 1917, Gaza, El Mughar, Jerusalem, Jericho, Jordan, Tell’ Asur, Palestine 1917-1918
3/10th Battalion: Ypres 1917, Polygon Wood, France and Flanders 1917-1918
Memorials
There are World War I memorial plaques to the 1/10th, 2/10th and 3/10th Battalions inside St Nicholas Church, Chiswick, where the Regimental Colours of the 10th Bn (1910–21) and the King's colours presented to 2/10th and 3/10th Bns after World War I are displayed. The metal plaque to the 1/10th Bn (North Wall) lists 58 members of the battalion who died on service (though it is not clear how many of these were seconded to other units). There are two plaques to the 2/10th Bn (South Wall): one is of stone, the other accompanying the battalion roll of honour is of wood and incorporates a small cross carved in 1917 by the soldiers from wood found on the Mount of Olives; this cross was used by their Chaplain for the rest of the war. The plaque to the 3/10th Bn (South Wall) is made of brass.
There is also a World War I memorial plaque to the 10th Bn in the Army Reserve Centre, Deansbrook Road, Edgware.
Footnotes
Notes
References
Brig C.F. Aspinall-Oglander, History of the Great War: Military Operations Gallipoli, Vol II, May 1915 to the Evacuation, London: Heinemann, 1932/Imperial War Museum & Battery Press, 1992, .
Sgt O.F. Bailey and Sgt H.M. Hollier, "The Kensingtons" 13th London Regiment, London: Regimental Old Comrades' Association, 1935/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2002, .
Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 1: The Regular British Divisions, London: HM Stationery Office, 1934/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .
Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 2a: The Territorial Force Mounted Divisions and the 1st-Line Territorial Force Divisions (42–56), London: HM Stationery Office, 1935/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .
Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 2b: The 2nd-Line Territorial Force Divisions (57th–69th), with the Home-Service Divisions (71st–73rd) and 74th and 75th Divisions, London: HM Stationery Office, 1937/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .
Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 3a: New Army Divisions (9–26), London: HM Stationery Office, 1938/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .
Ian F.W. Beckett, Riflemen Form: A Study of the Rifle Volunteer Movement 1859–1908, Aldershot: Ogilby Trusts, 1982, .
David L. Bullock, Allenby's War: The Palestine-Arabian Campaigns 1916–1918, London: Blandford Press, 1988, .
Maj C.H. Dudley Ward, History of the 53rd (Welsh) Division (T.F.) 1914–1918, Cardiff: Western Mail, 1927/Uckfield: Naval & Military, 2004, .
Col John K. Dunlop, The Development of the British Army 1899–1914, London: Methuen, 1938.
Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1917, Vol II, Messines and Third Ypres (Passchendaele), London: HM Stationery Office, 1948/Uckfield: Imperial War Museum and Naval and Military Press, 2009, .
Capt Cyril Falls, History of the Great War: Military Operations, Egypt and Palestine, Vol II, From June 1917 to the End of the War, London: HM Stationery Office, 1930/Imperial War Museum and Naval & Military Press, 2013, .
Maj-Gen J.F.C. Fuller, Memoirs of an Unconventional Soldier, 1936.
Cliff Lord & Graham Watson, Royal Corps of Signals: Unit Histories of the Corps (1920–2001) and its Antecedents, Solihull: Helion, 2003, .
Lt-Gen Sir George MacMunn & Capt Cyril Falls, History of the Great War: Military Operations, Egypt and Palestine, Vol I, From the Outbreak of War with Germany to June 1917, London: HM Stationery Office, 1928/Imperial War Museum and Battery Press, 1992, .
Maj-Gen R.F.H. Nalder, The Royal Corps of Signals: A History of its Antecedents and Developments (Circa 1800–1955), London: Royal Signals Institution, 1958.
John North, Gallipoli: The Fading Vision, London: Faber & Faber, 1936.
Edward M. Spiers, The Army and Society 1815–1914, London: Longmans, 1980, .
Ray Westlake, Tracing the Rifle Volunteers, Barnsley: Pen and Sword, 2010, .
Ray Westlake, British Regiments at Gallipoli, Barnsley: Leo Cooper, 1996, .
Everard Wyrall, The Die-Hards in the Great War: A History of the Duke of Cambridge's Own (Middlesex Regiment), 2 Vols, London: Harrison, 1926 and 1929.
External sources
Imperial War Museum, War Memorials Register
The Long, Long Trail
Land Forces of Britain, the Empire and Commonwealth – Regiments.org (archive site)
Stepping Forward: A Tribute to the Volunteer Military Reservists and Supporting Auxiliaries of Greater London
Middlesex Regiment
Military units and formations in London
Military units and formations in Middlesex
Military units and formations established in 1908
Military units and formations disestablished in 1920
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The United Kingdom, being in the British Isles, is ideal for tree growth, thanks to its mild winters, plentiful rainfall, fertile soil and hill-sheltered topography. Growth rates for broadleaved (hardwood) trees exceed those of mainland Europe, while conifer (softwood) growth rates are three times those of Sweden and five times those of Finland. In the absence of people, much of Great Britain would be covered with mature oaks, except for Scotland. Although conditions for forestry are good, trees do face damage threats arising from fungi, parasites and pests. The development of afforestation and the production and supply of timber in Wales come under Natural Resources Wales, as set out in the Forestry Act 1967.
Nowadays, about 13% of Britain's land surface is wooded. The country's supply of timber was severely depleted during the First and Second World Wars, when imports were difficult, and the forested area bottomed out at under 5% of Britain's land surface in 1919. That year, the Forestry Commission was established to produce a strategic reserve of timber. Other European countries average from 25% to 72% (Finland) of their area as woodland.
Of the of forest in Britain, around 30% is publicly owned and 70% is in the private sector. More than 40,000 people work on this land. Conifers account for around one half (51%) of the UK woodland area, although this proportion varies from around one quarter (26%) in England to around three quarters (74%) in Scotland. Britain's native tree flora comprises 32 species, of which 29 are broadleaves. Britain's industry and populace uses at least 50 million tonnes of timber a year. More than 75% of this is softwood, and Britain's forests cannot supply the demand; in fact, less than 10% of the timber used in Britain is home-grown. Paper and paper products make up more than half the wood consumed in Britain by volume.
In October 2010, the new coalition government of the UK suggested it might sell off around half the Forestry Commission-owned woodland in the UK. A wide variety of groups were vocal about their disapproval, and by February 2011, the government abandoned the idea. Instead, it set up the Independent Panel on Forestry led by Rt Rev James Jones, then the Bishop of Liverpool. This body published its report in July 2012. Among other suggestions, it recommended that the forested portion of England should rise to 15% of the country's land area by 2060. As of 2021, government plans call for 30,000 hectares of afforestation per annum. Efforts to reach these targets have attracted criticism for planting non-native trees, or trees that are out of place for their surroundings, leading to ecological changes.
Background
Throughout most of British history, people have most commonly created farmland at the expense of forest. Furthermore, variations in the Holocene climate have led to significant changes in the ranges of many species. This makes it complex to estimate the likely extent of natural forest cover. For example, in Scotland four main areas have been identified: oak dominated forest south of the Highland Line, Scots Pine in the Central Highlands, hazel/oak or pine/birch/oak assemblages in the north-east and south-west Highlands, and birch in the Outer Hebrides, Northern Isles and far north of the mainland. Furthermore, the effects of fire, human clearance and grazing probably limited forest cover to about 50% of the land area of Scotland even at its maximum. The stock of woodland declined alarmingly during the First World War and "a Forestry Subcommittee was added
to the Reconstruction Committee to advise on policy when the war was over. The Subcommittee, better known as the Acland Committee after its chairman Sir A. H. D. Acland, came to the conclusion that, in order to secure the double purpose of being able to be independent from foreign supplies for three years and a reasonable insurance against a timber famine, the woods of Great Britain should be gradually increased from three million acres to four and three quarter millions at the end of the war". Following the Acland Report of 1918 the Forestry Commission was formed in 1919 to meet this need. State forest parks were established in 1935.
Emergency felling controls had been introduced in the First and Second World Wars, and these were made permanent in the Forestry Act 1951. Landowners were also given financial incentives to devote land to forests under the Dedication Scheme, which in 1981 became the Forestry Grant Scheme. By the early 1970s, the annual rate of planting exceeded per annum. Most of this planting comprised fast-growing conifers. Later in the century the balance shifted, with fewer than per annum being planted during the 1990s, but broadleaf planting actually increased, exceeding per year in 1987. By the mid-1990s, more than half of new planting was broadleaf.
In 1988, the Woodland Grant Scheme replaced the Forestry Grant Scheme, paying nearly twice as much for broadleaf woodland as conifers. (In England, the Woodland Grant Scheme was subsequently replaced by the English Woodland Grant Scheme, which operates six separate kinds of grant for forestry projects.) That year, the Farm Woodlands Scheme was also introduced, and replaced by the Farm Woodland Premium Scheme in 1992. In the 1990s, a programme of afforestation resulted in the establishment of Community Forests and the National Forest, which celebrated the planting of its seven millionth tree in 2006. As a result of these initiatives, the British Isles are one of a very few places in the world where the stock of forested land is actually increasing, though the rate of increase has slowed since the turn of the millennium.
England Rural Development Programme is the current overarching grants scheme that includes money for forested land within it.
Ancient woodland
Ancient woodland is defined as any woodland that has been continuously forested since 1600. It is recorded on either the Register of Ancient Semi-Natural Woodland or the Register of Planted Woodland Sites. There is no woodland in Britain that has not been profoundly affected by human intervention. Apart from certain native pinewoods in Scotland, it is predominantly broadleaf. Such woodland is less productive, in terms of timber yield, but ecologically rich, typically containing a number of "indicator species" of indigenous wildlife. It comprises roughly 20% of the forested area.
Native and historic tree species
Britain is relatively impoverished in terms of native species. For example, only thirty-one species of deciduous tree and shrub are native to Scotland, including ten willows, four whitebeams and three birch and cherry. This is a list of tree species that existed in Britain before 1900. The sheer number of tree species planted subsequently precludes a complete list.
{| class="sortable wikitable"
! Common name !! Scientific name !! Period !! Type !! style="width:20%" | Notes
|-
| Ash || Fraxinus excelsior || Native ||Broadleaf || -
|-
| Aspen || Populus tremula || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Atlas cedar || Cedrus atlantica || 1800–1900 || Conifer || -
|-
| Austrian pine || Pinus nigra || 1800–1900 || Conifer || -
|-
| Bay willow || Salix pentandra || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Beech || Fagus sylvatica || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Bird cherry || Prunus padus || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Black cottonwood || Populus trichocarpa || 1800–1900 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Black poplar || Populus nigra || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Black walnut || Juglans nigra || 1600–1800 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Box || Buxus sempervirens || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Caucasian fir || Abies nordmanniana || 1800–1900 || Conifer || -
|-
| Cedar of Lebanon || Cedrus libani || 1600–1800 || Conifer || -
|-
| Coast redwood || Sequoia sempervirens || 1800–1900 || Conifer || -
|-
| Common alder || Alnus glutinosa || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Common juniper || Juniperus communis || Native || Conifer || -
|-
| Common lime || Tilia x vulgaris || 1600–1800 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Common silver fir || Abies alba || 1600–1800 || Conifer || -
|-
| Common walnut || Juglans regia || pre-1600 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Corsican pine || Pinus nigra || 1600–1800 || Conifer || -
|-
| Crab apple || Malus sylvestris || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Crack willow || Salix fragilis || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Cricket-bat willow || Salix alba, var caerulea || 1600–1800 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Deodar cedar || Cedrus deodara || 1800–1900 || Conifer || -
|-
| Douglas fir || Pseudotsuga menziesii || 1800–1900 || Conifer || Tallest tree in the UK
|-
| Downy birch || Betula pubescens || Native || Broadleaf || May have been the first tree to grow in Britain after the ice age
|-
| English elm || Ulmus procera || pre-1600 || Broadleaf || Despite the name, not a native species
|-
| Eucalypts || Eucalyptus species || 1800–1900 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| European larch || Larix decidua || 1600–1800 || Conifer || -
|-
| Field maple || Acer campestre || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Giant fir || Abies grandis || 1800–1900 || Conifer || -
|-
| Giant sequoia || Sequoiadendron giganteum || 1850s– Present || Conifer || - Found in botanical gardens and private estates
|-
| Grey alder || Alnus glutinosa || 1600–1800 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Grey poplar || Populus x canescens || pre-1600 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Hawthorn || Crataegus monogyna || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Hazel || Corylus avellana || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Holly || Ilex aquifolium || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Holm oak || Quercus ilex || pre-1600 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Hornbeam || Carpinus betulus || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Horse chestnut || Aesculus hippocastanum || 1600–1800 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Italian alder || Alnus cordata || 1800–1900 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Japanese larch || Larix kaempferi || 1800–1900 || Conifer || -
|-
| Large-leaved lime || Tilia platyphyllos || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Lawson cypress || Chamaecyparis lawsoniana || 1800–1900 || Conifer || -
|-
| Lodgepole pine || Pinus contorta || 1800–1900 || Conifer || -
|-
| Lombardy poplar || Populus nigra var. italica || 1600–1800 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| London plane || Platanus x hispanica || 1600–1800 || Broadleaf ||
|-
| Maritime pine || Pinus pinaster || pre-1600 || Conifer || -
|-
| Midland thorn || Crataegus laevigata || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Monkey puzzle || Araucaria araucana || 1600–1800 || Conifer || -
|-
| Monterey cypress || Cupressus macrocarpa || 1800–1900 || Conifer || -
|-
| Monterey pine || Pinus radiata || 1800–1900 || Conifer || -
|-
| Noble fir || Abies procera || 1800–1900 || Conifer || -
|-
| Norway maple || Acer platanoides || 1600–1800 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Norway spruce || Picea abies || pre-1600 || Conifer || Supplanted as most common forestry species by Sitka spruce
|-
| Oriental plane || Platanus orientalis || pre-1600 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Pedunculate oak || Quercus robur || Native || Broadleaf || Also called the English Oak
|-
| Red alder || Alnus rubra || 1800–1900 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Red oak || Quercus rubra || 1600–1800 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Robusta poplar || Populus x robusta || 1800–1900 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Rowan || Sorbus aucuparia || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Sallow (Goat willow) || Salix caprea || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Scots pine || Pinus sylvestris || Native || Conifer || -
|-
| Serotina poplar || Populus x serotina || 1600–1800 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Sessile oak || Quercus petraea || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Silver birch || Betula pendula || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Sitka spruce || Picea sitchensis || 1800–1900 || Conifer || Most common forestry species
|-
| Small-leaved lime || Tilia cordata || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Smooth-leaved elm || Ulmus carpinifolia || pre-1600 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Southern beech || Nothofagus antarctica || 1800–1900 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Swamp cypress || Taxodium distichum || 1600–1800 || Conifer || -
|-
| Swedish whitebeam || Sorbus intermedia || pre-1600 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Sweet chestnut || Castanea sativa || pre-1600 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Sycamore || Acer pseudoplatanus || pre-1600 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Turkey oak || Quercus cerris || 1600–1800 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Wellingtonia || Sequoiadendron giganteum || 1800–1900 || Conifer || -
|-
| Western hemlock || Tsuga heterophylla || 1800–1900 || Conifer || -
|-
| Western red cedar || Thuja plicata || 1800–1900 || Conifer || -
|-
| White poplar || Populus alba || pre-1600 || Broadleaf || -
|-
| White willow || Salix alba || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Whitebeam || Sorbus aria || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Wild cherry (Gean) || Prunus avium || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Wild service tree || Sorbus torminalis || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Wych elm || Ulmus glabra || Native || Broadleaf || -
|-
| Yew || Taxus baccata || Native || Conifer || -
|-
|}
Threats
Most serious disease threats to British woodland involve fungus. For conifers, the greatest threat is white rot fungus (Heterobasidion annosum). Dutch elm disease arises from two related species of fungi in the genus Ophiostoma, spread by elm bark beetles. Another fungus, Nectria coccinea, causes Beech bark disease, as does Bulgaria polymorpha. Ash canker results from Nectria galligena or Pseudomonas savastanoi, and most trees are vulnerable to Honey Fungus (Armillaria mellea). The oomycete Phytophthora ramorum (responsible for "Sudden oak death" in the USA) has killed large numbers of Japanese Larch trees in the UK.
Acute oak decline has a bacterial cause. Beetles, moths and weevils can also damage trees, but the majority do not cause serious harm. Notable exceptions include the Large Pine Weevil (Hylobius abietis), which can kill young conifers, the Spruce Bark Beetle (Ips typographus) which can kill spruces, and the Cockchafer (Melolontha melolontha) which eats young tree roots and can kill in a dry season. Rabbits, squirrels, voles, field mice, deer, and farm animals can pose a significant threat to trees. Air pollution, climate change, acid rain, and wildfire represent the main environmental hazards.
Timber industry
In 2013, the UK produced 3,582,000 cubic metres of sawn wood, 3,032,000 cubic metres of wood-based panels and 4,561,000 tonnes of paper and paperboard. The UK does not produce enough timber to satisfy domestic demand, and the country imports 80% of its timber and paper from abroad, as the world's second largest timber importer after China. The majority of sawn softwood imports come from the Baltic, in particular Sweden (42%), Latvia (16%) and Finland (14%). In 2008 the country imported sawn and other wood to a value of £1,243 million and exported £98 million; imported £832 million of wood-based panels and exported £104 million; and imported paper and paper-based products to a value of £4,273 million and exported £1,590 million. In 2012 approximately 15,000 people were employed in forestry and 26,000 in primary wood production in the country, resulting in a gross value added to the country of £1,936 million. With the ongoing closure of sawmills, the biomass industry is likely to be a key driver for future growth.
Planting
Successful forestry requires healthy, well-formed trees that are resistant to diseases and parasites. The best wood has a straight, circular stem without a spiral grain or fluting, and small, evenly spaced branches. The chances of achieving these are maximised by planting good-quality seed in the best possible growing environment.
Stewardship and management
The Forestry Commission was established in 1919, in order to address a lack of timber following the First World War: at this point Britain had only 5% of its original forest cover left and the government at that time wanted to create a strategic resource of timber. Since then forest coverage has doubled and the commission's remit expanded to include greater focus on sustainable forest management and maximising public benefits. Woodland creation continues to be an important role of the commission, however, and works closely with government to achieve its goal of 12% forest coverage by 2060, championing initiatives such as The Big Tree Plant and Woodland Carbon Code. Originally, the commission operated across Great Britain, however in 2013 Natural Resources Wales took over responsibility for Forestry in Wales, whilst two new bodies (Forestry and Land Scotland and Scottish Forestry) were established in Scotland on 1 April 2019. The Commission retains responsibility for forestry in England, as well as co-coordinating international forestry policy support and certain plant health functions in respect of trees and forestry across the UK. The Forestry Commission is also the government body responsible for the regulation of private forestry in England; felling is generally illegal without first obtaining a licence from the commission. The commission is also responsible for encouraging new private forest growth and development. Part of this role is carried out by providing grants in support of private forests and woodlands.
Tree breeding programmes, to ensure the best seed, are hampered by the trees' long life-cycles. However, particularly since the 1950s, the Forestry Commission among other organisations has been running a programme of breeding, propagation, induced flowering and controlled pollination with the aim of producing healthy, disease-resistant, fast-growing stock.
Natural Resources Wales () is a Welsh Government sponsored body, for the management of all the natural resources of Wales. It was formed from a merger of the Countryside Council for Wales, Environment Agency Wales, and the Forestry Commission Wales, and also assumes some other roles formerly taken by Welsh Government. Other organisations working in Wales to improve the management of Welsh woodlands and forests include the Confederation of Forest Industries, Coed Cymru and Woodknowledge Wales.
For forestry in Scotland, both Forestry and Land Scotland and Scottish Forestry are executive agency of the Scottish Government. The key functions of Forestry and Land Scotland (FLS) are to look after the national forest estate, including unforested land within this portfolio, and to produce and supply timber. It is expected to enhance biodiversity, increase public access to the outdoors, encourage tourism and support the rural economy. Scottish Forestry is responsible for regulation, policy and support to landowners, including regulation of FLS.
The Forest Stewardship Council, more specifically FSC UK, sets forest management standards for the UK, promotes the system and provides an information service. It looks at the environmental, social and economic impacts of the timber industry.
Transportation
Currently, the vast majority of Britain's timber uses road haulage. As forests are located in rural areas, the heavy timber vehicles have severely damaged many single lane tracks, especially in the Highlands. In order to combat this, companies are being forced to provide funding for repairs, as well as using alternative transport systems such as rail and coastal shipping. Despite the number of forest railways plummeting after the Beeching Axe, rail's share of timber transport has risen from 3% in 2002 with the opening of new lines in Devon, the Pennines, Scotland and South Wales by Colas Rail.
Land values
The price of woodland has risen out of proportion to its productivity, and in 2012 reached peak prices over £10,000 per acre. Woodland prices are affected by its very favourable tax treatment and its high amenity value.
See also
List of forests in the United Kingdom
List of Great British Trees
List of renewable resources produced and traded by the United Kingdom
English Lowlands beech forests
Woodland Carbon Code
Forestry in Scotland
References
Footnotes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Forests and woodlands of the United Kingdom
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S Club 7 were a British pop group from London, created by former Spice Girls manager Simon Fuller and consisting of members Bradley McIntosh, Hannah Spearritt, Jo O'Meara, Jon Lee, Paul Cattermole, Rachel Stevens and Tina Barrett. The group was formed in 1998 and quickly rose to fame by starring in their own BBC television series, Miami 7. In their five years together, S Club 7 had four UK number-one singles, one UK number-one album, and a string of hits throughout Europe as well as a Top 10 hit on the US Hot 100, with their 2000 single "Never Had a Dream Come True". They recorded four studio albums, released 11 singles and went on to sell over 10 million albums worldwide.
The concept of the group was created by Simon Fuller who signed them to Polydor Records. Their show lasted four seasons and saw the group travel across the US, eventually ending up in Barcelona. It became popular in 100 countries where the show was watched by over 90 million viewers. The show, a children's sitcom, often mirrored real-life events which had occurred in S Club, like the relationship of Spearritt and Cattermole, and Cattermole's departure from the group. S Club 7 won two BRIT Awards—in 2000 for British breakthrough act and in 2002, for best British single. In 2001 the group earned the Record of the Year award. Cattermole departed in 2002, citing "creative differences", and the group name dropped the "7". Their penultimate single reached number five in the UK charts and their final album failed to make the top ten. Following Cattermole's departure, the group fought many rumours presuming that they were about to split. However, on 21 April 2003, during a live onstage performance, S Club announced that they were to disband.
In 2014, the original lineup announced a UK reunion tour for 2015.
History
1997–1998: Formation
Simon Fuller has commented that he came upon the concept of S Club 7 the day after he was fired by the Spice Girls in November 1997, with the new group meant as a "continuation" of the latter. He selected the members for the group after auditioning from over 10,000 hopefuls; Rachel Stevens was the only member of the group who did not audition to gain admittance into the group. Instead, two producers from 19 Management approached her and asked her to go into the studio to record a demo tape for Fuller. Both Jo O'Meara and Paul Cattermole were spotted by producers from 19 and asked to audition. After the auditions had been advertised in The Stage, Jon Lee, Hannah Spearritt, Tina Barrett and Bradley McIntosh auditioned. After some final adjustments, including the removal of three original members, S Club 7 was formed.
Once the final line-up was decided, they flew to Italy to become acquainted with each other. Speaking about this first meeting, Stevens remarked that the group "felt comfortable with each other from the beginning". Several members of the group have since stated that the "S" in S Club 7 stands for Simon, after the group's creator, although the official line has always been ambiguous. The group's entry on the Popjustice website states that at one point they were nearly called "Sugar Club" instead of the name that stuck. Another theory is that the group is so-named because "S" is the first letter of the word "seven". McIntosh, in a December 2012 interview, said a lot of Simon Fuller's success has been based on the number 19 (owning 19 Entertainment); therefore, as "S" is the 19th letter of the alphabet, the "S" was put into S Club 7.
1999–2000: S Club television series
S Club 7 first came to public attention in 1999, when they starred in their own television series, Miami 7. The show first aired on CBBC on BBC One and was a children's sitcom based on the lives of the group who had moved to Miami, Florida in search of fame in America. The show was also launched in the United States, airing on Fox Family, and later on ABC Family; it was retitled S Club 7 in Miami for American audiences. The show eventually celebrated worldwide success and was watched by 90 million viewers in over 100 countries. The group also filmed two specials between the first two series of their show. The first, Back to the '50s—which aired on CITV, instead of CBBC—told the story of how the group found themselves back in 1959. In the second TV special, Boyfriends & Birthdays, Stevens' boyfriend gave her an ultimatum of staying with him or remaining with S Club.
Within the television series, and the parallel branding, each member of S Club 7 had their own character, which contained exaggerated forms of their real life counterparts as well as their own identifiable "S Club colour". Hannah Spearritt, for example, had an "S Club colour" of yellow which, as Spearritt describes, mirrors her own interesting personality: "bright and happy". US media characterized S Club 7 as "The Monkees for the next generation". However, Joel Andryc—the vice president of the Fox Family Channel—stated that Miami 7 is "far more relationship driven" than The Monkees, and that "kids today are more sophisticated".
Following on from Miami 7, S Club 7 released the theme music to the show as their debut single on 9 June 1999. The up-tempo "Bring It All Back" reached number-one in the United Kingdom singles charts, and after selling more than 600,000 copies, was made BPI certified Platinum. Commenting on the chart position of "Bring It All Back", the group felt "nervous and on-edge" before they discovered they had reached number one. Once they had received the phone call from the record company, the group celebrated the news with "cheers, shouting and crying". The group's success escalated and much like Fuller's marketing campaign for the Spice Girls, they were set to become a "marketable commodity". As evidence for this, global toy manufacturer Hasbro agreed upon an exclusive licensing agreement with 19 Management which included worldwide rights in the fashion doll category; singing S Club 7 dolls were later released onto the market. An official magazine, fan club, and accompanying Miami 7 scrapbook were also launched furthering 19 Management's corporate aim.
Over the course of the year, the group enjoyed more success in the charts after their second single, "S Club Party", entered the UK charts at number-two and went straight to number-one in New Zealand. Their third single was a double A-side and featured the ballad, co-written by Cathy Dennis, "Two in a Million" and retro-styled, up-tempo "You're My Number One". The former was the first single where O'Meara took leads vocals, setting the standard for future S Club 7 releases; the single also reached number-two in the UK charts. Following the success of their television show and released singles, the group released their debut album S Club in October 1999. The album quickly rose to number-two in the UK charts, and then became certified Double Platinum. The album consisted of a variety of styles including motown and salsa tracks.
Due to the increasing demand for the group with gruelling schedules including spending over thirteen weeks in America filming the first series of their show and their subsequent television specials, the members often felt that the travelling back and forth from the UK and the US was "perhaps more tiring than what we were actually going out to America to do". Paul Cattermole once commented that the speed of the schedule sometimes caused a "kind of dreamscape in your head", as the group often felt "jetlagged and tired". On top of the filming schedules, the group often performed at high-profile pop music festivals such as Party in the Park where they performed for 100,000 fans. The intensity of the schedule would be a constant battle for the group and was going to continue to take its toll for all the years S Club 7 were together. In spite of this, the group always remained in solidarity that they were all good friends, "cared for each other a lot" and supported each other through difficult times in the group.
2000–2001: 7
In February 2000, the group won the 'British Breakthrough Act' award at the 2000 BRIT Awards. In April 2000, S Club's second TV series, L.A. 7 (renamed S Club 7 in L.A. in the US), was released. The series saw the group depart from Miami and move to Los Angeles to seek a record deal. It introduced the song "Reach", another retro-styled uptempo track, which was co-written by Cathy Dennis and aired as the main theme tune to the second series. "Reach" was released as a single in May 2000 and reached number-two in the UK charts. It arguably became one of the group's most successful singles, paving the way for the group's second album, 7 which was released on 12 June 2000. This album was a departure from the overtly pop stylings of S Club, with tracks styled more towards R&B than the traditional nineties pop sound of their debut album. It reached number-one in the UK charts becoming certified Triple Platinum, and a certified Gold record in the US. The second single from the album, "Natural", featured Stevens as lead vocalist. It reached number three in September 2000.
S Club 7 took an active part in promoting several charities during their time as a band. As well as performing for Children in Need, the band launched, on 25 September 2000, a new television series called S Club 7 Go Wild!, which saw each band member support an endangered species. Teaming up with the World Wildlife Fund, each member travelled to different destinations worldwide with a hope to raise awareness about the seven endangered creatures, including the Siberian tiger and the hyacinth macaw. In October 2000, they launched the annual Poppy Appeal Campaign with Dame Thora Hird and supported Woolworth's Kids First Campaign throughout 1999 and 2000. The group also recorded vocals for "It's Only Rock 'N' Roll", which raised money for Children's Promise, an alliance of seven children's charities: Barnardo's, Children in Need, ChildLine, The Children's Society, Comic Relief, NCH and the NSPCC. A cover of The Rolling Stones song, the group contributed to the vocals alongside many popular artists, including Mary J. Blige, Natalie Imbruglia and the Spice Girls; it entered the UK charts at number-nineteen. Also, during that time they filmed two speciales: "Artistic Differences" and their "Christmas Special".
In November 2000, S Club 7 were invited to provide the official song for the UK's BBC Children in Need Campaign 2000, so a new song, the ballad "Never Had a Dream Come True", was recorded. The song became popular in the US market eventually taking the group to appear on MTV's TRL to perform the song, and it was also included on the US release of Now That's What I Call Music. After topping the UK charts in December 2000, the song was added to a re-release of the 7 album, along with another new track, a cover of Stevie Wonder's "Lately".
2001–2002: Sunshine and Cattermole's departure
"Never Had a Dream Come True" had marked a more mature direction for the group whilst still retaining their pop sensibilities, a direction which continued into their third studio album, Sunshine. The album contained what was to become one of S Club's most popular tracks, "Don't Stop Movin'". The song was released in April 2001, marked a high point for the group as the single went straight to number-one, went Platinum and became the seventh best selling single of 2001. McIntosh, who takes lead vocals with O'Meara in the track, said he was "nervous" about taking lead vocals and was worried how people would react. However, after the song went in at number-one, he felt as though he was "supported by the fans" and his fears were alleviated. McIntosh also remarked that the single had broken new ground for the group, and Cattermole thought it to be their "best song by miles". The group won the Record of the Year award for the song, and in February 2002, the single won the group their second BRIT Award for best British single. The song has since been covered by The Beautiful South for their 2004 album Golddiggas, Headnodders and Pholk Songs, as well as by Starsailor who recorded it for BBC Radio 1's Live Lounge.
By spring 2001, the group were "desperate" to start touring; it was something which they had always wanted to do, but couldn't because things were "always so hectic". After spending most of early 2001 rehearsing, the S Club Party 2001 tour began on 19 May 2001. Describing the tour, Stevens remarked that seeing a crowd of over 13,000 fans each night coming to see them was "such an unbelievable feeling", and the other members of the group shared an "adrenaline rush" as well as a wave of emotion before going on stage. Once the tour was over, the group had to fly back to the United States in order to film the third series of their television show, Hollywood 7. This third series, which was still set in Los Angeles, was the group's favourite to film because they had more acting experience and could "drop their shoulders" and start to enjoy themselves. The group, however, had to continuously cope with intense schedules and early starts whilst recording for the programme, something which, although the group felt "laid back" about it at the time, was to eventually take its toll and lead to the demise of the band. Hollywood 7 began airing in September 2001 and dealt with the issue of an on-screen kiss between Spearritt and Cattermole, who had begun dating in real life. Their relationship, which was kept secret for six months, was well received by the band who claimed it had made them all closer as friends. Hollywood 7 aired alongside a new CBBC reality show, S Club Search, which invited children to extend the S Club brand and audition to form a younger version of the band. The new group were to be chosen to sing with S Club 7 on Children in Need 2001 and go on tour with them on their future S Club 7 Carnival 2002 tour. The eight children who went on to form the band named themselves S Club Juniors and had six top ten UK hits.
The effects of the group's charity single, "Never Had a Dream Come True", were felt when the group handed over £200,000 to Children in Need, from the sales of the CD after the release of "Don't Stop Movin'" in April 2001. As a result, S Club 7 were invited back and asked to record a second consecutive Children in Need single, in November 2001. It was decided that "Have You Ever", a song co-written by Chris Braide and Cathy Dennis, was to be released for the charity campaign. After the success of the previous year's single, the performance on the night featured many primary school children who had pre-recorded their own versions of the chorus, including the S Club Juniors who they made their first television appearance. The band felt "overjoyed" that they could, once again, contribute to the Children in Need campaign, feeling that it meant a lot to them to be involved and feeling privileged to be able to help; they also commented that it was nice for British school children to be involved in raising money for charity. The single was another success for the group and became their fourth number-one, as well as the 21st biggest selling single of 2001.
In January 2002, S Club 7 embarked upon their second arena tour, S Club 7 Carnival 2002, which aimed to please fans by stylising their songs to fit with a carnival-like theme with music styles from different countries of the world. Speaking about the tour, McIntosh described it as "older show", a change from S Club Party 2001, which was "more like bubblegum", with Paul Cattermole comparing 2001's "theatrical" tour with the Carnival tour as a more "glitzy, concert stage". The tour was generally well received by the children's media, describing the show as "diverse" and "dazzling", whereas the group was criticised by the broadsheets as being "like a compilation of toddler-friendly Eurovision entries" although conceding that it was a "slick, decent-value show". Cattermole was also criticised when he was dubbed overweight and a "heavy-footed dancer". After the success of their last three singles, all of which had made it to number-one, S Club 7 failed to top the charts when they released their ninth single, "You"; it reached number-two in the UK. The single, which was described as a "candyfloss-bright, tongue-in-cheek 50s pastiche", was to be Paul Cattermole's last single with the band and led the way for a series of events that was to unravel S Club 7's time at the top of the charts, which would ultimately cause the band to split.
Talking about his former musical venture three months before he left S Club 7, Paul Cattermole described his school nu metal band – called Skua – as having a "Limp Bizkit vibe" as well as comparing their style to Rage Against the Machine. Cattermole's resignation came as Skua had decided to reform, and he found it a perfect time to make the transition back from pop to rock as S Club 7's record contracts were up for renewal. Skua released their first album in October 2014 titled Kneel. Cattermole stayed with the band until June 2002, featuring in four out of thirteen episodes of the group's final television series, Viva S Club, and performing his final concert with the group for Party at the Palace, which was part of Queen Elizabeth II's Golden Jubilee celebrations.
2002–2003: Film, Greatest Hits and break-up
After Cattermole's departure, vowing to not disband, the remaining six members stayed together under the name S Club. Despite losing a member of the group, the future remained positive as, although they were very sad to see Cattermole leave the group, they were "delighted" to have extended their contracts meaning they could look forward to new material, a new series of their television show as well as their first feature film. However, media reports of the time weren't so optimistic stating that, as neither the Spice Girls nor Take That had survived once they lost a member of their group, it would be difficult for S Club to remain together in an industry which has a "horrible habit of leaving bands in tatters once the first member has left". After only peaking at number-five in the UK charts with "Alive", their first single as a six, was S Club's optimism diminished. Although their progressive musical style was once again furthered with the release of their fourth studio album, Seeing Double, it failed to make an impact on the UK charts, stalling at number-seventeen. S Club's time at the top of the charts was slowly coming to an end, and when O'Meara announced that she had an immobilizing back condition which could have left her in a wheelchair, and she was unable to take part in television performances, the group was left devastated.
In April 2003, S Club released their first feature film, Seeing Double, directed by music-video director Nigel Dick, which was to be the last time the group would be seen on-screen together. Unlike its television predecessors, the film moved into the realm of children's fantasy, and saw the group fighting evil scientist Victor Gaghan in his quest to clone the world's pop stars. The film's release was marked by many rumours that the group were about to split, which were quickly denied by the six. There was also controversy when the band had to travel economy class to America and when Fuller did not turn up for the premiere of the film. On 27 April 2003, it was reported that Spearritt's parents had hired lawyers to chase payments owed to them by Simon Fuller and his management company. They claimed that out of the €75 million fortune the band made for Fuller, they only received €150,000 a year of it.
Ten days after the release of their movie, the rumours were confirmed when it was announced live on stage—during their S Club United tour on 21 April 2003 – that, after a final single and greatest hits album, S Club would part ways. The band cited a mutual split, expressing it was simply a time "to move on and face new challenges". The members of S Club have commented on how exhausting being in the band was, due to hectic schedules and long filming days. Spearritt has remarked that the group had felt it appropriate wanting to do their own thing; she had constantly felt "drained" whilst with S Club. The fans felt "betrayed" and "disappointed" by the breakup, as well as "angry" due to the group denying rumours only two weeks before at the Seeing Double premiere. Many compared the demise of the group to that of fellow pop band Steps, as they too had denied their intentions until the moment before their split, after which they were accused of acting out of "greed and cynicism". The final single was a double A-side, coupling "Love Ain't Gonna Wait for You", from their fourth album Seeing Double, with a new ballad, "Say Goodbye", released on 26 May. The single reached number-two in the UK, beaten to the top spot by R. Kelly's "Ignition (Remix)". On 2 June it was released on their greatest hits album, Best: The Greatest Hits of S Club 7. This compilation brought together the group's releases with a previously unreleased track, "Everybody Get Pumped" and 7 track "Bring the House Down". The album reached number-two in the United Kingdom. On 8 June the group made their last appearance together on Top of the Pops.
2014–2015: Original line-up reunion
In August 2014, it was reported that the band would be reforming under the backing of Simon Fuller. Cattermole denied these reports the next day, but said a reunion was "God damn close to happening". On 22 October, it was confirmed that all seven members of S Club 7 would reunite for the BBC Children in Need telethon; the reunion aired on 14 November 2014, with S Club 7 performing a medley of four of their greatest hits: "S Club Party", "Reach", "Bring It All Back" and "Don't Stop Movin'". On 17 November 2014, S Club 7 announced their plans for an arena reunion tour, promptly titled Bring It All Back 2015, which toured the UK in May 2015.
In March 2015, during an interview with Graham Norton on BBC Radio 2, the group confirmed plans to re-release their 2003 greatest hits, Best: The Greatest Hits of S Club 7 that forthcoming May, and that it may contain the previously unreleased track "Rain". On 28 April 2015, it was confirmed that the re-issue of the Best album would release on 4 May, and would include "Rain", as well as "Friday Night" from the S Club album.
Controversies
On 20 March 2001, Cattermole, Lee and McIntosh were caught with cannabis in London's Covent Garden; they were cautioned by police at Charing Cross Police Station and released without charge. After the event, their publicity firm Henry's House released a public apology stating they were "very stupid" and "very sorry", admitting to having made a "stupid mistake". At the time, BT and Cadbury, who had sponsorship deals with S Club 7, said they were "very disappointed" to learn of the caution but said they would keep their contracts with the band. However, cereal firm Quaker Oats ended talks with 19 Entertainment after learning of the police caution. It was rumoured that merchandising company PMS International were to take out an £800,000 lawsuit against the band for declining sales as a direct result of the drugs scandal. However, this came to nothing and any doubts over the future of sponsorship ended when Pepsi signed the band up less than a month after the drugs caution.
Musical style
The style of music S Club 7 normally falls under is pop, or more specifically bubblegum pop. Vocals were shared amongst all group members in their first two singles, although the third single "Two in a Million", caused O'Meara to gain more media attention. The band progressively changed their style throughout the years together, their first album consisted of many tracks atypical pop genre: "You're My Number One" and "Everybody Wants Ya" were Motown-driven however, "Viva La Fiesta" and "It's A Feel Good Thing" were both "bouncy, salsa-driven Latino songs".
Their second album 7 had songs that had styles that somewhat opposed traditional pop songs rival pop bands of the nineties were releasing. With the release of "Natural" in 2000, S Club 7 changed a new style of music with a R&B-lite sound approach. The release of their third album, Sunshine, gave audiences their biggest change: the album contained tracks such as the disco-influenced "Don't Stop Movin'" and the R&B ballad "Show Me Your Colours".
S Club then released their final album, Seeing Double and then released "Alive" which was a "power-packed dance floor filler", similar to their final track on the album "Love Ain't Gonna Wait for You". The album contained many dance tracks and songs that varied from original bubblegum pop stylings, such as the "sex for the CBBC generation" in "Hey Kitty Kitty", although one reviewer, referring to "Gangsta Love", said "S Club's spiritual home is the suburban disco, not urban underground clubs, and their attempt to go garage on "Gangsta Love" ends up amusing rather than authentic". S Club 7 remains the same style in its song, like "Reach", "You" and "Say Goodbye".
Awards and nominations
Members
Timeline
Discography
S Club (1999)
7 (2000)
Sunshine (2001)
Seeing Double (2002)
Filmography
Concert tours
Headlining
2001–02: S Club Party Tour
2002: Carnival Tour
2003: S Club United Tour
2015: Bring It All Back 2015
References
19 Recordings artists
Brit Award winners
English dance music groups
English pop music groups
Teen pop groups
Interscope Records artists
Musical groups reestablished in 2020
Musical groups disestablished in 2015
Musical groups reestablished in 2014
Musical groups disestablished in 2003
Musical groups established in 1998
Musical groups from London
Polydor Records artists
1999 establishments in England
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The 2015 6 Hours of Nürburgring was a six hour endurance sports car racing event held for Le Mans Prototype and Le Mans Grand Touring Endurance cars at the Nürburgring, Nürburg, Germany on 28–30 August 2015. Nürburgring served as the fourth round of the 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship, and it marked the inaugural running of the event as part of the championship. A total of 62,000 people attended the race weekend.
The No. 18 Porsche of Marc Lieb, Romain Dumas and Neel Jani qualified in pole position by recording the fastest lap in qualifying and maintained the lead until it was issued with multiple penalties relating to excessive fuel consumption at its first pit stop and the consequence of this allowed the sister Porsche of Timo Bernhard, Brendon Hartley and Mark Webber to move to the front of the field. The car kept the lead through the following sequence of pit stops and Webber drove the Porsche across the start/finish line at the end of the race to claim his, Bernhard and Hartley's first outright victories in the World Endurance Championship. Jani and later Lieb fended off the advances from the two rival Audis to secure second and the podium was completed by the No. 7 Audi R18 e-tron quattro of André Lotterer, Marcel Fässler and Benoît Tréluyer.
The Le Mans Prototype 2 (LMP2) category was won by the No. 47 KCMG Oreca 05 of Matthew Howson, Richard Bradley and Nick Tandy . The car held the lead in the class for the majority of the race to secure its second consecutive victory of the season and was followed by the No. 26 G-Drive Racing car of Roman Rusinov, Julien Canal and Sam Bird. Richard Lietz and Michael Christensen in the No. 92 Porsche 911 RSR took the victory in the Le Mans Grand Tourer Endurance Professional (LMGTE Pro) class with the sister car driven by Patrick Pilet and Frédéric Makowiecki taking second despite the duo serving two penalties during the course of the race. The podium in the category was completed by the No. 71 AF Corse Ferrari 458 Italia GTE of Davide Rigon and James Calado. The Le Mans Grand Tourer Endurance Amateur (LMGTE Am) category was led for the final half an hour by the No. 72 SMP Racing Ferrari of Viktor Shaytar, Aleskey Bakov and Andrea Bertolini who held it to clinch the class victory, ahead of the No. 98 Aston Martin V8 Vantage GTE of Paul Dalla Lana, Pedro Lamy and Mathias Lauda.
The result of the race reduced Lotterer, Fässler and Tréluyer's Drivers' Championship by three points to the outright race winners Bernhard, Hartley and Webber who moved up three places to lie in second. Lieb, Dumas and Jani moved from fourth to third while Tandy dropped to fourth after finishing seventh in the overall classification. Earl Bamber and the absent Nico Hülkenberg rounded out the top five. Porsche increased its lead in the Manufacturers' Championship on 184 points, thirty-three ahead of Audi and a further 62 in front of Toyota with four rounds left in the season.
Background
Entry list
Thirty-one cars were officially entered for the 6 Hours of Nürburgring, with the bulk of the entries in Le Mans Prototype 1 (LMP1) and Le Mans Prototype 2 (LMP2). Three manufacturers, Porsche, Toyota and Audi Sport Team Joest, were represented in LMP1 by two cars each. Rebellion Racing and Team ByKolles were the two representatives of the privateer field. Three weeks prior, Nissan announced their decision to delay their return to the FIA World Endurance Championship (WEC) so they could address energy recovery system faults with their two GT-R LM Nismos and resume their testing programme in the United States.
LMP2 consisted of eight cars with 24 drivers. Starting at the Nürburgring, Strakka Racing switched from running a Dome S103 to a Gibson 015S for the rest of the season. This was so the team could use the Dome S103 for testing and developing in preparation for a planned entry to LMP1 in 2017. OAK Racing pulled their No. 35 Ligier JS P2 Nissan from the entry list for unspecified reasons. Zoël Amberg was withdrawn on medical grounds which were believed to be related from an crash he suffered at the Monaco GP2 Series round three months prior. Amberg's place in the 43 Team SARD Morand Morgan was taken by the International GT Open driver Archie Hamilton. After driving the No. 19 Porsche 919 Hybrid at Spa-Francorchamps and Le Mans, Nick Tandy returned to KCMG for the first time since the season-opening round at Silverstone.
The Le Mans Grand Touring Endurance Professional (LMGTE Pro) field consisted of three manufacturers (Aston Martin, Ferrari and Porsche), while the Le Mans Grand Touring Endurance Amateur (LMGTE Am) entrants were six teams: Aston Martin Racing, AF Corse, Larbre Compétition, Dempsey-Racing Proton, Porsche Team Manthley, and SMP Racing. British GT racer Jonathan Adam made his first appearance in the season in the No. 97 Aston Martin Vantage GTE and he was paired with regular drivers Darren Turner and Stefan Mücke. Le Mans outright winner and United SportsCar Championship competitor Earl Bamber returned to the World Endurance Championship to drive the No. 88 Proton Racing Porsche 911 RSR, replacing Klaus Bachler, who had an ADAC GT Masters commitment at the Sachsenring. After fracturing two vertebrae in a heavy accident at Le Mans, Roald Goethe, the co-driver of the No. 96 Aston Martin, was declared fit to compete at the Nürburgring.
Preview
The 6 Hours of Nürburgring was confirmed as part of the FIA World Endurance Championship's 2015 schedule in an FIA World Motor Sport Council meeting in Doha on 3 December 2014. It was the fourth of eight scheduled endurance sports car races of the 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship, and the inaugural running of the race as part of the championship. It was held on 30 August 2015 at the Nürburgring GP-Strecke circuit in Nürburg, Germany following two days of practice and qualifying. The race was the first world sports car championship round to be held at the circuit since the 1991 430 km of Nürburgring, and took place on a modified version of the sixteen-turn layout which lacked the Veedol chicane.
Before the race Audi Sport Team Joest drivers André Lotterer, Benoît Tréluyer and Marcel Fässler led the Drivers' Championship with 80 points, twenty ahead of nearest rival Tandy in second place, and a further two in front of Bamber and the non-competing Nico Hülkenberg. Marc Lieb, Romain Dumas and Neel Jani were fourth on 57 points and Timo Bernhard, Mark Webber and Brendon Hartley followed in fifth position on 53 points. Porsche led the Manufacturers' Championship with 140 points, sixteen points ahead of their rival Audi in second place. The third-placed manufacturer Toyota had scored 71 points and Nissan rounded out the top four but had yet to accumulate any points. Audi dominated the season's opening two rounds and Porsche won the 24 Hours of Le Mans. The trio of Lieb, Dumas and Jani secured two consecutive second-place finishes and their teammates Bernhard, Webber and Hartley placed second at Le Mans.
After Le Mans, the FIA Endurance Committee altered the balance of performance in the GTE categories, reducing the size of the air restrictor on the air intake of the Aston Martin Vantage engines by and lowering the weight of the Porsche 911 RSRs in LMGTE Pro by and was removed from the LMGTE Am version of the car. Similarly, the Chevrolet Corvette C7.R in both GTE classes had its fuel capacity increased by and were mandated to install a larger refuelling restrictor. The Ferrari 458 Italia GTEs in LMGTE Am had a weight increase of . In the LMP1 Equivalence of Technology alterations, the Porsche 919 Hybrid and Toyota TS040 Hybrids had their petrol energy lowered by 2.2% and their maximum petrol fuel load by 1.6%. In contrast, the diesel energy of the Audi R18 e-tron quattros was increased by 0.44% and its maximum diesel flow was increased by 0.63%. The LMP1 fuel capacity of petrol-powered engines was lowered from to . Similarly, Audi's diesel-powered engine had its fuel capacity reduced from to .
Practice
Three practice sessions—two on Friday and a third on Saturday—were held before the Sunday race. The Friday afternoon and early evening sessions lasted 90 minutes; the third, one-hour session was held on Saturday morning. The first practice session began on a damp track after some rain had fallen shortly before it started and this made drivers wary on their first attempts. Lap times lowered when the rain let up. The No. 7 Audi of Lotterer led the session in its latter half with the fastest lap time at 1 minute and 39.201 seconds, 0.076 seconds faster than any other car on the track. His closest challenger was Jani in the No. 18 Porsche and Loïc Duval's No. 8 Audi followed in third place. Bernhard was fourth in the other Porsche and the quickest Toyota came fifth after a lap from Stéphane Sarrazin. LMP2 was led by Gustavo Yacamán's No. 28 G-Drive Racing car with a lap of 1 minute and 46.631 seconds set late in practice and was a second clear from teammate Sam Bird. Gianmaria Bruni's No. 51 Ferrari was quickest in LMGTE Pro while the No. 83 car of Rui Águas helped the team to the top of the time sheets in LMGTE Am. While the session passed relatively peacefully, several cars slid off on the slippery tarmac and the session was stopped when Simon Trummer spun the No. 4 ByKolles CLM P1/01 into the final turn's gravel trap.
The track was dry for the second practice session which had Tréluyer record the fastest time of the day late at 1 minute and 37.862 seconds despite going into the turn one gravel trap. Webber finished with the second-quickest time; his teammate Jani was third and Duval placed fourth. Toyota were still off the pace with their fastest lap coming from driver Mike Conway who was three seconds adrift in fifth position. Lucas di Grassi removed the rear wing of the No. 8 Audi in an impact with the final turn tyre wall after hitting the inside kerb. Bird was the early pace setter in LMP2 and later improved on his fastest time to finish at the top of the time sheets with a lap of 1 minute and 46.299 that put him almost a second and a half clear of teammate Pipo Derani. LMGTE Pro was led by Richie Stanaway's No. 99 Aston Martin and the SMP Racing Ferrari of Viktor Shaytar was fastest in LMGTE Am with a benchmark lap.
The third (and final) practice session started with Dumas being the early pace setter and later improved on his effort. His co-driver Lieb then went faster with a lap of 1 minute and 36.036 seconds and remained at the top of the time sheets until the end of the session. His teammate Webber followed six-tenths of a second behind in second and the quickest Audi was the No. 8 car of di Grassi in third. Fässler was fourth-fastest despite spinning at slow speed at turn two and Sébastien Buemi rounded out the top five. Dumas made contact with the left-rear section of François Perrodo's car at turn two which led to a punctured tyre; both drivers were forced to the pit lane for repairs. Derani was the early pace setter in LMP2 but Jonny Kane set the fastest class time of the weekend so far at 1 minute and 45.270 seconds, and Tandy was almost one-tenth of a second behind in second. Aston Martin and Porsche battled for the fastest time in LMGTE Pro until Bruni topped the time sheets and Bamber set an early benchmark which put him fastest in LMGTE Am. Paul Dalla Lana locked his tyres and his tyre failed but was recovered for transportation back to the pit lane.
Qualifying
Saturday's afternoon qualification session was divided into two groups lasting 20 minutes each. Cars in LMGTE Pro and AM were sent out first and, after a five-minute interval, LMP1 and LMP2 vehicles drove onto the track. All cars were required to be driven by two participants for one timed lap each, with the starting order determined by the competitors' fastest average times. The fastest qualifier was awarded one point towards the Drivers' and Manufacturers' Championships. Lieb and Bernhard immediately put the two Porsches with their lap times in the low one minute and 36 second range and the Audis of Oliver Jarvis and Fässler followed in the next two positions. Webber was delayed by slower traffic on his opening lap but recovered to improve the No. 17 car's average lap time to put it on top. Shortly after, Dumas improved to maintain Porsche's 100% pole position record and took the No. 18 car's second consecutive pole position of 2015 with a two-lap average time of 1 minute and 36.473 seconds.
They were joined on the grid's front row by the sister No. 17 car as Webber and Bernhard's combined lap times were 0.069 seconds behind Lieb and Dumas. The two Audis were third and fourth (the No. 8 car driven by di Grassi and Jarvis in front of the No. 7 vehicle of Lotterer and Fässler). Lotterer was slightly delayed by slower traffic on his fastest timed lap. Toyota was slightly closer towards the pace in qualifying and filled the third row of the grid. Anthony Davidson and Buemi were nominated to qualify the No. 1 Toyota and had no issues. In contrast, Alexander Wurz in the sister Toyota made an error and went into the gravel trap leaving the final turn. Sarrazin had new tyres installed on his car but was delayed by two slower cars and lost time as a consequence. The two Rebellion Racing cars and the No. 4 ByKolles CLM/01 rounded out the LMP1 qualifiers.
In LMP2, Tandy and Matthew Howson took the fastest two-lap average time of 1 minute and 46.505 seconds late in the session. The duo were then three-tenths of a second faster than the No. 26 G-Drive Racing Oreca of Julien Canal and Bird with Nelson Panciatici and Vincent Capillaire putting the No. 26 Signatech Alpine car in third. The second G-Drive Racing car was fourth and the Team SARD Morand entry rounded out the top five. Ricardo González spun leaving the Dunlop hairpin but did not make contact with the barriers and was able to continue. Toni Vilander and Bruni, competing in the No. 71 Ferrari, were the fastest LMGTE Pro drivers with a two-lap average time of 1 minute and 54.275 seconds, and took AF Corse first pole position since the 2014 6 Hours of Circuit of the Americas. They qualified 0.055 seconds in front of the sister Ferrari driven by James Calado and Davide Rigon. The Danish pairing of Marco Sørensen and Christoffer Nygaard in the No. 95 Aston Martin took third and the two Porsche GTEs rounded out the top five. The Russian duo of Victor Shaytar and Alexei Basov took the pole position in LMGTE Am, half a second faster than the second-placed qualifier, the No. 98 Aston Martin. Dalla Lana stopped on track in the closing seconds of qualifying due to a throttle problem but was able to restart.
Qualifying results
Pole position winners in each class are denoted in bold.
Race
Weather conditions at the start were dry and sunny. The air temperature was between and the track temperature ranged from . 62,000 people attended the race weekend. The race started at 13:00 Central European Summer Time (UTC+02:00). On the second formation lap, the No. 13 Rebellion R-One of Alexandre Imperatori was forced to enter the pit lane for an engine problem which necessitated repairs by team mechanics. Jani maintained his pole position advantage heading into the first corner with teammate Bernhard following in second. Shaytar made a poor getaway and fell to third in LMGTE Am behind the two Porsches of Bamber and Patrick Long. Upfront, Jani opened up his advantage to three seconds by the start of the third lap, while Frédéric Makowiecki moved in front of Sørensen for third in LMGTE Pro. Stanaway made slight contact with teammate Mücke while passing him for sixth and the latter then fell behind Long. Makowiecki was later adjudged by the stewards to have jumped the start and they handed him a drive-through penalty after eight minutes, promoting his teammate Michael Christensen into third in class. The first change of position in LMP2 came fifteen minutes in when Derani overtook Panciatici around the outside for third.
Bruni slowed with an electrical fault and then stopped on track at the Dunlop hairpin which led to the activation of the full course yellow procedure and his teammate Calado took over the lead of LMGTE Pro. Racing resumed five minutes later after Bruni's car was extracted from the circuit by a recovery truck but he managed to restart. Both Audis of Duval and Fässler sought to close up to Jani but their challenge was halted when they negotiated their way through slower traffic. Calado had a problem with his vehicle, allowing Christensen to the front of LMGTE Pro and Stanaway moved into second. After a few laps, Duval and Fässler drew close to Bernhard, while Kane moved past Oliver Webb for fifth in LMP2 and began putting pressure on Panciatici for fourth in class. Makowiecki started to regain positions by overtaking Mücke for fifth in LMGTE Pro and Emmanuel Collard lost third to Pedro Lamy. Collard then fell to fourth when Paolo Ruberti moved in front of him. The first round of pit stops for driver changes began after 44 minutes when Bernhard and Fässler drove into the pit lane as both had slow punctures. At the start of the 23rd lap in LMGTE Am, Lamy gained another place when he overtook Shaytar around the outside at the first corner for second after minor contact between the two cars.
After the pit stops, Lieb kept the lead and Fässler moved to second after Webber relieved Bernhard and the No. 18 Porsche's front nose was replaced. The SARD Morgan of Webb got ahead of the Signatech Alpine and Strakka Gibson for fourth in LMP2 and Kane passed the Alpine for fifth in class. Nick Heidfeld had a sudden loss in power in his No. 12 Rebellion R-One due to debris becoming lodged in the master switch which shut down the car and activated the fire extinguisher on the start/finish straight. Heidfeld was able to restart the vehicle and returned to the pit lane for a change of fire extinguisher. Kane made an driving error and ploughed into the gravel trap at the final corner and fell to seventh in LMP2. Pantciatici initially capitalised on Kane's error but a power fault with his car allowed Ryan Dalziel into a race-high of fifth in class. The GTE field made their pit stops for fuel, tyres and driver changes early in the second hour which had Richard Lietz retain the lead in LMGTE Pro with Rigon benefiting from fast work by his pit crew to move him to second in class. Bamber retook the LMGTE Am lead and Dalla Lana took over second place in the category. Webber drew close to Fässler and battled him for second. This ended when Webber passed Fässler around the inside at turn four as the duo drove towards the next complex of corners.
Tandy maintained a twenty-second advantage at the front of LMP2 and his fast speed allowed him to pass the ByKolles car for seventh overall. Webber began to pull clear from Fässler and was soon less than forty seconds behind teammate Lieb. However, the stewards handed Lieb a five-second stop-and-go penalty for excess fuel consumption at his pit stop because of a faulty sensor. Lieb took the pit stop five minutes later and emerged narrowly ahead of Webber in the sister No. 17 Porsche. This meant Lieb drove defensively heading out of the pit lane and forced Webber off the circuit at the second turn. Patrick Dempsey lost third to Perrordo in LMGTE Am and Dalla Lana and Khaled-Al Qubaisi ran closely behind each other until the latter fell back due to possibly being cautioned about track limits. The second round of pit stops for all LMP cars followed soon after with Tandy being replaced by Howson and Webber being relieved by Hartley. After the pit stops, Hartley had driven quickly to take over first place and the No. 26 car of Roman Rusinov held a nine-second advantage over Howson as a result of a faster stop. A second full course yellow was necessitated when Al-Qubaisi went into the gravel trap at the Dunlop hairpin and deposited gravel on the track which was cleared by course marshals.
Most of the GTE field made their pit stops slightly earlier than planned under the full course yellow. Once racing resumed, Dumas was catching Hartley but was twice penalised with a half a minute stop-and-go penalty and a one-minute infringement that he was mandated to serve on consecutive laps. Howson caught Rusinov and moved his way past him driving towards the first corner. After serving both his penalties, Dumas was two laps behind Hartley and was narrowly in front of the two Toyotas. By this point, Lauda was now leading LMGTE Am while Agias moved into second and Christian Ried was running third. Agias went off the track and fell behind Marco Seefried. Fourth-placed Andrea Bertolini lunged at Seefried at the first turn but ran deep at the corner's exit but overtook him soon after. Ried then lost fourth to Kristan Poulsen when the two Audis lapped them and Al-Quabisi spun at turn ten after sustaining heavy frontal damage. Race organisers activated the full course yellow procedure for the third time when Pierre Kaffer's rear wing on his ByKolles CLM/01 detached itself on the start/finish straight and landed on the racing line. Just as the full course yellow was necessitated, Makowiecki and Calado made contact leaving the Dunlop hairpin which led to the Ferrari's rear bodywork rubbing against its left-rear tyre.
As the race entered the final three hours, Yacaman moved in front of teammate Rusinov for second in LMP2, and Rigon was forced into the pit lane for a replacement tyre after his left-rear was punctured from the bodywork rubbing against it. Paul-Loup Chatin and Danny Watts were engaged in a battle for fifth place in LMP2 which ended in Watts's favour when he passed Chatin heading towards the first corner. Another round of pit stops followed after three hours and twenty-eight minutes which had several changes of driver and three of the four class leaders keeping their positions except for Long who had one of his doors replaced because of a window fault design. González was heavily delayed by slower traffic and glanced the Larbre Compétition Corvette. This enabled Canal to take advantage of the situation and take over second in LMP2. Jani caught Jarvis and overtook him on the start/finish straight. Capillaire spun after going too fast heading into the Veedol chicane and the full course yellow was shown for the fourth time so marshals could clean the track. The leading Porsche and two Audis used the opportunity to make their pit stops while the No. 42 Strakka Racing car of Nick Leventis was pushed into its garage after its rear was damaged by an Aston Martin.
Dalla Lana went off the circuit on his 129th lap and was put under pressure from Bertolini who slipstreamed onto the back of a faster LMP2 car on the start/finish straight to pass Dalla Lana at the first corner for the lead in LMGTE Am. Jani drew up to the rear of Tréluyer who was delayed by a Porsche GTE through the final turn and defended heading towards the first turn which allowed di Grassi to get involved in the duel for second-place. Six minutes later, Jani went to the inside of Tréluyer driving into the first corner but ran deep. Tréluyer kept the place by driving alongside Jani going into the next turn. Di Grassi benefited from this and took third place from Jani at the Dunlop hairpin. Jani responded by lining up an overtaking attempt on di Grassi but was unable to reclaim third. Instead, di Grassi passed Tréluyer for second. The final round of pit stops for fuel and driver changes started four minutes later when Webber got aboard the No. 17 Porsche and Lieb took over Jani's sister car. A slow pit stop by di Grassi dropped him to fourth while Lieb lapped quickly and moved in front of Lotterer for second. Lotterer opted not to defend from the faster di Grassi who passed him for third and set about trying to close up to Lieb. The focus upfront was on di Grassi who got the gap from Lieb down to 4.2 seconds and the latter responded by increasing his advantage to five seconds but then hit the No. 36 Singatech Alpine and sustained minor front-right bodywork damage.
Pilet in the No. 92 Porsche was issued a drive-through penalty after the stewards deemed co-driver Makowiecki responsible for causing the collision with Calado. Pilet kept second place after taking his penalty as he built up a large enough gap to remain ahead of Rigon. Unhindered in the final hours of the race Webber took the chequered flag for the No. 17 Porsche to claim his, Bernhard and Hartley's maiden triumph in the World Endurance Championship, a lap ahead of Lieb's No. 18 Porsche. Lotterer in the lead Audi followed in third after di Grassi let him through in the final five minutes. Toyota, unable to match the pace of Audi and Porsche, were three laps behind for a fifth-place finish with the No. 1 car and the No. 2 entry was a further lap adrift in sixth. Tandy maintained his advantage to take KCMG's second consecutive LMP2 win of 2015, followed by the two G-Drive Racing cars of Bird and Derani. The first three positions in LMGTE Pro were unchanged in the final hour and Lietz led home teammate Pilet for a Porsche one-two finish with the podium completed by Rigon's No. 71 Ferrari. In LMGTE Am, Shaytar moved past Dalla Lana in the last half an hour to clinch the No. 72 car's first victory of the season and Agias was third despite spinning in the final ten minutes.
Post-race
The result of the race meant Lotterer, Fässler and Tréluyer were still in the lead of the Drivers' Championship with 95 points but their advantage had been reduced by three as the maiden victory of Bernhard, Hartley and Webber meant the thee drivers were seventeen points behind, having moved up three positions to lie in second. Lieb, Dumas and Jani's strong result allowed the trio to move into third and Tandy fell to fourth as a result of him finishing seventh overall. Bamber and the non-competing Hülkenberg rounded out the top five. Porsche increased their advantage at the top of the Manufacturers' Championship on 184 points; Audi were thirty-three points behind their nearest rivals and Toyota remained in third place with four races left in the season.
Race results
The minimum number of laps for classification (70 per cent of the overall winning car's race distance) was 142 laps. Class winners are denoted in bold.
Standings after the race
World Endurance Drivers' Championship standings
World Endurance Manufacturers' Championship standings
Note: Only the top five positions are included for the Drivers' Championship standings.
References
Nurburgring
Nurburgring
6 Hours of Nürburgring
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The California oil and gas industry has been a major industry for over a century. Oil production was a minor factor in the 19th century, with kerosene replacing whale oil and lubricants becoming essential to the machine age. Oil became a major California industry in the 20th century with the discovery on new fields around Los Angeles and the San Joaquin Valley, and the dramatic increase in demand for gasoline to fuel automobiles and trucks. In 1900 California pumped , nearly 5% of the national supply. Then came a series of major discoveries, and the state pumped in 1914, or 38% of the national supply. In 2012 California produced of crude oil, out of the total of oil produced in the U.S, representing 8.3% of national production. California drilling operations and oil production are concentrated primarily in Kern County, San Joaquin Valley and the Los Angeles basin.
There is also some offshore oil and gas production in California, but there is now a permanent moratorium on new offshore oil and gas leasing and new offshore platforms in both California and federal waters, although new wells can be drilled from existing platforms. These restrictions were imposed after the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill released oil into the Pacific Ocean. California produces some gas but imports most of its supply by pipeline.
Early history
There was plenty of visible oil in California and eastern experts said it would be worth a fortune. The early oil ventures in the 1850s and 1860s were well-funded, but all of them failed. The drillers spent $1 million and their poor quality oil was worth only $10,000.
Prospectors after 1848 discovered an increasing number of oil seeps—oil seeping to the surface. In Northern California, there were oil seeps in Humboldt, Colusa, Santa Clara, and San Mateo Counties, and in the asphaltum seeps and bituminous residues in Mendocino, Marin, Contra Costa, Santa Clara, and Santa Cruz Counties. In Southern California, large seeps were found in Ventura, Santa Barbara, Kern, and Los Angeles Counties. Interest in oil and gas seeps was stirred in the 1850s and 1860s, Interest became widespread after the 1859 commercial discovery of oil in Pennsylvania.
In 1864, Yale chemistry professor Benjamin Silliman, Jr., a leading expert, examined the oil seepages in Ventura County, and wrote reports that indicated excellent commercial possibilities. This led Leland Stanford and his brother Josiah to dig oil tunnels into the south side of Sulphur Mountain, while Thomas A. Scott and Thomas Bard drilled into the north side. The Philadelphia & California Petroleum Company, drilled wells in the Ojai region between 1865 and 1867; one became California’s first "gusher."
As early as 1856 a company began working the tar pits at La Brea Ranch, near Los Angeles, distilling some oil. Initially these oil discoveries were done by hand digging a well with pick and shovel or even tunneling (by hand) into a mountain that contained oil. By sloping the tunnels downward the oil ran out the mouth to be collected. Some of this oil was so thick that when pipelines were used they had to be heated in winter to get the oil to flow. Transporting the oil to a market or refinery was nearly always a primary concern. In 1866 the first oil refinery in California was built near McKittrick Tar Pits in Kern County to process kerosene and asphalt.
Much of California’s early oil discoveries were in the form of asphalt also known as bitumen a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It was found in natural deposits and by processing it became a refined product. Some cities in California started asphalting their streets in the 1870s to keep down dust and mud. In the 20th century the primary use is in road construction, where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles or gravel to create asphalt concrete.
Oil production
The story of oil production in California began in the late 19th century. As of 2012, California was the nation's third most prolific oil-producing state, behind only Texas and North Dakota. In the 20th century, California’s oil industry grew to become the state’s number one GDP export and one of the most profitable industries in the region.
Standard Oil largely controlled the distribution of oil products in the state. After its breakup by the Supreme Court in 1911, its California operations became Standard Oil of California or "California Standard." It is now part of Chevron Corporation.
The Los Angeles City Oil Field was discovered in 1890, and made famous by Edward L. Doheny's successful well in 1892. The field became the top producing oil field in California, accounting for more than half of the state's oil in 1895. Doheny became one of the richest men in California. The peak year was 1901, with 200 separate oil companies active on the field. In 2011 only one small well remained in production.
In 1900, the state produced 4 million barrels. In 1903, California became the leading oil-producing state in the US, and traded the number one position back-and forth with Oklahoma through the year 1930. Production at the various oil fields increased to about 34 million barrels by 1904. By 1910 production has reached 78 million barrels.
By 1920, oil production in California had expanded to 77 million barrels. Between 1920 and 1930, new oil fields across Southern California were being discovered with regularity including Huntington Beach in 1920, Long Beach and Santa Fe Springs in 1921, and Dominguez in 1923. Southern California had become the hotbed for oil production in the United States. A 1926 Times magazine article stated that the Standard Oil Company of California (now Chevron) was then the largest individual producer of crude oil in the U.S. and dominated the marketing of petroleum products along the west coast of both Americas."
In 1929, however, the sense of crisis in the oil market grew as vast amounts of oil supplies were going unused in Southern California and throughout the US. The situation got worse during the Great Depression, with oil selling for 25 cents a barrel. The solution came in the mid-1930s when the Railroad Commission of Texas gained permission of Washington and the major oil companies to set the national price of oil.
San Joaquin Valley Oil
Except for a couple of mediocre wells on the "westside" of the
San Joaquin Valley, and a few tar mining operations, farming was the mainstay of the valley in the late 1800s. However, the 1899 discovery of "black gold" in a shallow hand-dug oil well on the west bank of the Kern River changed all that. The Kern River discovery started an oil boom, and a forest of wooden derricks sprang up overnight on the flood plain just north of Bakersfield, a sleepy farm town known to most as "Bakers Swamp". Soon Kern River production accounted for 7 out of every 10 barrels of oil that came from California, and the Kern River field by 1903 had made California the top oil-producing state in the country.
Inspired by the Kern River discovery, oil prospectors fanned out across the San Joaquin Valley, and derricks began to pop up everywhere. Many discoveries followed, and a string of spectacular gushers at Coalinga, McKittrick and Midway-Sunset fields kept the valley in the oil news.
The Valley is also home to 21 giant oil fields which have produced over 100 million barrels of oil each, with four "super giants" that have produced over 1 billion barrels of oil. Among these "super giants" are Midway-Sunset (the largest oil field in the lower 48 United States), and Elk Hills (former U.S. Naval Petroleum Reserve).
Refining and distribution
Five companies controlled most of the refining and distribution of oil in California in the early twentieth century. The leader was California Standard (Chevron Corporation), a separate company since the court-ordered breakup of the Standard Oil trust in 1911. Second was the Union Oil Company, formed in 1890, and based in Ventura County. The Shell Company of California was the only affiliate of an outside Corporation. The Associated Oil Company was fourth, and was controlled by the Southern Pacific Railroad Company. The newest company was General Petroleum Company, organized in 1910, which operated in the San Joaquin and southern fields. Union Oil Company of California, ("Unocal") was bought out by Chevron in 2005 after a Chinese attempt to buy the company failed,
California shale oil (tight oil) production
Widely distributed in sedimentary basins of southern California is the Monterey shale, thought by some to contain more than 400 billion barrels of oil in place. The formation has for many years yielded oil in areas where it is naturally fractured, and oil companies are investigating ways to make the shale in currently non-productive areas give up the oil through artificial fracturing. Over some large areas, California's geologic layers are complexly folded, making horizontal drilling difficult. As of 2013, the Monterey shale has resisted attempts to obtain economic production of oil through hydraulic fracturing, fracking, which involves injecting water, sand, and chemicals into the shale under high pressure, to crack the rock and allow the oil and gas to flow. The U.S. Energy Information Administration estimates there are over 15 billion barrels of oil that can be recovered using today's technology and potentially much more if techniques can be found to safely release it. Despite intense industry efforts, there has been little success to date (2013) in producing Monterey-hosted tight oil/shale oil, and it may be many years, if ever, before the Monterey becomes a significant producer of shale oil.
Chronology of the California oil industry
1864 - Tar mined from open pits at Asphalto (McKittrick) on west side of San Joaquin Valley.
1866 - First refinery in Kern County built near McKittrick tar pits to process kerosene and asphalt.
1866 - Oil is collected from tunnels dug at Sulphur Mountain in Ventura County by the brothers of railroad baron Leland Stanford
1866 - First steam-powered rig in California drills an oil well at Ojai, near the Sulphur Mountain seeps.
1875 - First commercial oil field in California is discovered at Pico Canyon in Los Angeles County.
1878 - First wooden derrick in Kern County constructed at Reward to drill for flux oil to mix with asphalt.
1885 - Gas wells are drilled in Stockton, California for fuel and lighting.
1885 - Oil burners used on steam engines in the California oil fields, and later used on ships and locomotives, create new oil markets.
1886 Gasoline-powered automobiles introduced in Europe.
1887 - "Wild Goose" well at Oil City, Coalinga comes in at 10 bbls/day, demonstrating potential of north part of basin.
1888 A steel-hulled tanker sails from Ventura to San Francisco.
1889 - Oil wells drilled at Old Sunset (Maricopa) with a steam-powered rig mark discovery of Midway-Sunset field.
1890 - Merger of three companies to found The Union Oil Company of California in Santa Paula, California, by Lyman Stewart, Thomas Bard, and Wallace Hardison.
1890 - Los Angeles City Oil Field is discovered
1892 - Edward L. Doheny discovers oil in downtown Los Angeles
1893 - Railroad reaches McKittrick, where tunnels and shafts are dug to mine asphalt.
1894 - Old Sunset (Maricopa) part of Midway-Sunset has 16 wells producing 30 barrels of oil per day.
1896 - Shamrock Gusher blows in at McKittrick and hastens end of tar mining operations.
1899 - Hand-dug oil well discovers Kern River field and starts an oil boom in Kern County.
1900 - California pumps 4.6% of national supply
1902 - Arrival of railroad to haul fuel makes development of Midway-Sunset field economically feasible.
1902 - First rotary drill rig in California reportedly drills a well at Coalinga field, but the hole is so crooked that a cable tool is used to redrill the well.
1903 - Kern River and Midway-Sunset production makes California the top oil producing state.
1904 - 17.2 million bbls of oil produced at Kern River site exceeds annual production from Texas.
1905 - Well, Hill 4 first successful well pumping cement value in Lompoc Oil Field.
1906-14 - Union delivers 30,000 to 60,000 barrels of fuel oil per month for construction of Panama Canal
1908 - Rotary drilling rigs and crews arrive in California from Louisiana and successfully drill wells at Midway-Sunset field.
1908 - Ford Model T introduced the gasoline powered automobile as a mass consumer product
1909 - Midway Gusher blows out near Fellows and focuses attention on Midway-Sunset field.
1910 - Union Oil made a strategic alliance with the Independent Producers Agency, a group of small oil producers, to build pipelines from the Kern County fields to Union refineries on the coast.
1910 - Lakeview Gusher blows in near Taft and becomes America's greatest oil gusher.
1911 - Standard Oil split into three dozen companies, including Standard Oil of California
1912 - Shell Oil enters the state; gasoline price wars; independents organize to try to hold prices up
1914 - California pumps 39% of national supply
1914 - Panama Canal opens; allows shipments to Britain and East Coast
1915 - The retail price of gasoline reaches a low of 11 cents a gallon
1916 - gasoline prices rise to 20 cents
1918 - United States Fuel Administration (a temporary wartime agency) takes charge and raises prices
1919 - Hay No. 7 catches fire at Elk Hills and becomes America's greatest gas gusher.
1919-20 - shortage of oil on West Coast
1921 - Oil glut on West Coast sends prices down
1923 - California pumps 36% of national supply
1923 - shipments to East Coast reach 53 million bbl
1925 - Shell operates 2913 service stations in California, second to California Standard
1926 - California pumps 29% of national supply
1929 - Blowout prevention equipment becomes mandatory on oil and gas wells drilled in California.
1929 - First well logs in California run by Shell in a well near Bakersfield (Kern County).
1930 - Deepest well in the world is Standard Mascot #1, rotary drilled to 9,629 feet at Midway-Sunset.
1931, 1939 - voters reject referendum on oil conservation
1936 - First seismic exploration in California discovers Ten Section field near Bakersfield. Seismic discovery of the productive Paloma and Coles Levee anticlines soon follows
1940 - California pumps 17% of national supply
1941-45 - stepped up production to meet war demands; gasoline is rationed at 3 gallons per week for most civilians
1943 - Deepest well in the world is Standard 20-13, drilled to 16,246 feet at South Coles Levee.
1953 - Deepest well in the world is Richfield 67-29 drilled to 17,895 feet at North Coles Levee.
1961 - First steam recovery projects in Kern County start up at Kern River and Coalinga fields after a successful pilot by Shell at Yorba Linda field in Los Angeles.
1969 - A blowout on the ocean bottom near Union Oil's platform leaked 90,000 barrels of oil into the water of the Santa Barbara Channel Widespread criticism of both Union Oil and the offshore oil drilling industry led to passage of the 1970 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA).
1973 - Tule Elk and Yowlumne fields become the last 100-million barrel fields discovered in Kern County.
1980 - First horizontal well in Kern County is Texaco Gerard #6 in fractured schist at Edison field.
1980s - Cogeneration hastens the spread of steam recovery projects, which dramatically ramp up oil production.
1985 - Kern County reaches an all-time production high of 256 million barrels of oil/year. At the same time, California reaches an all-time production high of 424 million barrels of oil/year.
1990s - 3D-seismic data and 3D-computer modeling of reservoirs bring new life to old fields.
1997 - Deepest horizontal well in Kern County is Yolwumne 91X-3 with measured depth of 14,300 feet. However, the well is surpassed only two years later by the relief well for the Bellevue blowout.
1998 - A blowout and oil well fire at the Bellevue #1 wildcat in the East Lost Hills subthrust fuels hopes for the first major Kern County discovery in over a decade. However, subsequent drilling proves to be a disappointment.
2004 - Congress balks at Chinese offer to buy Unocal
2005 - Chevron buys Unocal
2010 - Hydraulic fracturing of shale oil deposits leads to new supplies of natural gas and increased oil production
California gas production
Initially the natural gas discovered was allowed to vent or was burned off. Only a relatively small fraction was used for lighting or heating purposes. At the turn of the century, before electrical lights were common, street lighting in cities was done by gas street lamps. Some homes were lighted with gas lamps. Much of this gas was generated from coal. By the time significant amounts of natural gas became available electricity was taking over the task of lighting.
The gas industry market structure was dramatically altered by the discovery of massive natural gas fields throughout the American Southwest beginning in 1918. The natural gas found was cleaner than manufactured gas and less expensive to produce. While natural gas sources were abundant in Southern California, no economical sources were then available in Northern California. In 1929, PG&E constructed a 300-mile pipeline from the Kettleman oil field to bring natural gas to San Francisco Bay area. The city became the first major urban area to switch from manufactured coal gas to natural gas. The transition required the adjustment of burners and airflow valves on 1.75 million appliances and gas lamps. In 1936, PG&E expanded distribution with an additional 45-mile pipeline from Milpitas. PG&E gradually retired its gas manufacturing facilities, although some plants were kept on standby.
During World War II defense related population growth and industry growth boosted natural gas sales in California and cut deeply into the state's natural reserves. In 1947, PG&E entered into a contract with the Southern California Gas Company and the Southern Counties Gas Company to purchase natural gas through a new 1,000-mile pipeline running from Texas and New Mexico to Los Angeles. Another agreement was reached with the El Paso Natural Gas Company of Texas for gas delivery to the California-Arizona border. In 1951, PG&E completed a 502-mile gas main which connected with the El Paso network at the state line.
In 2012 California was the 13th largest state in terms of natural gas production, with a total annual production of 248 billion cu feet of gas. Today natural gas is the second most widely used energy source in California. Depending on yearly weather conditions, about 45% of the total natural gas used is now burned in natural gas fired electric generator plants for electricity generation as coal burning plants are phased out. Most of these plants are cogeneration plants that use high temperature burning gas to run gas turbines driven generators and use the captured turbine exhaust heat as power for a steam turbine driven generator set. By combining these technologies almost 60% of the energy from burning gas can be converted from heat into electrical power. About 9% of the natural gas is used in facilitating the extraction of more oil and gas. Roughly 21% is used for residential space and water heating, cooking, clothes drying, etc.; about 8.6% is used for commercial building and water heating, 14.5% is used in industrial use and some of the rest has varied uses such as fueling bus fleets and UPS trucks.
California imports about 85% of its natural gas using six large gas lines. The majority of its natural gas comes from the American Southwest, the Rocky Mountain states, and Canada. The remaining 15% of California's natural gas is produced in-state, both off-shore and onshore.
Natural gas-fired electricity generator plants have been the dominant use of natural gas California for many years. Natural gas is a dispatchable resource that fills in the gaps from other electrical resources when peak power loads are needed. In addition, natural gas releases from a natural gas fired generator station are about half the CO2 that coal fired plants would use. Typically California gets about 14% of its electricity from water generated electricity. The availability of hydroelectricity resources depends upon annual rainfall in the state so varies considerably year by year. The emergence of renewable and often highly variable resources for electricity generation such as solar and wind power has led to more natural gas use in generation with its much cheaper, more versatile and reliable source of electricity generation—so far.
Natural gas prices spiked in 2007 but have decreased significantly since then as more gas has become available nationwide. The biggest change in U.S. gas supply has been the expansion of total natural gas production in the Lower 48 States, which has increased 20% from 2005 to 2011. The increase is largely attributed to breakthroughs in horizontal drilling techniques and
increased hydraulic fracturing.
Six major interstate pipelines deliver the 85% of natural gas imported to California. Inside California more than 100,000 miles of intrastate pipelines take the natural gas to customers for immediate consumption or to underground storage facilities for later use. There are 10 operating natural gas storage facilities in California, which use underground depleted oil or natural gas production fields. All but three of them are owned by either Pacific Gas and Electric or Southern California Gas Company. The latest interstate pipeline additions are the 42 inch diameter Ruby Pipeline, LLC, which began operation in California near the Oregon border in July 2011, and the Kern River Expansion, which came on-line in October 2011.
In literature and film
The early California oil industry has served as a setting for several notable fictional novels and films:
Oil! (1927), a novel of social criticism by Upton Sinclair is set against the background of the California oil industry and is loosely based on the career of Edward Doheny and events related to the Teapot Dome scandal.
There Will Be Blood (2007), a film loosely based on Oil!, as well as original research on Doheny and the early California oil industry.
Burning Gold (1936 film)
Boom Town (1940), a film about wildcatting in the mid-20th Century oil industry, including in the California oil fields. Much of the film was shot on location in California oil towns such as Taft and Bakersfield.
Five Easy Pieces (1970), starting Jack Nicholson features many scenes shot in the Southern California oilfields.
Notes
Further reading
Adamson, Michael R. "The Role of the Independent: Ralph B. Lloyd and the Development of California's Coastal Oil Region, 1900-1940." Business History Review (2010) 84#2 : 301-328. in JSTOR
Andreano, Ralph. "The structure of the California petroleum industry, 1895-1911." Pacific Historical Review (1970): 171-192. in JSTOR
Ansell, Martin R. Oil Baron of the Southwest: Edward L. Doheny and the Development of the Petroleum Industry in California and Mexico (Ohio State UP, 1998)
Bain, Joe Staten. The Economics of the Pacific Coast Petroleum Industry (3 vol. University of California Press, 1944–47)
Beaton, Kendall. Enterprise In Oil: A History Of Shell In The United States (1957) pp 59–112, 269-96; considerable detail on service stations
Blackford, Mansel G. The politics of business in California, 1890-1920 (Ohio State University Press, 1977)
California Department of Conservation Division of Oil, Gas and Geothermal Resources. "Oil and Gas Production History in California" (2005) online
California Energy Commission. California Energy Almanac (annual); statistics on California's energy consumption and industry. Covers electricity, natural gas/LNG, nuclear, petroleum, power plants, propane, renewable energy (biomass, geothermal, hydroelectric, solar and wind) and transportation. online
Coleman, Charles M. P.G. and E. of California: the centennial story of Pacific Gas and Electric Company, 1852-1952 (1952) 385 pp
Davis, Margaret Leslie. Dark Side of Fortune: Triumph and Scandal in the Life of Oil Tycoon Edward L. Doheny (U of California Press, 1998).
Elkind, Sarah S. "Oil in the City: The Fall and Rise of Oil Drilling in Los Angeles," Journal of American History (2012) 99#1 pp 82–90 online
Elkind, Sarah S. "Public Oil, Private Oil: The Tidelands Oil Controversy, World War II, and Control of the Environment," in The Way We Really Were: The Golden State in the Second Great War, ed. Roger W. Lotchin (Urbana, 2000), pp 120–42.
Franks, Kenny A. and Paul F. Lambert. Early California Oil: A Photographic History, 1865-1940 (Texas A&M UP, 1985); 260pp; an illustrated general history of the industry online
Freudenberg, William R. and Robert Gramling. Oil in Troubled Waters: Perceptions, Politics, and the Battle over Offshore Drilling (SUNY Albany, 1994)
Hutchinson, W. H. Oil, Land, and Politics: The California Career of Thomas Robert Bard (2 vol 1965)
Johnson, Arthur M. "California and the national oil industry." Pacific Historical Review (1970): 155-169. in JSTOR
Latta, Frank. Black gold in the Joaquin (1949)
Nash, Gerald D. "Oil in the West: Reflections on the Historiography of an Unexplored Field," Pacific Historical Review 39 (1970): 193-204
Quam-Wickham, Nancy. "'Cities Sacrificed on the Altar of Oil': Popular Opposition to Oil Development in 1920s Los Angeles," Environmental History (April 1998) 3#2 pp 189–209.
Rintoul, William. Drilling Through Time: 75 Years With California's Division of Oil and Gas (1990) 178pp
Sabin, Paul. Crude Politics: The California Oil Market, 1900–1940 (U of California Press, 2005).
Tompkins, Walker A. Little Giant of Signal Hill: An Adventure in American Enterprise (1964)
* Welty, Earl M, and Frank J Taylor. The 76 bonanza: The fabulous life and times of the Union Oil Company of California (1966) 351pp
White, Gerald T. Formative Years in the Far West: A History of Standard Oil Company of California and Predecessors Through 1919 (1962)
White, Gerald T. Scientists in Conflict: The Beginnings of the Oil Industry in California (Huntington Library, 1968), on 1860s
Williams, James C. Energy and the making of modern California (University of Akron Press, 1997)
Energy in California
History of California
Economy of California
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According to Hindus, Kali (Devanāgari: , IAST: , with both vowels short; from a root , 'suffer, hurt, startle, confuse') is the reigning lord of the Kali Yuga and nemesis of Kalki, the 10th and final avatar of the Hindu God Vishnu.
Mahabharata
According to the Mahabharata, the gandharva Kali became jealous when he was late to Princess Damayanti's marriage ceremony and discovered she had overlooked the deities Indra, Agni, Varuna, and Yama (and ultimately himself) to choose Nala as her husband. In anger, Kali spoke to his companion Dvapara, the personification of Dvapara Yuga:
Kali traveled to Nala's kingdom of Nishadhas and waited twelve long years for the right moment to strike. Because Nala had rendered himself impure by not washing his feet before his prayers, Kali was able to bewitch his soul. Kali then appeared before Pushkara and invited him to play a game of dice with his brother, guaranteeing Nala's downfall. Dwapara took the form of the Vrisha die that would be used in the fixed game. Kali forced Nala to lose and, each time, he would raise the stakes higher despite the protest of his advisors and wife. Finally, Nala lost his kingdom to Pushkara. Both he and Damayanti were exiled to the forest.
During their exile, Kali drove Nala to abandon Damayanti, who later enacted a curse against everyone that had caused the downfall of her husband. She eventually returned home after a short time as a handmaiden to the Princess of Chedi. Nala, meanwhile, saved the Naga Karkotaka from fire (where he was cursed to suffer by sage Narada). Intending to exorcise the devil within him, the serpent bit Nala, injecting him with deadly poisons that forever tortured Kali. The venom also changed Nala into an ugly dwarf named Bahuka. He later became the charioteer of the Ayodhya King Rituparna, who was a master mathematician and dice player.
Years later, King Rituparna revealed to Bahuka the supreme skill of controlling the dice in exchange for horsemanship lessons. This skill awakened Nala from Kali's control and allowed him (with the help of Damayanti's curse and Karkotaka's venom) to exorcise the demon; vomiting him in the form of poison from his mouth. Nala forced Kali's trembling spirit into a Vibhitaka tree. He then counted the fruits of the tree and left in search of his wife and later regained his true form. Kali returned to his abode as well.
Kali was then later incarnated as king Duryodhana, eldest of the one hundred Kaurava brothers. His companion Dvapara became his uncle Shakuni. The day Duryodhana was born, he unleashed a donkey-like scream which the donkeys outside the home replied to. Despite the advice from Vidura to discard the evil baby, Duryodhana's father Dhritarashtra kept the child because of his blind love for his son and overlooked his responsibility as the King.
At the onset of Kali Yuga, once king Parikshit went hunting in the forest. Just then in the middle of the way, Kali appeared before him and asked permission to enter his kingdom, which the king denied. Upon insisting, Parikshit allowed him five places to reside: where there is gambling, alcohol consumption, prostitution, animal slaughter and gold. Kali smartly entered into Parikshit's golden crown and spoiled his thoughts. Parikshit entered the hut of a sage named Shamika as he was thirsty. He found the sage in deep meditation. He bowed to him several times but there was no response. In anger, he took a dead snake and threw it around the sage's neck. Later when the sage's son, Shringin, heard of this incident he cursed the king to die of snake bite on the seventh day. On hearing this, the king forswore the throne for his son Janamejaya and spent his last seven days listening to the discourses of sage Shuka, compiled as the Bhagavata Purana under the banyan tree of Shukratal. As prophesied, the snake king Takshaka bit Parikshita, who left his mortal remains behind and attained Moksha.
Puranic accounts
The Kalki Purana describes him as a huge being, the color of soot, with a large tongue, and a terrible stench. From his birth, he carried an Upasthi (worship) bone. The Kalki Purana says that this demon chose gambling, liquor, prostitution, slaughter and gold as his permanent abodes." The Sanskrit-English Dictionary states Kali is "of a class of mythic beings (related to the Gandharvas, and supposed by some to be fond of gambling)". The Bhagavata Purana describes Kali as a 'sudra wearing the garments of a king' and portrays him as a brownish-skinned demon with a dog-like face, protruding fangs, pointed ears and long green bushy hair, wearing a red loin cloth and golden jewelry.
It is believed that the names of the four yugas of time—Satya, Treta, Dvapara and Kali—are named after "dice throws" from a game of dice popular during the Vedic period. Their order coincides with the favorability of each throw: Satya is the best throw, whereas Kali is considered the worst. During the Mahabharata, king Nala exorcises the disembodied spirit of Kali to a vibhīdaka tree (Terminalia belerica), whose fruits contain nuts which were used as the dice for the vedic dice game. Therefore, not only Kali's name, but his penchant for gambling and reputation as being evil comes from this dice game.
The Hindu texts never mention that the yuga names come from a dice game. The Manusmriti (1.69) indicates some ancient Sages named the yugas, although there is no mention of a dice game.
Churning of the ocean of milk
According to a lesser known Madhva version of the legend, during the churning of the ocean of milk, a great poison known as halahala was produced, which Vayu, the demigod of wind, rubbed in his hands to reduce its potency. Then a small portion was given to god Shiva, turning his throat blue. The rest was collected in a golden vessel and digested by Vayu. (One source states he drank the Kalakuta poison of Vasuki nāga. Still others more commonly state that Shiva drank alone.) A little portion of poison that wasn't swallowed by Shiva became the body of Kali. From this poison also came, "cruel objects like snakes, wolves, and tigers."
Later, when the asura Rahu was decapitated by Vishnu's Mohini Avatar, the demon's allies attacked her and all except Kali were killed. Having the power to possess the bodies of immortal and mortal beings, he entered the hearts of man and escaped, using the men he possessed to corrupt the primordial scriptures by deliberately miswriting them, generating widespread chaos. Because Kali was "invisible, unimaginable, and present in all" the only way to correct the chaos born from the miswritten texts was to completely renew the sacred scriptures entirely. Thus Vishnu descended to earth as Vedavyasa, the compiler of the sacred scriptures Vedas and the writer of the Puranas.
Markandeya Purana
According to Markandeya Purana, the Brahmin Pravara was given a magical ointment that allowed him to fly. But when he flew to the Himalayas, the ointment was washed away from the bottoms of his feet keeping him from returning home to his wife. During this time, the nymph Varuthini fell madly in love with him and begged the Brahmin to stay with her forever. But eventually, he rejected her. He prayed to Agni who returned him home safely.
The gandharva Kali was in love with ‘‘Varuthini’’ and had been rejected by her in the past. He saw how she hungered for the Brahmin, so he took on the appearance of Pravara and came before the courtesan. He led her into the bedchamber and told her to close her eyes during their sex [sambhoga]. As they made love, Varuthini noticed that his body became flaming hot and believed it was because his Brahmin spirit was infused with the sacrificial fire. After climax, Kali, still-as-Pravara, left the apsara and returned to his abode. Varuthini soon became pregnant and nine months later gave birth to a human child that not only looked like the Brahmin but possessed his soul as well. The authors of the book Science in Culture comment this was an example of the Sanskrit phrase "from his semen and from her thinking," meaning the child was indeed Pravara's child because she believed it was his.
In another version, Kali stipulates he will only marry the apsara if she keeps her eyes closed while they are in the forest (presumably making love). However, Kali leaves after their marriage and the birth of their son Svarocisa. Svarocisa grows up to become a very learned scholar of the Vedas and learns to speak the languages of all creatures from one of his three wives. He later marries a goddess and fathers Svarocisa Manu, one of the progenitors of mankind. (See Progeny)
Bhagavata Purana
The Bhagavata Purana states the very day and moment avatar Krishna left this earth, Kali, "who promotes all kinds of irreligious activities", came into this world.
After setting off to wage war against the evils of the world with his armies, Emperor Parikshit, the grandson of Arjuna, came across a Sudra dressed as a king who was beating a cow and an ox with a club. Parikshit immediately led his chariot over to the scene and angrily berated the sudra for abusing the sacred cow and her mate. However, this was no ordinary sudra and these were no ordinary bovine, for the sudra was Kali and the cow and ox were embodiments of the earth goddess and Dharma. The Emperor noticed the ox was standing on one of his legs because the other three had been broken by Kali. Dharma explained his four legs represented "austerity, cleanliness, mercy and truthfulness", but he had only the leg of "truth" to stand on since the other three had been broken by kali over the preceding yugas. Kali was intent on breaking all the legs that supported the reign of dharma so he could effect the expansion of his own dark reign on earth. The earth goddess cried for she had once been plentiful, but when Krishna ascended to heaven, she was forsaken and all of the prosperity left from the world. She feared evil kings like Kali would continue to lay waste to the earth.
When Parikshit raised his sword to kill Kali, the sudra stripped himself of his royal garments and prostrated himself at the emperor's feet. The emperor knew Kali tainted the world with his evil and so had no place in it and raised his sword once more. But Kali interceded again and begged the emperor to spare his life and allow him a place to live within his empire. Parikshit decided that Kali would live in "gambling houses, in taverns, in women and men of unchaste lives, in slaughtering places and in gold". And as long as Parikshit ruled India, Kali stayed within the confines of these five places. This act allowed Dharma to regain his legs and the earth to be relieved of much burden. However, Parikshit was later cursed to die by snake bite after hunting in the forest and throwing a dead snake on an unresponsive sage practicing austerities. Upon the emperor's death, "Kali made his way to other places like wild fire and established his power throughout the length and breadth of the whole world."
In another version of the tale, Kali enters into the Emperor's crown when Parikshit gives him permission to reside wherever there is gold. Upon returning home after offending the sage, Parikshit says to himself, Kali Yuga's abode is in gold; this was on my head; hence I had so evil a thought that, having taken a dead snake cast it on the sage’s neck. Therefore, I now understand that Kali Yuga has taken his revenge on me. How shall I escape this grievous sin?"
Kalki Purana
The beginning of the Kalki Purana describes Kali's lineage starting with the Brahma, his great-great-grandfather, and ending with the birth of his children's children. Instead of being born of poison from the churning of the ocean of milk, he is the product of a long line of incestuous monsters born from Brahma's back. (See Family Lineage below) Kali and his family were created by Brahma to hurry the dissolution of the cosmos after the pralaya period was over. When his family takes human form on earth, they further taint the hearts and minds of mankind to bring about the end of Dvapara Yuga and the beginning of Kali Yuga. During the first stage of Kali Yuga, the varnashrama breaks down and God-worship is forsaken by man. All through the second, third, and fourth stages, man forgets the name of god and no longer offers Yajna (offerings) to the Devas. It is at this point when God Vishnu reincarnates as Kalki in the name of the Devas and all of mankind to rid the cosmos of Kali's dark influence.
The remainder of the tale describes Kalki's childhood, military training under the immortal Parashurama and assisting, training and teaching Kalki on Dharma, Karma, Artha and knowledge of most ancient and necessary Wisdom with military and social perspective but also help, support and join his fight against evils as greater guidance, his marriage, his preparation for war against the demon Kali, and the decisive war between the two. Kalki kicks off his campaign by performing the Ashvamedha sacrifice and leading his armies behind the horse as it runs freely from kingdom to kingdom. If any evil king tries to stop the horse, Kalki engages them in combat. After defeating them, he continues to follow the horse until all evil kingdoms are vanquished. When Kali finally faces Kalki's forces, his entire family blood line is wiped out by the avatar's generals and he presumably dies from wounds inflicted by Dharma and Satya Yuga personified. Kalki, meanwhile, battles and simultaneously kills the demon's most powerful generals, Koka and Vikoka, twin devils adept in the dark arts.
Death
Kali dies one-third of the way through the Kalki Purana. During the decisive battle between Kali and Kalki's armies, Kali tried to face both Dharma and Satya Yuga personified, but was overwhelmed and fled on his donkey because his chariot had been destroyed, leaving his owl-charged war flag to be trampled on the battlefield. Kali retreated to the citadel of his capital city of Vishasha where he discovered his body had been mortally stabbed and burned during his battle with the two devas. The stench of his blood billowed out and filled the atmosphere with a foul odor. When Dharma and Satya burst into the city, Kali tried to run away, but, knowing his family had been destroyed, coupled with his grievous wounds, he "entered his unmanifested years". This might lead some to believe he died, but one version of the Kalki Purana in the book The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology states Kali does not die but, instead, escapes through time and space to live in the Kali Yuga of the next Kalpa. The author comments, "Unlike most battles between gods and demons, however, this apparent victory is immediately undercut, for Kali escapes to reappear in 'another age'—in our age, or the next Kali Age." Since he had the power to manifest himself in human form on earth, he was able to forsake his dying corporeal form to escape in spirit.
Family lineage
Kali is the great-great-grandson of Lord Brahma. He is the son of Krodha (Anger) and his sister-turned-wife Himsa (Violence). He is the grandson of Dambha (Vanity) and his sister Maya (Illusion). He is the great-grandson of Adharma (Impropriety) and his wife, Mithya (Falsehood). Adharma was originally created from Lord Brahma's back as a Maleen Pataka (a very dark and deadly sinful object).
B. K. Chaturvedi, a modern translator of the Kalki Purana, states in a footnote that the growth of this dark sinful object into Adharma seems to, "convey the growth of Kali Yuga and its obnoxious offshoots."
Vishnu Purana
Kali's family lineage is told differently in the Vishnu Purana, which is a father purana to the Kalki Purana:
The wife of Adharma (vice) was Himsá (violence), on whom he begot a son Anrita (falsehood), and a daughter Nikriti (immorality): they intermarried, and had two sons, Bhaya (fear) and Naraka (hell); and twins to them, two daughters, Maya (deceit) and Vedaná (grief), who became their wives. The son of Bhaya and Máyá was the destroyer of living creatures, or Mrityu (death); and Dukha (pain) was the offspring of Naraka and Vedaná. The children of Mrityu were Vyádhi (disease), Jará (decay), Soka (sorrow), Trishńa (greediness), and Krodha (wrath). These are all called the inflictors of misery, and are characterised as the progeny of Vice (Adharma). They are all without wives, without posterity, without the faculty to procreate; they are the terrible forms of Vishńu, and perpetually operate as causes of the destruction of this world. On the contrary, Daksha and the other Rishis, the elders of mankind, tend perpetually to influence its renovation; whilst the Manus and their sons, the heroes endowed with mighty power, and treading in the path of truth, constantly contribute to its preservation.
In this version, Himsa is Adharma's wife instead of his granddaughter.
In Bhagavata Purana
According to the Bhagavata Purana, Adharma is the husband of Mrishá (falsehood), and the father of Dambha (hypocrisy) and Máyá (deceit), who were adopted by Nirritti (Hindu goddess of misery). The series of their descendants is also somewhat varied from our text; being in each descent, however, twins which intermarry, or Lobha (covetousness) and Nikriti, who produce Krodha (wrath) and Hinsá: their children are, Kali (wickedness) and Durukti (evil speech): their progeny are, Mrityu and Bhí (fear); whose offspring are, Niraya (hell) and Yátaná (torment).
In this version, Mrisha is the wife of Adharma and not Himsa or Mithya.
Linga Purana
The Linga Purana enumerates Adharma among the Prajapatis (Lords of Creatures).
Dharma personified
Since Dharma is one of the major antagonists of Kali, it is important to note this personified deity has his own line of offspring that work against the demon and his family to bring balance to the world. The following comes from the Vishnu Purana:
The progeny of Dharma by the daughters of Daksha were as follows: by Sraddha he had Kama (desire); by Lakshmi, Darpa (pride); by Dhriti, Niyama (precept); by Tushti, Santosha (content); by Pushti, Lobha (cupidity); by Medhá, Sruta (sacred tradition); by Kriya, Danda, Naya, and Vinaya (correction, polity, and prudence); by Buddhi, Bodha (understanding); by Lajj, Vinaya (good behaviour); by Vapu, Vyavasaya (perseverance). Santi gave birth to Kshema (prosperity); Siddhi to Sukha (enjoyment); and Kírtti to Yasas. These were the sons of Dharma; one of whom, Kama, had Hersha (joy) by his wife Nandi (delight).
Again, the Bhagavata Purana gives a different account of his children's names.
It is described in Mahabharata as the eldest Pandava brother, Yudhishthira was the son of Dharma.
Progeny
Kali's sister-turned-wife, Durukti (Calumny), gave him two offspring: a son named Bhayanak (Fear) and a daughter named Mrityu (Death). His son and daughter gave him two grandchildren: a boy named Naraka (Hell) and a girl named Yatana (Torture). Again, there are some discrepancies here. The Vishnu Purana says Mrityu and Bhayanak are his brother and sister. Mrityu is even represented as male instead of female.
Kali is the grandfather of Svarocisa Manu, one of the progenitors of mankind. As previously mentioned, Kali had a son named Svarocisa with the Apsara Varuthini. Svarocisa once traveld to Mt. Mandara and was met by Manorama, a cursed-woman being chased by a demon. In the past, she had made fun of a sage practicing Tapasya austerities on Mt. Kailas and was cursed to be captured by a demon. When her friends Vibhavari and Kalavati berated the sage for enacting a curse for such a minor offence, he cursed one to be a leper and the other a carrier of diseases. Manorama had knowledge of a powerful spiritual weapon, but did not know how to wield it, so she taught it to Svarocisa. When the demon leaped out of the forest and grabbed ahold of the woman, Svarocis called forth the weapon. But the demon stayed his hand and explained he was actually Manorama's father, Indivara. He had also been cursed to become a demon by the sage Brahmamitra because he tried to covertly obtain the secrets of Ayurveda medicine without the sage's knowledge. The sage told him that the curse would end when he was about to eat his own daughter. Once he regained his true form, Indivara taught Svarocisa the Ayurveda medication, which he used to cure Manorama's friends. He later married the three and had three sons with them. He learned the languages of all creatures from Vibhavari and the Padmini vidya from Kalavati.
Despite his prosperity, Svarocis was unhappy in his life and could hear the ducks and deer talking about him behind his back. One day he went hunting and took aim at a boar, but a deer came through the clearing and asked to be shot in its place. When he enquired why, the deer told him that she was really the goddess of the forest and wished to marry Svarocisa. So he embraced the deer and she turned into a beautiful woman. Together, they had a son named Dyutiman, who later became the Svarocisa Manu.
One source states, "Kali's wife Alakshmi and her sons who supervise evil also came from Kshirasagara [the ocean of milk]." Alakshmi is the elderly twin sister of the Goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu. Since the Kalki Purana states his wife Durukti is his sister, Alakshmi would be a second wife because she is not directly related to him.
There are a number of connections and similarities between Kali and Alakshmi. First and foremost, Alakshmi's sister is the consort of Lord Vishnu, who sent his Kalki avatar to earth to defeat Kali. Second, legends say she was born either from the churning of the ocean of milk, the poison from Vasuki (who helped churn the ocean) or the back of Prajapati. As previously mentioned, Kali is said to have been born from the halahala poison created from churning the ocean or from a lineage created from Lord Brahma’s back. Third, Alakshmi takes the form of an owl. Kali's emblem on his war flag is of an owl. Fourth, whenever Alakshmi enters a house, families fight and turn on one another. The presence of Kali and his family on earth causes mankind to fight and turn on one another. Finally, Alakshmi is said to ride a donkey. Kali also rides a donkey in the Kalki Purana.
Role in modern communalism
Kali's image was used in several pamphlets circulated by various Agorakshanasabh ("cow protection leagues") and "wandering ascetics" as a protest against the Muslim practice of beef-eating during the British raj. These pamphlets were produced in a time when Hindu-Muslim riots over cow slaughter occurred in several areas of India; including Azamgarh district (1893), when a total of 100 people died in similar conflagrations throughout the empire; Ayodhya (1912–1913); and Shahabad (1917). One such pamphlet entitled "The Present State" showed a cow being slaughtered by a trio of "Muhammadan" butchers. Another portrayed Kali raising a sword above the head of a sacred cow, whose body was illustrated to be a microcosmic paradise in which all the Hindu gods resided. There were many different editions of this version. For instance, one showed a woman labeled "The Hindu" waiting with bowl-in-hand for the cow's calf to finish suckling before she could get milk. A form of Krishna labeled Darmaraj ("Ruler of Dharma") stood behind the cow and Kali was, again, harassing her with his sword. Still, a different one deleted the woman and calf and instead portrayed Dharmaraj in front of the cow pleading mat maro gay sarv ka jivan hai ("don't kill the cow, everyone is dependent on it"), while Kali rebuts he manusyaho! Kaliyugi Mansahari jivom ko dekho ("mankind, look at the meat-eating souls of the Kali Yuga").
Some Hindus considered Kali's presence in the picture to be a representation of the Muslim community. When one of the versions of these pamphlets came into the possession of a state official in 1893, he commented that the image "contained a representation of a Musalman [Muslim] advancing to slay the cow ...". One book states, "The Magistrate [at Deoria] found Muhammadans excited because they heard a picture was in circulation representing a Muhammadan with a sword drawn sacrificing a cow, and this they considered an insult." In 1915, a color version of this picture run by the Ravi Varma Press caught the attention of the colonial censors and was presumably censored in some way.
In popular culture
Nala Damayanti (1921): This big-budget film depicts a famous episode from the Mahabharata, starting with Narada's ascent of Mount Meru. It shows Swarga, the Heaven of Indra, the Transformation in the Clouds of the Four Gods into impersonations of King Nala, Swan Messengers of Love, the Transformation of Kali into a Serpent, the Meeting of Kali and Dwarpa and the Four Gods amidst the Blue Air.
To differentiate him from the goddess Kali, the demon Kali is sometimes referred to as "Kalipurush" (Kali the being).
Films and Television
The Role of demon kali depicted in Films
Television
Notes
External links
Places of Kali – Podcast of Kali's tale from the Bhagavata Purana.
કલિયુગનાં ચાર આશ્રયસ્થાન (Kaliyuga's mainstay) – The tale of Kali and Parikshit in Gujarati.
Srimad Bhagavatam: Cant 1 – See chapters 16 and 17.
A very large detailed painting of King Parikshit about to kill Kali.
Kaliyan (Boons received by Kali)
Demons in Hinduism
Rakshasa
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Public General Acts
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| {{|Petroleum Royalties (Relief) and Continental Shelf Act 1989|public|1|07-02-1989|maintained=y|An Act to confer on holders of certain petroleum licences an exemption from royalties (including royalties in kind) in respect of petroleum from certain onshore and offshore fields and to confer power to amend the Continental Shelf (Designation of Additional Areas) Order 1974 to give effect to an Agreement made between Her Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom and the Government of the Republic of Ireland relating to their respective rights in relation to the continental shelf.}}
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| {{|Consolidated Fund Act 1989|public|2|15-03-1989|maintained=y|An Act to apply certain sums out of the Consolidated Fund to the service of the years ending on 31st March 1988 and 1989.}}
|-
| {{|Elected Authorities (Northern Ireland) Act 1989|public|3|15-03-1989|maintained=y|An Act to amend the law relating to the franchise at elections to district councils in Northern Ireland, to make provision in relation to a declaration against terrorism to be made by candidates at such elections and at elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly and by persons co-opted as members of district councils, to amend sections 3 and 4 of the Local Government Act (Northern Ireland) 1972, and for connected purposes.}}
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| {{|Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1989|public|4|15-03-1989|maintained=y|An Act to make provision in place of the Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1984; to make further provision in relation to powers of search under, and persons convicted of scheduled offences within the meaning of, the Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1978; and to enable the Secretary of State to prevent the establishment of new explosives factories, magazines and stores in Northern Ireland.}}
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| {{|Security Service Act 1989|public|5|27-04-1989|maintained=y|An Act to place the Security Service on a statutory basis; to enable certain actions to be taken on the authority of warrants issued by the Secretary of State, with provision for the issue of such warrants to be kept under review by a Commissioner; to establish a procedure for the investigation by a Tribunal or, in some cases, by the Commissioner of complaints about the Service; and for connected purposes.}}
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| {{|Official Secrets Act 1989|public|6|11-05-1989|maintained=y|An Act to replace section 2 of the Official Secrets Act 1911 by provisions protecting more limited classes of official information.}}
|-
| {{|Atomic Energy Act 1989|public|7|25-05-1989|maintained=y|An Act to alter the financial limit imposed by section 2(1) of the Nuclear Industry (Finance) Act 1977 in relation to British Nuclear Fuels plc; to make provision with respect to the recovery of certain expenses by the Health and Safety Executive; to amend sections 18 and 19 of the Nuclear Installations Act 1965; to make provision in connection with the Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency; and for connected purposes.}}
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| {{|National Maritime Museum Act 1989|public|8|25-05-1989|maintained=y|An Act to transfer land to the Trustees of the National Maritime Museum; to make further provision with respect to the functions of those Trustees; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Civil Aviation (Air Navigation Charges) Act 1989|public|9|25-05-1989|maintained=y|An Act to enable charges imposed under section 73(1)(a) of the Civil Aviation Act 1982 to be prescribed in units of account defined by reference to more than one currency.}}
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| {{|Disabled Persons (Northern Ireland) Act 1989|public|10|25-05-1989|maintained=y|An Act to make provision equivalent to the Disabled Persons (Services, Consultation and Representation) Act 1986 for Northern Ireland.}}
|-
| {{|Police Officers (Central Service) Act 1989|public|11|03-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to amend the enactments relating to central service on police duties.}}
|-
| {{|Hearing Aid Council (Amendment) Act 1989|public|12|03-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to amend the Hearing Aid Council Act 1968 in order to make further provision for the regulation, conduct and discipline of persons engaged in dispensing hearing aids; to amend the composition of the Hearing Aid Council; and for purposes connected with those matters.}}
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| {{|Dock Work Act 1989|public|13|03-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to abolish the Dock Workers Employment Scheme 1967 and repeal the Dock Workers (Regulation of Employment) Act 1946; to make provision for the dissolution of the National Dock Labour Board; and for connected purposes.}}
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| {{|Control of Pollution (Amendment) Act 1989|public|14|06-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to provide for the registration of carriers of controlled waste and to make further provision with respect to the powers exercisable in relation to vehicles shown to have been used for illegal waste disposal.}}
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| {{|Water Act 1989|public|15|06-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to provide for the establishment and functions of a National Rivers Authority and of committees to advise that Authority; to provide for the transfer of the property, rights and liabilities of water authorities to the National Rivers Authority and to companies nominated by the Secretary of State and for the dissolution of those authorities; to provide for the appointment and functions of a Director General of Water Services and of customer service committees; to provide for companies to be appointed to be water undertakers and sewerage undertakers and for the regulation of the appointed companies; to make provision with respect to, and the finances of, the nominated companies, holding companies of the nominated companies and statutory water companies; to amend the law relating to the supply of water and the law relating to the provision of sewers and the treatment and disposal of sewage; to amend the law with respect to the pollution of water and the law with respect to its abstraction from inland waters and underground strata; to make new provision in relation to flood defence and fisheries; to transfer functions with respect to navigation, conservancy and harbours to the National Rivers Authority; and for connected purposes.}}
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| {{|Parking Act 1989|public|16|21-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to amend the Road Traffic Regulation Act 1984 in relation to parking.}}
|-
| {{|Control of Smoke Pollution Act 1989|public|17|21-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to amend section 16(1)(a) of the Clean Air Act 1956 and section 1 of the Clean Air Act 1968.}}
|-
| {{|Common Land (Rectification of Registers) Act 1989|public|18|21-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to provide for removing from the registers maintained under the Commons Registration Act 1965 land on which there is a dwellinghouse or which is ancillary to a dwellinghouse and in respect of which that requirement has been satisfied at all times since 5th August 1945; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
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| {{|International Parliamentary Organisations (Registration) Act 1989|public|19|21-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to set up a register of publicly-financed international parliamentary organisations which are in receipt of an annual grant-in-aid to fund both British and international secretariats and which draw their membership from both Houses of Parliament.}}
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| {{|Licensing (Amendment) Act 1989 |public|20|21-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to amend the Licensing Act 1964.}}
|-
| {{|Antarctic Minerals Act 1989|public|21|21-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to make provision with respect to the exploration and exploitation of mineral resources in Antarctica; to enable proceedings with respect to matters arising under the law of the British Antarctic Territory to be brought in England and Wales; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Road Traffic (Driver Licensing and Information Systems) Act 1989|public|22|21-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to amend the law relating to driving licences and to regulate the operation of systems providing drivers of motor vehicles with guidance and information derived from automatically processed data or collecting, storing and processing the data.}}
|-
| {{|Transport (Scotland) Act 1989|public|23|21-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to make provision for the transfer to the private sector of the operations of the Scottish Transport Group, other than its shipping operations; for the transfer of its shipping operations to the Secretary of State; to provide for the dissolution of the Group; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Social Security Act 1989|public|24|21-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to amend the law relating to social security and occupational and personal pension schemes; to make provision with respect to certain employment-related benefit schemes; to provide for the recovery, out of certain compensation payments, of amounts determined by reference to payments of benefit; to make fresh provision with respect to the constitution and functions of war pensions committees; and for connected purposes.}}
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| {{|Appropriation Act 1989|public|25|27-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to apply a sum out of the Consolidated Fund to the service of the year ending on 31st March 1990, to appropriate the supplies granted in this Session of Parliament, and to repeal certain Consolidated Fund and Appropriation Acts.}}
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| {{|Finance Act 1989|public|26|27-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to grant certain duties, to alter other duties, and to amend the law relating to the National Debt and the Public Revenue, and to make further provision in connection with Finance.}}
|-
| {{|Pesticides (Fees and Enforcement) Act 1989|public|27|27-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to substitute new provisions for section 18 of the Food and Environment Protection Act 1985; to amend section 19 of that Act; and for connected purposes.}}
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| {{|Representation of the People Act 1989|public|28|27-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to amend the law relating to the entitlement of British citizens resident outside the United Kingdom to vote at parliamentary elections and elections to the European Parliament and to increase the maximum amount of candidates' election expenses at parliamentary by-elections.}}
|-
| {{|Electricity Act 1989|public|29|27-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to provide for the appointment and functions of a Director General of Electricity Supply and of consumers' committees for the electricity supply industry; to make new provision with respect to the supply of electricity through electric lines and the generation and transmission of electricity for such supply; to abolish the Electricity Consumers' Council and the Consultative Councils established under the Electricity Act 1947; to provide for the vesting of the property, rights and liabilities of the Electricity Boards and the Electricity Council in companies nominated by the Secretary of State and the subsequent dissolution of those Boards and that Council; to provide for the giving of financial assistance in connection with the storage and reprocessing of nuclear fuel, the treatment, storage and disposal of radioactive waste and the decommissioning of nuclear installations; to amend the Rights of Entry (Gas and Electricity Boards) Act 1954 and the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Dangerous Dogs Act 1989|public|30|27-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to extend the powers available to a court on a complaint under section 2 of the Dogs Act 1871 together with additional rights of appeal and enhanced penalties.}}
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| {{|Human Organ Transplants Act 1989|public|31|27-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to prohibit commercial dealings in human organs intended for transplanting; to restrict the transplanting of such organs between persons who are not genetically related; and for supplementary purposes connected with those matters.}}
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| {{|Fair Employment (Northern Ireland) Act 1989|public|32|27-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to establish a Fair Employment Tribunal for Northern Ireland and offices of President and Vice-President of the Industrial Tribunals and the Fair Employment Tribunal; to amend the Fair Employment (Northern Ireland) Act 1976; to make further provision with respect to the promotion of equality of opportunity in employments and occupations in Northern Ireland between persons of different religious beliefs; and for connected purposes.}}
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| {{|Extradition Act 1989|public|33|27-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to consolidate enactments relating to extradition under the Criminal Justice Act 1988, the Fugitive Offenders Act 1967 and the Extradition Acts 1870 to 1935, with amendments to give effect to recommendations of the Law Commission and the Scottish Law Commission.}}
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| {{|Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1989|public|34|27-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to make new provision with respect to deeds and their execution and contracts for the sale or other disposition of interests in land; and to abolish the rule of law known as the rule in Bain v. Fothergill.}}
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| {{|Continental Shelf Act 1989|public|35|27-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to amend section 3 of the Petroleum Royalties (Relief) and Continental Shelf Act 1989.}}
|-
| {{|Brunei (Appeals) Act 1989|public|36|16-11-1989|maintained=y|An Act to make provision with respect to the reference of appeals from the Supreme Court of Brunei Darussalam to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.}}
|-
| {{|Football Spectators Act 1989|public|37|16-11-1989|maintained=y|An Act to control the admission of spectators at designated football matches in England and Wales by means of a national membership scheme and licences to admit spectators; to provide for the safety of spectators at such matches by means of such licences and the conferment of functions on the licensing authority in relation to safety certificates for grounds at which such matches are played; and to provide for the making by courts and the enforcement of orders imposing restrictions on persons convicted of certain offences for the purpose of preventing violence or disorder at or in connection with designated football matches played outside England and Wales.}}
|-
| {{|Employment Act 1989|public|38|16-11-1989|maintained=y|An Act to amend the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 in pursuance of the Directive of the Council of the European Communities, dated 9th February 1976, (No. 76/207/EEC) on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions; to repeal or amend prohibitions or requirements relating to the employment of young persons and other categories of employees; to make other amendments of the law relating to employment and training; to repeal section 1(1)(a) of the Celluloid and Cinematograph Film Act 1922; to dissolve the Training Commission; to make further provision with respect to industrial training boards; to make provision with respect to the transfer of staff employed in the Skills Training Agency; and for connected purposes.}}
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| {{|Self-Governing Schools etc. (Scotland) Act 1989|public|39|16-11-1989|maintained=y|An Act to make provision as regards the acquisition of self-governing status by certain public schools in Scotland; to make further provision as regards education in Scotland; and for connected purposes.}}
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| {{|Companies Act 1989|public|40|16-11-1989|maintained=y|An Act to amend the law relating to company accounts; to make new provision with respect to the persons eligible for appointment as company auditors; to amend the Companies Act 1985 and certain other enactments with respect to investigations and powers to obtain information and to confer new powers exercisable to assist overseas regulatory authorities; to make new provision with respect to the registration of company charges and otherwise to amend the law relating to companies; to amend the Fair Trading Act 1973; to enable provision to be made for the payment of fees in connection with the exercise by the Secretary of State, the Director General of Fair Trading and the Monopolies and Mergers Commission of their functions under Part V of that Act; to make provision for safeguarding the operation of certain financial markets; to amend the Financial Services Act 1986; to enable provision to be made for the recording and transfer of title to securities without a written instrument; to amend the Company Directors Disqualification Act 1986, the Company Securities (Insider Dealing) Act 1985, the Policyholders Protection Act 1975 and the law relating to building societies; and for connected purposes.}}
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| {{|Children Act 1989|public|41|16-11-1989|maintained=y|An Act to reform the law relating to children; to provide for local authority services for children in need and others; to amend the law with respect to children's homes, community homes, voluntary homes and voluntary organisations; to make provision with respect to fostering, child minding and day care for young children and adoption; and for connected purposes.}}
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| {{|Local Government and Housing Act 1989|public|42|16-11-1989|maintained=y|An Act to make provision with respect to the members, officers and other staff and the procedure of local authorities; to amend Part III of the Local Government Act 1974 and Part II of the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1975 and to provide for a national code of local government conduct; to make further provision about the finances and expenditure of local authorities (including provision with respect to housing subsidies) and about companies in which local authorities have interests; to make provision for and in connection with renewal areas, grants towards the cost of improvement and repair of housing accommodation and the carrying out of works of maintenance, repair and improvement; to amend the Housing Act 1985 and Part III of the Local Government Finance Act 1982; to make amendments of and consequential upon Parts I, II and IV of the Housing Act 1988; to amend the Local Government Finance Act 1988 and the Abolition of Domestic Rates Etc. (Scotland) Act 1987 and certain enactments relating, as respects Scotland, to rating and valuation, and to provide for the making of grants; to make provision with respect to the imposition of charges by local authorities; to make further provision about certain existing grants and about financial assistance to and planning by local authorities in respect of emergencies; to amend sections 102 and 211 of the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973; to amend the Local Land Charges Act 1975; to enable local authorities in Wales to be known solely by Welsh language names; to provide for the transfer of new town housing stock; to amend certain of the provisions of the Housing (Scotland) Act 1987 relating to a secure tenant's right to purchase his house; to amend section 47 of the Race Relations Act 1976; to confer certain powers on the Housing Corporation, Housing for Wales and Scottish Homes; to make provision about security of tenure for certain tenants under long tenancies; to provide for the making of grants and giving of guarantees in respect of certain activities carried on in relation to the construction industry; to provide for the repeal of certain enactments relating to improvement notices, town development and education support grants; to make, as respects Scotland, further provision in relation to the phasing of progression to registered rent for houses let by housing associations or Scottish Homes and in relation to the circumstances in which rent increases under assured tenancies may be secured; and for connected purposes.}}
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| {{|Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1989|public|43|16-11-1989|maintained=y|An Act to promote the reform of the statute law by the repeal, in accordance with recommendations of the Law Commission and the Scottish Law Commission, of certain enactments which (except in so far as their effect is preserved) are no longer of practical utility, and to make other provision in connection with the repeal of those enactments.}}
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| {{|Opticians Act 1989|public|44|16-11-1989|maintained=y|An Act to consolidate certain enactments relating to opticians with amendments to give effect to recommendations of the Law Commission and the Scottish Law Commission.}}
|-
| {{|Prisons (Scotland) Act 1989|public|45|16-11-1989|maintained=y|An Act to consolidate certain enactments relating to prisons and other institutions for offenders in Scotland and connected matters.}}
}}
Local Acts
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| {{|Newcastle upon Tyne Town Moor Act 1988|local|31|20-12-1988|An Act to repeal the enactments governing the Town Moor in the city of Newcastle upon Tyne and to make new provision for the administration and management of the Town Moor and in respect of the freemen of the said city; and for other purposes.}}
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| {{|Birmingham City Council Act 1988|local|32|20-12-1988|An Act to permit the implementation of planning permission in relation to certain land.}}
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| {{|Southern Water Authority Act 1988|local|33|20-12-1988|An Act to provide for the alleviation of flooding in parts of the borough of Ashford within the catchment areas of the Great Stour river and the East Stour river; to authorise the Southern Water Authority to construct works and to acquire lands; to relieve that Authority of certain obligations concerning the Southease bridge over the river Ouse in the county of East Sussex and to modify the powers of the Authority in relation to the Medway navigation; to confer further powers on the Authority; and for other purposes.}}
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| {{|Harwich Harbour Act 1988|local|34|20-12-1988|An Act to confer new powers on the Harwich Harbour Board; to change their name to the Harwich Haven Authority; and for other purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Port of Tyne Act 1989|local|1|07-02-1989|An Act to confer new powers upon the Port of Tyne Authority; to revise certain penalties; to facilitate the regulation of motor vehicle traffic on dock roads; and for connected or other purposes.}}
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| {{|London Regional Transport Act 1989|local|2|07-02-1989|An Act to empower London Regional Transport to construct works and to acquire lands; to empower London Underground Limited to acquire lands; to confer further powers on London Regional Transport; and for other purposes.}}
|-
| {{|British Railways Act 1989|local|3|27-04-1989|An Act to empower the British Railways Board to construct works and to purchase or use land; to extend the time for the compulsory purchase of certain land; to confer further powers on the Board; and for other purposes.}}
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| {{|Avon Light Rail Transit Act 1989|local|4|11-05-1989|An Act to empower Advanced Transport for Avon Limited to develop and operate a system of light rail transit in the county of Avon; to authorise the construction of works and the acquisition of land for that purpose; to confer further powers upon the Company; and for other purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Scrabster Harbour Order Confirmation Act 1989|local|5|25-05-1989|An Act to confirm a Provisional Order under the Private Legislation Procedure (Scotland) Act 1936, relating to Scrabster Harbour.|po1=Scrabster Harbour Order 1989|Provisional Order to authorise the Trustees of the Harbour of Scrabster to carry out works for the improvement of their harbour undertaking, to extend the harbour limits and to increase their power to borrow money; and for other purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Kingston upon Hull City Council Act 1989|local|6|03-07-1989|An Act to authorise go-kart racing on certain streets in the city of Kingston upon Hull; to confer powers on the Kingston upon Hull City Council in relation thereto; and for other purposes.}}
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| {{|Tees (Newport) Bridge Act 1989|local|7|03-07-1989|An Act to remove the obligation of Cleveland County Council to provide for the opening for vessels of the Tees (Newport) bridge; and for connected and other purposes.}}
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| {{|Wesleyan Assurance Society Act 1989|local|8|06-07-1989|An Act to repeal the Wesleyan and General Assurance Society Acts 1914 and 1954; to make new provision for the regulation and management of the Wesleyan Assurance Society; and for other purposes.}}
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| {{|London Docklands Railway (Beckton) Act 1989|local|9|21-07-1989|An Act to empower London Regional Transport to construct works and to acquire lands; to confer further powers on London Regional Transport; and for other purposes.}}
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| {{|Associated British Ports (Hull) Act 1989|local|10|27-07-1989|An Act to empower Associated British Ports to construct works and to acquire lands at Hull; to confer further powers on Associated British Ports in connection with those works and in connection with their undertaking at Hull; and for other purposes.}}
|-
| {{|London Regional Transport (No. 2) Act 1989|local|11|27-07-1989|An Act to empower London Underground Limited to construct works and to acquire lands; to confer powers on London Regional Transport; and for other purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Hayle Harbour Act 1989|local|12|27-07-1989|maintained=y|An Act to establish The Hayle Harbour Company Limited as a harbour authority and to confer upon that company certain powers to enable them to operate Hayle harbour as a public harbour undertaking; to construct works in the harbour; and for other purposes.}}
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| {{|Queen Mary and Westfield College Act 1989|local|13|27-07-1989|An Act to transfer to Queen Mary and Westfield College, University of London all rights, properties, assets and obligations of Queen Mary College and Westfield College and to dissolve those colleges; to enact provisions with regard to Queen Mary and Westfield College, University of London; and for other purposes.}}
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| {{|Tyne and Wear Passenger Transport Act 1989|local|14|16-11-1989|An Act to empower the Tyne and Wear Passenger Transport Executive to construct works and to acquire lands for the extension of the Tyne and Wear Metro to Newcastle International Airport; and for other purposes.}}
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| {{|Midland Metro Act 1989|local|15|16-11-1989|An Act to empower the West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive to develop and operate a light rail system of rapid passenger transport; to authorise the construction of works and the acquisition of lands for that purpose; to confer further powers upon the Executive; and for other purposes.}}
|-
| {{|International Westminster Bank Act 1989|local|16|16-11-1989|An Act to provide for the vesting in National Westminster Bank PLC of the undertaking of International Westminster Bank PLC; and for other purposes.}}
|-
| {{|British Railways (Penalty Fares) Act 1989|local|17|16-11-1989|An Act to empower the charging of a penalty fare for persons using passenger transport services under the control of the British Railways Board without a valid ticket for such use; and for related purposes.}}
}}
References
Lists of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
| 6,069
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doc-en-6165_0
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Fort Hood is a United States Army post located near Killeen, Texas. Named after Confederate General John Bell Hood, it is located halfway between Austin and Waco, about from each, within the U.S. state of Texas. The post is the headquarters of III Corps and First Army Division West and is home to the 1st Cavalry Division and 3rd Cavalry Regiment, among others. It is one of the U.S. Army installations named for Confederate soldiers to be renamed by the Commission on the Naming of Items of the Department of Defense that Commemorate the Confederate States of America or Any Person Who Served Voluntarily with the Confederate States of America.
Its origin was the need for wide-open space to test and train with World War II tank destroyers. The War Department announced the location in January 1942, and the initial completion was set for that August. As originally constructed, Fort Hood had an area of , with billeting for 6,007 officers and 82,610 enlisted personnel. The main cantonment of Fort Hood had a total population of 53,416 as of the 2010 U.S. Census. Fort Hood is the most populous U.S. military installation in the world. The main business area is in Bell County, with the training countryside area of the post in Coryell County. In April 2014, the Fort Hood website lists 45,414 assigned soldiers and 8,900 civilian employees with Fort Hood covering .
History
Foundation
During World War II, tank destroyers were developed to counter German mobile armored units. These were mobile anti-tank guns on armored halftracks or specially developed tanks. Wide-open space was needed for the tank destroyer testing and training, which Texas had in abundance. Andrew Davis (A.D.) Bruce was assigned to organize a new Tank Destroyer Tactical and Firing Center, and he chose Killeen, Texas for the new camp. The War Department announced the selection on 15 January 1942. An initial acquisition of was made, and it was estimated that the camp would cost $22.8 million for the land, facilities, and development of utilities. The date of completion was set for 15 August 1942.
About 300 families had to move from their homes to make room for the camp area and the communities of Clear Creek, Elijah, and Antelope were demolished to facilitate construction of the base. The old Sugar Loaf community, historically called the "Cradle of Killeen," provided the city with many of its first citizens in 1882. All that remains of the community is the mountain from which it took its name, located in the Fort Hood area. To lessen the burden of moving, the Army agreed to allow land to be used for grazing for a nominal grazing fee. This grazing arrangement still continues today.
In mid-August, the camp was occupied and the official opening took place on 18 September 1942. Camp Hood was named in February for the Confederate General John Bell Hood, who commanded Hood's Texas Brigade during the American Civil War, part of a series of new training camps named for distinguished military leaders together with Camps Carson, Campbell and Atterbury.
The original facilities provided housing and training sites for nearly 38,000 troops. In January 1943, an additional in Bell County and in Coryell County near Gatesville, Texas were purchased. The site near Gatesville was known as the sub-camp and later as North Camp Hood. During the war years, North Camp Hood housed nearly 40,000 troops and 4,000 prisoners of war, and was the site for the southern branch of the United States Disciplinary Barracks.
At the end of 1942, there were about 45,000 troops living and training at Camp Hood and in late June 1943 it peaked at almost 95,000 troops, which was maintained until early 1944.
In 1944, the number of tank destroyer battalions in training at Camp Hood declined rapidly. Field artillery battalions and the Infantry Replacement Training Center replaced them in March 1944. By September, the Infantry Center was the largest activity on post with 31,545 troops. The total camp population on the last day of 1944 was 50,228.
During the last year of World War II Camp Hood's mission shifted and its population drastically decreased. As the war came to an end, troop training slowed and equipment reclamation and demobilization were prioritized. A separation center was established in September 1945, and as the year ended, post strength had fallen to 1,807 prisoners and about 11,000 troops. The Infantry Replacement Training Center was officially shut down on 7 January 1946.
Cold War
The 2nd and 20th Armored Divisions were sent to Camp Hood after returning from Europe in January 1946, but the 20th was soon inactivated, leaving less than 5,000 at the post. The 2nd Armored would remain at the post until its inactivation at the end of the Cold War. Camp Hood was retained postwar as an armored training center and on 15 April 1950 was officially renamed Fort Hood as a result of its permanent status.
In mid-1954, III Corps moved from California to Fort Hood. The Corps supervised the training of combat units at Fort Hood and other Fourth Army stations from 1954 to 1959 when III Corps was inactivated. Probably the most famous trainee to come through Fort Hood was Elvis Presley, arriving on 28 March 1958. Other than receiving record amounts of mail (3–4 bags per day), he was treated like all other trainees. On 19 September, Presley shipped out for Germany.
During this period, the 4th Armored Division was reactivated and deployed to Germany as part of the "Gyroscope" concept of unit movement.
In September 1961, Fort Hood again became the home for the III Corps, and in February 1962, III Corps was assigned as part of the U.S. Army Strategic Army Corps (STRAC). At the same time, the basing of the 1st Armored Division there made it a two-division post. On 15 June 1963 Killeen Base was turned over to the Army.
Vietnam War
During the late 1960s, Fort Hood trained and deployed a number of units and individuals for duty in Vietnam. As the United States ended its role in the conflict, thousands of returning soldiers completed their active duty with one of the divisions. During this time, the post was modernized. On 13 September 1965, Darnall Hospital opened. In 1970, construction began on Palmer Theater and Venable Village was dedicated. Modern barracks were springing up around post. The wood buildings of Fort Hood were replaced with brick structures.
In April 1968, more than 40 African American GIs, who objected to being sent to occupy riot-damaged Black neighborhoods in Chicago following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., were court martialed and jailed by the US Army. Many of the soldiers were decorated and wounded veterans who had completed tours of duty in Vietnam.
In October 1969, Killeen Base was designated as West Fort Hood and the airfield's name was designated as Robert Gray Army Airfield. The base was named after a Killeen native who was a pilot of a B-25 bomber on the famous Doolittle Raid in Tokyo in 1942. He was killed later in World War II flying combat missions. With the redesignation came a change in mission at West Fort Hood. Nuclear weapons were removed; they had been secretly kept there since 1947.
In 1971, the colors of the 1st Cavalry Division came to Fort Hood from Vietnam, resulting in the reflagging of the 1st Armored Division, the colors of which were sent to Germany to reflag the 4th Armored Division.
From 23 December 1972, to 19 January 1973, elements of the 13th Support Brigade deployed to the 1972 Nicaragua earthquake to assist in disaster relief serving at Camp Christine, Managua, Nicaragua.
Proving grounds
Since the early 1970s, Fort Hood has played a major role in the training, testing, and introduction of new equipment, tactics, and organizations. The U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command's Test and Experimentation Command (now the U.S. Army Operational Test Command), located at West Fort Hood has been a primary player. Fort Hood fielded the M1 Abrams tank, M2/3 Bradley Infantry/Cavalry Fighting Vehicle, the Multiple Launch rocket System (MLRS), and the AH-64 Apache helicopter.
In January 1975, the 1st Cavalry Division was reorganized, as the Army's newest armored division. Since fielding the M-1 Abrams in 1980, force modernization has continued as a major focus. The 1st Cavalry became the first division to field the AH-64 Apache attack helicopter, M2 Bradley Fighting Vehicle, the Humvee, the Multiple Launch Rocket System and Mobile Subscriber Equipment (MSE) tactical communications.
1990–2000 Army deployments
In August 1990, Fort Hood was alerted for deployments to Southwest Asia as part of the joint forces participating in Operation Desert Shield. The deployment to Saudi Arabia began in September, extending into mid-October.
On 21 May 1991, with the reactivation of its 3rd Brigade ("Greywolf") the 1st Cavalry Division became the largest division in the Army upon its return to the United States. In October 1992, the Engineer Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division was reactivated. Through the Engineer Restructuring Initiative, the nucleus of the brigade was formed around the 8th Engineer Battalion. The 20th Engineer Battalion was brought from Fort Campbell, KY, to join the brigade, and the 91st Engineer Battalion was activated to complete the brigade.
In November 1992, the unit designations for the battalions remaining from the former "Tiger" Brigade of the 2nd Armored Division were returned prior to the activation of the division at Fort Hood on 2 December 1992. This action was done to realign the historical designations of units to their parent divisions. On 29 November 1992, the 3rd Battalion, 41st Infantry was designated as the 1st Battalion, 9th Cavalry; 1st Battalion, 67th Armor to 3rd Battalion, 8th Cavalry, and 1st Battalion, 3rd Field Artillery to 2nd Battalion, 82nd Field Artillery. On 16 December 1992, 1st Cavalry Division units designated to accomplish realignments for historical purposes and included the 1st Battalion, 32nd Armor reflagged as 2nd Battalion, 12th Cavalry; 3rd Battalion, 32nd Armor to 1st Battalion, 12th Cavalry; and Battery A, 333rd Field Artillery to Battery B, 26th Field Artillery.
During the post war periods called Operation Desert Calm and Operation Provide Comfort, Fort Hood units continued to serve in the Persian Gulf area. From December 1992 to May 1993, Fort Hood soldiers deployed to Somalia for Operation Restore Hope to command and control the Joint Task Force Support Command. In the fall of 1994, Fort Hood units participated in the largest deployment since Operation Desert Shield and Desert Storm executed split base operations in the Caribbean Basin, Central America and Southwest Asia, in support of Operations Vigilant Warrior and Sea Signal V, as well as other contingency operations.
13th Corps Support Command Commander Brig. Gen. Billy K. Solomon deployed along with a portion of the headquarters in December 1992 to Mogadishu to serve as the nucleus of Joint Task Force Support Command. Their major units included the 593rd Support Group (Fort Lewis), 36th Engineer Group (Fort Benning), 7th Transportation Group (Fort Eustis), and 62d Medical Group (Fort Lewis). The command headquarters returned to Fort Hood in May 1993.
As a result of the Base Realignment and Closure Commission (BRAC) reductions, the 5th Infantry Division (Mechanized), then located at Fort Polk Louisiana, was reflagged as the 2nd Armored Division in late 1992. By mid-1993, the division at Fort Hood had completed changes of unit names to those associated with the 5th Division, and began participation in the early stages of the Army's Experimental Force, Force XXI.
In 1995, the 2nd Armored Division was reflagged as the U.S. 4th Infantry Division. Twenty-five years after making its home in Colorado, the 4th Infantry Division was again restationed to meet the Army's requirements but this move would be quite different from others. It became a split-based organization with six brigades and three separate battalions stationed at Fort Hood and the 3rd Brigade Combat Team remaining at Fort Carson. By December 1995, the 4th Infantry Division (Mechanized) assumed responsibility as the Army's Experimental Force (Force XXI), and on 15 December 1995, its colors were unfurled for the first time over central Texas and Fort Hood.
Since the 1990s, Fort Hood units have supported Operation Joint Endeavor in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In October 1998, The 1st Cavalry Division was the first United States division to assume authority of the Multinational Division (North) area of operation in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The mission was to conduct operations to enforce the military provisions set forth by the Dayton Peace Accords.
In 1998, the Ironhorse Division was designated to be the Army's first Multi-Component unit. The main objective being to enhance Total Force integration, optimize the unique capabilities of each component, and improve the overall readiness of the Army. The program was developed to leverage the strengths of the Army's three components (active, reserve and National Guard). As such, 515 positions within the division have been designated as reserve component. These positions include individuals, a unit from the Wyoming National Guard and dual-mission units from the Texas Army National Guard.
In addition to peacekeeping efforts, Fort Hood units routinely participate in national and international disaster relief efforts. Hours after the 1985 Mexico City earthquake, III Corps units were ready to move out to provide assistance. Fort Hood units also aided Managua, Nicaragua, after an earthquake ravaged the city.
During the 1990s, Fort Hood continued an extensive building program to modernize the post. This modernization continues today, with emphasis on quality of life, force projection and training. The Robertson Blood Center, Soldier Development Center, and a new commissary at Warrior Way have been completed. Many other improvements were made to improve the Power Projection Mission of the post such as improvements to the railhead and the runway at Gray Army Airfield. Training ranges have been upgraded.
2000–2009 Army deployments
At the beginning of the 21st century, the Army's modernization was in full swing. Some of these new advances in technology and war fighting included the fielding of the M1A2 Abrams Main Battle Tank, the M2A2 Operation Desert Storm (ODS) Bradley Infantry Fighting Vehicle, the M109A6 Paladin howitzer, the OH-58D Kiowa Warrior, the AH-64D Apache Longbow Helicopter, and the M6 Bradley Linebacker.
Fort Hood was the first installation selected to privatize post housing under the residential communities initiative. Under this initiative, new housing units, remodeled housing and community improvements will be added to the post.
In 2001, the War on Terror became a prime focus. Fort Hood transitioned from an open to a closed post with the help of military police from reserve units. The 1st Cavalry sent additional troops to Kuwait to protect against possible aggressive actions from Iraq. The 4003rd Garrison Support Reserve unit fills vacancies left by deploying units at Fort Hood. Fort Hood has a key role as a training base for mobilizing Reserve and National Guard units to support the Homeland Defense effort.
Many Fort Hood units have deployed to Afghanistan for Operation Enduring Freedom, and to Iraq for Operation Iraqi Freedom. In December 2003, the 4th Infantry Division captured Saddam Hussein. In the spring of 2004, the 1st Cavalry Division followed the 4th Infantry Division deploying to Iraq. Task Force ODIN was created at Ft. Hood.
In September 2005, 13th COSCOM and key enablers were called to support Joint Task Force Katrina/Rita hurricane relief and went on to serve as the senior joint logistical support command for JTF Katrina. 13th COSCOM eventually provided one hundred million rations, collected human remains with dignity, executed emergency engineering operations, transported, distributed and stored over one billion dollars in humanitarian relief from both non-governmental and federal sources from across the nation.
In 2009, Fort Carson, Colorado's First Army Division West re-stationed to Fort Hood in order to consolidate its mission to conduct reserve component mobilization training and validation for deployment, switching places with 4th Infantry Division, which relocated to Fort Carson.
2007 navigation exercise incident
On 12 June 2007, the body of Lawrence George Sprader, Jr was found at about 8:30 p.m. in a brushy area located within the Central Texas Army post's training ground. He had gone missing for days while conducting an exercise for testing basic map-reading and navigation skills. A massive search had been conducted, with over 3,000 parties scouring the countryside. According to autopsy records, he had died from hyperthermia and dehydration. According to an Army investigatory report, there were "a multitude of procedural violations, judgment errors and alleged acts of misconduct by Army trainers that not only contributed to Sprader's death but put some 300 other soldiers in danger that day, including about two dozen who required medical attention."
2009 shooting
On 5 November 2009 a gunman, who regarded himself as a mujahid waging "jihad" against the United States, opened fire in the Soldier Readiness Center of Fort Hood and killed 13 people while wounding 32 others. Nidal Malik Hasan, a U.S. Army Major and psychiatrist, was the gunman. He was shot and then arrested by Department of the Army police officers Sergeant Mark Todd and Sergeant Kimberly Munley.
Eyewitnesses to the actual events said: "...Major Hasan wheeled on Sergeant Munley as she rounded the corner of a building and shot her, putting her on the ground. Then Major Hasan turned his back on her and started putting another magazine into his semiautomatic pistol. It was at that moment that Senior Sgt. Mark Todd, a veteran police officer, rounded another corner of the building, found Major Hasan fumbling with his weapon and shot him."
In 2013, Hasan was convicted of thirteen counts of premeditated murder and thirty-two counts of attempted premeditated murder for the thirty soldiers and two civilian police officers injured in the shooting. On 23 August 2013, Hasan was found guilty on all charges and was sentenced to death.
2011 attack plot
Pfc. Naser Jason Abdo, an AWOL private, was arrested near Fort Hood, and in a statement by the police chief of Killeen, Texas, the man told investigators that he wanted to attack fellow soldiers at the military post. At his trial in August 2012, Abdo stated, through a cloth mask, "I will continue until the day the dead are called to account for their deeds." Abdo was sentenced to life in prison for the plot.
2014 shooting
On 2 April 2014, a shooting spree occurred at several locations on the base, leaving three people dead and fourteen others wounded. The gunman then died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound. He was later identified as 34-year-old Ivan Lopez, an Iraq War veteran.
2014–present
A sexual assault prevention officer on the base, Sergeant 1st Class Gregory McQueen, was dishonorably discharged in March 2015, having been convicted of organizing a prostitution ring.
Currently, Fort Hood has nearly 65,000 soldiers and family members and serves as a home for the following units: Headquarters III Corps; First Army Division West; the 1st Cavalry Division; 13th Sustainment Command (formerly 13th Corps Support Command); 89th Military Police Brigade; 504th Battlefield Surveillance Brigade; 85th Civil Affairs Brigade; 1st Medical Brigade; and the 69th Air Defense Artillery Brigade. Fort Hood also includes Carl R. Darnall Army Medical Center and the Medical And Dental Activities as tenant units.
, Killeen, Texas, started a land-use study to "identify and mitigate compatibility and encroachment issues that may impact training, operations".
In 2020, a debate around renaming US military bases named after Confederate generals emerged during protests sparked from the murder of George Floyd. Fort Hood is one such base at the center of the controversy.
39 soldiers died or went missing in 2020. The killing of Vanessa Guillén at Fort Hood in April 2020 brought national attention to the base and the broader culture of sexual harassment in the military. Hundreds of people protested at the gates of Fort Hood in June demanding justice for Guillén. In August, a San Antonio man was arrested and charged with making terroristic threats after threatening to commit a mass shooting at Fort Hood in retaliation for Guillén's killing. 14 commanders were subsequently fired or suspended with Army Secretary Ryan McCarthy citing "leadership failures". An investigation by Fort Hood Independent Review Committee (FHIRC), a panel McCarthy established, found that there was a "permissive environment for sexual assault and sexual harassment at Fort Hood." Army regulation AR-600-20 (24 July 2020) now requires the filing of commander's critical information reports (CCIRs) 8 days after a SHARP (sexual harassment/assault response & prevention) complaint by a victim.
Fort Hood CID investigators assigned to their cases are hampered by a checklist mentality from their beginnings as junior investigators straight out of initial training from Fort Leonard Wood, according to the FHIRC report. The majority of CID investigators are then detailed to protective services for senior Pentagon officials, thereby moving straight to middle management CID positions without the requisite experience in criminal investigation. After Carlton L Chee was the 28th death of 2020 in September, Congress launched an investigation of Fort Hood citing the deaths and other felonies that occurred on the fort between 2014-2019. Commanders at the FORSCOM, III Corps, and Fort Hood levels now have specific actions to complete upon a Sexual assault review board complaint. CID is being restructured: a civilian director reporting directly to the secretary of the Army will oversee criminal probes. The Provost Marshal and the Military Police will no longer undertake criminal investigations. A new branch like those in the Air Force and Navy for Special Agents will be instituted. FORSCOM now requires the selection of investigating officers from outside an installation's brigade-sized element, which is processing a complaint.
On 7 October 2021 Jennifer Sewell was first reported missing; Sewell has since been found.
More than 100 night vision goggles (NVGs) from an arms room were stolen during March til May 2021; several dozen were offered for sale on the Internet, from a reseller in Corpus Christi, Texas as of 9 July 2021; some devices had already been sold and shipped. CID and Homeland security believe the NVGs were stolen from shipping containers at Fort Hood.
Anti-war activity
Fort Hood has served as a hub for anti-war activity during both the Vietnam War (e.g. the "Fort Hood Three" incident) and the War on Terror.
From 1968 to 1973, the Oleo Strut was a G.I. coffeehouse located near post in Killeen, Texas. The coffee house was featured in the documentary Sir! No Sir!.
In 2009, the tradition of the Oleo Strut continued when the Under the Hood Café opened. The location serves as an outreach center for antiwar activists to reach out to area soldiers, and provide them with support. Under the Hood Café announced on 10 November 2014 that it would close by the end of the year.
Recently several soldiers supported by Under the Hood have taken public acts of resistance, including Amnesty International prisoner of conscience Travis Bishop.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 33,711 people, 5,819 households, and 5,679 families residing in the Fort Hood CDP. The population density was 2,255.7 people per square mile (870.6/km2). There were 5,941 housing units at an average density of 397.5 per square mile (153.4/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 50.7% White, 31.6% African American, 1.2% Native American, 2.1% Asian, 0.8% Pacific Islander, 8.7% from other races, and 4.8% from two or more races. 16.7% of the population were Hispanics or Latinos of any race.
There were 5,818 households, out of which 87.6% had children under the age of eighteen living with them, 87.1% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 2.4% were non-families. Two percent of all households were made up of individuals, and 0.0% had someone living alone who is sixty-five years of age or older. The average household size was 3.92 and the average family size was 3.95.
The age distribution was 33.3% under the age of eighteen, 32.3% from eighteen to twenty-four, 33.1% from twenty-five to forty-four, 1.2% from forty-five to sixty-four, and 0.1% who were sixty-five years of age or older. The median age was twenty-one years. For every one hundred females there were 163.4 males. For every one hundred females over the age of eighteen there were 209.4 males. All of these statistics are typical for military bases.
The median income for a household on the base was $32,552, and the median income for a family was $32,296. Males had a median income of $18,884 versus $17,101 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $11,078. 9.5% of the population and 8.3% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 11.0% of those under the age of eighteen and 25.8% of those sixty-five and older were living below the poverty line.
Military base
Fort Hood is the home of III Corps, 1st Cavalry Division, 13th Sustainment Command, First Army Division West, 3rd Cavalry Regiment, 1st Medical Brigade and many other Forces Command and other units.
The 4th Infantry Division completed its move from Fort Hood to Fort Carson, Colorado, exchanging positions with several units. The 4th Infantry Division Museum closed at Fort Hood for the last time on 29 May 2009 to complete its move to Colorado although most of the outdoor pieces remained at Fort Hood as part of the new 3CR Museum.
Before the breakup of the Soviet Union, Fort Hood was billed as the largest military base in the free world (Fort Benning is larger in personnel, Fort Bliss in land area). During peacetime, Fort Hood is a gated post, with the 1st Cavalry Division Museum, the Belton Lake Outdoor Recreation Area (BLORA), and a number of other facilities that are open to the public. Access to the cantonments became restricted starting in July 2001. However, passes are available to visit the two museums on post, and the lake area remains open to the public without restriction since it is outside the cantonments. Various events, including the annual Independence Day celebration, which has one of the largest fireworks displays in the country, are open to the public.
Shortly after the 2000 census, responsibility for post housing was turned over to privatized partnership with Actus Lend Lease. Under the terms of the contract, most of the housing has been remodeled or rebuilt, and hundreds of new units have been built or are in the process of being built, operating as Fort Hood Family Housing. The nine schools on Fort Hood are part of the Killeen Independent School District.
Fort Hood consists of three sections: the main cantonment, West Fort Hood, and North Fort Hood. The main cantonment is bounded by Killeen on the east and Copperas Cove on the west. The Fort Hood main cantonment area, otherwise referred to as Main post, holds its own airfield, Hood Army Airfield. North Fort Hood is bounded by Gatesville to the northwest. West Fort Hood, bounded by Killeen and Copperas Cove, includes Fort Hood's second airfield, Robert Gray Army Airfield, which has been expanded for civilian use (Killeen–Fort Hood Regional Airport (GRK)) and additional training areas. To the east and southeast, the reservation is bounded by Harker Heights, Nolanville, Belton, and Morgan's Point Resort.
Notable residents
Mark Adickes – football player, surgeon, commentator
Donald Buckram – football player
Robert Griffin III – football player
Ciara - R&B singer
Bobby Luna – football player
Josh Lovelady – football player
Tamera Mowry – actress
Tia Mowry – actress
Donald Prell – futurologist and author
Elvis Presley – singer, actor
Geoff Ramsey – film producer, actor
Lucas Till – actor
Anna Todd – author
Yoon Mi-rae – American-born South Korean singer
Vanessa Guillen
See also
List of World War II prisoner-of-war camps in the United States
References
Citations
Bibliography
Cragg, Dan, Sgt. Maj. (USA Ret.), The guide to military installations, Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, 1983
External links
Hood official site
Census-designated places in Bell County, Texas
Census-designated places in Coryell County, Texas
Census-designated places in Texas
Hood
Hood
John Bell Hood
Killeen–Temple–Fort Hood metropolitan area
1942 establishments in Texas
Military installations established in 1942
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Famous or notable Venezuelans include:
Architecture
Alejandro Chataing, known as "Cipriano Castro's architect".
Carlos Raúl Villanueva (1900–1975), builder of the Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas.
Artists
Antonio Ladislao Alcantara (1898–1991)
Gabriel Bracho (1915–1995)
Carlos Cruz-Díez (born 1923)
Mariano Díaz (born 1929)
Marisol Escobar (1930–2016)
Alirio Palacios (1938–2015)
Gego (Gertrude Goldschmidt; 1912–1994)
Yucef Merhi (born 1977)
Arturo Michelena (1863–1898)
Alejandro Otero (1921–1990)
Mercedes Pardo (1921–2005)
Armando Reverón (1889–1954)
Cristóbal Rojas (1857–1890)
Jesús Rafael Soto (1923–2005)
Martín Tovar y Tovar (1827–1902)
Patricia van Dalen (born 1955)
Beatriz Helena Ramos (born 1971)
Cornelis Zitman (1926–2016)
Authors
A–C
Cecilio Acosta, writer
Laura Antillano, writer
José Antonio de Armas Chitty, historian and poet
Rafael Arráiz Lucca, historian and poet
Enriqueta Arvelo Larriva, poet
Alberto Arvelo Torrealba, poet
Michaelle Ascencio, writer
José Balza, writer
Rufino Blanco Fombona, poet and writer
Alberto Barrera Tyszka, writer
Natividad Barroso, writer and ethnologist
Andrés Bello, educator and humanist
Krina Ber, writer
Andrés Eloy Blanco, poet
Eduardo Blanco, novelist and poet
Mario Briceño Iragorry (1897–1958), writer and historian
Manuel Caballero, historian and journalist
Rafael Cadenas, poet
María Calcaño, poet
Juan Carlos Chirinos, writer
Luis Castro Leiva, academic, historian and writer
Sonia Chocrón, poet
D–M
Victoria De Stefano, writer
Manuel Díaz Rodríguez, novelist and journalist
Lydda Franco Farías, poet
Tulio Febres Cordero, writer
María Antonieta Flores, poet
Rómulo Gallegos, writer
Julio Garmendia, writer and journalist
Salvador Garmendia, novelist and story teller
Jacqueline Goldberg, poet and writer
Adriano González León, poet and writer
Ida Gramcko, poet
Elisa Lerner, writer
Francisco Herrera Luque (1927–1991), writer
Rowena Hill, poet
Eduardo López Bustamante, journalist and poet
Luz Machado, poet
Antonieta Madrid, writer
Francisco Massiani, writer
Milagros Mata Gil, writer
Domingo Maza Zavala, journalist and economist
Juan Carlos Méndez Guédez, writer
Beatriz Mendoza Sagarzazu, poet
Guillermo Meneses (1911–1978), writer and journalist
Eugenio Montejo (1938–2008), poet
Guillermo Morón, historian and writer
Stefania Mosca, writer
N–P
Moisés Naím, writer
Fabricio Ojeda, journalist and writer
Juan Oropeza, writer
Hanni Ossott, poet
Edgar C. Otálvora, journalist and writer
Miguel Otero Silva, writer
Antonia Palacios, writer
Lucila Palacios, writer
María Fernanda Palacios, writer
Ramón Palomares, poet
Yolanda Pantin, poet
Teresa de la Parra, writer
Juan Antonio Pérez Bonalde, poet
Mariano Picón Salas, writer
José Rafael Pocaterra, writer
Carlos Rangel, journalist and writer
Ana María del Re, poet
S–Z
Tomás Straka, historian
José Antonio Ramos Sucre, poet
Oscar Sambrano Urdaneta, writer and literary critic
Juan Sánchez Peláez, poet
Elizabeth Schön, writer
Pedro Sotillo, writer and journalist
Tui T. Sutherland, writer
Mireya Tabuas, writer
Ana Enriqueta Terán, poet
Alfredo Toro Hardy, writer and diplomat
Ana Teresa Torres, writer
Arturo Uslar Pietri, historian and writer
Lucila Velásquez, poet and journalist
Elena Vera, poet
Carmen Verde Arocha, poet
Miyó Vestrini, journalist, poet and writer
José Jesús Villa Pelayo, poet and essayist
Slavko Zupcic, writer
Beauty queens
The following Venezuelans won a beauty title in the Big Four international beauty pageants: Miss Universe, Miss World, Miss International and Miss Earth; the four major international beauty pageants for women.
A–H
Consuelo Adler, Miss International 1997
Jacqueline Aguilera, Miss World 1995, Top Model of the World 1995
Goizeder Azúa, Miss International and Miss Mesoamérica 2003
Alexandra Braun, Miss Earth 2005
Susana Duijm, Miss World 1955
Stefanía Fernández, Miss Universe 2009
Daniela di Giacomo, Miss International 2006
Alyz Henrich, Miss Earth 2013
Astrid Carolina Herrera, Miss World 1984
I–M
Gabriela Isler, Miss Universe 2013
Ninibeth Leal, Miss World 1991
Pilín León, Miss World 1981
Alicia Machado, Miss Universe 1996
Dayana Mendoza, Miss Universe 2008
Edymar Martínez, Miss International 2015
O–R
Bárbara Palacios, Miss Universe 1986 and Miss South America 1986
S–Y
Irene Sáez, Miss Universe 1981 and Miss South America 1981
Ivian Sarcos, Miss World 2011
Maritza Sayalero, Miss Universe 1979
Nina Sicilia, Miss International 1985
Vivian Urdaneta, Miss International 2000
Mariem Velazco, Miss International 2018
Business and law
Gustavo Cisneros, Venezuelan-born media mogul. He is among the world's richest men according to Forbes magazine, which estimates his fortune at $6 billion.
Manuel Antonio Matos, banker and caudillo
Lorenzo Mendoza, oversees one of Venezuela's largest private companies, $6 billion (sales) Empresas Polar.
Eugenio Mendoza (1906–1979), Venezuelan business tycoon who made important contributions in the modernization of the country during the 20th Century.
Henry Lord Boulton, Venezuelan aviator, entrepreneur, owner, and former owner of many businesses such as Casas Boulton, Avensa/Servivensa among others.
Ali Lenin Aguilera, Venezuelan lawyer, entrepreneur
Carolina Herrera, fashion designer and entrepreneur who founded her eponymous company in 1980.
Rostislav Ordovsky-Tanaevsky Blanco, entrepreneur, president of Rostik Group in Russia
William H. Phelps, Jr., ornithologist and founder of Radio Caracas Televisión
William H. Phelps, ornithologist and founder of Radio Caracas Radio
Carlos Eduardo Stolk (1912–1995), founding member of the United Nations, Chairman of the Board and President of Empresas Polar.
Juan Antonio Yanes, executive in Venezuelan Professional Baseball League who owned the Patriotas de Venezuela franchise
Cartoonists
Jorge Blanco
Pedro León Zapata
Diplomats
Juan García Gruber, ambassador in Nicaragua
Carlos Alberto Taylhardat, ambassador to Iraq and Lebanon
Engineering
Cristina Amon, Dean, Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering, University of Toronto
José González-Lander, engineer, head engineer for the Metro de Caracas (1993–2000)
Alfredo Jahn, engineer and naturalist
L. Rafael Reif, engineer, President of MIT
Entertainment
A–D
Mayra Alejandra, television and film actress
María Conchita Alonso, Cuban-born Venezuelan raised actress and singer
Juan A. Baptista, actor
José Bardina, Spanish-born Venezuelan actor
Daniela Alvarado, actress
Marina Baura, Spanish-born Venezuelan actress
Amador Bendayán, actor and entertainer
Alexandra Braun, model
Jacques Braunstein, Romanian-born Venezuelan radio host
Maritza Bustamante, actress and model
Santiago Cabrera, actor
Camila Canabal, television hostess
Fernando Carrillo, actor
Grecia Colmenares, Venezuelan-born Argentine actress
Francisco José Cróquer, sportscaster and poetic declaimer
Eliana Cuevas, singer-songwriter
Guillermo Dávila, actor and singer
Miguel de León, actor
Oscar D'León, singer and bandleader
Majandra Delfino, actress
Marieh Delfino, actress
Chiquinquirá Delgado, actress and model
Christina Dieckmann, actress and model
Kimberly Dos Ramos actress
Cesar D' La Torre, actor
E–P
Eva Ekvall, television hostess
Gaby Espino, actress
Maria Gabriela de Faría, actress
Lele Pons, internet personality and actress
Lupita Ferrer, actress
Sandro Finoglio, actor, model
Catherine Fulop, actress, television host
Viviana Gibelli, Polish-born Venezuelan television host
Guillermo Fantástico González, Spanish-born Venezuelan television host
Scarlet Gruber, actress
Joselo, actor and comedian
Cynthia Lander, beauty pageant contestant
Jean Paul Leroux, actor
Carlos Mata, actor, singer, TV presenter
Esperanza Magaz, Cuban-born Venezuelan actress
Rosmeri Marval, actress, model and singer
Keidy Moreno, model
Lila Morillo, actress, singer
Carlos Montilla, actor, musician
Daniela Navarro, actress, model
Carlos Olivier, actor
Alejandro Otero, actor, model
Renny Ottolina, television host and producer
Enrique Palacios, model
Vanessa Pose, actress
Marianne Puglia, model
R–S
Édgar Ramírez, film actor and television producer
Veruska Ramírez, model
Benjamín Rausseo (a.k.a. Er Conde del Guácharo), comedian
Maricarmen Regueiro, actress
Gustavo Rodríguez, film, stage and television actor
José Luis Rodríguez (a.k.a. El Puma), singer and actor
Mariangel Ruiz, actress and model
Juan Carlos Salazar, singer, musician, composer
Sabrina Salvador, television host
Luis José Santander, actor
Enrique Sapene, actor and television producer
Daniel Sarcos, television host
Marger Sealey, singer
Sabrina Seara, actress
Eduardo Serrano, actor
Sonya Smith, American-born Venezuelan actress
Verónica Schneider, actress and model
Gabriela Spanic, actress
Mónica Spear, actress, model
Natalia Streignard, Spanish-born Venezuelan actress
Francys Sudnicka, model
Juana Sujo, Argentinian-born actress and theatrical educator
T–Z
Carolina Tejera, actress, model
Coraima Torres, actress
Orlando Urdaneta, actor
Wilmer Valderrama, actor, television host
Angélica Vale, actress
Dominika van Santen, model
Patricia Velásquez, actress, model
Rita Verreos, beauty pageant contestant
Doris Wells, actress
Oscar Yanes, journalist, writer
Filmmakers
Elizabeth Avellán (born 1960)
Román Chalbaud (born 1931)
Clemente de la Cerda (1935–1984)
Solveig Hoogesteijn (born 1946)
Jonathan Jakubowicz (born 1978)
Marcel Rasquin (born 1975)
Luis Armando Roche (born 1938)
Mariana Rondon, (born 1966)
Fina Torres (born 1951)
Historical
Simón Bolívar (1783–1830), Wars of Independence leader, military commander, Father of the Nation.
José Tomás Boves (1782–1814), Wars of Independence leader, military caudillo.
Luisa Cáceres de Arismendi (1799–1866), heroine from the Venezuelan War of Independence
Pedro Camejo (better known as Negro Primero, or The First Black) (1790–1821), lieutenant at the Venezuelan war of independence.
Agostino Codazzi (1793–1859), Italian born, military officer, cartographer, former governor of Barinas.
Francisco de Miranda (1750–1816), Wars of Independence leader, veteran of the U.S. and French revolutions.
Antonio José de Sucre (1795–1830), Wars of Independence leader, Grand Marshal of Ayacucho, president of Bolivia (1826–1828), president of Peru
Juan José Flores (1800–1864), founder of Ecuador and its first President.
Santiago Mariño (1788–1854), hero in the Venezuelan War of Independence, and important leader of Venezuela's eastern.
Cristóbal Mendoza (1772–1829), considered to be the first President of Venezuela.
José Gregorio Monagas (1795–1858), hero of the Venezuelan War of Independence, and former president.
José Tadeo Monagas (1784–1868), hero of the Venezuelan War of Independence, and former president.
Mariano Montilla (1782–1851), Major General of the Army of Venezuela in the Venezuelan War of Independence.
José Antonio Páez (1790–1873), Wars of Independence leader, former president.
José Félix Ribas (1775–1815), leader and hero of the Venezuelan War of Independence.
Juan Germán Roscio (1763–1821), lawyer and politician, main editor of the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence and chief architect of the Venezuelan Constitution of 1811.
Rafael Urdaneta (1788–1845), hero of the Latin American wars of independence.
Fernando Adames Torres (1837–1910) General of the Army during the Revolution of Coro, Senator representing Lara State and Chief of Staff.
Fermin Toro (1807–1865), politician, diplomat, writer, minister of Finance and Foreign Affairs, president of the 1858 National Convention.
Mass media
Mariana Atencio, journalist, anchor, correspondent
Arístides Bastidas, science journalism
Nelson Bocaranda, political journalist and broadcaster
Carlos Capriles Ayala, journalist and historian
Miguel Ángel Capriles Ayala, journalist and editor
María Teresa Castillo, journalist and cultural entrepreneur
José Agustín Catalá, journalist and author
Luis Chataing, radio host and humorist
Simón Alberto Consalvi, journalist, author and politician
Milena Gimón, sports journalist
Roberto Giusti, political journalist and broadcaster
Laureano Márquez, Spanish-born Venezuelan journalist and humorist
Aníbal Nazoa, journalist and writer
Aquiles Nazoa, journalist, writer and humorist
Jorge Olavarría, political journalist and historian
Rafael Poleo, political journalist and editor
Abelardo Raidi, sports journalist and broadcaster
Lil Rodríguez, cultural journalist
Oscar Yanes, journalist and writer
Mountaineers
José Antonio Delgado, first person to summit five eight-thousanders.
Musicians
A–B
Adrenalina Caribe, Caribbean music group
Abraham Abreu, harpsichordist and pianist
Aldo Abreu, Medieval-Baroque recorder executant
José Antonio Abreu, classical musician and founder of El Sistema
Vinicio Adames, choral group conductor
Francisco de Paula Aguirre, composer
Ricardo Aguirre, singer-songwriter
Luis Alfonzo Larrain, bandleader, arranger, composer
Los Amigos Invisibles, funk music band
Diana Arismendi, composer
Fulgencio Aquino, Venezuelan harp player, composer
Reynaldo Armas, singer-songwriter
The Asbestos, rock music band
Devendra Banhart, American-Venezuelan singer-songwriter
Huáscar Barradas, flautist, composer
Édgar Bastidas, lyric tenor
Carlos Baute, pop singer
Beatriz Bilbao, composer
Hugo Blanco, Venezuelan harp player, songwriter
Modesta Bor, composer, choir conductor
Soledad Bravo, singer
Benjamín Brea, Spanish-born Venezuelan musician
Vytas Brenner, keyboardist, songwriter
Humberto Bruni Lamanna, classical guitarist
Andréa Burns, American-born Venezuelan singer
C–D
Calle Ciega, reggaeton band
Andres Carciente, concert pianist
Candy 66, rock band
Benito Canónico, composer
Los Cañoneros, Caraquenian traditional genres group
Los Cuñaos, traditional eight-part vocal group
Renato Capriles, bandleader and composer
Caramelos de Cianuro, rock band
Ramon Carranza, saxophonist, instructor
El Carrao de Palmarito (Juan de los Santos Contreras), folk singer
Teresa Carreño, 19th century pianist
Evencio Castellanos, classical pianist
Mirla Castellanos, pop singer
José Catire Carpio, folk singer
Inocente Carreño, classical composer, conductor
Rubén Cedeño, lyric singer
María Teresa Chacín, folk singer
Los Chamos, pop group
Ilan Chester, pop singer, songwriter
Chino & Nacho, reggaeton duet
Collegium Musicum de Caracas, classical music group
Vidal Colmenares, joropo singer
Sylvia Constantinidis, Venezuelan-born American classical pianist, composer, conductor, also a multimedia artist, writer, music educator.
Guillermo Dávila, pop singer
Desorden Público, ska band
Franco De Vita, pop singer, songwriter
Alirio Díaz, classical guitarist
Simón Díaz, folk singer, songwriter
Dimensión Latina, salsa band
Oscar D'León, salsa singer
Rubén Domínguez, lyric tenor
Gustavo Dudamel, classical conductor
E–J
Eliana Cuevas, singer-songwriter
Ensamble Gurrufío, folk instrumental group
Antonio Estévez, classical composer
Flor Roffé de Estévez, was a composer, writer, and professor of Venezuelan music
Pedro Eustache, classical flute player
Heraclio Fernández, pianist, composer
Ignacio Figueredo, Venezuelan harp player
Billo Frómeta, Dominican-born Venezuelan bandleader, songwriter, arranger
Otilio Galíndez, folk and pop composer
Hernán Gamboa, Venezuelan cuatro player
Gran Coquivacoa, Venezuelan gaita group
Guaco, pop and salsa band
Pedro Elías Gutiérrez, composer, conductor
Reynaldo Hahn, Venezuelan-born French classical composer
Lorenzo Herrera, folk and pop singer, songwriter
Enrique Hidalgo, folk and pop songwriter
Cheo Hurtado, Venezuelan cuatro player
Gualberto Ibarreto, folk and pop singer
Jorge Isaac, Medieval-Baroque recorder executant
Adina Izarra, composer
Jeremías, British-born Venezuelan pop singer, songwriter
Guillermo Jiménez Leal, Venezuelan cuatro player, singer, songwriter
Porfirio Jiménez, Dominican-born Venezuelan bandleader, arranger, songwriter
K–N
Luis Laguna, musician, songwriter
José Ángel Lamas, classical composer
Antonio Lauro, composer, guitarist
Anselmo López, Venezuelan bandola performer
Ángel Custodio Loyola, folk singer
Natalia Luis-Bassa, classical conductor
Pablo Manavello, Italian-born Venezuelan rock guitarist
Mango, salsa music group
Maracaibo 15, Venezuelan gaita group
Floria Márquez, bolero singer
Henry Martínez, songwriter
Mayré Martínez, pop singer, songwriter
Eduardo Marturet, classical conductor
Francisco Mata, folk singer, songwriter
Laudelino Mejías, composer
Los Melódicos, dance band
Conny Méndez, composer, singer, writer
Armando Molero, singer-songwriter
Moisés Moleiro, classical composer
Silvano Monasterios, jazz pianist, composer
Ricardo Montaner, singer-songwriter
Gabriela Montero, pianist
José Ángel Montero, opera composer
Morella Muñoz, lyric mezzo-soprano
Alberto Naranjo, arranger, conductor
Graciela Naranjo, bolero singer, film actress
O–R
Orquesta Sinfónica Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho, symphony orchestra
Orquesta Sinfónica Simón Bolívar, symphony orchestra
Orquesta Sinfónica Venezuela, symphony orchestra
Francisco Pacheco, folk singer
Eneas Perdomo, joropo singer-songwriter
Iván Pérez Rossi, Venezuelan cuatro player, singer, composer
Allan Phillips, pop songwriter, producer
Juan Bautista Plaza, classical composer
Alí Primera, singer-songwriter
Pancho Prin, folk singer, songwriter
Edward Pulgar, classical violinist, conductor
Ana María Raga, choral group conductor, composer, pianist
Luis Felipe Ramón y Rivera, composer, performer, investigator, writer
Victor Ramos Rangel, classical composer, bassoon player
Rudy Regalado, Latin-jazz and pop bandleader, percussionist
Fredy Reyna, Venezuelan cuatro player
Rodrigo Riera, classical guitarist
Rafael Rincón González, singe- songwriter
Pedro Antonio Ríos Reyna, classical violinist
María Rivas, jazz-pop singer-songwriter
Luis Mariano Rivera, Venezuelan cuatro player, songwriter
Aldemaro Romero, classical and pop composer, conductor, bandleader
Alfredo Rugeles, composer, conductor
Otmaro Ruíz, jazz and pop pianist, arranger, composer
S–Z
Alfredo Sadel, lyric tenor, pop singer, songwriter
Rodolfo Saglimbeni, classical conductor
Juan Carlos Salazar, Venezuelan cuatro player, singer, songwriter
Magdalena Sánchez, joropo singer
Chucho Sanoja, bandleader, arranger, pianist, songwriter
José Enrique Sarabia, songwriter
Ángel Sauce, classical composer, violinist, conductor
Serenata Guayanesa, folk vocal and instrumental quartet
Eduardo Serrano, songwriter, arranger, conductor, performer
Vicente Emilio Sojo, classical composer, conductor, musicologist, educator
Henry Stephen, pop singer
Mario Suárez, pop-folk singer
Los Terrícolas, pop-rock vocal and instrumental group
Ricardo Teruel, composer
Ender Thomas, pop singer, songwriter
Todosantos, indie Latin-rock band
Juan Vicente Torrealba, Venezuelan harp player, composer
El Trabuco Venezolano, Latin-jazz salsa big band
Lilia Vera, folk singer
Verona, rock vocal and instrumental group
Voz Veis, pop vocal sextet
Franco de Vita, pop singer and composer
Anaís Vivas (born 1989), pop singer
Gerry Weil, Austrian-born Venezuelan jazz pianist
Yordano, singer, composer
ZAPATO 3, rock music vocal and instrumental group
Politicians
Rómulo Betancourt (1908–1981), former president (1945–1948; 1959–1964) and founder of the Democratic Action party (AD, by its initials in Spanish)
Juan Guaidó (born 1983), politician & political activist.
Douglas Bravo (born 1923), former guerrilla leader and founder of the Venezuelan Revolution party (PRV, for its initials in Spanish)
Rafael Caldera (1916–2009), former president (1969–1974; 1994–1999) and founder of the Social Christian party (Copei, by its initials in Spanish)
Pedro Carmona (born 1941), former president (2002)
Cipriano Castro (1858–1924), former president (1899–1908)
Hugo Chávez (1954–2013), former president (1999–2013) and founder of the Fifth Republic Movement party (MVR, by its initials in Spanish)
Joaquín Crespo (1841–1898), former president (1884–1886; 1892–1898)
Juan Crisóstomo Falcón (1820–1870), former president (1863–1868)
Rómulo Gallegos (1884–1969), former president (1948)
Juan Vicente Gómez (1857–1935), former president (1908–1935)
Antonio Guzmán Blanco (1829–1899), former president (1870–1877)
Wolfgang Larrazábal (1911–2003), former president (1958–1959)
Eleazar López Contreras (1883–1973), former president (1935–1941)
Leopoldo López (born 1971), former mayor of the Chacao municipality (2000–2008)
Nicolás Maduro (born 1962), president of Venezuela (2013–)
Pompeyo Márquez (born 1922), former minister of borders (1994–1999)
Isaías Medina Angarita (1897–1953), former president (1941–1945)
Fabricio Ojeda (1929–1966), former guerrilla fighter
José Antonio Páez (1790–1873) former president (1830–1835; 1839–1843; 1861–1863)
Jacinta Parejo de Crespo (1845–1914), former First Lady of Venezuela (1884–1886; 1892–1898)
Carlos Andrés Pérez (1922–2010), former president (1974–1979; 1989–1993)
Marcos Pérez Jiménez (1914–2001), former president (1952–1958)
Teodoro Petkoff (1932–2018), former guerrilla fighter and minister of the central office of coordination and planning (1996–1999)
José Vicente Rangel (born 1929), former vice president (2002–2007) and minister of foreign affairs (1991–2001)
Alí Rodríguez Araque (1937–2018), former ambassador to Cuba (2014-2018), minister of foreign affairs (2004-2006), minister of finance (2008-2010), and general secretary of OPEC (2000–2002)
Irene Sáez (born 1961), former mayor of the Chacao municipality (1993–1998) and governor of Nueva Esparta (1999–2000)
Juan Manuel Sucre Figarella (1925–1996), former minister of defense (1974–1975)
Leopoldo Sucre Figarella (1926–1996), former governor of Bolívar (1958–1959) and minister of public works (1960–1969)
Alirio Ugarte Pelayo (1923–1967), former governor of Monagas (1948-1951) and ambassador to Mexico (1959-1962)
Guillermo Tell Villegas (1823–1907), former president (1868; 1870; 1892)
Ramón José Velásquez (born 1916), former president (1993–1994)
Jóvito Villalba (1908–1981), founder of the Democratic Republican Union party (URD, by its initials in Spanish)
Science
Manuel Blum, winner of the Turing Award
Freddy Cachazo, winner of the Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics
Humberto Fernández-Morán, researcher and founder of the Venezuelan Institute for Neurological and Brain Studies (now Venezuelan Institute for Scientific Research), who developed the diamond knife, winner of the John Scott Medal.
Carlota Perez, technology scholar and economist
William H. Phelps, ornithologist and founder of Radio Caracas Radio
Aldemaro Romero Jr. (born 1951), scientist, communicator, advocate of liberal arts education
Medicine
Carlos Arvelo, military surgeon in the 19th century, and rector of the Central University of Venezuela from 1846 until 1849.
Baruj Benacerraf, Venezuelan-born American, Nobel Prize of Medicine in 1980.
Sara Bendahan, the first Venezuelan woman to complete her medical degree in that country.
Maruja Clavier, was one of the first Venezuelan nuclear oncologists.
Jacinto Convit, medic and scientist, known for developing a vaccine to fight leprosy and his studies to cure different types of cancer.
Francisco De Venanzi, Venezuelan doctor, scientist, scholar, and rector of the Central University of Venezuela.
José Del Vecchio, pioneered both sports medicine and youth baseball development.
Arnoldo Gabaldón, pioneered in anti-malaria campaign.
José Gregorio Hernández, physician and Catholic religious figure.
Tobías Lasser, botanist, founder of the Botanic Garden of Caracas.
Marcel Roche, physician and educator.
José María Vargas, modernized the Medicine studies in Venezuela in the second half of the 19th century.
Sports
Baseball
See also:
List of players from Venezuela in Major League Baseball
Venezuelan Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum
Bobby Abreu
José Altuve
Ernesto Aparicio
Ronald Acuña Jr.
Luis Aparicio
Luis Aparicio, Sr.
Antonio Armas
Dámaso Blanco
José 'Carrao' Bracho
Alex Cabrera
Miguel Cabrera
Daniel 'Chino' Canónico
Alejandro Carrasquel
Alfonso 'Chico' Carrasquel
José Antonio Casanova
David Concepción
Emilio Cueche
Luis 'Camaleón' García
Francisco Cervelli
Pompeyo Davalillo
Víctor Davalillo
Baudilio Diaz
Dalmiro Finol
Andrés Galarraga
Oswaldo Guillén
Félix Hernández
Ramón Hernández
Luis Leal
Vidal López
Ramón Monzant
Magglio Ordóñez
Salvador Perez
Chucho Ramos
Wilson Ramos
Luis Salazar
Johan Santana
Marco Scutaro
Luis Sojo
Gleyber Torres
César Tovar
Manny Trillo
Guillermo Vento
Omar Vizquel
Luis Zuloaga
Basketball
John Cox
Carl Herrera
Donta Smith
Óscar Torres
Gregory Vargas (born 1986)
Greivis Vásquez
Bodybuilding
Fannie Barrios
Yaxeni Oriquen-Garcia
Betty Viana-Adkins
Boxing
Alfonso Blanco
Luis Estaba
Carlos Morocho Hernandez
Betulio González
Jorge Linares
Alexander Muñoz
Lorenzo Parra
Edwin Valero
Bowling
Amleto Monacelli
Cycling
Hersony Canelon
Stefany Hernández
Daniela Larreal
José Rujano
Miguel Ubeto
Fencing
Silvio Fernandez
Francisco Limardo
Rubén Limardo
Horse racing
Gustavo Avila
Abel Castellano, Jr.
Javier Castellano
Eibar Coa
Ramón Domínguez
Motorcycle racing
Johnny Cecotto
Carlos Lavado
Iván Palazzese
Rugby
Serge Blanco
Soccer
Juan Arango
Gabriel Cichero
Nicolas Fedor
Juan Pablo Galavis
Massimo Margiotta
Josef Martínez
Alejandro Moreno
Richard Páez
Tomás Rincón
Salomón Rondón
Giovanni Savarese
José Vidal
Deyna Castellanos
Sports car racing
Johnny Cecotto
Johnny Cecotto Jr.
Pancho Pepe Cróquer
Milka Duno
Pastor Maldonado
Enzo Potolicchio
Alex Popow
Ernesto José Viso
Swimming
María Elena Giusti
Andreina Pinto
Yanel Pinto
Francisco Sanchez
Alberto Mestre
Albert Subirats
Rafael Vidal
Tennis
Jorge Andrew
Juan Carlos Bianchi
José de Armas
Alfonso Mora
Garbiñe Muguruza
Gabriela Paz Franco
Nicolás Pereira
Maurice Ruah
Milagros Sequera
David Souto
Roberto Maytín
Jimy Szymanski
Daniel Vallverdu
María Vento-Kabchi
References
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Bernard Humphrey Hopkins Jr. (born January 15, 1965) is an American former professional boxer who competed from 1988 to 2016. He is one of the most successful boxers of the past three decades, having held multiple world championships in two weight classes, including the undisputed middleweight title from 2001 to 2005, and the lineal light heavyweight title from 2011 to 2012.
Hopkins first became a world champion by winning the IBF middleweight title in 1995. He would go on to compile 19 defenses against 17 opponents; a division record at the time. In 2001, Hopkins successfully unified the middleweight division by defeating Félix Trinidad to win the WBA (Super), WBC, Ring magazine and lineal titles. A victory over Oscar De La Hoya for the WBO title in 2004 cemented Hopkins' status as undisputed champion, while also making him the first male boxer to simultaneously hold world titles by all four major boxing sanctioning bodies. In 2001, Hopkins was voted Fighter of the Year by The Ring magazine and the Boxing Writers Association of America. In 2011, The Ring ranked Hopkins as third on their list of the "10 best middleweight title holders of the last 50 years." As of April 2021, he is ranked by BoxRec as the seventh greatest boxer of all time, pound for pound.
After losing the undisputed title to Jermain Taylor in 2005 and failing to regain it in a rematch the same year, Hopkins achieved further success in 2006 when he moved up to light heavyweight, winning the IBO and Ring titles from Antonio Tarver at 41 years of age. Two defenses of the Ring title were made before a loss to Joe Calzaghe in 2008. Three years later, Hopkins defeated Jean Pascal for the WBC and lineal light heavyweight titles, as well as regaining the Ring title. This made Hopkins the oldest boxer in history to win a world championship, at the age of 46, breaking George Foreman's record set in 1994. Hopkins later broke his own record by winning the IBF light heavyweight title from Tavoris Cloud in 2013, and again in 2014 when he won the WBA (Super) title from Beibut Shumenov, at ages 48 and 49, respectively.
Nicknamed "The Executioner", and later "The Alien", Hopkins was known among observers for his longevity and ability to continue competing successfully at an advanced age. Widely considered one of the greatest boxers of the modern era, he was a highly strategic and defensive boxer known for carrying good speed and power along with counterpunching skills. He credits mastering the boxing fundamentals and a great defense for his longevity in the sport. He was also a very seasoned fighter, being able to take advantage of a wide variety of situations in the ring and implement rough and dirty tactics while fighting on the inside or in a clinch.
In the last years of his active career, Hopkins also became a minority partner with Golden Boy Promotions, with which he still remains post-career.
Early life
Born to Bernard Hopkins Sr. and his wife Shirley, Bernard grew up with his family in the Raymond Rosen housing project in Philadelphia. Hopkins turned to crime early in his life. By the age of thirteen he was mugging people and had been stabbed three times. At seventeen, Hopkins was sentenced to 18 years in Graterford Prison for nine felonies. While in prison he witnessed the murder of another inmate in an argument over a pack of cigarettes, but also discovered his passion for boxing. After serving almost five years, Hopkins was released from prison in 1988. He then decided to use boxing as an escape from his previous life, and converted to Islam. While Hopkins was leaving the prison for the final time, the warden told him he'd "see [Hopkins] again when you wind up back in here", to which Hopkins replied "I ain't ever coming back here." Later, Hopkins attributed his personal discipline to his experiences and time spent in Graterford Prison.
Amateur career
Hopkins completed his amateur career with a 95–4 record, although all of these fights took place in prison during a rehabilitation program so they weren't official amateur bouts.
Professional career
Middleweight
Early career
Hopkins immediately joined the professional boxing ranks as a light heavyweight, losing his debut on October 11, 1988, in Atlantic City, New Jersey to Clinton Mitchell. After a sixteen-month layoff, he resumed his career as a middleweight, winning a unanimous decision over Greg Paige at the Blue Horizon on February 22, 1990.
Between February 1990 and December 1992, Hopkins scored 21 wins without a loss. He won 16 of those fights by knockout, 12 coming in the first round.
Hopkins vs. Jones I
Hopkins met Roy Jones on May 22, 1993 for the vacant IBF middleweight title. Hopkins was out-pointed throughout most of the fight, en route to losing a unanimous decision. All three judges scored the fight 116–112 for Jones.
Middleweight title
The IBF came again knocking at Hopkins's door on December 17 of that year, matching him with Segundo Mercado in Mercado's hometown of Quito, Ecuador. Mercado knocked Hopkins down twice before Hopkins rallied late and earned a split draw. It has been argued that Hopkins was also not properly acclimated to the altitude of nearly 10,000 feet.
The IBF called for an immediate rematch, and on April 29, 1995, Hopkins became a world champion with a seventh-round technical knockout victory in Landover, Maryland.
In his first title defense he defeated Steve Frank, whom he stopped in twenty-four seconds. By the end of 2000, he had defended the IBF title 12 times without a loss, while beating such standouts as John David Jackson, Glen Johnson (undefeated at the time), Simon Brown, and Antwun Echols.
2001 Middleweight Tournament
The arrival of former welterweight and light middleweight champion Félix Trinidad into the middleweight ranks set off a series of unification fights between major middleweight title-holders. The boxers involved in the tournament would be reigning IBF champion Bernard Hopkins, WBC champion Keith Holmes, WBA champion William Joppy, and Félix Trinidad.
Hopkins vs. Holmes
On April 14, 2001, Hopkins won a unanimous decision over WBC champion Keith Holmes in New York City. Trinidad, however, knocked out Middleweight mainstay William Joppy in an impressive five rounds. This led many to believe that Félix Trinidad was simply too much and too strong for Hopkins.
Hopkins vs. Trinidad
Then, on September 29, 2001, WBA champion Trinidad challenged Hopkins for middleweight unification in Madison Square Garden. The fight was originally scheduled for September 15, but the 9/11 attacks postponed it by two weeks.
For the first time in many years, Hopkins was an underdog in the betting, which led the confident Hopkins to place a $100,000 bet on himself to win the bout. (The $100K came from a sponsorship deal Hopkins had with online casino site Golden Palace; Hopkins even had the GoldenPalace.com website displayed on his back for the fight.) During promotion for the bout, Hopkins caused huge controversy by throwing the Puerto Rico flag on the floor in press conferences in both New York City and Puerto Rico, the latter conference leading to a riot in which Hopkins had to be run to safety from the angry mob.
During the fight, Hopkins was on his way to a lopsided decision victory when, in the 12th and final round, he floored Trinidad. Referee Steve Smoger called a halt to the fight after Trinidad's father (who was also his trainer) entered the ring to stop the fight. It was the first loss of Trinidad's career, and it made Hopkins the first undisputed world middleweight champion since Marvin Hagler in 1987. 'The Ring' magazine and the 'World Boxing Hall of Fame' named Hopkins as the 2001 Fighter of the Year.
He defended the undisputed title six times. Hopkins bested Carl Daniels on February 2 surpassing Carlos Monzón's division record of 14 defenses, 2002, by tenth-round technical knockout; Morrade Hakkar on March 29, 2003, by eighth-round TKO; William Joppy on December 13, 2003, by unanimous decision; and Robert Allen on June 5, 2004, also by unanimous decision.
Undisputed middleweight champion
Hopkins vs. De La Hoya
In the highest-paying fight of his career, Hopkins fought six-division titleholder Oscar De La Hoya for the undisputed middleweight championship on September 18, 2004, in Las Vegas. They fought at a catch weight of 158 lbs, two pounds below the middleweight limit of 160 lbs. Hopkins won the bout by knockout in the ninth round with a left hook to the body and thus became the first boxer ever to unify the titles of all four major sanctioning bodies. At the time of the stoppage, Hopkins was ahead on two of the scorecards, with De La Hoya ahead on the other. Hopkins earned a career high of $10 million and De La Hoya made $30 million.
In November 2004, De la Hoya invited Hopkins to join his boxing promotional firm, Golden Boy Promotions, as president of its new East Coast chapter.
At 40 years old, an age at which most boxers are retired, Hopkins reached the middleweight record at the time of 19 consecutive title defenses on February 19, 2005, against ranked #1 WBC contender Howard Eastman, the European middleweight champion. Hopkins dominated the fight from start to finish, winning 119–110, 117–111 and 116–112.
Hopkins vs. Taylor
In his next fight on July 16, 2005, Hopkins lost his undisputed middleweight championship to Jermain Taylor via a split decision. Hopkins started slowly but came on strong over the final four rounds. Many press row writers scored the fight for Hopkins. Five months later, Hopkins and Taylor had a rematch, Taylor winning again, this time by unanimous decision.
Light heavyweight
Hopkins vs. Tarver
Following his two losses to Jermain Taylor, Hopkins at 41 decided not to retire and made the decision to jump two weight divisions to face off against The Ring light heavyweight champion Antonio Tarver on June 10, 2006. Going into the fight, Tarver was a 3-to-1 favorite and had been the first man ever to TKO Roy Jones Jr. Many now placed Tarver among the sports top competitors. He was constantly ranked in the P4P rankings. However, Bernard Hopkins picked up a lopsided unanimous decision, scoring 118–109 on all three judges scorecards.
Antonio Tarver also lost a $250,000 bet with Hopkins, after he failed to stop Hopkins in the first six rounds.
Hopkins vs. Wright
On July 21, 2007, at the Mandalay Bay Resort & Casino in Las Vegas, Hopkins defended The Ring light heavyweight championship against former undisputed junior middleweight champion Winky Wright. During the weigh-in, Hopkins shoved Wright with an open-hand to the face, igniting a brawl between both fighters' entourages. Hopkins was fined $200,000 for instigating the brawl. Hopkins prevailed with a unanimous decision victory by scores of 117–111, 117–111 and 116–112.
Hopkins vs. Calzaghe
On April 19, 2008, at the Thomas & Mack Center in Las Vegas, Hopkins lost The Ring light heavyweight title to Joe Calzaghe via split decision (116–111 and 115–112 for Joe Calzaghe; 114–113 for Hopkins). Hopkins started the fight well, dropping Calzaghe in the first round and using his ring savvy to confuse the challenger. Calzaghe did however quickly adapt to the style of Hopkins and caught up in the middle to later rounds using his superior hand speed and output volume, leading to a split decision win for the Welshman.
Hopkins vs. Pavlik
On October 18, 2008, Hopkins met middleweight champion Kelly Pavlik in a non-title fight at a catch-weight of 170 lbs. Fans and pundits alike felt that Pavlik, known for his formidable punching power, would become the first man to knock Hopkins out. Pavlik was a 4–1 betting favorite heading into the contest. On the night of the fight, Hopkins turned back the clock to produce a performance he claimed to be the best of his career winning a unanimous decision (117–109, 119–106, 118–108) over the undefeated Pavlik.
Hopkins prepared for this fight in the late summer heat at his second home, Danny Hawk's "World Famous" Normandy Gym in Miami Beach, Florida.
During the Ricky Hatton vs. Manny Pacquiao media conferences before their fight on May 3, 2009, Hopkins stated he would be "interested" in a proposed fight with British super middleweight champion Carl Froch.
On December 2, 2009, Bernard Hopkins fought in his home city of Philadelphia for the first time since 2003 beating Enrique Ornelas via 12-round unanimous decision (120–109, 119–109 & 118–110) in what served as a tune-up bout for the 44-year-old Hopkins who had not fought since his October 18, 2008 12-round upset victory over undisputed middleweight champion Kelly Pavlik.
The bout was supposed to be a tune-up for a scheduled March 13, 2010 rematch with Roy Jones Jr. The rematch was later postponed as a result of Jones Jr. falling to a first-round technical knockout loss to Australian Danny Green.
Hopkins vs. Jones II
Hopkins and old foe Roy Jones Jr. agreed to fight in a rematch on April 3, 2010 at the Mandalay Bay Events Center in Las Vegas. The two boxers fought again 17 years after their first bout in 1993. Hopkins defeated Jones by a unanimous decision in a 12-round bout marred by illegal blows and a skirmish at the end of the sixth round involving ring entourage, the referee and security guards. Judges Don Trella and Glenn Trowbridge scored it 117–110 for Hopkins, while Dave Moretti favored him 118–109. The Associated Press had it 119–108, scoring 11 of 12 rounds for Hopkins.
He then challenged WBA heavyweight champion David Haye who had successfully defended his title against John Ruiz. Following Hopkins challenge, Haye ruled out the fight stating Bernard was only looking for a payday. Hopkins later stated his intentions to fight Lucian Bute following Bute's third-round technical knockout victory over Edison Miranda. Golden Boy Promotions also tried to approach retired boxer Joe Calzaghe for a potential rematch in 2010, but Calzaghe, who stated he no longer had the appetite, turned the offer down.
Hopkins vs. Pascal I & II
At 45 years old, Hopkins fought Lineal/WBC/The Ring light-heavyweight champion Jean Pascal on December 18, 2010 at the Colisée Pepsi in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. The bout ended in a majority draw decision. Judge Steve Morrow had it 114–112 for Hopkins, but was overruled by Claude Paquette (113–113) and Daniel Van de Wiele (114–114). Following the controversy of the fight, WBC chairman José Sulaimán sanctioned an immediate rematch.
On May 21, 2011, at the Bell Centre in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, Hopkins defeated Pascal by unanimous decision to capture the lineal/WBC/The Ring light-heavyweight championships. The official scores were 115–113 from Guido Cavalleri of Italy, 116–112 from judge Rey Danseco of the Philippines, and 115–114 from Thailand's Anek Hongtongkam. With the win, Hopkins became the oldest man in the history of the sport to win a major world title, supplanting George Foreman, who had previously held the distinction after his knockout victory over Michael Moorer. Hopkins won at 46 years, 4 months, 6 days, while Foreman was 45 years, 10 months. After the bout, ESPN columnist Dan Rafael stated: "Bernard Hopkins already had lived several boxing lifetimes, but he was born yet again in Saturday's decision over Jean Pascal, becoming the oldest champion in history."
Hopkins vs. Dawson I & II
Hopkins told the world of boxing that his next fight was going to be against former champion Chad Dawson. They fought on October 15, 2011. Hopkins lost via TKO for being unable to continue after injuring his shoulder when Dawson threw him off of his back.
After an investigation by the WBC following a protest filed by Oscar De La Hoya, the WBC ruled that Dawson intentionally fouled Hopkins and returned the belt to Hopkins. The Ring magazine also decided to continue to recognize Hopkins as their champion pending the California State Athletic Commission's ruling on a protest filed on behalf of Hopkins. Also on December 13, California State Athletic Commission (CSAC) has ruled that the decision will be overturned to a no-contest upon official review and the testimony of referee of the bout, Pat Russell.
A rematch with Dawson was set for April 28, 2012. Hopkins lost the bout via majority decision. Hopkins would not fight again in 2012, making it the first calendar year since 1989 that he did not win a fight.
Hopkins vs. Cloud
Hopkins would make his return to the ring on March 9, 2013 at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn, against IBF Light Heavyweight Champion and Ring No. 2 ranked Light Heavyweight, Tavoris Cloud. Hopkins broke his own record becoming the oldest man in the history of the sport to win a major world boxing title, by defeating Cloud by unanimous decision.
Hopkins vs. Murat
Hopkins defended the IBF Light Heavyweight Championship against Karo Murat on October 26, 2013. The mandatory title defense was originally scheduled for July 13, 2013, but was later postponed due to visa issues for Murat. In the meantime, the IBF originally made Sergey Kovalev Hopkins's new mandatory challenger, but Kovalev instead faced and beat then WBO champion Nathan Cleverly to win the title, so Murat was reinstated as the IBF mandatory challenger and the bout was rescheduled for October 26, 2013. Hopkins won by unanimous decision with two scores of 119–108 and one of 117–110.
Hopkins vs. Shumenov
Hopkins fought Beibut Shumenov in a championship unification bout on April 19, 2014, where Hopkins would be defending the IBF Light Heavyweight title and Shumenov would be defending the WBA Super and IBA Light Heavyweight titles, the latter not on the line for Hopkins. On fight night Hopkins knocked down Shumenov with a jab and followed with a powerful overhand right that nailed Shumenov on the side of the head and dropped him with just over two minutes left in the eleventh round. Hopkins won by split decision with scores of 113-114, 116-111 and 116-111, becoming the oldest boxer in history to unify titles in a weight division.
Hopkins vs. Kovalev
Shortly after Sergey Kovalev defeated Blake Caparello in a second-round knockout on August 2, 2014, Hopkins announced he would face the former in a match where his WBA Super and IBF titles would be on the line against Kovalev's WBO title. The match was signed after neither fighter could secure a contest with WBC and lineal champion Adonis Stevenson. The fight took place at Boardwalk Hall in Atlantic City on November 8, 2014 and was televised by HBO; this marked the end of a feud between Hopkins' promoter Golden Boy Promotions and the network which saw HBO cut ties with Golden Boy fighters.
In a one-sided fight, Hopkins was knocked down in the first round by Kovalev. Although he became the first fighter to take Kovalev past eight rounds, Hopkins lost every single round on all three judges' scorecards and took a 120-107, 120-107, 120-106 unanimous decision defeat, losing his titles.
In 2015, Hopkins called out Carl Froch again stating he would like to fight him in a farewell match, only for Froch to decline the offer calling it a "lose-lose situation". Hopkins also eyed James DeGale and Gennady Golovkin.
Hopkins vs. Smith Jr.
Hopkins made an announcement confirming he wanted a final farewell fight before the end of 2016, which would be his first fight in over two years since losing to Kovalev in a lopsided unanimous decision. Hopkins also confirmed he would retire after this fight, whether it be at cruiserweight or light heavyweight, putting an end to his 28-year career.
A deal was made in October for Hopkins to fight American boxer Joe Smith Jr., who last fought Fonfara in June knocking him out in less than 3 minutes. The fight would be a HBO main event on December 17, 2016 at The Forum in Inglewood, California. Originally a co-feature with Salido vs. Muira until Salido injured his lower back and pulled out of the fight, making the Hopkins farewell the sole main event of the card. Later it was confirmed that, that another co-feature fight has been signed, as Oleksandr Usyk would be defending his WBO cruiserweight title against Thabiso Mchunu. Both boxers weighed in at 174 pounds.
Hopkins did not contact trainer Naazim Richardson to train him for his final bout, instead having Kovalev's trainer John David Jackson, a former boxer whom Hopkins defeated in 1997, train him.
On fight night, in front of a 6,513 crowd, Hopkins lost to Smith via TKO when he was knocked out of the ring in the 8th round and failed to make it back into the ring as referee Jack Reiss made a 20 count. Smith Jr. outboxed Hopkins through most of the first seven rounds, then, in the 8th round, Smith caught Hopkins in the corner and landed five shots to the head that knocked him out of the ring. Hopkins said he was hurt and couldn't get back in the ring. He insisted that he had been pushed out of the ring, but replays showed it was not a push. Hopkins said to HBO in the post fight interview, "He shoved me out of the ring. My ankle got twist when I fell out of the ring. I couldn't stand on my feet. If I wouldn't have been pushed out of the ring, I believe he was starting to fade... I can't believe they gave him a TKO. They can call it a no contest but not a loss. The momentum from his body pushed me. I went out like a soldier. I'm not in a denial." Hopkins sat down with HBO's Max Kellerman in the locker room after the fight and confirmed this would be his final fight. Smith Jr. retained his WBC International light heavyweight title. Hopkins' reported purse was $800,000, compared to Smith's $140,000. According to RingTV, the fight averaged 934,000 viewers, peaking at 1.035m on HBO.
Coaches
Hopkins was coached by Philadelphia-based English "Bouie" Fisher from 1989 until their split in 2002 which resulted in Fisher taking Hopkins to court, claiming he was underpaid by $255,000. They re-united in 2003, but split again in 2005, again with Fisher claiming to be underpaid, this time to the tune of $200,000. Naazim Richardson, Fisher's long-term assistant took over as Hopkins' head coach from 2005.
Fisher won the Eddie Futch-John F.X. Condon Award, awarded by the Boxing Writers Association of America, for Trainer of the Year in 2001. He died aged 83 in June 2011. Richardson died in July 2020.
Statements on race
On December 7, 2007, Hopkins and Calzaghe met face to face in the media room set up for the Floyd Mayweather Jr. vs. Ricky Hatton fight. Hopkins and Calzaghe began shouting insults and taunting each other, with Hopkins shouting, "You're not even in my league! I would never let a white boy beat me. I would never lose to a white boy. I couldn't go back to the projects if I let a white boy beat me." Hopkins would later explain his comments, saying that it was not meant to be taken as a racial slur or a reflection of his feelings on white fighters, but simply said to create some hype for his fight with Calzaghe. On January 23, 2008, the fight was officially announced to take place on April 19, 2008, at the Thomas & Mack Center in Las Vegas. Hopkins lost the fight.
In late 2010, Hopkins suggested that African American fighters who possessed what he described as a "slick" inner-city style of fighting would be successful against Filipino boxer Manny Pacquiao. "Maybe I'm biased because I'm black, but I think that this is what is said at people's homes and around the dinner table among black boxing fans and fighters. Most of them won't say it [in public] because they're not being real and they don't have the balls to say it. But I do think that a fighter like the Ray Leonards or anyone like that would beat a guy [like Pacquiao] if they come with their game. Listen, this ain't a racial thing, but then again, maybe it is. But the style that is embedded in most of us black fighters, that style could be a problem to any other style of fighting."
On May 11, 2011, Hopkins questioned Minnesota Vikings quarterback Donovan McNabb's racial credentials in a Philadelphia Daily News online article. Marcus Hayes of The Philadelphia Inquirer reported that according to Hopkins, McNabb had a privileged childhood in suburban Chicago and, as a result, is not black enough or tough enough, at least compared with, say, himself, Michael Vick and Terrell Owens. Hopkins said, "He's got a suntan. That's all... McNabb is the guy in the house, while everybody else is on the field... He's the one who got the extra coat. The extra servings... He thought he was one of them."
In late 2013 he again suggested that African Americans possess a "slick" style of boxing which is superior to other styles (presumably practiced by non-African Americans). "The great Sugar Ray Leonard, right now, if he was boxing, the way that they want you to fight, the people that pull the strings of the puppet, he would be boring today. Ray Robinson – the great Robinson – would be boring today…Because the feeders of the people that buy entertainment. They're being fed that if they duck, don't buy it. If they're slick, and they beat [their opponent] nine out of the 12 rounds, and the guy just can't hit him because they were slick and smart enough to hit and not get hit, 'He's not crowd-pleasing, he don't sell tickets.' Because they done fed the followers and they done fed [that] to the customers. The customers will drink anything that you give them if it's promoted right…But when you take away the skill and you take away the slick, and you take away the boxing ability and say that's not entertaining, or that's not entertainment, then, to me, it's like trying to erase a culture that you know has dominated the sport way back then where you were slick. And I'm talking about black fighters. Yes, I said it", said Hopkins.
Professional boxing record
Pay-per-view bouts
See also
List of undisputed boxing champions
List of middleweight boxing champions
List of light heavyweight boxing champions
List of WBA world champions
List of WBC world champions
List of IBF world champions
List of WBO world champions
List of IBO world champions
List of The Ring world champions
Notes
References
External links
Bernard Hopkins, Boxing's Oldest – and Most Cunning – Champion, article at The New York Times
The Ageless Wonder: Bernard Hopkins, article at Social Lifestyle Magazine
Vacated
1965 births
African-American boxers
Boxers from Philadelphia
International Boxing Federation champions
International Boxing Organization champions
Living people
People from New Castle County, Delaware
World Boxing Association champions
World Boxing Council champions
World Boxing Organization champions
African-American Muslims
Converts to Islam
American male boxers
The Ring (magazine) champions
World middleweight boxing champions
World light-heavyweight boxing champions
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople
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The Caledonian Railway main line in Scotland connected Glasgow and Edinburgh with Carlisle, via Carstairs and Beattock.
It was opened in 1847 by the Caledonian Railway. The approach to Glasgow used railways already built, primarily for mineral traffic; these were later by-passed by a more direct route.
Today, the route forms the northern section of the West Coast Main Line, and was electrified in the early 1970s.
Opening
From 1830 onwards considerable attention was given to the means by which Glasgow and Edinburgh might be connected to London, and as English railways began to develop into a network, the urgency of making a railway accelerated. The difficult terrain of the Southern Uplands and Cumberland made the selection of a route controversial. After much difficulty, the Caledonian Railway was authorised to build a line via Beattock; this was known as the Annandale Route.
On 10 September 1847 the line was opened between Carlisle and Beattock. The station at Carlisle was built and operated jointly with the London and North Western Railway. (Later other companies shared in the operation there.) Construction continued and on 15 February 1848 the line was opened between Beattock and Glasgow, completing the Carlisle to Glasgow route. Finally the line from Carstairs to Edinburgh opened on 1 April 1848.
First configuration
Carlisle to Carstairs
At first the southern termination of the line was at Carlisle station, later named Carlisle Citadel; passengers and goods were handled there. The line ran broadly north across gently undulating country at first, crossing the River Esk and entering Scotland near Gretna, then climbing following the Kirtle Water to Lockerbie. Climbing further, the line followed the Annan Water to Beattock, and on to Beattock Summit. Crossing the watershed, the line now descended in the upper Clyde Valley; the course of the Clyde here is much more hilly and the line follows a series of broad reverse curves as it continues through Abington and Thankerton, emerging on to slightly flatter terrain at Carstairs.
Carstairs to Glasgow
Now turning north-west, the Glasgow line continues past Lanark and near Carluke, joining the Wishaw and Coltness Railway (W&CR) at Garriongill Junction. The W&CR had been built as a "coal railway", primarily intended for the haulage of coal and iron ore. It had been upgraded and modernised, and leased by the Caledonian Railway. The main line used the W&CR line to Motherwell, from which point the original route is not part of the modern main line. It turned north through to Whifflat (now spelt Whifflet), joining the Glasgow, Garnkirk and Coatbridge Railway (GG&CR). This too had been built as a coal railway, and had been upgraded and renamed the Garnkirk and Glasgow Railway; it too was leased by the Caledonian Railway. From Whifflat the line ran to Coatbridge, and then turned west on through Garnkirk, terminating at the GG&CR Glasgow terminus at Townhead.
The approach to Glasgow made a long northward sweep, and the Townhead terminus was not well located for central Glasgow. During the process of obtaining Parliamentary authorisation for its line, the Caledonian discovered that an independent Clydesdale Junction Railway was also being authorised. The Caledonian quickly took control of the Clydesdale Junction by leasing it during construction; it opened throughout on 1 June 1849. Its route left the Wishaw and Coltness line at Motherwell, and ran via Uddingston and Rutherglen to a terminus called Southside in Glasgow, at the junction of Cathcart Road and Pollokshaws Road. This too was inconveniently located for the city centre, but the Caledonian now had two routes to two terminal stations in Glasgow. The Clydesdale Junction route now forms the northern end of the modern Caledonian main line, extended from South Side to cross the River Clyde to Glasgow Central Station.
Carstairs to Edinburgh
The Edinburgh section of the Caledonian main line left Carstairs station and ran north-east. For several years passenger trains from Carlisle divided at Carstairs; the Glasgow portion proceeded, and the Edinburgh portion reversed direction towards the capital. It is likely that goods trains too ran to Carstairs and remarshalled there. A cut-off line was constructed enabling direct running from Carlisle towards Edinburgh, but it was little used and it was soon closed. Later a shorter chord line was built having the same effect.
The line continued past Cobbinshaw and Kirknewton, descending into Edinburgh in the valley of the Water of Leith. The terminus was at Lothian Road; this was later altered to Princes Street by a short extension and enlargement.
Competition for traffic to England
The main line as planned was hoped to be the sole connection between Scottish cities and the English network. In fact this proved ill-founded, as the North British Railway opened its line to Berwick-upon-Tweed, forming part of a line to London that became known as the East Coast Main Line in alliance with English lines. At first this route involved two changes of trains until bridges over the River Tweed at Berwick and the River Tyne at Newcastle were completed. This route was competitive for transits from Edinburgh to London, but Glasgow was less conveniently served.
On the west side of the country the Glasgow and South Western Railway (G&SWR) had a route between Glasgow and Carlisle; however it was hampered by reliance on the Caledonian Railway route for the final approach to Carlisle, and primacy of the Caledonian Railway and its English ally, the LNWR, there. The G&SWR route was uncompetitive for traffic to and from Edinburgh.
A third route was another North British Railway route that became known as the Waverley Route between Edinburgh and Carlisle. This route too suffered from the dominance of the Caledonian and LNWR at Carlisle. When the Midland Railway opened its line from London to Carlisle via Leeds, the G&SWR and the NBR Waverley route had access southwards over a friendly railway at last.
Development after first construction
In its early years the Caledonian Railway sought to become dominant in large areas of Scotland by leasing nascent companies. It was able to do so by guaranteeing lease payments in perpetuity, which avoided any need for cash at the time, but heavily indebted the company later. It saw the best opportunities to the north of the central belt, and in Ayrshire. As the company matured, it encouraged local promoters to start construction of branch lines, taking them over by purchase if they were successful.
The principal effect of this on the main line was the construction of a branch line from Gartsherrie to Greenhill Junction, there meeting the Scottish Central Railway, and giving access to Stirling and Perth. A first, short section of this branch used the route of the earlier Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway (M&KR), another modernised coal railway. The M&KR was not brought into the Caledonian family, and through trains from the Caledonian at Motherwell towards Stirling used a rival company's track until nationalisation of the railways in 1948.
A development that had not been foreseen was the emergence of the Monklands iron industry, which generated a huge demand for good quality iron ore and coal, and the Caledonian was fortunate that considerable reserves lay in areas served by it, or otherwise accessible over it.
These factors led to a limited number of intermediate stations on the main line, and a concentration of effort elsewhere. There were no new branches off the main line at first, but the "Lanark" station was a considerable distance from the important Burgh, and local interests promoted a branch line to Lanark, which opened in 1855.
The Symington, Biggar and Broughton Railway promoted a branch to Biggar; it was opened in 1860 after the local company had been acquired by the Caledonian, and the line was extended to Peebles in 1864.
In 1863 an independent branch line was opened to Dumfries, the Dumfries, Lochmaben and Lockerbie Railway was opened. The Caledonian acquired the line in 1865. The Portpatrick Railway had opened in 1861-1862 and the Caledonian worked it. This gave it access from Lockerbie to Stranraer and Portpatrick, enabling it to develop ferry services to the north of Ireland. It routed traffic from there to Glasgow and Edinburgh via Lockerbie, bringing considerable additional traffic to the main line. When the Portpatrick Railway was reconstituted into the Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Joint Railway, the Caledonian was a one-quarter owner.
The Dolphinton Branch was opened in 1867 from Carstairs; Dolphinton was a small settlement and the construction of the line was purely tactical.
Mineral extraction in Cumberland around Workington developed considerably, and much of the output went to the Lanarkshire iron works over the Caledonian main line. In 1869 an independent Solway Junction Railway was opened, with a long viaduct over the Solway Firth, and shortening the journey from Workington to the Monklands.
From the outset, the rival Glasgow and South Western Railway had intended to build an independent line to Carlisle from Gretna, but this was forbidden by Parliament during the authorisation process. The G&SWR was required to make a junction with the Caledonian main line at Gretna Junction, and to run over the line into Carlisle. That arrangement started in 1850, and the former G&SWR still operates, making the connection at Gretna Junction as before. All the other branches referred to in this section have closed, with the exception of the Lanark branch.
The main line from 1879
The first main line cemented the configuration of the Caledonian Railway route to England. It was enhanced by subsequent improvement of the route into Glasgow, as well as extension of the Edinburgh terminal named Princes Street, completed in 1870 and the expansion of goods facilities in Carlisle. The final development of the route had taken place by 1879, when the Glasgow terminal at Glasgow Central was opened. The station was considerably more convenient than the terminals previously in use. The original routing over the Wishaw and Coltness and the Glasgow Garnkirk and Coatbridge lines was now by-passed for main line passenger traffic, although still in use for local passenger traffic and considerable mineral usage. The Buchanan Street terminal was now focussed on passenger services to the Stirling line.
At Carlisle the first passenger station remained in use, but the original goods facilities had been enhanced by the opening of a separate Viaduct goods station, and a route for goods and mineral trains passing the passenger station giving direct independent access from the Maryport and Carlisle Railway route; iron ore from Workington to the ironworks of the Monklands and become hugely significant by this time. The goods by-pass lines at Carlisle became very extensive and were jointly owned and operated by several railway companies.
After 1879
By 1879 the shape of the Caledonian main line was substantially developed. Most of the branches that left the main line directly had been opened by then. The principal subsequent developments were:
comprehensive suburban development in greater Glasgow, redoubled in the last decades of the twentieth century;
duplication of the route from Law Junction in to Glasgow serving ironworks that later became Ravenscraig Steelworks, and giving enhanced access northwards to freight marshalling facilities at Mossend Yard;
the opening of a branch line to Moffat Railway Beattock in 1883;
the opening of the Leadhills and Wanlockhead Branch from Elvanfoot in 1901–1902;
considerably enhanced goods facilities at Carlisle;
extension lines in Edinburgh to serve docks at Granton and Leith;
late twentieth century opening or reopening of passenger stations in the Glasgow and Edinburgh travel-to-work areas.
Development of passenger train services
In 1850, the passenger service on the main line consisted of five trains daily from Carlisle to Glasgow, of which three were expresses. Two gave daytime transits from London, the faster taking 12 hours 55 minutes. The fastest journey from Carlisle to Glasgow took 3 hours 30 minutes, and all the trains carried portions to Edinburgh detached at Carstairs, or gave connections to Edinburgh there. There was a limited Sunday service.
As train service patterns settled down later in the nineteenth century, the Caledonian main line carried important express trains, as well as local stopping trains. In contrast to the frequent regular-interval services of the present day, the train frequency was limited. In 1895 there were four daytime expresses northbound; the first left Euston at 5.15 a.m. Many trains divided at Carstairs with separate portions from there to Edinburgh and in some cases Perth and Aberdeen. There were two sleeping car trains to Glasgow and two to Aberdeen. All the daytime trains called at Beattock, and there were four all-stations stopping trains as well as some short workings. The fastest journey from Carlisle to Glasgow took 2 hours 10 minutes.
By 1922 there were five daytime express trains. Local passenger business had declined and there was only one all-stations train running throughout the route, but several very short workings and some semi-fast trains. The 10.00 a.m. express from Euston arrived at Glasgow Central at 6.30 p.m.; it was not named, and conveyed through carriages from Birmingham. It required 2 hours 26 minutes from Carlisle to Glasgow, calling only at Motherwell "when required". There were several night trains to Glasgow and to the northern lines.
By 1938 there were still only four daytime through trains Monday to Friday, although there were considerably more summer Saturday trains, many of them going north to Stirling and beyond, and some originating from Liverpool. The stopping service on the route remained very thin indeed, although the Edinburgh line had more stopping trains. There were many more night trains, several of them seasonal, and many running to the north of Scotland. The 10.00 a.m. train from Euston was named The Royal Scot and took seven hours to Glasgow, and seven hours and five minutes to Edinburgh, advertised as conveying restaurant car to both terminals. The train called only at Carlisle intermediately.
From electrification of the main line by British Rail in 1974 the main line service was increased to an almost-regular two-hourly frequency. The best train took five hours between London Euston and Glasgow Central, but Edinburgh was not a destination served from London by this route. Trains from Liverpool and Manchester combined at Preston and divided again at Carstairs, giving through journeys to Glasgow and Edinburgh. Beattock station had closed by this time so that only Lockerbie, Carstairs and Motherwell were served by main line trains to Glasgow, and only Haymarket by Edinburgh trains.
Avanti West Coast is the main operator on the London and Birmingham to Glasgow route. The main line service frequency is considerably better than ever before. TransPennine Express operate a frequent service between Manchester Airport and Glasgow and Edinburgh.
Intermediate locations
The original main line was selected as the optimum route through challenging terrain with a very limited population density, and there was little opportunity to deviate to serve intermediate towns and villages.
Locations between Carlisle and Glasgow on the present main line route:
Carlisle; joint station with London and North Western Railway; opened 1 or 10 September 1847; at times known as Carlisle Joint or Carlisle Citadel;
Caldew Bridge Junction; convergence of Dentonholme goods lines;
Port Carlisle Junction; divergence of Silloth line;
Etterby Junction;
Rockcliffe; opened 10 September 1847; closed 1 January 1917; reopened 2 December 1919; closed 17 July 1950 but workmen's services continued until 6 December 1965;
Floriston; opened 10 September 1847; closed 17 July 1950;
Gretna; opened 10 September 1847; closed 10 September 1951; at times known as Gretna Junction; convergence of North British Railway line from Longtown;
Gretna Junction; divergence of Glasgow and South Western line to Dumfries;
Kirkpatrick; opened 10 September 1847; closed 13 June 1960;
Kirtlebridge; opened March 1848; relocated a mile northwards by October 1869; closed 13 June 1960; convergence of Solway Junction line;
Ecclefechan; opened 10 September 1847; closed 13 June 1960;
Lockerbie; opened 10 September 1847; divergence of Dumfries line;
Nethercleugh; opened 10 September 1847; closed 13 June 1960;
Dinwoodie; opened May 1853; closed 13 June 1960;
Wamphray; opened 10 September 1847; closed 13 June 1960;
Beattock; opened 10 September 1847; closed 3 January 1972; divergence of Moffat branch;
Elvanfoot; opened April 1848; closed 4 January 1965; convergence of Wanlockhead branch;
Crawford; opened 1 January 1891; closed 4 January 1965;
Abington; opened 15 February 1848; closed 4 January 1965;
Lamington: opened 15 February 1848: closed 4 January 1965:
Symington; opened 15 February 1848; relocated northwards to serve converging Peebles branch 30 November 1863; closed 4 January 1965;
Thankerton; opened 15 February 1848; closed 4 January 1965;
junction; original divergence of direct line to Edinburgh;
Strawfrank Junction; divergence of later line to Edinburgh;
Carstairs; opened 15 February 1848; convergence of line from Edinburgh;
Silvermuir Junction; divergence of line to Lanark;
Cleghorn Junction; convergence of line from Lanark;
Lanark; opened 15 February 1848; renamed Cleghorn Junction 1855; renamed Cleghorn 1864; closed 4 January 1965; replaced by the later Lanark station;
Braidwood; opened August 1848; closed 2 July 1962;
Carluke; opened 15 February 1848;
Law Junction; opened December 1879 (prior to opening of diverging line); closed 4 January 1965; divergence of direct Wishaw line;
Garriongill Junction; convergence with Wishaw and Coltness line.
On the Wishaw and Coltness Railway section:
Overtown; opened 8 May 1843; closed 1 October 1881;
Wishaw; opened 8 May 1843; renamed Wishaw South 1880; closed 15 September 1958;
Flemington; opened 2 March 1891; closed 4 January 1965;
Motherwell; W&CR station; opened 8 May 1843; closed 31 July 1885;
junction; present main line leaves Wishaw and Coltness section.
On the Clydesdale Junction section:
Motherwell; opened 31 July 1885;
Lesmahagow Junction; convergence of line from Ross Junction; divergence of line towards Mossend;
Fallside; opened August 1872; closed 1 January 1917; reopened 1 May 1919; closed 3 August 1953;
Uddingston Junction; convergence of line from Mossend;
Uddingston; opened 1 June 1849; renamed Uddingston Central for some time;
Hamilton Junction; convergence of line from Hamilton;
Newton; opened November 1852; relocated 19 December 1873; divergence of lines to Carmyle and Cathcart;
Cambuslang; opened 1 June 1849;
Rutherglen Junction; convergence of Coatbridge line;
Rutherglen; opened 1 June 1849; relocated 31 March 1879; divergence of Argyle Line;
Rutherglen West Junction; convergence of line from Dalmarnock;
Gushetfaulds Junction; divergence of original line to South Side;
Cathcart Road; opened 6 April 1885; renamed Gushetfaulds 1886; closed 1 May 1907;
Larkfield Junction; divergence of line to Langside Junction;
Section built by the Caledonian Railway;
Eglinton Street; opened 1 July 1879; closed 1 February 1965;
Bridge Street; opened 14 July 1840 (for Glasgow Paisley and Ayr Railway); closed 1 March 1905;
Glasgow Central; opened 1 August 1879.
Locations between Carstairs and Edinburgh on the present main line route:
Carstairs; see above;
Dolphinton Junction; convergence of line from Strawfrank Junction and divergence of Dolphinton branch;
Carnwath; opened 15 February 1848; closed 18 April 1966;
Auchengray; opened 15 February 1848; closed 18 April 1966;
Wilsontown Junctions; for Wilsontown branch;
Cobbinshaw; opened October 1874; relocated 4 October 1875; closed 18 April 1966;
West Calder and Torphin; opened 15 February 1848; renamed West Calder and Harburn, then Harburn; closed 18 April 1966;
Midcalder Junction; convergence of line from Shotts;
Midcalder; opened 18 February 1848; rename Kirknewton 1982;
Camps Junction; convergence of Camps branch;
Ravelrig Junction; divergence of Balerno line;
Ravelrig; opened 4 April 1884 unadvertised for volunteer purposes; in public timetable from May 1889; closed June 1920; reopened 1927 to serve Golf Club; closed in 1930;
Currie; opened 15 February 1848; renamed Curriehill 1874; closed 2 April 1951; reopened 5 October 1987
Slateford; opened 15 February 1848; renamed Kings Knowes 1 January 1853; later Kingsknowe; closed 1 January 1917; reopened 1 February 1919; closed 6 July 1964; reopened 1 February 1971;
Slateford; opened 1 January 1853;
Slateford Junction; divergence of line to Edinburgh Suburban line and divergence from Princes Street line;
Granton Junction; divergence of Granton Harbour line;
Haymarket Junction; convergence with former Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway route;
Haymarket;
Edinburgh Waverley.
After 1923
Under the terms of the Railways Act 1921 the Caledonian Railway was a constituent of the new London Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS), as was the rival G&SWR. The LMS therefore controlled all the West Coast routes. The North British Railway was a constituent of the new London and North Eastern Railway, and controlled the East Coast route. While some consolidation took place, the basic passenger train service pattern remained relatively unaltered for many years, indeed into the post-1948 era of nationalisation under British Railways.
Electrification of the West Coast Main Line throughout between London, Birmingham and Glasgow encouraged concentration of long-distance passenger traffic on the Caledonian main line, and decline of the G&SWR route. The Waverley Route closed in 1969.
Electrification
The Glasgow south side suburban service had been electrified by British Railways from 27 May 1962, when the Cathcart Circle, and Newton - Uddingston - Motherwell were operated electrically.
Further electrification of the Hamilton circle, and to Lanark, followed and the main line southwards was being progressively wired, so that by the end of 1973 electric locomotives could be exchanged between Carlisle and Shields Depot, running for the time being via Kirkhill. From 6 May 1974 the Hamilton Circle and Lanark routes were fully available for electric passenger trains. (These trains ran to Glasgow Central High Level, as the Argyle Line had not yet been constructed.) Not all of the platforms at Glasgow Central were electrified at this stage, and when main line electrification was introduced, the remaining non-wired platforms had to be fitted.
The southern sections of the West Coast Main Line were electrified in the period to 1969. In April 1970 authorisation was given for the electrification between Weaver Junction (in Cheshire) and Cleghorn Junction (to which the Lanark electrification had already been implemented). By July 1973 the line had been resignalled throughout, and from 7 January 1974 freight trains were electrically hauled between Kingmoor Yard at Carlisle and Mossend Yard. From 22 April 1974 passenger trains were electrically hauled throughout between London and Glasgow.
Modern use of the Caledonian main line
While the term Caledonian main line has no authoritative present-day definition, it is generally taken to mean the main line between Carlisle and Glasgow and Carstairs and Edinburgh. That is consistent with the first main line from Carlisle to Garriongill Junction, then following the Clydesdale Junction Railway route to Gushetfaulds, just outside South Side station, and then the later short line Glasgow Central station. The Edinburgh section runs from Carstairs to Edinburgh Waverley station; the final section of the original line to Princes Street was closed and trains diverted to Waverley.
The route is now the northern section of the West Coast Main Line, and carries a heavy passenger and freight service.
Current operations
At the present day the main line has a heavy long-distance passenger service to London, Birmingham and Manchester. Significant freight traffic also runs over the line. The Carstairs to Edinburgh line carries a considerable long-distance passenger service, although London to Edinburgh is not realistically dominant now, compared to the East Coast main Line service. In the Edinburgh and Glasgow travel-to-work areas there is a heavy suburban passenger service.
Notable among these is the Argyle line service which runs from Lanark to North Clyde destinations through the Argyle line in Glasgow. Numerous other suburban routes operate in the greater Glasgow and Edinburgh conurbations.
Gradients
When the main line was conceived, there were misgivings about the capacity of the locomotive power of the day to handle trains over the heavy gradients approaching Beattock summit. By the time the line was opened, the technology of locomotive design had improved, and locomotive haulage was practicable. Nonetheless Beattock summit remained a significant operational limitation, and the provision of assistant engines for all but the lightest trains was routine from Beattock station to the summit throughout the era of steam traction.
Leaving Carlisle, gradients were moderate until just before Gretna, from where a climb of 1 in 193 - 1 in 200 started as far as Castlemilk, beyond Ecclefechan. A slight decline then followed to Nethercleugh, where the climb resumed, stiffening again to 1 in 202 after Wamphray. At Beattock the serious climbing started with a gradient of 1 in 88 increasing to 1 in 74 for ten miles to Beattock Summit. A short fall of 1 in 89 for two miles to Elvanfoot followed. From there however the descent was more gentle and longer, at a typical gradient of 1 in 240 although with several short steeper sections. This reached as far as Carstairs, after which an eight-mile climb followed. There then followed a stiffer descent of up to 1 in 102 for sixteen miles to Uddingston. From there moderate undulations led to Glasgow Central station.
The Carstairs to Edinburgh line had difficult gradients too. From Carstairs there was a climb of 1 in 225 stiffening to 1 in 97 as far as Cobbinshaw (eleven miles) then descending at 1 in 100 for five miles, slackening to 1 in 143 almost continuously as far as Edinburgh.
Quintinshill
Quintinshill, 1.3km (0.8mi) north of Gretna Green, was the site of the Quintinshill rail crash, which occurred at 6.49am on 22 May 1915.
References
Sources
External links
Railscot on Caledonian Railway
Railscot on Garnkirk and Glasgow Railway
Railscot on Wishaw and Coltness Railway
Railscot on Edinburgh Station and Branches
Early Scottish railway companies
London, Midland and Scottish Railway constituents
Pre-grouping British railway companies
Railway lines opened in 1831
1831 establishments in Scotland
Anglo-Scottish border
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Brand awareness is the extent to which customers are able to recall or recognize a brand under different conditions. Brand awareness is one of two dimensions from brand knowledge, an associative network memory model. Brand awareness is a key consideration in consumer behavior, advertising management, and brand management. The consumer's ability to recognize or recall a brand is central to purchasing decision-making. Purchasing cannot proceed unless a consumer is first aware of a product category and a brand within that category. Awareness does not necessarily mean that the consumer must be able to recall a specific brand name, but they must be able to recall enough distinguishing features for purchasing to proceed. Creating Brand Awareness is the main step in advertising a new product or bringing back the older brand in light.
Brand awareness consists of two components: brand recall and brand recognition. Several studies have shown that these two components operate in fundamentally different ways as brand recall is associated with memory retrieval, and brand recognition involves object recognition. Both brand recall and brand recognition play an important role in consumers’ purchase decision process and in marketing communications. Brand awareness is closely related to concepts such as the evoked set and consideration set which include the specific brands a consumer considers in purchasing decision. Consumers are believed to hold between three and seven brands in their consideration set across a broad range of product categories. Consumers typically purchase one of the top three brands in their consideration set as consumers have shown to buy only familiar, well-established brands.
As brands are competing in a highly globalized market, brand awareness is a key indicator of a brand's competitive market performance. Given the importance of brand awareness in consumer purchasing decisions, marketers have developed a number of metrics designed to measure brand awareness and other measures of brand health. These metrics are collectively known as Awareness, Attitudes and Usage (AAU) metrics.
To ensure a product or brand's market success, awareness levels must be managed across the entire product life-cycle - from product launch to market decline. Many marketers regularly monitor brand awareness levels, and if they fall below a predetermined threshold, the advertising and promotional effort is intensified until awareness returns to the desired level.
Importance of brand awareness
Brand awareness is related to the functions of brand identities in consumers’ memory and can be measured by how well the consumers can identify the brand under various conditions. Brand awareness plays an important role in the consumer's purchasing decision-making process. Strong brand awareness can be a predictor of brand success. Brand awareness is strengthened by its brand-related associations such as the consumers’ evaluation of the brand and their perceived quality of the brand. Consequently, brands focus on improving customer satisfaction and invest in advertising to increase consumers’ brand awareness.
Brand awareness is a key indicator of a brand's market performance. Brands competing in a highly globalized market invest in global advertising and distribution to compete for consumers’ attention and awareness. As capitalism and global transport contribute to consumer behavior, many marketers regularly monitor brand awareness levels. If these levels fall below a predetermined threshold, the advertising and promotional effort is intensified until awareness returns to the desired level. In marketing planning and brand management, it is important to set objectives to promote brand awareness to motivate consumers to purchase a given brand's products.
Brand awareness is one of the major brand assets that adds value to the product, service or company. Investing in building brand awareness can lead to sustainable competitive advantages, thus, leading to long-term value.
Brand Equity
Brand equity is the sum of assets and liabilities relating to a brand, its name and logo, and the sum or difference is the value that is offered by the product or service or a company or the company's customers. For the assets and liabilities to have effect on brand equity, they have to be related to the name or logo of the brand. If the brand's name or logo changes, then, it can either have a positive or a negative impact on the assets and liabilities of the brand, with some of them getting transferred to the new name and logo. The brand equity stands on the assets and liabilities and it can differ from factor to factor such as, brand loyalty, brand name awareness, how a customer perceives the quality of a brand, and other proprietary assets such as patent and trademark.
Types of brand awareness
Brand awareness is divided into two components: brand recall (also known as unaided recall or occasionally spontaneous recall) and brand recognition (also known as aided brand recall). These types of awareness operate in entirely different ways with important implications for marketing strategy and advertising.
Brand recall
Brand recall is also known as unaided recall or spontaneous recall and refers to the ability of the consumer to correctly generate a brand from memory when prompted by a product category. When prompted by a product category, most consumers can only recall a relatively small set of brands, typically around 3–5 brand names. In consumer tests, few consumers can recall more than seven brand names within a given category and for low-interest product categories, most consumers can only recall one or two brand names...
Research suggests that the number of brands that consumers can recall is affected by both individual and product factors including; brand loyalty, brand knowledge, situational and usage factors, and education level. For instance, consumers who are highly experienced with a given product category or brand may be able to recall a slightly larger set of brand names than those who are less experienced with a given product category or brand.
Brand recognition
Brand recognition is also known as aided recall and refers to the ability of the consumers to confirm that they have seen or heard of a given brand before. This does not necessarily require that the consumers have to identify the brand name. Instead, it means that consumers can recognize the brand upon presentation, either at the point-of-sale or after viewing its visual packaging.
Top-of-mind awareness
Consumers will normally purchase one of the top three brands in their consideration set. This is known as
top-of-mind awareness. Consequently, one of the goals for most marketing communications is to increase the probability that consumers will include the brand in their consideration sets.
By definition, top-of-mind awareness is "the first brand that comes to mind when a customer is asked an unprompted question about a category." When discussing top-of-mind awareness among larger groups of consumers (as opposed to a single consumer), it is more often defined as the "most remembered" or "most recalled" brand name(s).
A brand that enjoys top-of-mind awareness will generally be considered as a genuine purchase option, provided that the consumer is favorably disposed to the brand name. Top-of-mind awareness is relevant when consumers make a quick choice between competing brands in low-involvement categories or for impulse type purchases.
Marketing implications of brand awareness
Brand awareness is closely related to the concepts of the evoked set (defined as the set of brands that a consumer can elicit from memory when contemplating a purchase) and the consideration set (defined as the “small set of brands which a consumer pays close attention to when making a purchase decision”). One of the central roles of advertising is to create both brand awareness and brand image, in order to increase the likelihood that a brand is included in the consumer's evoked set or consideration set and regarded favorably.
Consumers do not learn about products and brands from advertising alone. When making purchase decisions, consumers acquire information from a wide variety of sources in order to inform their decisions. After searching for information about a category, consumers may become aware of a larger number of brands which collectively are known as the awareness set. Thus, the awareness set is likely to change as consumers acquire new information about brands or products. A review of empirical studies in this area suggests that the consideration set is likely to be at least three times larger than the evoked set. Awareness alone is not sufficient to trigger a purchase, consumers also need to be favorably disposed to a brand before it will be considered as a realistic purchase option.
The process of moving consumers from brand awareness and a positive brand attitude through to the actual sale is known as conversion. While advertising is an excellent tool for creating awareness and brand attitude, it usually requires support from other elements in the marketing program to convert attitudes into actual sales. Other promotional activities, such as telemarketing, are vastly superior to advertising in terms of generating sales. Accordingly, the advertising message might attempt to drive consumers to direct sales call centers as part of an integrated communications strategy. Many different techniques can be used to convert interest into sales including special price offers, special promotional offers, attractive trade-in terms or guarantees.
Percy and Rossiter (1992) argue that the two types of awareness, namely brand recall and brand recognition, operate in fundamentally different ways in the purchase decision. For routine purchases such as fast moving consumer goods (FMCG), few shoppers carry shopping lists. For them, the presentation of brands at the point-of-sale acts as a visual reminder and triggers category need. In this case, brand recognition is the dominant mode of awareness. For other purchases, where the brand is not present, the consumer first experiences category need then searches memory for brands within that category. Many services, such as home help, gardening services, pizza delivery fall into this category. In this case, the category need precedes brand awareness. Such purchases are recall dominant, and the consumer is more likely to select one of the brands elicited from memory. When brand recall is dominant, it is not necessary for consumers to like the advertisement, but they must like the brand. In contrast, consumers should like the ad when brand recognition is the communications objective.
The distinction between brand recall and brand recognition has important implications for advertising strategy. When the communications objectives depend on brand recognition, the creative execution must show the brand packaging or a recognizable brand name. However, when the communications objectives rely on brand recall, the creative execution should encourage strong associations between the category and the brand. Advertisers also use jingles, mnemonics and other devices to encourage brand recall.
Brand dominance occurs when, during brand recall tests, most consumers can name only one brand from a given category. Brand dominance is defined as an individual's selection of only certain brand names in a related category during a brand recall procedure. While brand dominance might appear to be a desirable goal, overall dominance can be a double-edged sword.
A brand name that is well known to the majority of people or households is called a household name and may be an indicator of brand success. Occasionally a brand can become so successful that the brand becomes synonymous with the category. For example, British people often talk about "Hoovering the house" when they actually mean "vacuuming the house." (Hoover is a brand name). When this happens, the brand name is said to have "gone generic." Examples of brands becoming generic abound; Kleenex, Sellotape, Nescafé, Aspirin and Panadol. When a brand goes generic, it can present a marketing problem because when the consumer requests a named brand at the retail outlet, they may be supplied with a competing brand. For example, if a person enters a bar and requests "a rum and Coke," the bartender may interpret that to mean a "rum and cola-flavoured beverage," paving the way for the outlet to supply a cheaper alternative mixer. In such a scenario, The Coca-Cola Company is the ultimate loser because it does not get the sale.
Measuring brand awareness
Just as different types of brand awareness can be identified, there are a variety of methods for measuring awareness. Typically, researchers use surveys, carried out on a sample of consumers asking about their knowledge of the focus brand or category.
Two types of recall test are used to measure brand awareness:<ref>Hsia, H.J., Mass Communications Research Methods: A Step-by-Step Approach," Routledge"</ref>
Unaided recall tests. where the respondent is presented with a product category and asked to nominate as many brands as possible. Thus, the unaided recall test provides the respondent with no clues or cues. Unaided recall tests are used to test for brand recall.
Aided recall tests, where the respondent is prompted with a brand name and asked whether they have seen it or heard about it. In some aided recall tests, the respondent might also be asked to explain what they know about the brand e.g. to describe package, color, logo or other distinctive features. Aided recall tests are used to test for brand recognition.
In addition, to recall tests, brand research often employs a battery of tests, such as brand association tests, brand attitude, brand image, brand dominance, brand value, brand salience and other measures of brand health. Although these tests do not explicitly measure brand awareness, they provide general measures of brand health and often are used in conjunction with brand recall tests.
To measure brand salience, for example, researchers place products on a shelf in a supermarket, giving each brand equal shelf space. Consumers are shown photographs of the shelf display and ask consumers to name the brands noticed. The speed at which consumers nominate a given brand is an indicator of brand's visual salience. This type of research can provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of packaging design and brand logos.
Metrics used to measure brand effects are collectively termed AAU metrics (Awareness, Attitudes and Usage).
Brand awareness and the hierarchy of effects
Brand awareness is a standard feature of a group of models known as hierarchy of effects models. Hierarchical models are linear sequential models built on an assumption that consumers move through a series of cognitive and affective stages, beginning with brand awareness (or category awareness) and culminating in the purchase decision. In these models, advertising and marketing communications operate as an external stimulus and the purchase decision is a consumer response.
A number of hierarchical models can be found in the literature including DAGMAR and AIDA. In a survey of more than 250 papers, Vakratsas and Ambler (1999) found little empirical support for any of the hierarchies of effects. In spite of that, some authors have argued that hierarchical models continue to dominate theory, especially in the area of marketing communications and advertising.
The hierarchy of effects developed by Lavidge in the 1960s is one of the original hierarchical models. It proposes that customers progress through a sequence of six stages from brand awareness through to the purchase of a product:
Stage 1: Awareness - The consumer becomes aware of a category, product or brand (usually through advertising)
↓
Stage 2: Knowledge - The consumer learns about the brand (e.g. sizes, colors, prices, availability etc.)
↓
Stage 3: Liking - The consumer develops a favorable/unfavorable disposition towards the brand
↓
Stage 4: Preference - The consumer begins to rate one brand above other comparable brands
↓
Stage 5: Conviction - The consumer demonstrates a desire to purchase (via inspection, sampling, trial)
↓
Stage 6: Purchase - The consumer acquires the product
Hierarchical models have been widely adapted and many variations can be found, however, all follow the basic sequence which includes Cognition (C)- Affect (A) - Behavior (B) and for this reason, they are sometimes known as C-A-B models. Some of the more recent adaptations are designed to accommodate the consumer's digital media habits and opportunities for social influence.
Selected alternative hierarchical models follow:
Basic AIDA model: Awareness→ Interest→ Desire→ Action E. St Elmo Lewis, Financial Advertising. (The History of Advertising), USA, Levey Brothers, 1908
Modified AIDA model: Awareness→ Interest→ Conviction →Desire→ Action
AIDAS Model: Attention → Interest → Desire → Action → Satisfaction
AISDALSLove model: Awareness→ Interest→ Search →Desire→ Action → Like/dislike→ Share → Love/ Hate
Lavidge et al's Hierarchy of Effects: Awareness→ Knowledge→ Liking→ Preference→ Conviction→ Purchase
DAGMAR Model: Awareness → Comprehension → Attitude/ Conviction → Action
Rossiter and Percy's communications effects: Category Need → Brand Awareness → Brand Preference (Ab) → Purchase Intent→ Purchase Facilitation
Marketing Implications of hierarchical models
It should be evident that brand awareness constitutes just one of six stages that outline the typical consumer's progress towards a purchase decision. While awareness is a necessary precondition for a purchase, awareness alone cannot guarantee the ultimate purchase. Consumers may be aware of a brand, but for different reasons, may not like it or may fail to develop a preference for that brand. Hence, brand awareness is an indicator of sales performance, but does not account for all sales performance. For these reasons, marketers use a variety of metrics, including cognitive, affective and behavioral variables, to monitor a brand's market performance.
As consumers move through the hierarchy of effects (awareness→ knowledge→ liking→ preference→ conviction→ purchase), they rely on different sources of information to learn about brands. While main media advertising is useful for creating awareness, its capacity to convey long or complex messages is limited. In order to acquire more detailed knowledge about a brand, consumers rely on different sources such as product reviews, expert opinion, word-of-mouth referrals and brand/ corporate websites. As consumers move closer to the actual purchase, they begin to rely on more personal sources of information such as recommendations from friends and relatives or the advice of sales representatives. For example, the opinion of an influential blogger might be enough to shore up preference/conviction while a salesperson might be necessary to close the actual purchase.
All hierarchical models indicate that brand awareness is a necessary precondition to brand attitude or brand liking, which serves to underscore the importance of creating high levels of awareness as early as possible in a product or brand life-cycle. Hierarchical models provide marketers and advertisers with basic insights about the nature of the target audience, the optimal message and media strategy indicated at different junctures throughout a product's life cycle. For new products, the main advertising objective should be to create awareness with a broad cross-section of the potential market. When the desired levels of awareness have been attained, the advertising effort should shift to stimulating interest, desire or conviction. The number of potential purchasers decreases as the product moves through the natural sales cycle in an effect likened to a funnel. Later in the cycle, and as the number of prospects becomes smaller, the marketer can employ more tightly targeted promotions such as personal selling, direct mail and email directed at those individuals or sub-segments likely to exhibit a genuine interest in the product or brand.
Creating and maintaining brand awareness
Brand advertising can increase the probability that a consumer will include a given brand in his or her consideration set. Brand-related advertising expenditure has a positive effect on brand awareness levels. Virtually anything that exposes consumers to a brand increases brand awareness. “Repeat brand exposure in stores improves consumers' ability to recognize and recall the brand.” Increased exposure to brand advertising can increase consumer awareness and facilitate consumer processing of the included information, and by doing this it can heighten consumers brand recall and attitude towards the brand.
To increase the probability of a product's acceptance by the market, it is important to create high levels of brand awareness as early as practical in a product or brand's life-cycle. To achieve top-of-mind awareness, marketers have traditionally, relied on intensive advertising campaigns, especially at the time of a product launch. To be successful, an intensive campaign utilizes both broad reach (expose more people to the message) and high frequency (expose people multiple times to the message). Advertising, especially main media advertising, was seen as the most cost efficient means of reaching large audiences with the relatively high frequency needed to create high awareness levels. Nevertheless, intensive advertising campaigns can become very expensive and can rarely be sustained for long periods.
Alhaddad (2015) indicates that advertising awareness plays as a good source of meaning and identity for a brand by enhance brand awareness and brand image in social media
As new products enter the market growth stage, the number of competitors tends to increase with implications for market share. Marketers may need to maintain awareness at some predetermined level to ensure steady sales and stable market share. Marketers often rely on rough and ready 'rules-of-thumb' to estimate the amount of advertising expenditure required to achieve a given level of awareness. For instance, it was often held that to increase brand awareness by just one per cent, it was necessary to double the dollars spent on advertising.
When a brand becomes established and attains the desired awareness levels (typically outlined in the marketing plan), the brand advertiser will shift from an intensive advertising campaign to a reminder campaign. The objective of a reminder campaign is simply to keep target audiences aware of the brand's existence and to introduce new life into the brand offer. A reminder campaign typically maintains broad reach, but with reduced frequency and as a consequence is a less expensive advertising option. Reminder advertising is used by established brands, often when they are entering the maturity stage of the product lifecycle.'' In the decline stage, marketers often shift to a caretaker or maintenance program where advertising expenditure is cut back.
While advertising remains important for creating awareness, a number of changes in the media landscape and to consumer media habits have reduced the reliance on main media advertising. Instead, marketers are seeking to place their brand messages across a much wider variety of platforms. An increasing amount of consumer time and attention is devoted to digital communications devices—from computers and tablets through to cellphones. It is now possible to engage with consumers in a more cost efficient manner using platforms such as social media networks that command massive audiences. For example, Facebook has become an extremely important communications channel. Moreover, social media channels allow for two-way, interactive communications that are not paralleled by traditional main media. Interactive communications provide more opportunities for brands to connect with audience members and to move beyond simple awareness, facilitating brand preference, brand conviction and ultimately brand loyalty.
The rise of social media networks has increased the opportunities for opinion leaders to play a role in brand awareness. In theory, anyone can be an opinion leader e.g. celebrities, journalists or public figures, but the rise of the digital environment has changed our understanding of who is a potentially useful influencer. Indeed, the digital environment has created more opportunities for bloggers to become important influencers because they are seen as accessible, authentic and tend to have loyal followings. Bloggers have become key influencers in important consumer goods and services including fashion, consumer electronics, food and beverage, cooking, restaurant dining and bars. For example, a survey by Collective Bias showed that when it comes to product endorsements digital influencers are more popular than celebrities. Findings showed that only 3% of participants said they would consider buying a celebrity-endorsed item, in comparison to 60% who said they had been influenced by a blog review or social media post when shopping. For marketers, the digital landscape has made it somewhat easier to identify social influencers.
Popular examples of brand advertising and promotion
The following examples illustrate how brand awareness and brand advertising are used in practice.
Coca-Cola "Share a Coke" campaign
Coca-Cola is a well-established brand with a long history and one that has achieved market dominance. For any brand, such as Coke, that controls some 70 percent of market share, there are relatively few opportunities to enlist new customers. Yet Coca-Cola is always on the lookout for novel communications that not only maintain its brand awareness, but that bring the brand to the attention of new audiences. The company launched a campaign which became known as "Share a Coke", with the campaign objectives; "to strengthen the brand’s bond with Australia’s young adults – and inspire shared moments of happiness in the real and virtual worlds." The campaign, originally launched in Australia, became so successful that it was subsequently rolled out to other countries.
The concept was to introduce personalized Coke bottles or cans. Popular names were written in a 'look-alike Spencerian script' which is part of the Coke brand's distinctive brand identity. The campaign organisers seeded social media by targeting "opinion leaders and influencers to get them to […] lead the conversation and encourage others to seek out 'Share a Coke' for themselves". Within days celebrities and others with no connection to Coke were spreading the concept across social networks. The campaign extended the audience reach as more people were exposed to the messages. According to Coke's creative team, "That [Australian] summer, Coke sold more than 250 million named bottles and cans in a nation of just under 23 million people". This campaign helped Coke extend its awareness across a broader age profile as they interacted with each customer on a personal level.
Ronald McDonald and other anthropomorphic brand characters
Consumers experience few difficulties assigning a personality to a brand and marketing communications often encourage consumers to think about brands as possessing human characteristics. When brands are infused with human-like characteristics, it can assist in communicating a brand's values and creating distinctive brand identities that serve to differentiate an offering from competing brands. "In an increasingly competitive marketplace, [some] companies rely on brand characters to create awareness, convey key product/service attributes or benefits, and attract consumers" (Keller, 2003).
The use of anthropomorphic characters has a long history. For example, the Michelin man, employed as a memorable character to sell Michelin car tires, was introduced as early as 1894. These characters benefit the brand by creating memorable images in the consumer's mind while conveying meanings that are consistent with the brand's values.
McDonald's created a similar anthropomorphic brand character known as Ronald McDonald as part of its brand identity. For younger consumers, Ronald McDonald injects a sense of fun and mystery into the McDonald's brand. For parents, the character clearly signals that McDonald's is a family friendly venue. Characters help to carry the brand's identity and can be seen as non-human "spokes-character", contributing to a strong brand differentiation. The likeability of the brands character can "positively influence attitudes towards the brand and increase [consumers'] purchase intention"
Mini
British automotive manufacturer Mini investigated its brand perception in the UK by carrying out 55 in-depth interview designed to elicit key feedback about the brand's values. Consumers felt that the symbolic elements which represented the brand were that it was "fun, stylish and sporty image".
Customer engagement with the Mini brand on a Facebook fan-page, promoted "positive effects on consumers’ brand awareness, through WOM activities and the purchase intention was achieved". The brand, therefore, connected with users at an emotional level.
See also
Advertising management - creating brand awareness is the primary function of advertising
Attitude-toward-the-ad models
Brand - creating and maintaining high levels of brand awareness is one of the primary functions of brand management
Consumer behaviour - detailed overview of how consumers move from awareness through to the actual purchase
Marketing management
Product life-cycle management (marketing) - explains how levels of brand awareness change over a product's life cycle
Purchase funnel - explains how brand awareness changes as different segments of the market begin to adopt a product or brand
References
Brand management
Branding terminology
| 5,756
|
doc-en-6318_0
|
The 2009–10 Golden State Warriors season was the 64th National Basketball Association (NBA) season for the Golden State Warriors basketball franchise and the first season for the league's only unanimous MVP Stephen Curry, widely considered the greatest shooter in basketball history and one of the most influential players of all time.
Draft
Roster
Pre-season
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1
| October 4
| L.A. Clippers
|
| Anthony Morrow (21)
| Kelenna Azubuike (10)
| Stephen Curry (9)
| Oracle Arena11,204
| 1–0
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 2
| October 7
| @ L.A. Lakers
|
| Anthony Morrow (25)
| Anthony Randolph (12)
| Stephen Jackson (5)
| Honda Center13,156
| 1–1
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 3
| October 9
| @ L.A. Lakers
|
| Monta Ellis (24)
| Andris Biedriņš (12)
| Ellis, Curry (8)
| The Forum17,505
| 2–1
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 4
| October 10
| @ Phoenix
|
| Anthony Morrow (30)
| Andris Biedriņš (15)
| Stephen Curry (7)
| Indian Wells Tennis Garden14,979
| 3–1
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 5
| October 12
| @ L.A. Clippers
|
| Anthony Morrow (32)
| Andris Biedriņš (9)
| Monta Ellis (7)
| Staples Center10,238
| 3–2
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 6
| October 17
| @ Sacramento
|
| Corey Maggette (28)
| Andris Biedriņš (8)
| 3 players tied (4)
| Sleep Train Arena11,009
| 3–3
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 7
| October 20
| @ L.A. Lakers
|
| Anthony Morrow (24)
| Ronny Turiaf (12)
| Stephen Jackson (10)
| Citizens Business Bank Arena10,410
| 3–4
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 8
| October 22
| New Orleans
|
| Anthony Morrow (34)
| Ronny Turiaf (11)
| Stephen Curry (10)
| Oracle Arena15,123
| 4–4
Standings
Record vs. opponents
Regular season
Game log
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 1
| October 28
| Houston
|
| Monta Ellis (26)
| Corey Maggette (9)
| Stephen Curry (7)
| Oracle Arena19,596
| 0–1
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 2
| October 30
| @ Phoenix
|
| Monta Ellis (19)
| Andris Biedriņš (10)
| Curry, Biedriņš (4)
| US Airways Center18,422
| 0–2
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 3
| November 4
| Memphis
|
| Ellis, Morrow (24)
| Andris Biedriņš (8)
| Monta Ellis (12)
| Oracle Arena17,457
| 1–2
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 4
| November 6
| L.A. Clippers
|
| Anthony Morrow (18)
| Anthony Randolph (14)
| Monta Ellis (6)
| Oracle Arena18,788
| 1–3
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 5
| November 8
| @ Sacramento
|
| Stephen Jackson (21)
| Kelenna Azubuike (7)
| Stephen Curry (6)
| ARCO Arena10,760
| 1–4
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 6
| November 9
| Minnesota
|
| Kelenna Azubuike (31)
| Monta Ellis (10)
| Stephen Jackson (15)
| Oracle Arena15,468
| 2–4
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 7
| November 11
| @ Indiana
|
| Corey Maggette (21)
| Anthony Randolph (13)
| Monta Ellis (5)
| Conseco Fieldhouse10,682
| 2–5
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 8
| November 13
| @ New York
|
| Stephen Jackson (23)
| Stephen Jackson (8)
| Kelenna Azubuike (5)
| Madison Square Garden19,763
| 3–5
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 9
| November 14
| @ Milwaukee
|
| Monta Ellis (26)
| Anthony Randolph (6)
| Stephen Jackson (5)
| Bradley Center14,978
| 3–6
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 10
| November 17
| @ Cleveland
|
| Monta Ellis (23)
| Corey Maggette (11)
| Monta Ellis (8)
| Quicken Loans Arena20,562
| 3–7
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 11
| November 18
| @ Boston
|
| Corey Maggette (23)
| Maggette, Randolph (8)
| Stephen Curry (7)
| TD Garden18,624
| 3–8
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 12
| November 20
| Portland
|
| Monta Ellis (34)
| Anthony Randolph (11)
| Curry, Ellis (8)
| Oracle Arena18,630
| 4–8
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 13
| November 24
| @ Dallas
|
| Monta Ellis (37)
| Vladimir Radmanović (12)
| Monta Ellis (8)
| American Airlines Center20,008
| 5–8
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 14
| November 25
| @ San Antonio
|
| Monta Ellis (42)
| Curry, Randolph (7)
| Stephen Curry (5)
| AT&T Center17,606
| 5–9
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 15
| November 28
| L.A. Lakers
|
| Monta Ellis (18)
| Vladimir Radmanović (10)
| Stephen Curry (8)
| Oracle Arena20,001
| 5–10
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 16
| November 30
| Indiana
|
| Monta Ellis (45)
| 3 players tied (6)
| Watson, Maggette (6)
| Oracle Arena16,574
| 6–10
|- bgcolor= "#ffcccc"
| 17
| December 1
| @ Denver
|
| Anthony Morrow (27)
| Corey Maggette (7)
| Stephen Curry (6)
| Pepsi Center14,570
| 6–11
|-
|- bgcolor= "#ffcccc"
| 18
| December 3
| Houston
|
| Monta Ellis (24)
| Vladimir Radmanović (8)
| Monta Ellis (8)
| Oracle Arena16,432
| 6–12
|- bgcolor= "#ffcccc"
| 19
| December 5
| Orlando
|
| Monta Ellis (33)
| Anthony Randolph (13)
| Monta Ellis (7)
| Oracle Arena19,054
| 6–13
|- bgcolor= "#ffcccc"
| 20
| December 7
| @ Oklahoma City
|
| Monta Ellis (31)
| Vladimir Radmanović (8)
| C. J. Watson (3)
| Ford Center17,334
| 6–14
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 21
| December 9
| @ New Jersey
|
| Ellis, Watson (18)
| 3 players tied (9)
| Monta Ellis (8)
| Izod Center10,005
| 7–14
|- bgcolor= "#ffcccc"
| 22
| December 11
| @ Chicago
|
| Monta Ellis (27)
| Corey Maggette (10)
| Monta Ellis (5)
| United Center18,803
| 7–15
|- bgcolor= "#ffcccc"
| 23
| December 12
| @ Detroit
|
| Monta Ellis (29)
| Monta Ellis (7)
| C. J. Watson (6)
| The Palace of Auburn Hills16,952
| 7–16
|- bgcolor= "#ffcccc"
| 24
| December 14
| @ Philadelphia
|
| Corey Maggette (24)
| Randolph, Radmanović (5)
| Curry, Morrow (4)
| Wachovia Center12,795
| 7–17
|- bgcolor= "#ffcccc"
| 25
| December 16
| San Antonio
|
| Monta Ellis (35)
| C. J. Watson (7)
| Ellis, Maggette (5)
| Oracle Arena17,857
| 7–18
|- bgcolor= "#ffcccc"
| 26
| December 18
| Washington
|
| Monta Ellis (30)
| Anthony Randolph (9)
| Monta Ellis (7)
| Oracle Arena17,423
| 7–19
|- bgcolor= "#ffcccc"
| 27
| December 22
| @ Memphis
|
| Corey Maggette (25)
| Stephen Curry (7)
| Stephen Curry (8)
| FedExForum12,827
| 7–20
|- bgcolor= "#ffcccc"
| 28
| December 23
| @ New Orleans
|
| Monta Ellis (35)
| Curry, Maggette (10)
| Stephen Curry (7)
| New Orleans Arena14,391
| 7–21
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 29
| December 26
| Phoenix
|
| Ellis, Maggette (33)
| Corey Maggette (8)
| Monta Ellis (10)
| Oracle Arena19,550
| 8–21
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 30
| December 28
| Boston
|
| Monta Ellis (37)
| Vladimir Radmanović (10)
| C. J. Watson (7)
| Oracle Arena19,259
| 9–21
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 31
| December 29
| @ L.A. Lakers
|
| Corey Maggette (25)
| Andris Biedriņš (8)
| Monta Ellis (7)
| Staples Center18,997
| 9–22
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 32
| January 2
| @ Portland
|
| Monta Ellis (30)
| Anthony Randolph (11)
| Monta Ellis (4)
| Rose Garden20,507
| 9–23
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 33
| January 5
| @ Denver
|
| Corey Maggette (35)
| Corey Maggette (7)
| Curry, Ellis (6)
| Pepsi Center15,129
| 9–24
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 34
| January 6
| @ Minnesota
|
| Corey Maggette (28)
| Corey Maggette (10)
| Monta Ellis (6)
| Target Center12,046
| 10–24
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 35
| January 8
| Sacramento
|
| Monta Ellis (39)
| Andris Biedriņš (9)
| Monta Ellis (6)
| Oracle Arena18,327
| 11–24
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 36
| January 11
| Cleveland
|
| Corey Maggette (32)
| Vladimir Radmanović (9)
| Curry, Ellis (5)
| Oracle Arena19,596
| 11–25
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 37
| January 13
| Miami
|
| Corey Maggette (25)
| Andris Biedriņš (8)
| Monta Ellis (9)
| Oracle Arena17,121
| 11–26
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 38
| January 15
| Milwaukee
|
| Monta Ellis (33)
| Andris Biedriņš (10)
| Monta Ellis (8)
| Oracle Arena17,455
| 11–27
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 39
| January 18
| Chicago
|
| Monta Ellis (36)
| Andris Biedriņš (19)
| Monta Ellis (8)
| Oracle Arena19,208
| 12–27
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 40
| January 20
| Denver
|
| Monta Ellis (39)
| Andris Biedriņš (13)
| Monta Ellis (10)
| Oracle Arena17,223
| 12–28
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 41
| January 22
| New Jersey
|
| Stephen Curry (32)
| Tolliver, Biedriņš (10)
| Stephen Curry (7)
| Oracle Arena17,308
| 13–28
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 42
| January 23
| @ Phoenix
|
| Corey Maggette (27)
| Anthony Tolliver (11)
| Corey Maggette (4)
| US Airways Center17,792
| 13–29
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc
| 43
| January 26
| @ Sacramento
|
| Stephen Curry (27)
| Corey Maggette (12)
| Stephen Curry (6)
| ARCO Arena14,522
| 13–30
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 44
| January 27
| New Orleans
|
| C. J. Watson (23)
| Monta Ellis (6)
| Monta Ellis (9)
| Oracle Arena16,308
| 13–31
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 45
| January 29
| Charlotte
|
| Corey Maggette (25)
| Andris Biedriņš (7)
| Stephen Curry (9)
| Oracle Arena17,850
| 13–32
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 46
| January 31
| @ Oklahoma City
|
| Corey Maggette (26)
| Ronny Turiaf (8)
| Coby Karl (6)
| Ford Center17,565
| 13–33
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 47
| February 2
| @ Houston
|
| Monta Ellis (34)
| Andris Biedriņš (8)
| Coby Karl (7)
| Toyota Center12,845
| 13–34
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 48
| February 3
| @ Dallas
|
| Monta Ellis (46)
| Maggette, Biedriņš (9)
| Curry, Biedriņš (3)
| American Airlines Center19,679
| 13–35
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 49
| February 6
| Oklahoma City
|
| Corey Maggette (24)
| Andris Biedriņš (18)
| Monta Ellis (6)
| Oracle Arena17,825
| 13–36
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 50
| February 8
| Dallas
|
| Anthony Morrow (33)
| Morrow, Tolliver (11)
| Stephen Curry (9)
| Oracle Arena17,015
| 13–37
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 51
| February 10
| L.A. Clippers
|
| Stephen Curry (36)
| Curry, Morrow (10)
| Stephen Curry (13)
| Oracle Arena17,230
| 14–37
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 52
| February 16
| @ L.A. Lakers
|
| Anthony Morrow (23)
| Stephen Curry (10)
| Stephen Curry (8)
| Staples Center18,997
| 14–38
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 53
| February 17
| Sacramento
|
| C. J. Watson (40)
| Anthony Tolliver (8)
| Stephen Curry (15)
| Oracle Arena17,023
| 15–38
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 54
| February 19
| Utah
|
| C. J. Watson (22)
| Chris Hunter, Biedriņš (9)
| Stephen Curry (7)
| Oracle Arena18,322
| 15–39
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 55
| February 21
| Atlanta
|
| Stephen Curry (32)
| Andris Biedriņš (13)
| C. J. Watson (6)
| Oracle Arena17,822
| 16–39
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 56
| February 23
| Philadelphia
|
| Monta Ellis (22)
| Chris Hunter (8)
| Stephen Curry (5)
| Oracle Arena17,115
| 16–40
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc
| 57
| February 25
| Denver
|
| Stephen Curry (30)
| Devean George (9)
| Stephen Curry (13)
| Oracle Arena18,555
| 16–41
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 58
| February 27
| Detroit
|
| Stephen Curry (27)
| Anthony Tolliver (14)
| 3 players tied (5)
| Oracle Arena17,223
| 17–41
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 59
| March 2
| @ Miami
|
| Anthony Morrow (24)
| Anthony Tolliver (8)
| Stephen Curry (8)
| American Airlines Arena15,213
| 17–42
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 60
| March 3
| @ Orlando
|
| C. J. Watson (18)
| Williams, George (6)
| Stephen Curry (7)
| Amway Arena17,461
| 17–43
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 61
| March 5
| @ Atlanta
|
| Stephen Curry (31)
| Ronny Turiaf (10)
| Stephen Curry (11)
| Philips Arena14,066
| 17–44
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 62
| March 6
| @ Charlotte
|
| Stephen Curry (25)
| Chris Hunter (13)
| Anthony Tolliver (5)
| Time Warner Cable Arena19,392
| 17–45
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 63
| March 8
| @ New Orleans
|
| Morrow, Williams (28)
| Anthony Tolliver (5)
| C. J. Watson (7)
| New Orleans Arena13,889
| 17–46
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 64
| March 11
| Portland
|
| Corey Maggette (24)
| Anthony Tolliver (11)
| Maggette, C. J. Watson (6)
| Oracle Arena17,308
| 17–47
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 65
| March 13
| Toronto
|
| Stephen Curry (35)
| Anthony Tolliver (11)
| Stephen Curry (10)
| Oracle Arena17,655
| 18–47
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 66
| March 15
| L.A. Lakers
|
| Stephen Curry (29)
| Chris Hunter (14)
| Monta Ellis (11)
| Oracle Arena20,038
| 18–48
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 67
| March 17
| New Orleans
|
| Anthony Tolliver (30)
| Chris Hunter (8)
| Monta Ellis (13)
| Oracle Arena17,155
| 19–48
|- bgcolor="ffcccc"
| 68
| March 19
| @ San Antonio
|
| Monta Ellis (39)
| Reggie Williams (9)
| C. J. Watson (7)
| AT&T Center18,581
| 19–49
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc
| 69
| March 20
| @ Memphis
|
| Monta Ellis (28)
| Anthony Tolliver (11)
| Stephen Curry (6)
| FedExForum14,897
| 19–50
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 70
| March 22
| Phoenix
|
| Monta Ellis (30)
| Anthony Tolliver (12)
| Stephen Curry (8)
| Oracle Arena18,722
| 19–51
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 71
| March 24
| Memphis
|
| Stephen Curry (30)
| Chris Hunter (10)
| Stephen Curry (11)
| Oracle Arena17,123
| 20–51
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 72
| March 27
| Dallas
|
| Corey Maggette (21)
| Anthony Tolliver (21)
| Stephen Curry (6)
| Oracle Arena19,104
| 20–52
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 73
| March 28
| @ L.A. Clippers
|
| Reggie Williams (25)
| Ronny Turiaf (8)
| Curry, Williams (7)
| Staples Center17,868
| 21–52
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 74
| March 31
| @ Utah
|
| Corey Maggette (22)
| Chris Hunter (8)
| Stephen Curry (6)
| EnergySolutions Arena19,617
| 21–53
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 75
| April 2
| New York
|
| Anthony Morrow (35)
| Anthony Tolliver (8)
| Stephen Curry (10)
| Oracle Arena19,230
| 22–53
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 76
| April 4
| @ Toronto
|
| Corey Maggette (31)
| Anthony Morrow (10)
| Stephen Curry (12)
| Air Canada Centre17,509
| 23–53
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 77
| April 6
| @ Washington
|
| Stephen Curry (27)
| Anthony Morrow (7)
| Curry, Tolliver (4)
| Verizon Center14,721
| 23–54
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 78
| April 7
| @ Minnesota
|
| Anthony Tolliver (34)
| Curry, Tolliver (8)
| Stephen Curry (14)
| Target Center15,863
| 24–54
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 79
| April 10
| @ L.A. Clippers
|
| Stephen Curry (29)
| Anthony Tolliver (10)
| Maggette, Turiaf (5)
| Staples Center17,476
| 24–55
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 80
| April 11
| Oklahoma City
|
| Monta Ellis (27)
| Anthony Tolliver (13)
| Stephen Curry (7)
| Oracle Arena18,940
| 25–55
|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"
| 81
| April 13
| Utah
|
| Devean George (21)
| Tolliver, Williams (9)
| Curry, Ellis (6)
| Oracle Arena19,230
| 25–56
|- bgcolor="#bbffbb"
| 82
| April 14
| @ Portland
|
| Stephen Curry (42)
| Anthony Tolliver (15)
| Stephen Curry (8)
| Rose Garden20,482
| 26–56
Player statistics
Regular season
|-
|
| 9 || 7 || 25.7 || .545 || .370 || .679 || 4.6 || 1.1 || .6 || 1.0 || 13.9
|-
|
| 1 || 0 || 23.0 || style=";"| .667 || 1.000 || . || 2.0 || 3.0 || .0 || .0 || 11.0
|-
|
| 33 || 29 || 23.1 || .591 || . || .160 || style=";"| 7.8 || 1.7 || .6 || 1.3 || 5.0
|-
|
| style=";"| 80 || style=";"| 77 || 36.2 || .462 || .437 || .885 || 4.5 || style=";"| 5.9 || 1.9 || .2 || 17.5
|-
|
| 64 || 64 || style=";"| 41.4 || .449 || .338 || .753 || 4.0 || 5.3 || style=";"| 2.2 || .4 || style=";"| 25.5
|-
|
| 45 || 4 || 16.9 || .432 || .390 || .696 || 2.5 || .7 || .9 || .2 || 5.4
|-
|
| 60 || 9 || 13.1 || .502 || .000 || .754 || 2.8 || .6 || .2 || .6 || 4.5
|-
|
| 9 || 9 || 33.3 || .421 || .275 || .703 || 3.9 || 4.7 || 1.6 || .7 || 16.6
|-
|
| 4 || 1 || 27.0 || .344 || .182 || .667 || 4.0 || 3.8 || .8 || .3 || 7.0
|-
|
| 5 || 0 || 13.2 || .643 || .333 || .800 || .4 || 1.4 || 1.2 || .0 || 6.2
|-
|
| 70 || 49 || 29.7 || .516 || .260 || .835 || 5.3 || 2.5 || .7 || .1 || 19.8
|-
|
| 10 || 2 || 27.6 || .364 || .323 || .762 || 4.7 || .9 || .8 || .0 || 9.0
|-
|
| 23 || 20 || 17.7 || .600 || . || .636 || 3.0 || 1.6 || .2 || .6 || 5.0
|-
|
| 69 || 37 || 29.2 || .468 || style=";"| .456 || style=";"| .886 || 3.8 || 1.5 || .9 || .2 || 13.0
|-
|
| 33 || 20 || 23.0 || .385 || .267 || .762 || 4.5 || 1.2 || .8 || .2 || 6.6
|-
|
| 33 || 8 || 22.7 || .443 || .200 || .801 || 6.5 || 1.3 || .8 || style=";"| 1.5 || 11.6
|-
|
| 44 || 29 || 32.3 || .431 || .331 || .769 || 7.3 || 2.0 || .7 || .8 || 12.3
|-
|
| 42 || 20 || 20.8 || .582 || .000 || .474 || 4.5 || 2.1 || .5 || 1.3 || 4.9
|-
|
| 65 || 15 || 27.5 || .468 || .310 || .771 || 2.6 || 2.8 || 1.6 || .1 || 10.3
|-
|
| 24 || 10 || 32.6 || .495 || .359 || .839 || 4.6 || 2.8 || 1.0 || .3 || 15.2
|}
Transactions
Trades
Free agency
Re-signed
Additions
Subtractions
Awards
References
External links
2009–10 Golden State Warriors season at Basketball Reference
Golden State Warriors seasons
Golden State
Golden
Golden
| 6,486
|
doc-en-6350_0
|
Orange Music Electronic Company is an English amplifier manufacturing company. The amplifiers have a distinctive sound and bright orange Tolex-like covering their heads and speaker cabinets.
History
1960s
Orange was founded in 1968 by musician and electronics designer Clifford Cooper of London and opened premises at 3 New Compton Street in London's West End. Initially, Cooper used only the basement as a professional recording studio, the studio featured an IBC mixing console originally owned by Joe Meek, producer of The Millionaires. The studio was failing to meet its overheads so on September 2, 1968 the ground floor premises were opened as a music shop, where in order to cover wage costs, Cooper sold his own band equipment.
Difficulties in obtaining stock meant that the new Orange shop at first dealt only in second hand equipment. Fortunately, many musicians around that time preferred older, used or beaten up guitars as they were considered to be of better quality and have more character than the new ones available. The Orange shop was the first to cater for this market. The difficulties faced in stocking the shop led Cooper to decide to begin designing Orange's own amplifiers and in the late autumn of 1968 Huddersfield based company Radio Craft, owned by Mat Mathias, was appointed to produce the first Orange branded amplifiers.
Whilst in London, Orange shop salesman Mick Dines became closely involved with the design of Orange cabinets. As a touring musician, Dines understood the rigours equipment was subjected to on the road and was instrumental in ensuring that durability was at the forefront of the design with features such as the basketweave grillecloth and the wooden skids which not only gave strength but improved the sound dramatically by acoustically coupling the cabinet to the stage or wooden floor.
It is a common misconception that the earliest Orange amplifiers were jointly produced by Orange and Matamp, the brand name that Mathias used on his own design of amplifiers. This was not the case. Radio Craft produced hi-fi guitar amplifiers which, whilst ideal for bass guitar produced a tone far too clean and flat for electric lead guitars. Early Orange Matamp amplifiers were built by Radio Craft to Cooper's design to provide the new generation of guitarists with the sustain they demanded. The front end was modified and Cooper changed the chassis from lightweight aluminium to enamelled steel. The Orange logo was designed to be clearly visible on stage. When the design was delivered to Radio Craft, Mathias suggested that a small Matamp logo be added, which as a courtesy to Mathias, Cooper agreed to, making Matamp a model name.
The first of the Orange Matamp amplifiers were 100 watt valve amps and were produced in very small numbers in the rear of tobacconist shop owned by Mathias. Demand for Orange amplifiers grew quickly and Radio Craft was unable to keep up with orders. It became apparent that larger premises were vital.
Mathias was unable to finance the move so in 1969, Cooper Mathias Ltd was formed to replace Radio Craft. Cooper's feeling was that a 50/50 partnership would be to the advantage of all parties rather than to simply finance Radio Craft with the benefit of cheaper overheads in Huddersfield than in London. The central plan behind Cooper Mathias was to increase capacity and productivity to a level at which the service could be offered to other amplifier companies.
1970s
The factory in Cowcliffe near Huddersfield was opened in early 1970. Mathias would drive from Huddersfield with a small number of completed amplifier chassis which would be fitted into sleeves, boxed, and despatched from the Orange Shop in London. At this time business in London was moving very rapidly; however, the situation in Huddersfield was much slower. Whilst visiting the factory for a production meeting, Cooper was struck by the slow pace of production. Large numbers of back orders meant that production at Cowcliffe was failing to keep up with demand and the low number of units being produced caused the operation to be non cost effective and not covering its overheads.
The decision was taken to end Orange's relationship with Matamp. Cooper and Mathias remained on friendly terms despite the split, with Cooper describing Mathias as "a real gentleman for whom I have always had nothing but the greatest admiration." After the decision to cease production in Huddersfield, Cooper located premises in a derelict shop on the corner of Neil's Yard and Short's Gardens in the Covent Garden area of London. This move was to increase productivity and to provide more room for cabinet making, amp testing, and storage, with cabinets being produced on the ground floor and amplifiers in the basement.
In 1971, whilst driving in London, Cooper noticed the new road signs being introduced into the UK used graphic symbols rather than words and asked the design team to come up with a set of custom symbols that would clearly show what the control was for and would make sense to users who may not be familiar with English.
It was in 1972 that John James, Orange's Research and Development Engineer, designed what would become one of the world's most iconic amplifiers, The "Graphic Valve Amplifier," nicknamed simply "Pics Only", which was a reference to the unique front graphic panels. Early models of the Pics Only were known as "Plexis" because they had a plastic reverse printed perspex panel secured on an orange steel backplate fixed to the chassis. With later models the front panel was not plastic but silk screen printed metal plates. The Pics Only was the start of the new sound now associated with Orange and has remained the influence for the design and sound of Orange Amplifiers. With demand for Orange amplifiers still increasing it was necessary once again to seek larger premises and locate a proper factory facility.
In 1973, production was moved to 17 Upland Road, Bexleyheath, in Kent. There a proper production line was possible, and this resulted in a marked increase in the number of amplifiers and cabinets being completed, an average of one amp per worker per day. This more industrial approach meant that amplifiers and cabinets could be lined up, 20–30 units at a time, and completed sequentially. This period saw distribution of Orange products in the US for the first time. It was also in 1973 that the Pics Only was redesigned. As well as some electronic modifications, the front panel was amended resulting in the Graphic 120 "Pics & Text" amplifier which was launched in 1974.
In 1975, Orange launched the Custom Reverb Twin MKII which was introduced to compete directly with the Fender Twin Reverb; similarly priced, this amp featured a Hammond spring reverb, a tremolo, and a master volume. It was initially available only as a 50 Watt but the success of this model as a versatile studio amplifier led to a 100 Watt version being produced. Unusually, this model featured black with silver fleck speaker cloth rather than the iconic Basketweave grille cloth.
The Orange brand was well established as a manufacturer of valve amps by the mid-1970s, but Cooper was keen to diversify the Orange product range and include solid state amplifiers for the first time. OMEC, which stands for Orange Music Electronic Company, was formed. Cooper engaged designer Peter Hamilton with the brief to design a computerised amp. The only way to achieve this was with the use of SSI and MSI (small and medium scale logic chips.)
At the time there was a stark choice, largely due to cost, between TTL (transistor-transistor logic) which consumed a large amount of power but was readily available and well proven or a new technology from RCA called COS-MOS which was low power consumption but prone to static damage. At the time COS-MOS was considered too risky to use. That technology led to today's CMOS microcontrollers with built in static protection, low power consumption, and millions of transistors on a single chip. Hamilton's design was known as the OMEC Digital Programmable Amplifier and was the world's first digitally programmable amplifier. Real DSP was not readily available until the mid-1990s so the OMEC Digital was effectively a digitally controlled analogue amplifier. A drawback to using TTL became apparent quite quickly as the programmable memory took almost an amp at 5 watts, so any settings were lost as soon as the amplifier was turned off. A backup battery was added in the event of a brief power cut but these would only last approximately one hour. Ultimately, the OMEC Digital Amplifier proved to be innovative but ahead of its time and would require a huge amount of investment to make it financially viable.
Whilst the programmable computerised amplifier was perhaps released a decade too soon, Orange continued to produce solid state amplifiers, with the denim clad Jimmy Bean amp being released in 1976. The low cost but high quality integrated circuit chips used in the OMEC allowed for a wealth of innovative signal processing technology to be adapted to other amplifiers and, when coupled with a proven power amp design, led to the launch of a series of solid state amps and matching cabinets throughout 1976 to 1979.
By the late 1970s the music world had moved on significantly from the psychedelic hippie movement of the 1960s and the decision was taken to update the design of the range. The typeface was changed to a more modern font, the sleeve was lowered to give a sleeker look, and the basketweave grille was changed to a black material with a different level of sound transparency. As part of this major makeover in 1978/1978 Orange divided its product range into Orange Sound Reinforcement and Orange Instrument Amplification. Sound reinforcement included PA, mixing desks, and solid state power amps. Examples of models from this period include the Series Two and the Hustler range of guitar and bass amplifiers.
In 1978 the Orange Shop closed when the buildings on New Compton Street were demolished. Production ceased at the Bexleyheath factory in 1979 when two major overseas distributors going into liquidation within a short period of time made the production line no longer viable.
1980s
Throughout the 1980s production of Orange Amplifiers was extremely limited with Cooper continuing to build and sell in small quantities to special order.
1990s
The Orange Gibson Years 1993–1997
Following Mathias' death in 1989, his sons Peter and Richard continued the business until 1992 when the company was sold to amplifier enthusiast Jeff Lewis. In 1993, Gibson licensed the name to manufacture Orange Amplification. Gibson decided to have their Orange amplifiers made by Matamp in Huddersfield again in order to keep the "Made in England" identity. The first Gibson era Orange reissues released were the Graphic 120 and Overdrive 120 launching in 1994 followed by the Graphic 80 and Overdrive 80.
Sonically, there was a marked difference between these reissues and the original 1970s Pics & text heads. The capacitors fitted in the EQ section had Series Two Overdrive Head values. A small number of Orange Super Bass 120 reissues were also made based on the circuit of the 1979 Series Two Super Bass. The 1990s Orange reissues were not commercially successful and it was mutually agreed that the licence would not be renewed. In February 1997, Gibson handed the Orange name back to Cliff Cooper.
1997–1999
The Second Coming of Orange
With the brand back under Cooper's control, guitarist and valve amplifier expert, Adrian Emsley was brought in as technical director with the brief to update and refresh the product range. Guitarist Noel Gallagher had used Orange almost exclusively on the early Oasis albums and as in the early days of Orange, Cooper was keen to get opinions from leading guitarists so Cooper and Emsley approached Gallagher to talk through any requirements that would improve his sound.
Gallagher was using an Orange Overdrive which he required more crunch from. As a result, changes were made to the Overdrive circuit, including modifications to the phase inverter and preamp. A standby switch replaced the output socket on the rear. The modifications suggested by Gallagher formed the basis of the OTR amplifier (Oscillatory Transition Return).
In 1998, the AD Series was launched. Initially consisting of the AD30 head without reverb, the AD30R, a 2×12 combo with reverb, and the AD15 combo, which was available with 10" or 12" speakers. The range received critical and commercial acclaim and attracted major artists such as former Led Zeppelin guitarist Jimmy Page and ex-Fleetwood Mac guitarist Jeremy Spencer. In 1999, The AD15 won the Editor's Pick Award from the US Guitar Player magazine – Orange being the first British company in that category to do so. The award saw global interest not only in the AD15 but in Orange as a brand and was a major factor in re-establishing the company.
2000s
The millennium era has seen unprecedented diversification of the Orange product range, from clothing to personal computers. Some notable events during this period include:
2001 Orange opens USA offices in Atlanta, Georgia.
2006 The Tiny Terror is launched.
2008 40th anniversary year – Orange produce 40 hand made Custom Shop amps each with a girl's name.
2009 Orange move into new headquarters in Borehamwood, Hertfordshire.
2010 Cliff Cooper's son Charlie designs and launches the OPC (Orange Personal Computer) aimed at the musician/home studio market. Orange open a custom designed factory in China.
2018 50th anniversary of the founding of the company.
Legacy Companies
Orange Studios
Before Orange Amps, there was Orange Studios. Cliff Cooper built the studio with his friend Brian Hatt over the course of the summer, hand-cutting, stripping, and soldering every wire. "Our basement studio had a great vibe," Cooper recounts, "It was very large and, as nobody lived or worked on either side, volume wasn't an issue. Most bands preferred to come in for night sessions."
Orange Hire
Orange Hire was created to provide the PA and backline for larger venues and outdoor summer festivals such as Reading and the Isle of Wight. A fleet of Mercedes 405D vans were converted into state-of-the-art hire vehicles all were radio equipped and had full amp repair facilities fitted. In 1972, Orange Hire was awarded the contract to provide PA equipment for music at the Olympic Games in Munich.
Orange Management
Orange Management was formed in 1969 signing up artists such as John Miles, Smokie, Nigel Benjamin (ex Mott The Hoople) and his band English Assassin, Cock Sparrer and The Realistics amongst others. Not limited to musical artists, in 1971 motorcycle stunt rider and model Eddie Kidd was signed to Orange Management.
Orange Records
It became apparent that while the studios were being used to record demos, many artists were finding it difficult to secure a record deal with a major label. A pressing and distribution deal was signed with Pye Records for the UK and soon afterwards licensing deals for overseas territories. The "Voice of the World" logo of an Orange tree sitting upon a globe was used for the label with a full colour sleeve; however, with the flower power movement waning, it was decided in the early 1970s to change the look to a black background with gold lettering.
Orange Publishing
Orange publishing was formed in 1969. Former Head of Copyright at EMI, Dennis Sinnott was appointed by Cliff Cooper to establish Orange Publishing and over the next five years signed a variety of bands including Cock Sparrer, The Little Roosters, The Tremeloes and Kenny Ball. Many of whom had records out on the Orange label. Orange Publishing, (now known as Orange Songs.) has a large catalogue with numerous copyrights, including the Grand Rights to several musicals and film scores.
Orange Agency
Orange Agency was also formed in 1969 as a means to tie together all Orange music related activities. Working from premises at 4 New Compton Street bands and artists were booked into venues around the UK. Joe Cocker was booked into The Pheasantry Club in London's Kings Road in Chelsea, which resulted in Orange Agency becoming the sole booking agents for the venue. Bookings for The Marquee and other famous London venues followed the business grew rapidly and began booking tours, flying in acts from America to tour throughout Europe.
Products
Amplifier chronology
For ease of reference, the production of Orange Amplifiers divides into five broad eras. Inevitably there will be overlaps when a new amplifier was launched.
Early years: 1968–1971
1968–1969: Prototype OR100. Fewer than 50 made
1969–1972: OR120
1969–1972: OR100
1969–1972: OR50
1968–1973: The OA Orange Reverb Unit
1968–1979: Orange Solid State Amplifiers: Killerwatt Slave unit (1000 watt slave), Hypercard T (150 watt guitar head), Slave 200 (known as model 103T)
Series One: 1972–1978
1972–1973: GRO100, GRO50 (Known as "Pics Only" or "Plexis" due to the reverse printed perspex front panel. From 1973 this was replaced by silk screen printed metal plates.)
1974–1976: The Pics & Text OR120 and OR80
1974–1977: Pics & Text Solid State Reverb Unit
1975: Omec Digital Programmable Amplifier
1976: Jimmy Bean (Denim and Leather covered 150 watt 2 channel amp)
1977: OMEC 150 EQ and OMEC 150 SUPER (Low cost transistor amps)
1976–1978: Overdrive OD120
Series Two: 1979 – The Orange Image Makeover
Hustler 60W Combo
Hustler Bass Combo
Overdrive OR112M
Superbass OR112SB
Orange Reissues: 1993–1997 The Gibson Years
1994–1997: The Graphic OR120 and OR80
1994–1997: Overdrive 120 and Overdrive 80
1997–1998: OTR 120 and OTR80
1997–1998: Super Bass reissue
Millenium Orange: 1998–present
1998: The Blaster
1998: AD30H
1998: AD15 Combo with 10" speaker and AD15 Combo with 12" speaker
1999: AD30R Combo with 2 12" speakers
1999: AD5 Combo (Hard Wired version – Limited to 64 units)
1999: AD140B Bass amplifier
2000: Crush Range of practice amplifiers. Range included Micro Crush (3 watt battery powered) CR10, CR15, CR15R (with reverb), CR30R, CR20B (Bass Amplifier) CR35B (Bass amplifier) and the Orange guitar pack (included Orange branded guitar, CR10 amp, guitar stand and tuner).
2001: AD140 Lead (Hard Wired lead version of the AD140B)
2001: AD140HTC (Twin channel PCB production line model of the AD140lead)
2001: AD30HTC
2001: AD200B MKI Bass amplifier (Fully hard wired)
2002: AD200B MKII Bass amplifier (Fully Hard Wired)
2002: Retro 50 Head (This was the first amp to feature "Custom Shop" on the front panel and was a master volume version of the pics only. Fully hard wired model)
2002: Retro 50C (Very limited 2×12 combo version of the Retro 50)
2002: AD50 Custom Head (Hand built upgrade of the AD30)
2003: AD200B MKIII (PCB production model is marketed as one of the most simple bass heads on the market today. It has a passive, 3-band EQ as well as input gain and volume controls. The low knob on the EQ is set to attenuate low frequencies as it is turned counter clockwise on the order of around 120 Hz, but will attenuate frequencies up to 500 Hz as it is adjusted. The mid control sets attenuation in the region of 500–1k, and the high control sets attenuation for frequencies above 1k According to Orange amp tech, Will Loftin.)
2003: Rockerverb 50 and Rockerverb 100
2003: AD5 Combo PCB edition (fitted with Jensen P10R Alnico speaker)
2004: Rocker 30 Head and Combo
2006: Tiny Terror (First "lunchbox style" amp. Now an industry standard, although in reality not the first since the THD UniValve preceded it by 6 years)
2006: Thunderverb 200 (Class AB head, can be used as a bass amplifier)
2007: Thunderverb 50
2008: 40th Anniversary Custom Shop (Fully hand built. Limited to 40 units, each with a unique girl's name rather than a serial number and each with unique voice)
2008: 40th Anniversary OR50 (fitted with Orange patent applied for output transformer)
2008: AD5 Combo (Third version made with PCB and 10" Celestion 40 speaker)
2008: Re-styled AD30HTC (Cosmetic changes to front panel)
2008: Tiny Terror Combo. (Combo version with 12" speaker)
2009: Tiny Terror Hard Wired Edition
2009: Dual Terror (Two channels, Tiny Terror and Fat)
2009: Terror Bass 500 (500watt hybrid bass amplifier)
2009: Crush Pix range of practice amps (Range includes, (Micro Crush, Stereo Micro Crush (6watt stereo battery powered amp) CR12L, CR20L, CR20LDX. CR35LDX, CR50BX (Bass) and CR100BXT (Bass)
2010: TH30 head and combo
2010: Rockerverb 50 and 100 MKII
2010: Rockerverb 50 and 100 MKII Combo
2010: Rockerverb 100 DIVO (Dynamic Intelligent Valve Optimisation) Embedded.
2010: Tiny Terror 10" Combo. (Tiny Terror combo with 10" speaker)
2010: Terror Bass 1000 (1000watt Hybrid Bass Amplifier)
2010: Orange OPC (Musician's Personal Computer)
2011: DIVO OV4. (Retro fittable unit, keeps all valves running at optimum bias)
2011: Dark Terror ((Higher gain preamp and a black rather than white case))
2011: TH100H
2012: Micro Terror (Single channel, hybrid amp has a valve preamp with a solid state power amp)
2012: OR15H
2012: OR50H (Reissue of 40th anniversary OR50H with PCB)
2012: #4 Jim Root Terror (Signature amp for Slipknot guitarist Jim Root, basically a 15 watt version of the Rockerverb 100.)
2013: OR100H
2013: Crush Pro range (Includes CR60C Combo and CR120 Head and Combo)
2013: Custom Shop 50 (Hand Made Custom shop amplifier)
2014: Dual Dark 50/Dual Dark 100 (These have the highest-ever amount of gain available in an Orange amp, aimed primarily at metal and hardcore punk players)
2015: Orange Music Board (Classroom technology for music teachers)
2015: Tangle-Free Twister Cable
2015: OB-1 300/OB-1 500 Bass Amplifiers (Bass amplifiers combining the low end of a traditional bass amplifier with the gain of a guitar amplifier)
2015: Micro Dark (Single channel, hybrid amp like the Micro Terror. Features an additional gain stage over the Micro Terror, buffered FX Loop and CabSim circuitry in the headphone output)
2016-2017:" O'Bass" Bass Guitar Beautiful vintage looking & sounding bass guitar, that sounds exactly how you would expect, imagine, & want an Orange Amp. Made bass guitar to sound like.
2018: Crush Mini: Redesigned version of the CR3 Crush Micro, with a larger 4" speaker, 8-ohm cabinet output, tuner, and redesigned control panel mirroring the 2015 Micro Dark panel.
2018: Terror Bass, a reissued version of the 2009 amplifier of the same name. Updates include a tube preamp and clean/dirty switch, along with a redesigned control panel.
Speaker cabinets
Orange speaker cabinets for guitar have the prefix "PPC" in their model name; PPC meaning "Power Projection Cabinet". The bass range of cabinets have the prefix "OBC" and "SP" meaning "Orange Bass Cab" and "Smart Power"
Orange speaker cabs for distribution in the USA are built in the USA. Others are manufactured in England, with the exception of the PPC108, PPC112, PPC212ob, PPC410 and PPC412 COMPACT, which are manufactured in China.
Guitar cabs
PPC108 – 1×8" Orange designed speaker (20 Watts)
PPC112 – 1×12" Celestion G12 Vintage 30 (60 Watts)
PPC212 OB – 2×12" Celestion G12 Vintage 30 (120 Watts)
PPC212 V – 2×12" Celestion G12 Neo Creamback (120 Watts)
PPC212 #4 – 2×12" Orange designed speakers (120 Watts)
PPC212 – 2×12" Celestion G12 Vintage 30 (120 Watts)
PPC410 – 4×10" Celestion G10N-40 (120 Watts)
PPC412 COMPACT – 4×12" Orange designed speakers (240 Watts)
PPC412AD – 4×12" Celestion G12 Vintage 30 (240 Watts)
PPC412 – 4×12" Celestion G12 Vintage 30 (240 Watts)
PPC412 HP – 4×12" Celestion G12K-100 (400 Watts)
Bass cabs
OBC410 – 4×10" Eminence Beta 10a (600 Watts)
OBC115 – 1×15" Eminence Kapa 15a (400 Watts)
OBC810 – 8×10" Eminence Neodymium (1,200 Watts)
SP212 – 2×12" Eminence Neodymium (600 Watts)
Cabinets no longer in production:
PPC412 LTD – 4×12" Celestion G12H30 (120 Watts)
SP210 – 2×10" Eminence Neodymium (600 Watts)
SP410 – 4×10" Eminence Neodymium (1,200 Watts)
See also
Vintage musical equipment
References
External links
Interview with Adrian Emsley of Orange Amplification on The Bone Reader
Orange Stereo Micro Crush product review
Clifford Cooper Interview NAMM Oral History Library (2003)
Audio amplifier manufacturers
Electronics companies established in 1968
Audio equipment manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Guitar amplifier manufacturers
1968 establishments in England
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The 1991 Iraqi uprisings were ethnic and religious uprisings in Iraq led by Shi'ites and Kurds against Saddam Hussein. The uprisings lasted from March to April 1991 after a ceasefire following the end of the Gulf War. The mostly uncoordinated insurgency was fueled by the perception that Iraqi President Saddam Hussein had become vulnerable to regime change. This perception of weakness was largely the result of the outcome of the Iran–Iraq War and the Gulf War, both of which occurred within a single decade and devastated the population and economy of Iraq.
Within the first two weeks, most of Iraq's cities and provinces fell to rebel forces. Participants of the uprising were a diverse mix of ethnic, religious and political affiliations, including military mutineers, Shia Arab Islamists, Kurdish nationalists, and far-left groups. Following initial victories, the revolution was held back from continued success by internal divisions as well as a lack of anticipated American and/or Iranian support. Saddam's Sunni Arab-dominated Ba'ath Party regime managed to maintain control over the capital of Baghdad and soon largely suppressed the rebels in a brutal campaign conducted by loyalist forces spearheaded by the Iraqi Republican Guard.
During the brief, roughly one-month period of unrest, tens of thousands of people died and nearly two million people were displaced. After the conflict, the Iraqi government intensified a prior systematic forced relocation of Marsh Arabs and the draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes in the Tigris–Euphrates river system. The Gulf War Coalition established Iraqi no-fly zones over northern and southern Iraq, and the Kurdish opposition established the Kurdish Autonomous Republic in Iraqi Kurdistan.
Earlier calls for uprising
During the Iran–Iraq War, Iran's religious ruler, Ruhollah Khomeini, called on Iraqis to overthrow the Ba'ath government and establish an Islamic state. Because of his incitement, many Shia Arabs were driven out of Iraq and some were recruited into armed militias backed by Iran, although the majority remained loyal to Iraq throughout the duration of the war.
U.S. radio broadcasts
On February 15, 1991, then President of the United States, George H. W. Bush, made a speech targeting Iraqis via Voice of America radio. Hoping to incite a swift military coup to topple Saddam Hussein, Bush stated:
Bush made a similar appeal on March 1, a day after the end of the Gulf War:
On the evening of February 24, four days before the Gulf War ceasefire was signed, the Voice of Free Iraq radio station, allegedly funded and operated by the CIA, broadcast a message to the Iraqi people telling them to rise up and overthrow Saddam. The speaker on the radio was Salah Omar al-Ali, an exiled former member of the Ba'ath Party and the Ba'athist Revolutionary Command Council. Al-Ali's message urged the Iraqis to overthrow the "criminal tyrant of Iraq" and asserted that Saddam "will flee the battlefield when he becomes certain that the catastrophe has engulfed every street, every house and every family in Iraq." He said:
Revolution
Southern uprisings
Many of the rebels in southern Iraq, where the uprisings began, were either demoralized soldiers of the Iraqi Army or members of anti-regime groups, in particular the Islamic Dawa Party and Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq (SCIRI). Iraqi armed forces were composed largely of Shia conscripts and contained substantial anti-regime elements, and thus many of the government's troops quickly switched sides and defected to the rebels.
The turmoil first began in the towns of Abu Al-Khaseeb and Az Zubayr, south of Basra, at the end of February. On March 1, 1991, one day after the Gulf War ceasefire, a T-72 tank gunner, returning home after Iraq's defeat in Kuwait, fired a shell into a gigantic portrait of Saddam Hussein hanging over Basra's main square and onlooking soldiers applauded. The revolt in Basra was led at first by Muhammad Ibrahim Wali, an army officer who gathered a force of military vehicles to attack the government buildings and prisons in the city; he was backed by a majority of the population. The uprising in Basra was entirely spontaneous and disorganised. The news of this event and Bush's radio broadcasts encouraged the Iraqi people to revolt against the regime in the other towns and cities. In Najaf, a demonstration near the city's great Imam Ali Mosque became a gun battle between army deserters and Saddam's security forces. The rebels seized the shrine as Ba'ath Party officials fled the city or were killed; prisoners were freed from jails. The uprising spread within days to all of the largest Shia cities in southern Iraq: Amarah, Diwaniya, Hilla, Karbala, Kut, Nasiriyah and Samawah. Smaller cities were swept up in the revolution as well.
Many exiled Iraqi dissidents, including thousands of Iran-based Badr Brigades militants of SCIRI, crossed the borders and joined the rebellion. SCIRI concentrated their efforts on the Shia holy cities of Najaf and Karbala, alienating many people who did not subscribe to their Shia Islamist agenda and pro-Iranian slogans, for which SCIRI was later criticized by the Dawa Party. Ranks of the rebels throughout the region included mutinous Sunni members of the military, leftists such as Iraqi Communist Party (ICP) factions, anti-Saddam Arab nationalists, and even disaffected Ba'athists. Disastrously for them, all the diverse revolutionary groups, militias, and parties were united only in their desire for regime change as they had no common political or military program, no integrated leadership, and there was very little coordination between them.
Northern uprisings
Another wave of insurgency broke out shortly afterwards in the Kurdish populated northern Iraq. Unlike the spontaneous rebellion in the South, the uprising in the North was organized by two rival Kurdish party-based militias: primarily the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) and to a lesser extent the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP). Additionally, the Assyrian Democratic Movement (ADM) served as the principle Assyrian opposition group, although the group was more active in the 1980s. The ADM reported that the government displaced thousands of Assyrians in Kirkuk, as there were around 30,000 in the city prior to 1991. In the north, the defection of the government-recruited Kurdish home guard militias, known as jash, gave a considerable force to the rebellion.
The rebellion in the north (Iraqi Kurdistan) erupted on March 5 in the town of Rania. Within 10 days, the Kurdish nationalist (Peshmerga), Islamist (Islamic Movement of Kurdistan), and communist (from the ICP and the Communist Party of Kurdistan; the Kurdistan Workers' Party was also active to some extent) rebels, joined by tens of thousands of defecting militiamen and army deserters (reportedly, there were more than 50,000 of them throughout the region), took control of every city in the north except Kirkuk (which eventually fell to them on March 20) and Mosul. Entire units surrendered without much or any resistance, including the whole 24th Division which did not fire a single bullet. In Sulaymaniyah, the rebels besieged and captured the regional headquarters of the dreaded Directorate of General Security secret police (years later, the building, known as Amna Suraka or "Red Security" in Kurdish, became a museum to the crimes of Saddam's regime). In a bloody revenge, they killed several hundred of captured Ba'athist officials and security officers without a trial; reportedly, over 900 security officers were killed at Sulaymaniyah. They also captured enormous quantities of government documents related to the notorious Al-Anfal Campaign in which the government forces had systematically killed tens of thousands of Iraqi Kurds and members of other ethnic minorities three years earlier in 1988; 14 tons of these documents were obtained by Human Rights Watch.
Unlike in the south, the Kurdish rebellion was preceded by demonstrations with clear political slogans: democracy for Iraq and autonomy for Kurdistan. After Mosul was taken, Jalal Talabani proposed to march on the capital Baghdad.
Loyalist offensive
On March 7, in an effort to quiet the uprisings, Saddam Hussein offered the Shia and Kurd leaders shares in the central government in exchange for loyalty, but the opposing groups rejected the proposal. At the height of the revolution, the government lost effective control over 14 of Iraq's 18 provinces. However, the people of Baghdad remained largely passive, as the Dawa Party, the Communist Party, and the pro-Syrian Ba'ath splinter party had all failed to build underground structures in the capital. There was only a limited unrest in the Shia-populated vast slum of Saddam City while the rest of Baghdad remained calm.
Soon, regime loyalists regrouped and went on an offensive to reclaim the cities. They were helped by the fact that about half of tanks of the elite and politically reliable Republican Guard managed to escape from the Saddam-proclaimed "mother of all battles" in Kuwait and that the Guard headquarters units also survived the war. In addition, the Gulf War ceasefire agreement of March 3 prohibited the Iraqi military's use of fixed-wing aircraft over the country, but allowed them to fly helicopters because most bridges had been destroyed. This was because General Norman Schwarzkopf accepted the request of an Iraqi general to fly helicopters, including armed gunships, to transport government officials because of destroyed transport infrastructure, acting without Pentagon or White House instructions; almost immediately, the Iraqis began using the helicopters as gunships to put down the uprisings. The outgunned rebels had few heavy weapons and few surface-to-air missiles, which made them almost defenseless against helicopter gunships and indiscriminate artillery barrages when the Ba'athists responded to the uprisings with crushing force. According to Human Rights Watch, "in their attempts to retake cities, and after consolidating control, loyalist forces killed thousands of anyone who opposes them whether a rebel or a civilian by firing indiscriminately into the opposing areas; executing them on the streets, in homes and in hospitals; rounding up suspects, especially young men, during house-to-house searches, and arresting them with or without charge or shooting them en masse; and using helicopters to attack those who try to flee the cities."
There were several reports of chemical warfare attacks, including of a nerve agent being used during the assault on Basra. Following an investigation, the United Nations (UN) found that there was no evidence that Iraq used chemical weapons to repress the uprisings, but did not rule out the possibility that Iraq could have used phosgene gas which would not have been detectable after the attack. According to the U.S. government's Iraq Survey Group, Iraqi military did in fact use the nerve agent sarin, as well as non-lethal CS gas, on a massive scale when "dozens" of improvised helicopter bombing sorties were flown against rebels in Karbala and the surrounding areas in March 1991; evidence of apparent mustard gas attacks have been also reported in the areas of Najaf and Karbala by the U.S. forces that have been stationed there at the time.
In the south, Saddam's forces quelled all but a scattering of the resistance by the end of March. On March 29, SCIRI leader Abdul Aziz al-Hakim conceded that Shia rebels withdrew from the cities and that fighting was limited to rural areas. The Kurdish uprising in the north of the country collapsed even more quickly than it began. After ousting the Peshmerga from Kirkuk on March 29, the government tanks rolled into Dahuk and Irbil on March 30, Zakho on April 1, and Sulaymaniyah, the last important town held by the rebels, on April 3. The advance of government forces was halted at Kore, a narrow valley near the ruins of Qaladiza, where a successful defense was held by the Kurds led by Massoud Barzani. According to the United States Department of State and the Foreign Affairs group of the Parliament of Australia, Iranian rebel organization People's Mujahedin of Iran (PMOI, also known as MEK), sheltered in Iraq by Saddam Hussein, assisted the Republican Guard in brutally suppressing the uprisings. Maryam Rajavi has been reported by former PMOI members as having said, "Take the Kurds under your tanks, and save your bullets for the Iranian Revolutionary Guards."
On April 5, the government announced "the complete crushing of acts of sedition, sabotage and rioting in all towns of Iraq." On that same day, the United Nations Security Council approved Resolution 688 condemning the Iraqi government's oppression of the Kurds and requiring Iraq to respect the human rights of its citizens.
Casualties
The death toll was high throughout the country. The rebels killed many Ba'athist officials and officers. In response, thousands of unarmed civilians were killed by indiscriminate fire from loyalist tanks, artillery and helicopters, and many historical and religious structures in the south were deliberately targeted under orders from Saddam Hussein. Saddam's security forces entered the cities, often using women and children as human shields, where they detained and summarily executed or "disappeared" thousands of people at random in a policy of collective responsibility. Many suspects were tortured, raped, or burned alive.
Many of the people killed were buried in mass graves. Mass burial sites containing thousands of bodies have been uncovered since the fall of Saddam Hussein in April 2003. Of the 200 mass graves the Iraqi Human Rights Ministry had registered between 2003 and 2006, the majority were in the South, including one believed to hold as many as 10,000 victims.
Aftermath
Refugee crisis
In March and early April, nearly two million Iraqis, 1.5 million of them Kurds, escaped from strife-torn cities to the mountains along the northern borders, into the southern marshes, and to Turkey and Iran. By April 6, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNCHR) estimated that about 750,000 Iraqi Kurds had fled to Iran and 280,000 to Turkey, with 300,000 more gathered at the Turkish border. The approach towards the refugee immigration was met with a different approach by Iran and Turkey. Iran had opened its borders to the refugees, while Turkey first closed its borders and only opened its borders following international pressure and assurances of financial help to cope with the refugees. Iran also received much less international help to cope with the crisis than Turkey, mainly due to their strained relations with the USA. According to accounts from international relief organizations cited by Nader Entassar, Turkey received more than seven times the amount of help per refugee, as Iran received. Their exodus was sudden and chaotic with thousands of desperate refugees fleeing on foot, on donkeys, or crammed onto open-backed trucks and tractors. Many were gunned down by Republican Guard helicopters, which deliberately strafed columns of fleeing civilians in a number of incidents in both the north and south. Numerous refugees were also killed or maimed by stepping on land mines planted by Iraqi troops near the eastern border during the war with Iran. According to the U.S. Department of State and international relief organizations, between 500 and 1,000 Kurds died each day along Iraq's Turkish border. According to some reports, up to hundreds of refugees died each day along the way to Iran as well.
Beginning in March 1991, the U.S. and some of the Gulf War allies barred Saddam's forces from conducting jet aircraft attacks by establishing the no-fly zone over northern Iraq and provided humanitarian assistance to the Kurds. On April 17, U.S. forces began to take control of areas more than 60 miles into Iraq to build camps for Kurdish refugees; the last American soldiers left northern Iraq on July 15. In the Yeşilova incident in April, British and Turkish forces confronted each other over the treatment of Kurdish refugees in Turkey. Many Shia refugees fled to Syria, where thousands of them settled in the town of Sayyidah Zaynab.
Resistance and reprisals in the south
In southeastern Iraq, thousands of civilians, army deserters, and rebels began seeking precarious shelter in remote areas of the Hawizeh Marshes straddling the Iranian border. After the uprising, the Marsh Arabs were singled out for mass reprisals, accompanied by ecologically catastrophic drainage of the Iraqi marshlands and the large-scale and systematic forcible transfer of the local population. The Marsh Arab resistance was led by the Hezbollah Movement in Iraq (completely unrelated to the Hezbollah of Lebanon), which after 2003 became the Marsh Arabs' main political party. On July 10, 1991, the United Nations announced plans to open a humanitarian center at Lake Hammar to care for those hiding out in the southern marshlands, but Iraqi forces did not allow UN relief workers into the marshlands or the people out. A large scale government offensive attack against the refugees estimated 10,000 fighters and 200,000 displaced persons hiding in the marshes began in March–April 1992, using fixed-wing aircraft; a U.S. Department of State report claimed that Iraq dumped toxic chemicals in the waters in an effort to drive out the opposition. In July 1992, the government began trying to drain the marshlands and ordered the residents of settlements to evacuate, after which the army burned down their homes there to prevent them from returning. A curfew was also enforced throughout the south, and government forces began arresting and moving large numbers of Iraqis into detention camps in the central part of the country.
At a special meeting of the UN Security Council on August 11, 1992, Britain, France, and the United States accused Iraq of conducting a "systematic military campaign" against the marshlands, warning that Baghdad could face possible consequences. On August 22, 1992, President Bush announced that the U.S. and its allies had established a second no-fly zone for any Iraqi aircraft south of the 32nd parallel to protect dissidents from attacks by the government, as sanctioned by UN Security Council Resolution 688.
In March 1993, a UN investigation reported hundreds of executions of Iraqis from the marshes in the preceding months, asserting that the Iraqi army's behavior in the south is the most "worrying development [in Iraq] in the past year" and added that following the formation of the no-fly zone, the army switched to long-range artillery attacks, followed by ground assaults resulting in "heavy casualties" and widespread destruction of property, along with allegations of mass executions. In November 1993, Iran reported that as a result of the drainage of the marshlands, marsh Iraqis could no longer fish or grow rice and that over 60,000 had fled to Iran since 1991; Iranian officials appealed to the world to send aid to help the refugees. That same month, the UN reported that 40% of the marshlands in the south were drained, while unconfirmed reports surfaced that the Iraq army had used poisonous gas against villages near the border of Iran. In December 1993, the U.S. Department of State accused Iraq of "indiscriminate military operations in the south, which include the burning of villages and forced relocation of non-combatants." On February 23, 1994, Iraq diverted waters from the Tigris river to areas south and east of the main marshlands, resulting in floods of up to 10 feet of water, in order to render the farmlands there useless and drive the rebels who have been hiding there to flee back to the marshes which were being drained of water. In March 1994, a team of British scientists estimated that 57% of the marshlands have been drained and that in 10 to 20 years the entire wetland ecosystem in southern Iraq will be gone. In April 1994, the U.S. officials said Iraq was continuing a military campaign in Iraq's remote marshes.
Iraq saw further unrest in its Shia dominated provinces in early 1999 following the killing of Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr by the government. Like the 1991 uprisings, the 1999 uprising was violently suppressed.
Kurdish sovereign enclave
In the north, fighting continued until October when an agreement was made for Iraqi withdrawal from parts of Iraq's Kurdish-inhabited region. This led to the establishment of the Kurdistan Regional Government and creation of a Kurdish Autonomous Republic in three provinces of northern Iraq. Tens of thousands of Iraqi soldiers dug-in along the front, backed by tanks and heavy artillery, while the Iraqi government established a blockade of food, fuel, and other goods to the area. The U.S. Air Force continued to enforce a no-fly zone over northern Iraq since March 1991, to defend Kurds fleeing their homes in northern Iraq, the U.S. military also built and maintained several refugee camps in 1991.
This general stalemate was broken during the 1994–1997 Iraqi Kurdish Civil War, when due to the PUK alliance with Iran, the KDP called in Iraqi support and Saddam sent his military into Kurdistan, capturing Erbil and Sulaymaniyah. Iraqi government forces retreated after the U.S. intervened by launching missile strikes on southern Iraq in 1996. On January 1, 1997, the U.S. and its allies launched Operation Northern Watch to continue enforcing the no-fly zone in the north the day after Operation Provide Comfort was over.
Post–2003 trials
The trial of 15 former aides to Saddam Hussein, including Ali Hassan al-Majid (also known as "Chemical Ali"), over their alleged role in the murder of 60,000 to 100,000 people during the 1991 suppression took place in Baghdad in 2007 and 2008. According to the prosecutor, "the acts committed against the Iraqi people in 1991 by the security forces and by the defendants were one of the ugliest crimes ever committed against humanity in modern history." Al-Majid was already sentenced to death in June 2007 for genocide regarding his role in the 1988 Operation Anfal when he was also convicted for his role in the events of 1991 and given another death sentence; he was executed in 2010. The issue was also given much attention during the trial of Saddam Hussein.
U.S. non-intervention controversy
Many Iraqi and American critics accused President George H. W. Bush and his administration of encouraging and abandoning the rebellion after halting Coalition forces at Iraq's southern border with Kuwait at the end of the Gulf War. In 1996, Colin Powell, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, admitted in his book My American Journey that, while Bush's rhetoric "may have given encouragement to the rebels", "our practical intention was to leave Baghdad enough power to survive as a threat to Iran that remained bitterly hostile toward the United States." Coalition Commander Norman Schwarzkopf Jr has expressed regret for negotiating a ceasefire agreement that allowed Iraq to keep using helicopters, but also suggested a move to support the uprisings would have empowered Iran. Bush's national security adviser, Brent Scowcroft, told ABC's Peter Jennings "I frankly wished [the uprisings] hadn't happened ... we certainly would have preferred a coup." In 2006, Najmaldin Karim, president of the Washington Kurdish Institute, called it a "betrayal of Iraq", blaming the policy of "a dangerous illusion of stability in the Middle East, a 'stability' bought with the blood of Middle Easterners and that produced such horrors as the massive 1991 bloodletting of Iraqis who sought to overthrow Saddam Hussein."
Soon after the uprisings began, fears of a disintegrating Iraq led the Bush Administration to distance itself from the rebels. American military officials downplayed the significance of the revolts and spelled out a policy of non-intervention in Iraq's internal affairs. U.S. Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney stated as the uprisings began: "I'm not sure whose side you'd want to be on." On March 5, Rear Admiral John Michael McConnell, Director of Intelligence for the Joint Chiefs of Staff, acknowledged "chaotic and spontaneous" uprisings were under way in 13 cities of Iraq, but stated the Pentagon's view that Saddam would prevail because of the rebels' "lack of organization and leadership." On the same day, Cheney said "it would be very difficult for us to hold the coalition together for any particular course of action dealing with internal Iraqi politics, and I don't think, at this point, our writ extends to trying to move inside Iraq." The U.S. Department of State spokesman Richard Boucher said on March 6, "We don't think that outside powers should be interfering in the internal affairs of Iraq." On April 2, in a carefully crafted statement, U.S. State Department spokeswoman Margaret Tutwiler said: "We never, ever, stated as either a military or a political goal of the coalition or the international community the removal of Saddam Hussein." Other reasons given for not providing assistance to the uprising included fear of the "Lebanonization of Iraq," Iranian-backed Shias assuming power, and reluctance to recommit U.S. soldiers into fighting. President George H. W. Bush himself insisted three days later, just as the Iraqi loyalist forces were putting down the last resistance in the cities:
The Bush Administration sternly warned Iraqi authorities on March 7 against the use of chemical weapons during the unrest, but equivocated use of helicopter gunships by the government. U.S. Major General Martin Brandtner, deputy director of operations for the Joint Chiefs of Staff, added that "there is no move on the [part of] U.S. forces... to let any weapons slip through [to the rebels], or to play any role whatsoever in fomenting or assisting any side." Consequently, U.S. troops that were deployed in southern Iraq defended arsenals or blew up them altogether to prevent the rebels from arming themselves, blocked the rebels from advancing onto Baghdad and even actively disarmed some rebel forces; according to Middle East expert William B. Quandt, U.S. forces also "let one Iraqi division go through [their] lines to get to Basra because the United States did not want the regime to collapse." In addition the destroying captured munitions, the Bush Administration transferred some to the Mujahideen in Afghanistan, and even returned some to the Iraqis; at the same time, the Bush Administration accused Iran of sending arms to the rebels.
The U.S. abandonment of the 1991 revolution was cited by many analysts as an explanation for the fact that the skeptical Iraqi Shia population did not welcome the U.S.-led coalition forces during the 2003 invasion of Iraq the way some officials of George W. Bush administration had predicted before the war began, remaining reluctant to rise up against Saddam until Baghdad fell. In 2011, the U.S. ambassador to Iraq, James F. Jeffrey, officially apologized to Iraqi politicians and southern tribal leaders for the U.S. inaction in 1991. Adel Abdul Mahdi, a top Iraqi Shia political leader, commented: "At the least, from what we are facing now, this would have been a much better solution than the solution of 2003. The role of Iraq's people would have been fundamental, not like in 2003." A spokesman for a top Shia religious leader, Ayatollah Basheer Hussain Najafi, stated that "the apology of the U.S. has come too late, and does not change what happened. The apology is not going to bring back to the widows their husbands, and bereaved mothers their sons and brothers that they lost in the massacre that followed the uprising."
In film
The southern rebellions were subjects of the 1999 film Three Kings by David O. Russell and the 2008 film Dawn of the World by Abbas Fahdel, as well as the 1993 Frontline documentary Saddam's Killing Fields by Michael Wood.
See also
1935–36 Iraqi Shia revolts
1977 Shia uprising in Iraq
1999 Shia uprising in Iraq
Kurdish Rebellion of 1983
Iraqi Partisan movement, 1979–88
First Iraqi–Kurdish War
Second Iraqi–Kurdish War
Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq
Arab Spring
Libyan Civil War
Syrian Civil War
List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
Notes
References
Further reading
20th century in Iraq
March 1991 events in Asia
April 1991 events in Asia
Chemical weapons attacks
Collective punishment
Gulf War
Iraqi chemical weapons program
Islam in Iraq
Shia–Sunni relations
Torture in Iraq
Shia–Sunni sectarian violence
Religion-based wars
Civil wars in Iraq
Articles containing video clips
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Thomas Morrison Carnegie (October 2, 1843 – October 19, 1886) was a Scottish-born American industrialist. He was the brother of steel magnate Andrew Carnegie and co-founder of the Edgar Thomson Steel Works (a steel manufacturing company).
Early life
He was born in Dunfermline, Fife, Scotland, on October 2, 1843. His parents were Will and Margaret Carnegie, and he had a brother, Andrew, who was eight years older. A sister, Ann, had been born in 1840 but died in infancy. His first cousin was future industrialist George Lauder. His father was a master weaver, and his mother sold food in the home and sewed soles on leather boots to help provide income. Left destitute by automation (which threw his father, a hand weaver, out of work), the family emigrated to the United States in 1848 and settled in "Slabtown"—an immigrant neighborhood in Allegheny City, at the time a distinct and fast-growing city on the north side of the Allegheny and Ohio Rivers across from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The family rented rooms from a relative who owned a house at 336 Rebecca Street. (The street is gone, replaced by Three Rivers Stadium football stadium.) Allegheny City was an unpleasant place to live. It had no municipal water system until 1848, no natural gas lines until 1853, and no sewer system, and wild hogs roamed the streets attacking children. There, Thomas attended local public school.
As a boy, Thomas Carnegie was "the beautiful white-haired child with lustrous black eyes, who everywhere attracted attention". He was generally considered well-mannered but reserved, and often went into a quiet room during social gatherings. He was also noted for his quick and wry sense of humor. And while some, such as Andrew Carnegie biographer Joseph Frazier Wall have concluded that Margaret Carnegie secretly favored Thomas, others such as Richard S. Tedlow disagree and conclude that Thomas was largely isolated and lonely within the extended Carnegie family and their large coterie of friends. It is well documented that Andrew and Thomas did not have the same group of friends, and that Thomas' group was smaller. In time, Thomas Carnegie became a lifelong heavy drinker.
Career
His older brother Andrew made a good deal of money from stock investing, and in 1853 purchased their rented home on Rebecca Street. In 1858, after Andrew had been appointed Thomas Scott's assistant, the Carnegie family sold their Rebecca Street home and bought a large home in Altoona. Andrew was appointed superintendent of the western division of the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1859, and he made Thomas (who had quit school) his assistant. (This was not the end of Thomas' schooling. As an adult, he would later take classes at Duff College.)
In 1859, the family moved back to Pittsburgh and resided at 10 Hancock Street (later renamed Eighth Street, and now part of the Downtown Pittsburgh central business district). But the pollution from nearby factories and iron forges proved too much, and after only a few short months on Hancock Street, Andrew purchased a Victorian home for Thomas and their mother in Homewood, then a middle-class village on the edge of Pittsburgh. Andrew and Thomas rode the train to and from work together, and attended the theater frequently.
In 1861, Andrew persuaded Thomas to invest in the Columbia Oil Company, and it paid off handsomely. That Andrew Carnegie should ask an 18-year-old boy to be a stock investor was not unusual. When Andrew traveled to Scotland with his mother and a friend in 1862, he left Thomas in charge of his numerous business affairs (assets by that time nearing $47,860 or roughly $8.5 million in 2009 inflation-adjusted dollars).
Union Iron Mills
Thomas' business ventures were often pulled along in the wake of his older brother's interests, and he made his fortune in iron and steel because of Andrew. In 1861, Thomas N. Miller, Henry Phipps (the son of the shoemaker Margaret Carnegie did home work for), Anthony Kloman, and Andrew Kloman organized the Iron City Forge in Pittsburgh to take advantage of the booming need for iron products during the American Civil War. Miller subsequently bought out Anton Kloman's share. Phipps and Miller later learned that Andrew Kloman had sold a one-ninth share in the business to a local man who subsequently died during the war, and Miller bought his share (raising his ownership in the business to four-ninths). Kloman, Miller, and Phipps were soon at odds over these transactions and one another's refusal to sell out to the others, and they sought Andrew Carnegie's assistance in resolving the dispute. On September 1, 1863, Carnegie drew up new incorporation papers which made Miller a "special partner" in the firm and which also made Thomas Carnegie a partner in the business. The money for Thomas' investment came from Andrew. A clause in the contract permitted Kloman and Phipps to oust Miller and make him a silent partner, which they quickly did. The same clause, however, gave Thomas Carnegie the right to purchase the extra one-ninth share Miller had obtained, and Andrew Carnegie immediately financed this purchase. When Miller, one of Andrew's closest friends, protested, Andrew induced Thomas to plead with him to acquiesce lest Andrew's reputation as a fair dealer suffer. Miller did so.
Meanwhile, Miller established a rival firm, the Cyclops Iron Company, with Andrew Carnegie as an investor. The Cyclops firm opened in October 1864. Thomas, however, was deeply concerned that the Cyclops company would harm his own interests in Iron City Forge, and successfully prevailed on Andrew to merge the two firms. (It may also be true that Andrew always intended to merge the two firms in order to gain control of both, and used Thomas for this purpose.) Kloman and Phipps at first refused, but Thomas made an offer of all the shares in Cyclops plus an additional payment of $50,000 (a very large sum at the time). On May 1, 1865, the new Union Iron Mills Company was formed. Thomas was to "help out" as needed, and appointed vice president of the firm.
While Andrew and Miller spent the better part of the next year touring Europe, Thomas flourished at the Union Iron Mills. The company struggled financially as the end of the Civil War led to sharp drops in the need for iron products, but Thomas proved to be a warm and friendly executive where his brother was cold and austere. Thomas' ability to make friends allowed the firm to receive numerous contracts and even infusions of capital when needed, and it is unlikely the company would have survived without him. Andrew wrote to Thomas extensively from Europe, constantly criticizing his business decisions, providing him with micromanaging instructions, and generally demeaning him. From Europe, Andrew also badgered Thomas to make improvements to their home in America, and decided to call the rapidly expanding mansion "Fairfield." Thomas' judgement proved to be more prescient than Andrew's when, in July 1865, Andrew became fascinated with the "Dodd process," a new English method of welding steel facing to iron railroad rails and, despite Thomas' misgivings, he purchased the American patent for the process. The process proved unworkable, and although he made additional investments in retooling the mill, the rails produced by the new process were just as brittle and breakable as the those formerly manufactured. Thomas advised him to conserve his money, but Andrew purchased yet another steel welding patent to try to fix the process. That, too, failed and soon Carnegie's steel-welding business was bankrupt. Thomas correctly foresaw that Andrew too easily believed his judgment was infallible, and soon a coal mining process Andrew had purchased also led to significant financial losses.
Meanwhile, Thomas began courting Lucy Coleman, daughter of Pittsburgh iron manufacturing magnate William Coleman. Coleman provided Thomas with critical advice on how to improve the Union Iron Mills, and inside information on the coming railroad building boom. Another critical business relationship was with Piper & Shiffler (later known as the Keystone Bridge Company), an iron bridge building firm invested in by Andrew in 1862. Andrew diverted much of Piper & Shiffler's contracts to the Union Iron Mills, further bolstering the company's profits. Thomas often tried to rein in some of his brother's excesses, but to no avail. For example, in 1866 Andrew proposed purchasing a pipe works adjacent to the old Cyclops Iron Works. Thomas opposed the purchase, arguing that the time for expansion was not ripe and that the pipe works used a kind of iron which the Union Iron Mills did not produce. The pipe works turned out to be a white elephant, but they burned down shortly thereafter (saving the firm from further losses).
The Lucy Furnace and Thomson Works
Thomas Carnegie played a critical role in the expansion of the Carnegie Bros. & Co. company into the production of pig iron. Iron ore was usually smelted into pig iron first, a brittle but refined product (often cast in ingots) which was usually sold to other companies and turned into wrought iron or steel. Several investors in the Union Iron Mills wished to invest in companies producing pig iron, but William Coleman advised against it and advocated building a wholly owned modern furnace under the company's control. A division of the Union Iron Mills (named the Isabella Furnace Company) was organized on December 1, 1870, and the company's first blast furnace (named the "Lucy furnace" after Thomas' wife) was constructed on 51st Street in Pittsburgh. Most of the investors who joined the Isabella Furnace Company were Thomas' friends, not Andrew's. Thomas Carnegie supervised the operation of the Lucy furnace, and he was almost alone in contributing to its business success. The Lucy furnace was enormous— high with a bosh (the widest part of the furnace and the hottest due to its proximity to the hearth)—and was producing a record-shattering a day by 1872. A second Lucy furnace was built in 1877. In 1881, a two-thirds share in the company was sold to Wilson, Walker & Co. and James R. Wilson relieved Thomas Carnegie and John Phipps of their duties overseeing the operation of the furnaces.
Thomas Carnegie's experience in running the Lucy furnaces led him to co-found the Edgar Thomson Steel Works. In early 1871, William Coleman became interested in the new Bessemer process steel-making furnaces, and he traveled throughout Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania to view these new works. Coleman invited Thomas Carnegie to join him in building the new steel works, and together they purchased of land about east of Pittsburgh known as Braddock's Field (a historic battlefield where French and Indian forces from Fort Duquesne defeated British General Edward Braddock on July 5, 1755, in the Battle of the Monongahela). (Thomas borrowed the money for his investment from his brother.) Coleman and Carnegie lived near one another in Homewood and went to work together on the streetcar, and it was during these daily commutes that the men worked on their plans for the new steel works. Although Thomas asked Andrew to invest in the new mill, Andrew refused (considering it too risky a venture). Thomas then prevailed upon David McCandless, a wealthy Pittsburgh merchant and vice president of the Exchange National Bank. McCandless agreed, and brought in William P. Shinn (who would, 11 years later, be awarded the Norman Medal, the top award for civil engineering, in 1883) as treasurer. In the spring of 1872, Andrew Carnegie (while on a bond-selling trip) made a survey of Bessemer steel works in Europe and returned to the U.S. highly enthusiastic about the new project. Andrew subsequently invested $250,000 in the works. Meanwhile, Coleman, McCandless, Scott, and Thomas Carnegie had purchased a newly platted tract in Pittsburgh, subdivided it, and sold the lots at a significant profit. The partners then invested $50,000 each in the steel mill. A new company, Carnegie, McCandless & Co., was formed on January 13, 1873, to build the works.
Thomas was on vacation with Andrew and their mother at the upscale resort town of Cresson Springs in September 1873 when they learned of the failure of the investment bank of Jay Cooke & Company, which precipitated the Panic of 1873. The Panic created financial difficulties for the company, and it floated bonds to stay alive. J. Edgar Thomson, president of the Pennsylvania Railroad and a mentor and close friend to many of the partners, bought many of these bonds in late 1873, helping keep the firm afloat. The partners dissolved Carnegie, McCandless & Co. to take advantage of a new Pennsylvania law permitting the formation of limited liability companies, and the Edgar Thomson Steel Company Ltd. was created on October 12, 1874. The company took its name from J. Edgar Thomson, who although not a large investor in the works had a superb reputation as an honest and trustworthy person (an important asset in risky financial times).
Over the next several years, Thomas Carnegie generally oversaw the Edgar Thomson Steel Company. His success in this endeavor was summed up by a corporate historian this way:
Mr. T.M. Carnegie's abilities were too numerous and complex to be summed up in a sentence. He was a man of sterling integrity; and it was a common saying in Pittsburg that his word was better than some men's bond. He had remarkable judgment; and his opinion on commercial questions was valued above that of much older and more experienced men. Quick and keen in his perceptions, cautious but progressive in his ideas, faithful to his engagements, and just in all his dealings, he gave to his company that which corporations are habitually lacking, namely, a conscience.
Other historical assessments conclude Thomas had a solid grasp of the steel business and was a respected manager, even if Andrew considered him overly cautious. William Abbott, chairman of Carnegie, Phipps, & Co., considered Thomas the better businessman than Andrew, "solid, shrewd, farseeing, absolutely honest and dependable." Thomas lacked Andrew's ambition, but "was content with a good, prosperous, safe business and cared nothing for expansion. He disapproved of Andrew's skyrocketing tendencies, regarded him as a plunger and a dangerous leader. Tom wanted earnings in the shape of dividends, whereas Andrew insisted on using them for expansion." Although he shied away from publicity, he was a hard worker and well liked by both management and workers. His one flaw was his drinking: He often left work at noon and drank heavily for the rest of the day.
Crony capitalism was an important part of American industrialism during this period. Thomas Carnegie, however, was not very adept at it. There is conflicting evidence as to whether he mixed widely in Pittsburgh society, with at least one scholar claiming he did and another that he did not. He was reserved at social gatherings, using his attendance at parties to pick up business gossip and industry buzz. He played cards on a weekly basis with Henry Clay Frick, Philander Knox, Andrew and Richard Mellon, and George Westinghouse. His closest friend was David A. Stewart, a co-partner in the Thomson works, and Stewart readily defended Thomas against the criticisms and jibes of others (particularly Andrew Carnegie).
Thomas sold half his interest in Edgar Thomson Steel to his older brother in 1876 after disagreement broke out over whether to build another "Lucy furnace." Thomas Carnegie, however, held no position on the Thomson board of directors, a situation Andrew Carnegie wanted rectified the moment a position on the board became available. This occurred in the summer of 1876, but William P. Shinn (the second-largest stockholder in the company) complained bitterly to Andrew (traveling in Europe) that the seat should have gone to him. Nonetheless, Thomas was not only added to the board but made chairman upon Andrew Carnegie's return to the U.S. a few months later. Shinn eventually had enough, and resigned as manager of the Thomson steel works in September 1879. Thomas replaced Shinn as manager.
Andrew Carnegie decided to stop relying solely on his company's own furnaces for coke, and began seeking to buy the fuel on the open market. Thomas and Henry Phipps had alerted Andrew to the need for a greater and steadier supply for coke for the growing steel works. In 1881, Andrew sent Thomas to meet with Henry Clay Frick, owner of H.C. Frick & Co.—the largest coke producing company in the U.S. Thomas' goal was to induce Frick to buy the Carnegie coke ovens. In November 1881, Thomas proposed selling the Monastery Coke Works near Latrobe, Pennsylvania, to Frick, or at least have Frick take over the marketing and selling of the coke produced there. Thomas' offer came as Frick was planning his wedding, and it fell to Andrew to meet with Frick and his new bride as they honeymooned in New York City. By this time, Thomas had negotiated most of an agreement with Frick, as well as planned the meeting with Andrew. Carnegie took a 10 percent interest in H.C. Frick & Co., Frick took a 50 percent interest in the Monastery coke works, and H.C. Frick & Co. would become the exclusive supplier of coke to Carnegie Bros. & Co. and the Edgar Thomson Steel Works. Thomas was assigned to negotiate the price of coke on an annual basis with Frick, and over the next two years H.C. Frick & Co. made a 23 percent profit on the coke sold. By 1885, Andrew Carnegie had purchased enough stock in H.C. Frick & Co. to own 50 percent of the company. Frick now attempted to buy into the Carnegie steel companies by selling 12 of the remaining 16 percent of the H.C. Frick which he still owned, but Thomas warned him not to try and to instead seek a position as a manager within the company.
Thomas also played a key role in the consolidation of Andrew's businesses. Thomas had become more involved with the management of Edgar Thomson Steel and less with the Isabella Furnace and Union Iron companies. It was Thomas who suggested to Andrew that the companies be consolidated into a single firm, and that Thomas' stake in the new firm be raised commensurate with his managerial role. His older brother agreed. On April 1, 1888, Andrew Carnegie reorganized his iron and steel businesses into one company, Carnegie Bros. & Co., with Thomas holding 17 percent of the stock. Included in the reorganization were the Lucy and Isabella furnaces, Union Iron Mills, and Homestead works.
Dungeness
In 1880, with seven children at Fairfield and the city of Pittsburgh becoming increasingly hazardous to health due to its burgeoning industry, Thomas and Lucy began seeking a summer home along the southern East Coast for their family. The previous year, the Carnegies had met reporter Frederick Ober while on vacation in Fernandina Beach, Florida. Ober told them about an island plantation he was writing an article about. In 1880, Lippincott's Monthly Magazine published an article by Ober about Dungeness, a plantation on the barrier island of Cumberland Island on the southern Atlantic coast of the state of Georgia. Although it had suffered an extensive fire in 1866 and was uninhabitable, the mansion had a storied past. The article drew the attention of Lucy Carnegie (who had attended boarding school as a girl in nearby Fernandina), and the Carnegies decided the place would be an ideal summer home. The mansion's owner was ex-Confederate General William George MacKay Davis, a first cousin of Confederate President Jefferson Davis who bought the plantation from its creditors in 1879. Carnegie offered to buy Dungeness on August 25, 1880, for $25,000 but his offer was rejected. But after the death of Gen. Davis' son and grandson at the property, Davis desired to leave the place which had brought him such grief and Carnegie offered and Davis accepted a price of $35,000. The sale for the property (which included orange and olive groves, gardens, several cottages, and outbuildings) was final on November 17, 1881.
Over the next four months, the burned-out mansion was demolished and noted Pittsburgh architect Andrew Peebles designed a massive Queen Anne Style mansion with wraparound verandas, high ceilings, several porches, many turrets, and a high tower. In April 1882, Carnegie and his cousin, Leander Morris, jointly purchased an adjoining property. The cornerstone for the new Dungeness was laid on February 26, 1884, and the $285,000, mansion (fully furnished) completed on January 1, 1885. There was even a landing for Thomas Carnegie's steam-powered yacht, the Missoe. The Carnegies visited Dungeness irregularly over the next year, traveling to Georgia in a private railroad car.
With the purchase of his Cumberland Island estate, Thomas resolved to retire from business and spend more time in Georgia. The stress of working for his brother had left him exhausted.
Social life
Both Andrew and Thomas Carnegie had been members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, a highly exclusive wealthy businessman's club which operated a mountaintop retreat overlooking Lake Conemaugh, one of the largest man-made lakes of the day. Lake Conemaugh was formed by the construction of the South Fork Dam in 1853, but had been drained and abandoned prior to its purchase by the South Fork organization. The club, which formed in 1879, restored the South Fork Dam and refilled the reservoir. Andrew and Thomas built a cottage near the clubhouse, and often stayed there. The South Fork Dam failed on May 31, 1889, resulting in the disastrous Johnstown Flood.
Personal life
In June 1866, Carnegie married Lucy Ackerman Coleman (1847–1916), the daughter of Pittsburgh iron manufacturing magnate William Coleman. Their marriage was followed by a honeymoon around Europe. They had been courting since 1864. By 1881, the couple had nine children, including:
William Coleman Carnegie (1867–1944), a sportsman and traveler.
Never married, no issue
Frank Morrison Carnegie (1868–1917)
Never married, no issue
Andrew Carnegie II (1870–1947), who married Bertha Sherlock (1863–1943).
They had three children including Nancy Carnegie Rockefeller who married James Stillman Rockefeller
Margaret Coleman Carnegie (1872–1927), who married Oliver Garrison Ricketson (1864–1943).
Thomas Morrison Carnegie, Jr. (1874–1944), who married Virginia Beggs (1878–1952)
George Lauder Carnegie (1876–1921), who married Margaret Copley Thaw (1877–1942), the daughter of William Thaw and Mary Sibbet Copley.
No issue
Florence Nightingale Carnegie (1879–1962), who married Frederick Curtis Perkins (1870–1935).
Coleman Carnegie (1880–1911), who died of pneumonia at age 31.
Never married, no issue
Nancy Trovillo Carnegie (1881–1954), who married Thomas' coachman, George Hever.
The children were tutored at home, although they also attended a private school for a portion of the day. In 1867, Andrew moved to New York City, giving "Fairfield" to Thomas, Lucy, and his mother Margaret. Margaret moved to New York City to live with her older son in 1870.
Death
In late September 1886, Thomas Carnegie fell ill with what he believed to be a cold. He was sick off and on for the next several weeks. On October 16, he left work thinking he was suffering from yet another cold, but died of pneumonia just three days later. His wife and all of his children except Margaret (who was attending a boarding school in New York) were at his bedside when he died. For most of his life, Thomas had been a member of the Swedenborgian Church. His funeral, however, was conducted by an Episcopalian, and Carnegie was buried on October 21, 1886, in Allegheny Cemetery in Pittsburgh. His mother, also quite ill for some time, died on November 10 (never learning of her younger son's death).
Thomas' death was a serious blow to Andrew Carnegie's financial interests. Thomas had run most of Andrew's enterprises, and to fill his role Andrew Carnegie turned to Henry Clay Frick as his replacement. Frick later played a critical role in the Homestead Strike and in brokering the deal between Carnegie and J. P. Morgan that created U.S. Steel.
Some time before Lucy Coleman Carnegie died in January 1916, Thomas Carnegie's body was disinterred and reburied at the Carnegie family cemetery on Cumberland Island. Although the cemetery is still maintained by the Carnegie family, it is located on land which is now part of the Cumberland Island National Seashore.
Estate
Thomas' will named Lucy his sole executrix and legatee. The will asked (but did not require) her to seek the advice of her brother-in-law Andrew and her father (who had already died eight years earlier, in 1878) in disposing of Thomas' business interests. Although Andrew advised her to sell out to him, she refused and retained ownership in businesses which led to rapid rises in her personal wealth over the next several decades.
Footnotes
Bibliography
"Andrew Carnegie." In Encyclopedia Americana. New York: Americana Corp., 1966.
Barefoot, Patricia. Cumberland Island. Charleston, S.C.: Arcadia, 2004.
Boardman, Jr., Fon W. America and the Robber Barons, 1865 to 1913. New York: Walck, 1979.
Bridge, James Howard. The Inside History of the Carnegie Steel Company: A Romance of Millions. New York: The Aldine Book Company, 1903.
Bullard, Mary Ricketson. Cumberland Island: A History. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 2005.
Burlingame, Dwight F. The Responsibilities of Wealth. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1992.
Carnegie, Andrew. The Gospel of Wealth, and Other Timely Essays. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1962.
"Carnegie, Andrew." In Appletons' Cyclopaedia of American Biography. Rev. ed. James Grant Wilson and John Fiske, eds. New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1887.
Derbyshire, Wyn. Six Tycoons: The Lives of John Jacob Astor, Cornelius Vanderbilt, Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, Henry Ford and Joseph P. Kennedy. London: Spiramus Press, 2008.
Dilsaver, Lary M. Cumberland Island National Seashore: A History of Conservation Conflict. Charlottesville, Va.: University of Virginia Press, 2004.
"Mrs. Carnegie Dead." New York Times. November 11, 1886.
Nasaw, David. Andrew Carnegie. New York: Penguin Press, 2006.
"Thomas M. Carnegie's Funeral." New York Times. October 31, 1886.
Seabrook, Charles. Cumberland Island: Strong Women, Wild Horses. Winston-Salem, N.C.: J.F. Blair, 2004.
Skrabec, Quentin R. The World's Richest Neighborhood: How Pittsburgh's East Enders Forged American Industry. New York: Algora Publishing, 2010.
Standiford, Les. Meet You in Hell: Andrew Carnegie, Henry Clay Frick, and the Bitter Partnership That Transformed America. New York: Crown Publishers, 2005.
Swank, James Moore. History of the Manufacture of Iron in All Ages. Philadelphia: American Iron and Steel Association, 1892.
Tedlow, Richard S. Giants of Enterprise: Seven Business Innovators and the Empires They Built. New York: HarperBusiness, 2001.
Warren, Kenneth. Triumphant Capitalism: Henry Clay Frick and the Industrial Transformation of America. Reprint ed. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000.
External links
1843 births
1886 deaths
Andrew Carnegie
Businesspeople from Pittsburgh
People from Dunfermline
Lauder Greenway Family
Scottish emigrants to the United States
People from Cumberland Island
Burials at Allegheny Cemetery
Deaths from pneumonia in Pennsylvania
Carnegie family
19th-century Scottish businesspeople
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Jerry Springer: The Opera is a British musical written by Richard Thomas and Stewart Lee, based on the talk show Jerry Springer. It contains irreverent treatment of Christian themes, extensive profanity, and surreal images, such as a troupe of tap-dancing Ku Klux Klan members.
The musical ran for 609 performances in London from April 2003 to February 2005 before touring the UK in 2006. It won four Laurence Olivier Awards, including Best New Musical. The first North American performance was at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas. The musical has been performed by a number of American regional theatre companies and made its New York City debut on 29–30 January 2008 at Carnegie Hall. Harvey Keitel starred as Jerry.
In January 2005, its UK television broadcast on BBC Two elicited 55,000 complaints. The organisation Christian Voice led street protests against the screening at nine BBC offices and announced their intention to bring blasphemy charges, due to the depictions of the Christian characters in Act II. The Christian Institute attempted to bring a private prosecution against the BBC, but the magistrates' court refused to issue a summons, a decision which later upheld by the High Court of Justice. Protests continued at tour venues in 2006 and on the Internet.
Principal roles
(Sometimes the roles are shared by the person playing the first role; sometimes the roles are played by additional actors)
Jerry Springer – Host of Jerry Springer.
Jonathan Weiruss/Satan – Weiruss, the warm-up man whom Jerry Springer fires for incompetence.
Steve Wilkos – Head of Security at Jerry Springer.
Dwight/God – Dwight, a guest on the show who is cheating on his fiancée with two other people. God appears in Act III.
Peaches/Baby Jane – Peaches, a guest on the show, who is Dwight's fiancée. Baby Jane is an adult baby in Act III.
Tremont/Angel Gabriel – Tremont, a guest on the show, a cross dressing man who is having an affair with Dwight. Angel Gabriel appears in Act III.
Zandra/Irene/Mary – Zandra, a guest on the show, is the best friend of Peaches, and is having an affair with Dwight. Irene is Shawntel's ashamed mother. Mary appears in Act III.
Montel/Jesus – Montel, a guest on the show, enjoys dressing as a baby and fouling his own underwear. Jesus appears in Act III.
Andrea/Archangel Michael – Andrea, a guest on the show, is Montel's lover. Archangel Michael appears in Act III.
Chucky/Adam – Chucky, a guest on the show, is Shawntel's redneck husband, who does not approve of her career desires. Adam appears in Act III.
Shawntel/Eve – Shawntel, a guest on the show, dreams of becoming an exotic dancer, but her husband, Chucky, disapproves. Eve appears in Act III.
Synopsis
Act I
Jerry Springer'''s frenzied audience greets Jerry as he arrives at his notorious TV talk show. His first guest, Dwight, is cheating on Peaches with Zandra. The three fight, and Jerry's security men break up the battle. Jerry is briefly admonished by his inner Valkyrie. Dwight is also cheating with a cross dresser named Tremont. After a commercial break, Jerry's second guest, Montel, tells his partner, Andrea, that he likes to dress as a baby and that he is cheating on her with Baby Jane, a woman who dresses as a little girl. Jerry's Warm-Up Man contributes to Andrea's humiliation and is fired. Jerry again wrestles with his inner Valkyrie. Jerry's final guests are Shawntel and her husband, Chucky. She wants to be a stripper and demonstrates a dance before her mother, Irene, arrives. Irene attacks Shawntel. Chucky pleads innocence, but Jerry's secret JerryCam camera footage shows that Chucky is a patron of strip clubs and a Ku Klux Klan member. The Klan comes up on stage, and the Warm Up Man gives Montel a gun. The Warm-Up Man jostles Montel, who accidentally shoots Jerry.
Act II
Jerry is found injured in a wheelchair, accompanied by his security man, Steve. The scene is Purgatory, a fog-enshrouded wilderness. Jerry meets ghostly versions of his talk show guests, who have all suffered unpleasant fates. Jerry tries to justify his actions to the ghosts. The Warm-Up Man arrives and is revealed to be Satan. Baby Jane asks Satan to spare Jerry's soul. Satan forces Jerry to return to Hell with him to do a special show.
Act III
Jerry arrives in Hell at a charred version of his Earthly TV studio. The audience is locked into cracks in its walls. Jerry reads cue cards produced by Baby Jane that introduce Satan, who is in charge of the proceedings. Satan seeks an apology for his expulsion from Heaven and wants to reunite Heaven and Hell. Jerry must faithfully read the cue cards, which introduce Jesus, the next guest, who resembles Montel. Jesus and Satan trade accusations. Adam and Eve are next; they are reminiscent of Chucky and Shawntel. They argue with Jesus, and Eve eventually attacks him. Mary, mother of Jesus, who resembles Irene, condemns Jesus. Everyone turns against Jerry, who hopes for a miracle.
God and the angels arrive and ask Jerry to come to Heaven and help God judge Humanity. He accepts the offer, but the angels and devils fight over Jerry; and the talk-show host finds himself suspended over a pit of flame. Jerry launches into a series of glib homilies asking for his life, but finally gives up and makes an honest statement that resounds with his audience. Devils, angels, and everyone sing a hymn of praise to life.
Back on solid ground, Baby Jane tells Jerry that he must go back to Earth. Jerry wakes up in his television studio, having been shot, his life ebbing away as he is cradled in Steve's arms. Jerry gives a final speech, and everyone is joined in sorrow.
Musical numbers
The musical is mostly sung-through. Steve Wilkos has a brief speech, and Jerry Springer speaks his lines.
In 2018, Thomas revised the score. He added 2 songs to "better highlight the parallels between Jonathan and the Devil", rewrote some of the grooves to be "hipper", and added a song for Springer. Thomas also removed some "unnecessarily aggressive" gay slurs.
Act I
"Overtly-Ture"
"Audience Very Plainsong"
"Ladies and Gentlemen"
"Have Yourselves a Good Time"
"Bigger than Oprah Winfrey"
"Foursome Guests"
"I've Been Seeing Someone Else"
"Chick With a Dick"
"Talk to the Hand"
"Adverts 1"
"Intro to Diaper Man"
"Diaper Man"
"Montel Cums Dirty"
"This is my Jerry Springer Moment"
"Mama Gimmee Smack on the Asshole"
"I Wanna Sing Something Beautiful"
"Adverts 2"
"The First Time I Saw Jerry"
"Backstage Scene"
"Poledancer"
"I Just Wanna Dance"
"It Has No Name"
"Some are Descended from Angels"
"Jerrycam"
"Klan Entrance" / "End of Act One"
Act II
"Gloomy Nurses"
"Purgatory Dawning"
"Eat Excrete"
"The Haunting"
"Him Am the Devil"
"Every Last Mother Fucker Should Go Down"
"Grilled and Roasted"
Act III
"Transition Music"
"Once in Happy Realms of Light"
"Fuck You Talk"
"Satan & Jesus Spat"
"Adam & Eve & Mary"
"Where Were You?"
"Behold God"
"It Ain't Easy Being Me"
"Marriage of Heaven & Hell"
"This is my Cheesey Jerry Springer Moment"
"Jerry it is Finished"
"Jerry Eleison"
"Please Don't Die"
"Take Care"
"Martin's Richard-Esque Finale de Grand Fromage"
"Play Out"
Background
Richard Thomas's one-act opera, Tourette's Diva, was performed at London's Battersea Arts Centre (BAC) in May 2000 and featured two members of a dysfunctional family singing obscenities to each other. This led Thomas to create his one-man show How to Write an Opera About Jerry Springer, which was performed at BAC in February 2001.
In May 2001, Thomas returned to BAC with his show How to Write an Opera About Jerry Springer, accompanied by four singers in a tiny studio theatre. It attracted positive press and investment. Stewart Lee teamed up with Thomas, and the two began to write Jerry Springer: The Opera.
Productions
Battersea Arts Centre and the Edinburgh Festival
The show received its first performance, while still under development, at BAC in August 2001, with a cast of 12. It ran for one week, selling out. When the show returned to BAC in February 2002, the three-week run sold out in advance.
The show was then performed in concert at the Edinburgh Festival in August 2002, selling out. Jerry Springer came to see the show and endorsed it, stating, "I wish I'd thought of it myself." The Edinburgh run included the introduction of character of Tremont – an amalgamation of two previous characters. Australian-born actor, Andrew Bevis, created the new role.
Following the Festival run, Nicholas Hytner offered to include the show in his opening season as director of the National Theatre in London.
National Theatre and Cambridge Theatre
The first fully staged production of the musical was performed at the National Theatre on 29 April 2003, with a cast of 33, including Bevis as Tremont and Michael Brandon as Jerry. It played to packed audiences and received favourable reviews. The show had its final performance at the National Theatre on 30 September 2003, before moving to the West End.
On 10 November 2003, the show opened at the Cambridge Theatre, with the same cast as the National Theatre production, and ran there until 19 February 2005, before starting a tour of the United Kingdom. The West End run was sponsored by British Sky Broadcasting. On 12 July 2004, David Soul took over the role of Jerry from Michael Brandon.
In 2004, a Broadway production was announced, and then cancelled.
2006 UK tour
In September 2005, seven months after the show closed in London's West End, it was announced that the show would tour 21 regional theatres around the United Kingdom. Nine theatres that were originally scheduled to host the show pulled out after Christian Voice threatened to picket them. In addition, Arts Council England turned down a bid for funding, stating that the decision was based on the show's commercial pedigree rather than "pressure from extremist groups".
The tour ran for 22 weeks, starting at the Theatre Royal in Plymouth on 27 January 2006. Immediately prior to the show's opening in Plymouth, it was reported that members of the far-right British National Party were part in a local campaign against the performances, although Christian Voice claimed to disapprove of their involvement.
The cast for the tour included several cast members from the London cast, and American actor, Rolf Saxon, replaced David Soul as Jerry Springer. The tour had a scaled-down set and scaled-down effects as well as a smaller on-stage "audience".
New York
The show was supposed to open on Broadway in 2005 however it was never produced.
The show was performed in concert in January 2008 for two performances at Carnegie Hall in New York City with Harvey Keitel playing the title role. The show was picketed on 57th Street by The American 'TFP', who cited the production's mockery of the Crucifixion, Mass, Eucharist, in addition to Jesus' depiction as "fat", and "a little bit a gay" as "blasphemous content".
The show's first formal performance in New York City was 23 January 2018 – 11 March 2018 at the Off-Broadway Pershing Square Signature Center venue with Terrence Mann playing the title role and Will Swenson playing Satan. It was produced by The New Group. It was directed by John Rando. It was extended until 1 April 2018 with Matt McGrath (actor) taking over the role of Jerry Springer.
This 2018 run attracted less controversy for blasphemous content. However, the production still faced criticism, with the second and third acts being described as offensive only "to those of us who appreciate quality dramaturgy". Another review suggested the Opera had lost its offensive and comedic edge due to Springer's diminished cultural relevance and shifts in the contemporary discourse. When interviewed in 2018, Richard Thomas defended the Opera's profanity and blasphemy, but admitted to removing homosexual slurs as they were "unnecessarily aggressive".
Regional productions
America
The musical premiered on 17 March 2007. It was performed in semi concert-style with costumes and a minimal set at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas as a benefit for Las Vegas-based HIV/AIDS charity, Golden Rainbow. The cast featured performers for the then-current versions of The Phantom of the Opera, Mamma Mia!, and other Las Vegas Strip theatrical shows.
The show had its official American premiere in a non-equity production in Chicago at the Bailiwick Repertory Theatre that began on 3 May 2007, with a 14 May opening.
Australia
The play was staged at the Sydney Opera House from 21 to 26 April 2009, starring David Wenham as Jerry, David Bedella as Jonathan Weiruss/Satan, Ursula Yovich as Andrea/Archangel Michel, Kate Miller-Heidke as Baby Jane, Alison Jiear as Shawntel/Eve, and Marcus Graham as special guest star; also appearing are Andrew Bevis and James Millar.
Canada
The first Canadian production opened in Toronto, Ontario on 16 January 2009 at Hart House Theatre. It was directed by theatre critic and Director Richard Ouzounian. Music Direction by Lily Ling and choreography by Shannon Cote. The best-selling show in Toronto for the 08 – 09 season. It featured Byron Rouse in the title Role and Jean-Paul Bevilacqua as "Jonathan/Satan". Other original Canadian Cast members include Linda Gallant (Shawntel/Eve), Scott Gorman (Montel/Adam), Jocelyn Howard (Peaches/Baby Jane), Brandi Hewitt (Zandra/Irene/Mary), Ian Bender (Tremont/Gabriel), Benjamin Mehl (Chucky/Jesus), Hayley Toane (Andrea/Angel Michael), Gregory Finney (Dwight/God), and James Schedlich (Steve Wilkos)
Ireland
NYMT (National Youth Musical Theatre) Ireland staged the first Irish production of Jerry Springer: The Opera in the Grand Canal Theatre, Dublin. Starring Simon Delaney as Jerry and Eoin Cannon as Johnathan Weiruss/Satan, the show took place from 31 Oct – 5 Nov 2011.
UK
In August 2019 production company Northern Ricochet produced a month-long run of Jerry Springer: The Opera at the Hope Mill Theatre in Manchester. It was directed by James Baker with choreography by Sindy Richardson, lighting by Aaron J. Dootson, design by Victoria Hinton and sound design by Chris Bogg. Playing the title role was Michael Howe, supported by Elizabeth Chadwick as Mary/Zandra/Irene, Robbie Waugh as Chucky/Adam, CiCi Howells as Shawntel, Matt Bond as Dwight/God, Emily Chesterton as Peaches/Baby Jane, Georgina James as Andrea/Archangel Michael, Kai Jolley as Steve, Tom Lloyd as Satan/Jonathan Weiruss, Andrew Patrick-Walker as Tremont/Angel Gabriel, Emily Clarke & Megan Davies-Truin (Swing/Ensemble) and a 13-strong choir.
Jerry Springer's response
Jerry Springer saw the production in Edinburgh and "pronounced it 'wonderful'", adding that he didn't "object to anything in it", and that he "only wish[ed he'd] thought of it first".
He revised his opinion in later years, however:
Protests and controversy
In addition to the Christian protests at the BBC facilities, several venues throughout the 2006 tour saw protests. The Manchester Evening News reviewer saw the protests as misplaced, writing "an audacious and scandalous, yet ultimately moral and challenging show that's recommended to anyone who can accept the odd dose of outrage in their lives." Another reviewer recommended, "don't get your knickers in such a twist, drop 'em and enjoy yourself."
In Birmingham, performances attracted a few protesters, and more commotion was made by audience members arguing when being presented with leaflets.
In York, leaflets were handed out by small numbers of Salvation Army and Christian Voice protesters.
In Edinburgh, one man from Christian Voice handed out leaflets on a few of the nights.
In Cardiff and throughout South Wales, 100 church leaders signed a letter expressing their wishes for the show to be cancelled. The Archbishop of Wales, Barry Morgan, expressed his concern, stating that the show was 'gratuitously offensive'. In further comments he stated, 'The producer of this opera says that if he manages to incite religious hatred then the opera has done its job: I think that is a terrible intention for an opera to have.' Hundreds of Christians protested outside the Wales Millennium Centre, brandishing placards and singing hymns to theatregoers.
In Aberdeen, the Christian Institute pushed for supporters to lobby local council members, directors on the board of Aberdeen Performing Arts and the Press and Journal. Stewart Lee called this one of the most vitriolic reactions to the show. Ultimately, only a few protesters picketed the theatre, handing out leaflets.
Consequences
The opposition by Christian Voice caused the cancer charity Maggie's Centres to reject a £3,000 donation from Jerry Springer: The Opera. Christian Voice threatened to picket their centres, which provide palliative care to cancer sufferers and their families. It claimed it had warned the charity that accepting cash from a show full of "filth and blasphemy" would be a public relations disaster.
In January 2007 Christian Voice, represented by Stephen Green, attempted to prosecute BBC director-general Mark Thompson for blasphemy over the show. A summons was refused due to lack of prima facie evidence that a crime had been committed, and a provision of the 1968 Theatres Act which enshrines the right of free expression in theatrical works. An appeal to the High Court was dismissed on 5 December 2007, with the decision of the lower court upheld on all counts and ruling that it was reasonable to conclude that the play "in context" could not be considered as blasphemous.
Asked about the controversy during an interview with The Observer in 2009, Lee stated:
If you have been on the verge of becoming a millionaire and that has not happened because of far-right pressure groups, and your work has been banned and taken apart, and you've been threatened with prosecution, and the police have advised people involved with your production to go into hiding, and bed and breakfasts won't have the cast to stay because they're blasphemers, and you have to cross a BNP picket line to go to work in Plymouth, you do start to think, well, what can be worse than that?
Asked if the experience affected his stand-up comedy, Lee replied: "It did make me feel there was not much point ever trying to reach a mass audience with anything interesting and provocative. You just run the risk of being misunderstood on a large scale."
Profanity
The musical contains extensive profanity. It has been accused of including "8,000 obscenities"—it is not known where this count originated, but the 8,000 figure is popularly quoted. 8,000 obscenities over the show's 120-minute runtime would imply that there were 66 obscenities a minute, and thus more than 1 per second. Several publications, including the Daily Mail and The Sun, claimed a figure of "3,168 mentions of the word fuck and 297 of the word cunt". According to the BBC investigation, however, there were 96 uses of "fuck" and nine uses of "cunt". The BBC report said: "While a substantial number, this was not necessarily unacceptable in terms of late night terrestrial television." The numbers reported by the Mail and the Sun were found by multiplying the number of cast members singing a profanity at the same time, i.e. the reported 297 uses of the word cunt is the result of multiplying the 33 cast members by the nine occurrences of the word.
According to writer Stewart Lee, there are 174 swear words in all.
UK Parliament
The BBC's role in broadcasting the musical was raised in the UK Parliament. Generally, they voiced more concern over the reactions of Christian groups than over the show itself.
Early Day Motion no 488, THE BBC AND JERRY SPRINGER – THE OPERA, was tabled on 12 January 2005, by Jeffrey Donaldson MP:
That this House regards with dismay the decision by the BBC to broadcast Jerry Springer – The Opera on BBC2, causing widespread offence to Christians and those of other faiths by its mocking portrayal of Jesus Christ, Holy Communion and some of the central tenets of the Christian faith; condemns the show's juvenile and offensive use of repeated profanity in an attempt at humour; further notes that it is particularly serious that the show should have been transmitted by the publicly-funded national broadcaster and questions whether it places the Corporation in breach of its Charter; laments the arrogant dismissal of Christian concerns by the content of programmes aired by the BBC; and calls on the government publicly to rebuke the corporation for its attack on the religion adhered to by over 70 per cent. of the UK population and for its lowest common denominator approach to ethics in its attempts to chase ratings.
EDM no 531, BBC AND FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION, was later tabled on 17 January 2005 by Evan Harris MP:
That this House applauds the decision by the BBC to stick by its decision to broadcast, 'Jerry Springer – The Opera' on BBC2 on 8 January, despite the orchestrated campaign from religious pressure groups, the irresponsible actions of one of which caused alarm and distress to the families of BBC executives by making public their contact details and exposing them to hate attacks; believes that individuals have a choice whether or not to watch programmes which they are warned might be offensive to them, and that broadcasters have the right and duty to broadcast a variety of work, some of which may receive differing critical opinions; recognises that in any case this particular programme was of undoubted artistic merit as demonstrated by the opera having attracted a record number of awards, and substantial theatre audiences; reminds the BBC that its own study What the World Thinks of God suggested Britain was the most religiously sceptical country in the world and that as a publicly-funded national broadcaster the Corporation has a duty to reflect society in its output which will entail broadcasting programmes which some religious people find offensive; and calls on the BBC to stand firm against the increasingly assertive religious pressure being applied to restrict freedom of expression.
EDM no 1270, JERRY SPRINGER DVD WITHDRAWAL, was tabled on 14 December 2005 by Don Foster MP:
That this House agrees with Noam Chomsky that 'if you're really in favour of free speech, then you're in favour of freedom of speech precisely for views you despise. Otherwise, you're not in favour of free speech'; regrets the apparent decision of Sainsbury's and Woolworths to respond to minimal pressure by withdrawing DVDs of Jerry Springer: the Opera from sale in their stores; recognises that Jerry Springer: the Opera is a widely acclaimed work of art having won eight major awards including best musical at the Olivier Awards, the Critics' Circle Awards and the Evening Standard Awards; notes that vociferous minority pressure groups now increasingly target works of art with the outcome that the majority are sometimes denied the choice to judge works for themselves; and calls on the Government to ensure that freedom of expression remains a central principle of society and to protect the ability of individuals to explore comprehensively and lawfully all aspects of culture.
EDM no 488 received 5 supporting signatories. EDM no 531 received 16 signatories. EDM no 1270 received 40 signatories.
Awards and nominations
The show won four awards at the 2004 Laurence Olivier Awards; Best New Musical, Best Sound Design, Best Actor in a Musical (David Bedella) and Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical (the Chorus)."Oliviers:Kelly, Dench and Jerry honoured at Olivier Awards". officiallondontheatre, 23 February 2004. Retrieved 7 August 2011 It also won Best Musical at the 2004 Critics' Circle Theatre Awards, Best Musical at the 2003 Evening Standard Awards and the 2004 WhatsOnStage.com Theatregoers' Choice Awards Best New Musical and London Newcomer of the Year (Benjamin Lake). The show won four awards at the 2003 Nowt2Do.Com Awards, Best Actor in a Musical (David Bedella) Best Actress in a Musical (Alison Jiear) Best London Show and Most Entertaining Show.
In 2006, the show won Best Touring Production at the TMA Awards.
It is the only show ever to win all four "Best Musical" awards.
Original London production
Original UK tour
2018 Off Broadway Production
Television broadcastJerry Springer: The Opera'' was the subject of controversy when the BBC televised the musical on 8 January 2005 as part of an evening of Jerry Springer-themed programming on BBC Two. News of the screening had prompted TV standards campaigners Mediawatch to write a letter to the Chairman of the BBC Governors, Michael Grade, asking him to reconsider the decision to show the musical.
On 7 January, the day before the broadcast, the BBC announced that it had received over 47,000 complaints about its plans to screen the musical – at the time the most complaints ever received about a British television broadcast. Many commentators, including the BBC, attributed such a high volume of complaints to an orchestrated campaign by various Christian groups. Supporters of the BBC's broadcasting of the show pointed out that the supposedly blasphemous content was clearly presented as a fantasy in the mind of the dying central character and was not intended to be a serious comment on Christ or Christian theology. John Beyer, chairman of Mediawatch-UK, argued that the BBC should shoulder much of the blame for the campaign against the musical since they had promoted the musical as "pushing back the boundaries of taste" and "controversial" when it had never been intended to offend the groups who campaigned against it.
In November 2005, a DVD of the show was made available in the UK by Pathé through 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment. However, because of complaints by customers, Sainsbury's and Woolworths decided to stop selling the DVD. Many blogs and Liberal Democrat MP, Lynne Featherstone condemned the action from the stores as being corporate censorship, something which both retailers deny. Most other retailers continued to stock the DVD.
On the DVD's commentary, it was stated that it would not be possible to tour the show in the UK due to pressure from religious groups, but since the release of the DVD, the UK Tour 2006 went forward. The DVD commentary also stated that Stewart Lee was unhappy with an unscripted action by Alison Jiear. In the "Adam and Eve and Mary" scene in Act II, Jiear runs her hand under Jesus's loincloth, prompting a surprised look from Leon Craig, the actor playing Jesus. Lee said, on the commentary, "I wish she hadn't done that".
References
External links
Balliwick Repertory Theatre
Christian Voice website about the show
Jerry Springer – The Opera website
Links to reviews of the show
IMDb FAQ regarding the filmed version
2001 musicals
2005 controversies
2005 television specials
BBC controversies
British musicals
British television specials
Springer
Laurence Olivier Award-winning musicals
Obscenity controversies in music
Operas based on television series
Opera controversies
Religious controversies in opera
Operas based on real people
Operas set in the 21st century
Operas set in the 20th century
Plays based on real people
Plays set in the 20th century
Plays set in the 21st century
Sung-through musicals
West End musicals
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The Twilight Sad are a Scottish post-punk/indie rock band, comprising James Graham (vocals), Andy MacFarlane (guitar), Johnny Docherty (bass), Brendan Smith (keyboards) and Sebastien Schultz (drums). The band are signed to Rock Action Records and have released five albums, as well as several EPs and singles. Their 2007 debut album, Fourteen Autumns & Fifteen Winters, drew widespread acclaim from critics, who noted Graham's thick Scottish accent and MacFarlane's dense sonic walls of shoegazing guitar and wheezing accordion. The Twilight Sad's notoriously loud live performances have been described as "completely ear-splitting", and the band toured for the album across Europe and the United States throughout 2007 and 2008. Sessions inspired by stripped-down and reworked live performances yielded the 2008 mini-album, Here, It Never Snowed. Afterwards It Did.
Their second album, Forget the Night Ahead, marked a shift in the band's direction; lyrically more personal and musically darker and more streamlined, it was released in 2009 to acclaim. Recording sessions for the album also produced the mid-2010 release The Wrong Car, which followed the departure of founding bassist Craig Orzel in February 2010. The Twilight Sad's third album, No One Can Ever Know, was released in February 2012 and marked another stylistic shift, with the band citing industrial music and krautrock influences for a darker, sparser sound. The band's fourth album, entitled Nobody Wants to Be Here and Nobody Wants to Leave, was released in late October 2014 to universally positive reviews, and was the band's last album with founding member Mark Devine, who left amicably in January 2018. The Twilight Sad's fifth studio album, It Won/t Be Like This All the Time, was released in January 2019 to further critical acclaim.
The band describes their sound as "folk with layers of noise", and music critics have described the band as "perennially unhappy" and "a band that inject some real emotion and dynamic excitement into a comparatively standard template."
History
Beginnings (2003–2006)
The foundation for the group started in Kilsyth and the neighbouring village of Banton, when vocalist James Graham met guitarist Andy MacFarlane in high school and went on to form a cover band with some friends, which included drummer Mark Devine. After leaving school, they decided to take it more seriously. In late 2003, MacFarlane met bassist Craig Orzel in a bus stop and invited him to join the newly formed band. They took their name from a line in the poem But I Was Looking at the Permanent Stars by British poet Wilfred Owen, which reads "Sleep mothered them; and left the twilight sad."
They performed two highly experimental shows at The 13th Note Café in Glasgow that revolved around 30-minute noise jams with guitars, bass, drums, theremin, tape loops from films and old folk and country songs, effects pedals, toy keyboards, thumb pianos, and computer games. Afterwards, they decided to take a more traditional approach, which led them to write their first song, "That Summer, at Home I Had Become the Invisible Boy".
In September 2005, they produced a 4-song demo with a 24-track desk, trying to get the best representation as possible, and sent it over to Brighton-based Fat Cat Records. Alex Knight, co-founder of the label, went to Glasgow to watch the band perform their third gig and signed them on the spot. The demo recordings were later issued commercially on a split cassette tape release with Frightened Rabbit for Record Store Day in 2011.
The band credit Planet Sound for giving them their first review, when a demo of their song "That Summer, at Home I Had Become the Invisible Boy" received a 9/10 rating from the magazine in 2005. James Graham remarked, "That was the first review we ever had... we were thrilled. It gave us a lot of confidence we were on the right path." The band's first commercial release, their self-titled EP, was mixed by label mate Max Richter and released in November 2006 in the United States only. They then proceeded to play the fourth gig of their career at New York's CMJ Music Marathon. During this time the band also toured with Micah P. Hinson and participated in 2007's South by Southwest music festival before their debut album was released.
Fourteen Autumns & Fifteen Winters (2007–2008)
Their debut studio album, Fourteen Autumns & Fifteen Winters, was released in April 2007, featuring production from guitarist Andy MacFarlane and mixed by Peter Katis. The album was recorded over a short period of just three days, and the songs featured were the first ones the band had ever written. It received good critical reception from independent media; the album was lauded as 2007's "Album of the Year" in Planet Sound and The Skinny in Scotland.
In July 2007, the band contributed a cover of Radiohead's "Climbing Up the Walls" to the download-only compilation Stereogum Presents... OKX: A Tribute to OK Computer, a track-for-track collection of covers commemorating the 10th anniversary of Radiohead's OK Computer album.
Inspired by a stripped down performance at London's Union Chapel, the band reworked some of the songs on Fourteen Autumns & Fifteen Winters for a new mini-album entitled Here, It Never Snowed. Afterwards It Did, released in June 2008.
During this time, the band supported acts such as Mogwai, The Smashing Pumpkins, Snow Patrol, David Pajo, Battles, Beirut, Frightened Rabbit, and Idlewild. During their winter tour with Mogwai, the band released Killed My Parents and Hit the Road, a compilation of live recordings, covers, acoustic demos, and unreleased material.
Forget the Night Ahead and Orzel's departure (2009–2010)
The band released their second studio album, Forget the Night Ahead, in September 2009. Musically, they described the album as "noisier and bigger", where they experimented with a lot of instruments and different sounds, including fire extinguishers. The album was released to further critical acclaim, and was supported by multiple tours of Europe and the United States.
On 8 February 2010, it was announced that founding bassist Craig Orzel had left the band. With a statement on the band's official blog, Orzel cited personal reasons for the departure and later stated that "there were some changes I wanted to make to my life that I felt being in The Sad was allowing me to put off." Orzel continues to record music under his solo moniker, Orzelda. Following Orzel's departure, the band added Johnny Docherty, of Take a Worm for a Walk Week, to the band's live line-up.
The band's first release since Orzel's departure, an EP entitled The Wrong Car, was released in late September 2010. The EP features two previously unreleased songs which were written and recorded during the sessions for Forget the Night Ahead, as well as two remixes by Simon Ward of Errors and Stuart Braithwaite of Mogwai.
No One Can Ever Know (2010–2012)
Whilst on tour with Errors in October 2010, vocalist James Graham stated that "the next [album] is not going to be anything like the first two. [...] The wall of sound is kinda gone. Andy [MacFarlane]'s demos involve a lot of keyboards, and it's a lot more considered." Additional musician Martin "Dok" Doherty also stated that "the band who make the same record over and over don't have a very long career." The band returned to the studio in January 2011. In April 2011, the band released a free acoustic EP on their official blog. The release featured stripped-back renditions of tracks from both Forget the Night Ahead and The Wrong Car.
The Twilight Sad's third album, No One Can Ever Know, was released on 6 February 2012. Andy MacFarlane describes the album's sound as "sparser... with a colder, slightly militant feel," and the band received some production assistance from producer Andrew Weatherall, who helped in their experimenting with analog synthesizers. The band released a new song, the album's closing track "Kill It in the Morning", for free on their new website and SoundCloud page on 21 September 2011. The first proper single from the album, "Sick", was made available as a 7" vinyl single and digital download on 14 November 2011. Second single "Another Bed" followed the album's release on 20 February 2012.
In August 2012, the band announced that touring keyboardist Martin "Dok" Doherty would no longer be performing with the band, stating "[An] end of an era as our next two gigs will be Dok's last with the band. One of our best friends and one of the most talented people we know! [...] Been a pleasure and a privilege to share the stage, be on the road [and] have many a drunken night in foreign lands over the past five years with you, Dok." Later that month, Doherty's replacement was revealed to be Brendan Smith, previously of the bands Julia Thirteen and The Unwinding Hours. Regarding the band's line-up changes over the past six years, James Graham noted, "The good thing about the line up changes is that we all remain friends with each other and when someone has left it's been for a good reason and the right choice for them. We've lucked out with Johnny [Docherty] and Brendan who are maniacs in the best possible way, but they are also brilliant musicians as were Dok and Craig [Orzel] and they all put the likes of me to shame." Doherty left the band to further pursue his electropop project Chvrches with former Aereogramme guitarist Iain Cook and singer Lauren Mayberry.
Along with nationwide tours of the United States and the United Kingdom, as well as European festivals during the summer and a headlining gig at Barrowland Ballroom in December, the band released a collection of remixes entitled No One Can Ever Know: The Remixes in November 2012. In December 2013, The Twilight Sad and The Skinny released a free digital download single and video of the band performing "The Wrong Car" with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra, recorded live at Paisley Abbey in October 2013.
Nobody Wants to Be Here and Nobody Wants to Leave (2013–2015)
The Twilight Sad performed their debut album Fourteen Autumns & Fifteen Winters in its entirety for the first time in December 2013, with further UK dates performing the full album in April and May 2014. The tour dates coincided with the release of a deluxe edition reissue of the debut album, with bonus tracks including demos and rarities, released on Record Store Day 2014.
The band began working on tracks for their fourth album in late 2012, with recording sessions at Mogwai's Castle of Doom Studios in Glasgow beginning in January 2014. On 12 August 2014, the band announced via their official website, Facebook, and Instagram pages that the new album, entitled Nobody Wants to Be Here and Nobody Wants to Leave, would be released on 27 October 2014. The announcement was accompanied by a 1-minute teaser video trailer on the band's website, followed by a posting of the album's opening track "There's a Girl in the Corner" on Vice magazine's Noisey blog on 18 August 2014. In an interview with Contactmusic.com, guitarist/producer Andy MacFarlane explained that with Nobody Wants to Be Here and Nobody Wants to Leave, the band aimed to capture all the different forms their music has taken over the years, from "full on noise/feedback, to a sparse, synth led sound, to a stripped back set up with just keys, drum machine and guitar, to playing with an orchestra, and to just an acoustic with vocal." The album produced three singles; the first single, "Last January", was released as a digital download on 15 September 2014; second single "I Could Give You All That You Don't Want" was released as a double A-side 7" vinyl single with the exclusive track "The Airport" on 9 February 2015; and third single "It Never Was the Same" was released on 29 June 2015 as a 7" vinyl single, featuring the exclusive version of "There's a Girl in the Corner" as covered by Robert Smith of The Cure. Additionally, a limited edition 6-song EP entitled Òran Mór Session, featuring stripped-down versions of songs from Nobody Wants to Be Here and Nobody Wants to Leave, was self-released by the band in October 2014, then expanded to 9 songs and given a wider release by Fat Cat Records in October 2015.
The band embarked on a North American tour supporting We Were Promised Jetpacks in October and November 2014, with two dates performing Fourteen Autumns & Fifteen Winters in its entirety at Rough Trade in New York City and The Empty Bottle in Chicago. The band toured the United Kingdom in December 2014 and January 2015, including a date performing at Edinburgh's Hogmanay Celebration on New Year's Eve, then returned to the United States in February/March 2015. Further tour dates across Europe and festival appearances followed throughout summer 2015, culminating with UK and European tour dates as the supporting act for Editors in October and November 2015, and a headlining performance at Barrowland Ballroom in mid-December.
Touring with The Cure, Devine's departure and It Won/t Be Like This All the Time (2016–present)
Prior to recording Nobody Wants to Be Here and Nobody Wants to Leave, the band was considering calling it quits until a major revitalisation occurred. In addition to the warm critical response the band received for their fourth album, The Twilight Sad was chosen by Robert Smith to be the supporting act for The Cure on their May/June 2016 North American tour, which included three nights at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles and three nights at Madison Square Garden in New York, and continued to support The Cure on their October–December 2016 European tour, which included three nights at London's Wembley Stadium as well as dates in Berlin, Rome, Madrid, Barcelona, and Paris.
On 22 January 2018, the band announced via social media that drummer Mark Devine had amicably left the band. The band's new touring drummer, Sebastien Schultz, joined shortly thereafter.
In June 2018, the band played their first shows for 18 months at the Primavera Sound festival. Following this, on 16 June they played their first UK headlining show since 2015 at the Brudenell Social Club in Leeds, and appeared at The Cure's Hyde Park show on 7 July. During these shows they premiered three new songs - "The Arbor", "VTr" and "Shooting Dennis Hopper Shooting" - as well as playing a cover of Frightened Rabbit's "Keep Yourself Warm" in tribute to close friend Scott Hutchison, who had died in May; the song was to remain in their setlists with Graham stating "we have a duty and responsibility to keep Scott’s music and keep sharing it. When we’re around touring, we need to tell people about him.”
In an interview with NME, posted on 9 July 2018, Andy MacFarlane stated that the band's fifth studio album is "finished", with a tentative release date of January 2019. MacFarlane said, "It all came together really well. To me, it's like a different band almost. I did a stupid thing of writing loads of music, then giving it to James to write stuff over, then I deleted all the music. So then I wrote another album under it... I think we just needed to shake up the routine. One of our mates bought us those Brian Eno Oblique Strategy cards. I picked one out and it was like 'delete everything, must try harder, don't tell James'. The aim was to try and do stuff that we'd enjoy playing live, to make it more interesting for ourselves as well as everyone else." In the same interview, James Graham discussed the album's lyrics and themes, describing them as "heavier": "It's all pretty full on but there's some lighter shades and some hope on there. The first song that we're going to come back with epitomises the record. It's got really noisy guitars but it's pretty melodic. I think it's the next stage of who we're meant to be. ...I won't say exactly what it's dealing with [lyrically] because a lot of it might be quite obvious, but I'm not hiding behind a lot of metaphors anymore. I've done that, what's the point in trying to do it again? I'm really proud of our lyrics in the past but this is just what came out. I don't need to hide behind anything any more. It's a bit of a leap to just go 'this is actually how I'm feeling.' I think now is the time to just be more open and honest with people. For myself it was important to say these things, but when it was done it was great to share it's okay to feel that way."
On 10 July 2018, the band announced that they had signed to Mogwai's label Rock Action Records and released their new single, stylised as "I/m Not Here [missing face]", for streaming and as a digital download. The release coincided with an announcement of late 2018 tour dates in North America and Europe. On 5 September, the band announced that their fifth studio album, titled and stylised as It Won/t Be Like This All the Time, would be released on 18 January 2019. The first proper single, "Videograms", preceded the album on 26 October 2018. A third song lifted from the album, "VTr", was made available for download and streaming on 13 November 2018. The album was released to critical acclaim, including perfect scores from Drowned in Sound and The Skinny.
In November 2019 the band played a short UK tour of larger venues, at London's Kentish Town Forum, Manchester's O2 Ritz and Edinburgh's Usher Hall, the shows being professionally recorded. In 2020, two shows were planned in quadrophonic sound at Glasgow's Barrowland Ballroom, but were eventually postponed due to the coronavirus pandemic. Instead, on what would have been the day of the first show, the band released a live album, It Won/t Be Like This All the Time Live for download via Bandcamp on a "pay-what-you-like" basis, and on 17 April, the night of the second Glasgow show, fans were invited to take part in a listening party on Twitter, hosted by Tim Burgess, singer of The Charlatans. Graham said "... we were supposed to be playing our second night at the famous Glasgow Barrowland Ballroom ... Let’s pretend we’re all at the gig together. All five of us will be taking part and sharing memories from past gigs, sharing thoughts on playing live and many other things."
Music style and influences
When asked to describe their debut album, Graham says the band likes to see their songs as "folk with layers of noise", as they are based on experiences that have happened to them, around their hometowns or people they know. They often cite the works of Daniel Johnston, Serge Gainsbourg, Phil Spector, Arab Strap, and Leonard Cohen as influences. Graham lists the 2003 Arab Strap album Monday at the Hug & Pint amongst his favourite releases of the 2000s, stating that it was "the first Arab Strap album that I ever listened to... For me it was the first record that I realized it was OK to sing in your own accent. Aidan [Moffat] is one of the best lyricists of the past two decades!" Graham also cites Arcade Fire's debut album Funeral as a key influence. In a 2015 feature with Clash magazine, he said, "It was around the time that Andy [MacFarlane] had been saying to me that he wanted me to write some songs with him, and it was also around the time that I finally knew what I wanted to write about. Without this record I don't know if I'd have approached our debut album in the way that I did. Funeral had a massive influence on my songwriting style and the way in which I approach writing songs. The way in which the storytelling within the song develops as the track progresses, the power of repeating the same line within a song and the different ways to deliver the line to give it different meanings... Funeral is an album that will stay with me for the rest of my life and will always influence the music I write." Graham also mentions his liking for bands such as Joy Division. By the time of their third album, the band began exploring post-punk and krautrock facets of their influences, with MacFarlane citing artists such as PiL, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Can, Cabaret Voltaire and Wire as key inspirations.
In an October 2009 interview with The Fly, they admitted, "We are still at the stage where we don't really know where we are in this whole music industry thing. We know people like us, but we don't really know where we fit in or, if we go to certain places, up or not. [...] It's not like we're a stadium band. We're not a lads band, like Oasis or something. We're not a scenestery band, and yet we're not a pure experimental band either. Obviously we're noisy and stuff, but we write proper songs as well."
Where the band's recorded sound is layered with many melodies, their live sound is a more intense experience with a more visceral wall of noise, something the band wanted to do all along. Graham stated, "We like having the contrast between the record and playing live. There are a lot more instruments on the record. There's only four of us in the band, so we have to keep it as simple as possible. I don't know about you, but I don't like going to see a band that sounds just like their album. That's what we try not to do."
In a 2014 interview with Jazz Monroe of The Skinny, James Graham commented on the misconception of the band's "disturbed reputation" pertaining to his lyrics, as well as designer Dave "DLT" Thomas' "darkly suggestive" artwork. Monroe wrote, "There's a misconception that James himself had a difficult childhood; in fact, The Skinny has it on good authority that the Grahams are proud, attendant fans at many of their gigs." Graham elaborated that, "My mum and dad are actually the biggest supporters of our band. The songs aren’t about me having a really bad childhood; it’s about, from the outside, looking in at other people in my community. And the shite that happened to my family – not in my family. It's about other dickheads influencing our lives, whether or not they realise. Writing these songs is about making people feel things they wouldn't usually feel, things they're scared to feel – loss, anger, depression. To write a love song for somebody would probably be the hardest thing. I've never done that."
Side projects and collaborations
Guitarist Andy MacFarlane composed the song "The Weath-er Is Bad" for Semiconductor Films' short film Brilliant Noise, a film pieced together from archive NASA footage of the sun's surface. The song was later included on the Killed My Parents and Hit the Road compilation. MacFarlane also provided a remix of Errors' song "Bridge or Cloud?" in January 2010, which was posted as a free download on NMEs website. In February 2011, MacFarlane provided a remix of Fat Cat labelmate Ensemble's track "Before Night", which was posted as a "song of the day" on The Line of Best Fit's website.
Singer James Graham appears on the live album Quietly Now! by fellow Scottish band Frightened Rabbit, providing additional vocals on the track "Keep Yourself Warm". In 2011, Graham appeared as a guest vocalist and songwriter on the album First Edition by The Fruit Tree Foundation, a supergroup collaboration of Scottish musicians headed by Rod Jones and Emma Pollock for the benefit of the Mental Health Foundation for Scotland. In 2015, Graham participated in Aidan Moffat's backing band during Moffat's UK tour performing Scottish folk songs. The tour was part of the documentary film Where You're Meant to Be, which was released the following year. In 2016, Graham featured as a guest vocalist with supergroup Minor Victories on their song "Scattered Ashes (Song for Richard)". The track appeared on Minor Victories' self-titled album. In 2017, Graham co-founded the band Out Lines, with fellow musicians Kathryn Joseph and Marcus Mackay. Out Lines's debut album, Conflats, was released on 27 October 2017 via Rock Action Records, Mogwai's label, where Graham also works outside his Twilight Sad duties.
Under the name Orzelda, former bassist Craig Orzel released a solo album, The Wee Shop Is Filled with Delights, in 2008, with the EPs My Dress Up and Spiders following in 2010.
MembersCurrent membersJames Alexander Graham – vocals (2003–present)
Andy MacFarlane – guitar, programming, production (2003–present)
Johnny Docherty – bass guitar (2010–present)
Brendan Smith – keyboards (2012–present)
Sebastien Schultz – drums (2018–present)Former members'''
Craig Orzel – bass guitar (2003–2010)
Mark Devine – drums, programming (2003–2018)
Martin Doherty – keyboards, guitar (live); strings (studio) (2008–2012)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
Fourteen Autumns & Fifteen Winters (2007)
Forget the Night Ahead (2009)
No One Can Ever Know (2012)
Nobody Wants to Be Here and Nobody Wants to Leave (2014)
It Won/t Be Like This All the Time'' (2019)
References
External links
The Twilight Sad's official website
The Wrong Car – The Definitive Twilight Sad Fansite
Scottish rock music groups
Scottish indie rock groups
Scottish alternative rock groups
Shoegazing musical groups
Post-punk revival music groups
Musical groups established in 2003
FatCat Records artists
Rock Action Records artists
People from Kilsyth
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The International Harvester Scout is an off-road vehicle produced by International Harvester from 1961 to 1980. A precursor of more sophisticated SUVs to come, it was created as a competitor to the Jeep, and it initially featured a fold-down windshield. The Scout and second-generation Scout II were produced in Fort Wayne, Indiana, as two-door trucks with a removable hard top with options of a full-length roof, half-cab pickup, and/or soft top.
Origin
International Harvester began building trucks and pickups in 1907. In 1953, International added a truck-based people carrier, the Travelall. During the late 1950s, International began to design a competitor for the two-door Jeep CJ 4x4. The 1961 model year Scout 80 made its debut in late 1960.
Later, chief designer Ted Ornas recalled:
...the market potential for a four-wheel drive recreational vehicle was an unknown quantity in the early 1950s. The only such vehicle offered in the post-war period was the Willys Jeep, a version of the military jeep produced for World War II. It was a flat-sided bare-bones product, and American military personnel learned to appreciate its ability to maneuver over rough terrain. Sales volume was very low. In early 1958, we were directed to develop a concept proposal to enter this small market of that time. So help me, Mr. Reese, manager of engineering, said 'design something to replace the horse.' There was no product definition to use as a guide. It was even proposed to use the defunct Henry J body tooling. Compound body surfaces were considered too far out for this type of vehicle. The military jeep was thought to have the correct appearance. Our design sketches with the flat-side, no-contour look never excited the executive committee. The program began to die. One night while sitting at our kitchen table (full of frustration and desperation), I dashed off this rough sketch on a piece of scrap mat board. It had contoured sides and was designed for plastic tooling. The next morning it was shown to a committee member. He reviewed it with controlled enthusiasm, but revived interest in the program. We were off and running. Goodyear produced many plastic parts for WWII and had formed a large plastic engineering group. We entered a program with them, a scale model was vacuum formed to simulate body assembly. This model received executive approval for appearance. By July 1959, Goodyear completed their costing, and because of the high costs, the plastic program was cancelled. By this time, the contoured design met with executive approval and a decision was made to convert the body design to steel. Starting in late July 1959, a full-sized clay model was completed, and in November 1959, it was approved. Looking back, it was a remarkable program with fast-paced engineering and manufacturing developments. The total development time of 24 months was an heroic achievement considering the concept was unique and no in-house engine or manufacturing was available or even considered when the program started.
"The first Scout was introduced in 1960. A concept for its replacement was initiated in 1964 and approved for production in mid-1965. The Scout II was introduced in 1971. The basic sheet metal remained unchanged until production stopped on October 21, 1980. During the 20-year period (1960–1980), 532,674 Scouts were produced. The Scout, introduced as a commercial utility pickup in 1960, set the stage for future four-wheel drive recreational vehicles of the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s.
Scout models and variants
Scout models include the:
Scout 80 (1960–1965): The original.
Scout 800 (1966–1971): Same overall design as original with upgrades (electric wipers, newer engines, etc.).
Scout 810 (1971): Some early Scout IIs contain Scout 810 badging on the glove box.
Scout II (1971–1980): The later standard production model with a removable soft or hard top (100-in wheelbase).
Scout II Terra (1976–1980): The light pickup truck version (118-in wheelbase).
Scout II Traveler (1976–1980): This version had a removable fiberglass hardtop, and optional third row of seats (118-in wheelbase).
Super Scout II (1977–1979): This model had removable fabric doors, a rollbar, and soft top. The soft-top model was tagged the "SSII" by IH marketing. Eventually, the "SS" letters were assumed to stand for "Super Scout", the name this model is called presently.
Scout 80
Scout 80s were built between 1960 and 1965. These models were identifiable by removable sliding side windows in 1960–1961 and even some very early 1962 models, a fold-down windshield, vacuum windshield wipers mounted to the top of the windshield, and an IH logo in the center of the grille and tailgate. The Scout 80 had the gasoline-powered 152 four-cylinder as its standard engine.
Red Carpet series
The first special package was the "Red Carpet" series, celebrating the 100,000th Scout manufactured by International, and only 3,000 were produced. This model had a red interior with a white exterior, full-length headliner, full floor mats, and a special medallion that was silver plated affixed to the door which read "Custom". This Scout was a step up from regular ones; it was marketed to attract more people, and was often advertised with women in mind. Each International dealer in the United States received one Red Carpet series Scout to be used in parades, in the showroom, and for promotional purposes.
Scout 80 Campermobile
During the early 1960s, International experimented with a camper body permanently mounted to the Scout 80. The roof was raised to nearly double the original height (to allow standing upright inside), tented sleeping bunks folded out of the sides, and the rear of the body was extended significantly. The tailgate/liftgate system was replaced with one large ambulance-style swinging door. Plans included that the unit could be purchased as a stripped-down shell ($960 installed), or as a "deluxe" unit, which included a dinette set, stand-up galley, and a screened chemical toilet that retracted into the wall ($1850 installed). The May 1963 issue of Mechanix Illustrated contains a full-color advertisement for the Scout Camper on the inside cover, which features two artist's renderings of the unit and a form to fill out and send in for free literature. The camper showed up again in the May 1963 issue of Popular Science, this time in an actual photo as part of a two-page article about pickup campers. Production of these units was low due to limited orders, and they are now rare.
Early Scout 800
It is known that Scout 80s were built in 1965 and the new 800 was developed during 1966. However, some scouts built later in the year 1965 are considered a Scout 800 as indicated by the VIN tag and Line Setting Ticket (LST). An assumed 3000 of these 1965 1/2 Scouts exist which make them interesting to study how manufacturers will use what's left in the parts bin from the previous model to build the new model. Some notable parts used in the piecing together these new 800 models were the hood that retained the tie down loop that would hold down the folding windshield. The reason this is significant is because the new 800 windshield doesn't fold down. Also, the front grill was that of 80 but now used on the new 800. it featured a gold plated IH emblem on a black backing piece secured to a durable and stylish wire mesh grill. Axles is a major detail as well; the new 800 featured a stronger Dana 44. However, these early 800 models still got the weaker Dana 27 that was more prone to axle shafts breaking during heavy use off-road. Although the Dana 27 was still available if desired vs the Dana 44. The Dana 27 in Scouts was obsolete by 1968. By this time, these new 800 models were 4 wheel drive and standard equipment at that.
From here on, the Scout would be known as the Scout 800.
Scout 800
The Scout 800 replaced the Scout 80 during 1965. The new 800 model was built from 1965 to 1968. These models had many improvements of comfort and design, including bucket seats, better instrumentation and heating systems, updated dashboard, optional rear seats, and optional 196 four-cylinder (from 1966), or 232 inline-six. Beginning in March 1967, a 266 ci V8 engine was also offered. Externally, changes were limited to an anodized aluminum grille with a rectangular "International" logo placed on the grille, the IH badge was moved to the hood, the door handles became the button type, and the tailgate no longer included the "hooks". The base engine was a naturally aspirated "Comanche" 152 four-cylinder with , of which a turbocharged version with (the 152-T) was also offered. In August 1966, the turbo version was complemented by the bigger 196 which used less fuel with exactly the same power. The 196 motor achieved 20 mpg. The turbo version was discontinued during early 1968. The fold-down windshield was still available, code 16536, but few were ordered because this was not advertised. The vacuum-powered wipers were moved to the bottom of the windshield frame with the fixed windshield.
Beginning in early 1966, International also offered the Scout 800 Sportop, which had an upgraded interior and a unique fiberglass top (also available as a convertible) with a slanted rear roof and a continental spare tire kit. The "Champagne Series" Scout was an upscale model offered in the Scout 80 and later Scout 800 models that featured a headliner, door panels, and carpet.
Scout 800A
The 800A replaced the 800 during November 1968. Improvements included more creature-comfort options, a slightly different front-end treatment, drivetrain upgrades (heavier rear axle and quieter Dana 20 transfer case), and the options of a 196 four-cylinder, 232 six-cylinder, 266 V8, or 304 V8. The inline-six was only offered for a short period in early 1969. The 800A's grille was in three segments: the center grill and two matte-black headlight bezels. The Light Line of pickup trucks received bodywork similar to that of the Scout in late 1969.
The 800A could still be ordered with the Sportop (a slanted sporty top made of canvas or fiberglass), and later in Aristocrat and SR-2 packages. The Aristocrat was the final version of the original-bodied Scout. These trucks had a blue, vinyl interior, were painted blue and silver, and had a chrome roof rack; four-wheel drive was standard for most models.
Scout 800B
The last of the 800 series was the 800B, available for less than eight months, from August 1970 until March 1971, before it was replaced with the Scout II. Other than minor cosmetic details (primarily chrome headlight bezels instead of matte black), it was identical to the 800A. It was only produced until the Scout II was in production.
The 800B was available with the Comanche package. This package included special paint and decals, chrome trim, sliding travel-top windows, and other "high dollar" options such as roof racks, chrome wheels, and upgraded interiors. Line tickets of the special-package Scouts (and some nonpackage units) were stamped. After the factory assembles the vehicle and the vehicle is shipped and sold, the line ticket identifies such things as the engine type, transmission type, drive line, paint codes, gear ratio, and standard and optional equipment, specific to that vehicle. This provides very valuable information when ordering parts later at a dealership. A variety of parts was used for these vehicles, so the expression "no two are quite the same" is not that fanciful. Late in 1970, the Sno-Star package appeared (only with the six-cylinder engine), developed especially for snow-plow usage.
Scout II
Scout IIs were manufactured from April 1971 to 1980. The design was finalized much earlier, with a version nearly identical to the production model shown to management during December 1967.
The Scout II is most identifiable by its different front grilles. The 1971–1972 Scout IIs shared the same grille, three horizontal bars between the headlights and chrome rings around the headlights. The 1973 Scout IIs had 14 vertical bars between the headlights, a split in the middle, seven bars on each side surrounded by chrome trim pieces and an "International" model plate low on the left side. The 1974–75 Scout II grilles were the same as 1973, with the addition of a vertical bar trim overlay. The 1975 had chrome and black, square trim rings around the headlights; 1976 had the same headlight trim rings as 1975, and a chrome center grille of 15 horizontal bars split into three sections was used in this year only. The 1977–79 Scout IIs used the same grille between the same headlight bezels the new chrome grille had two large horizontal bars with three vertical support lines and the "International" nameplate moved up to the center of the grille on the left side.
Scout II's could be ordered with the Traveltop, which was the full metal top, Roadster which was a half-cab variant seldom seen, or with a soft top.
In 1980, the final year of production for the Scout, the grille was a very distinctive design, available with black or silver, a one-piece grille with square headlights, made of Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic. Both grille color options had imprinted chrome trim around the headlights and an "International" name mark located on the left side.
Starting with late 1974 Scout IIs, disc and power brakes were standard features. Early 1974 models had disc brakes as a rarely selected option. Very few 1971–1979 Scout II's were ordered in RWD-only configuration, most were 4WD.
Before International discontinued the Scout in 1980, International experimented with Scout-based minivans, station wagons, dune buggies, Hurst-built special editions (in similar fashion to the Oldsmobile Hurst/Olds and Hurst SC/Rambler), and even a small motorhome. These plans were scrapped due to the International Harvester strike of 1979-80, and a lack of funds for the company to expand the Scout product line, let alone continuing production of the Scout itself.
The last IH Scout was produced on October 21, 1980.
Scout II Terra and Traveler
The Terra and Traveler were produced from 1976 to 1980. Terras and Travelers had fiberglass tops; half-cab for the Terra or full top with hatchback-type liftgate on the Traveler. Most notably different, these models were extended by in the region between the door and the front of the rear wheel well.
Scout SSII (Super Scout II)
The SSII (Super Scout II) was a stripped-down, off-road version introduced in February 1977. It was intended to compete directly with the Jeep CJ, and was built until 1979. This model included a soft top with soft doors, windshield-mounted mirrors, plastic door inserts, special plastic grille, and a roll bar, among other options. Several SSIIs were champions on the off-road racing circuit during the late 1970s.
Special packages offered on the Scout II
Shawnee Scout
The Shawnee Scout was to be a trim type and special-feature package model produced by Hurst Performance. This model was built by dressing up a black SSII with special tomahawk and feather decals, special seats, a black targa-style top, hard tonneau bed cover, and of course a Hurst shifter. Only three Shawnee Scouts were produced.
CVI: Custom Vehicles Incorporated
CVI: Custom Vehicles Incorporated (also associated with Good Times, Inc.) was a company located around the corner from the Ft. Wayne Scout Assembly Plant (Good Times was located in Arlington, Texas) that produced special models for IH dealers in 1979 and 1980. The special models were dressed-up Scouts with unique exterior decals and trim, center console coolers, and hood scoops. Some versions had plastic window louvers on the rear side glass, fender flares, and two different plastic tailgate inserts. Model names included the Midnitestar, Terrastar, Travelstar, Shadow, Raven, two Classic models, GMS (Green Machine Sport), GMS (Gold Medallion Scout), Hot Stuff, Trailstar, Sportstar, 5.6-Liter, and 3.2-Liter models.
The "Selective Edition" Scout II
This was a special package available from the factory. The 1978–79 package order code on the line ticket was 10992. The package included special gold accent stripes, gold-spoke wheels with Goodyear Tracker A-Ts, SSII black grille insert, and Sport Steering wheel. Other options available: Choice of powertrain, seats, interior, radios, cruise control, tow packages, air conditioning, all available in exterior colors 1032 Dark Brown, 6027 Dark Blue, 001 Black, or 5013 Green. This was available on the Travel Top, Traveler, and Terra models.
"Spirit of 76" and the "Patriot" special editions
For the US Bicentennial in 1976, IH produced the Spirit of 76 and the Patriot models. The Spirit of 76 had a special blue soft top and blue/red side applique, and was only available on the Scout II. The Spirit also had blue interior, racing-type steering wheel, and 15x7-inch chrome rally wheels. IH data only show 384 Spirit models ever being built. Line ticket codes included:
10876 for the side applique
18696 to omit the hard top
16928 deluxe interior
16872 blue interior color
9219 winter white exterior paint
885102 10–15 front tires
925102 10–15 rear tires with spare
29091 7-in chrome wheels
The Patriot had a hard top and the same blue/red side applique, but was available in a Scout II, Terra, or Traveler. Sales figures on the Patriot only show one Terra, seven Travelers, and 50+ Scout IIs were manufactured. However, another undetermined number of Patriots were built without line ticket code designations (the applique was applied at the Truck Sales Processing Center), making how many were actually built difficult to determine. Nevertheless, both models can be considered extremely rare.
The "Midas Edition" Scout II
From 1977 to 1980, IH contracted with Midas Van Conversion Co. of Elkhart, Indiana, to build special luxury models to be offered through its dealers. These vehicles had swivel bucket seats, shag carpet, color-keyed interiors, door panels, headliner, grille guards, dual sunroofs, overhead clocks, third seats, reading lights, tinted windows, fender flares, and special side appliques and paint designs. Models included the Family Cruiser (or just Cruiser), the Street Machine, and Off-Road Vehicle. Another company named Van American (Goshen, Indiana) offered similar versions to compete with Midas; however, these vehicles were only offered for a brief time, making them very rare now.
See one here.
Final "Special" version
Probably one the rarest models ever produced by IH was the 1980 RS: the Special Limited Edition RS Scout. This version was only available on the Traveler in Tahitian Red (metallic). It had special extras inside and out, including polycast wheels with Tahitian Red (metallic) accent, luxurious plush all-velour russet interior including headliner and visors, special pin striping, wood-grain trim instrument panel and shift console, chrome bumpers, tinted glass, and more. Two other special versions offered in 1980 were the 844 and 434 Gold Star models. The 844 offered standard equipment plus a 345 V-8, HD clutch, T428 four-speed manual transmission, 2.72 rear axle ratio, AM radio, rear seat, hub caps, special black side applique and paint on lower body, and black carpet, while the 434 offered standard equipment plus 4–196 engine, T332 three-speed transmission, 3:73 rear axle ratio, black vinyl interior, AM radio, rear seat, hub caps, special black side applique and paint on lower body, and black carpet.
Monteverdi Safari
The Monteverdi Safari was made by Monteverdi, the Swiss brand of luxury cars, who used Scout IIs to produce well-equipped luxurious off-road station wagons. Two models were made during the late 1970s, the Safari, which had most of the bodywork changed, and the Sahara, which featured more limited changes, i.e. new grille and a more luxurious interior. Both were available with IH's SV-345 engine or Chrysler's LA 318 (5.7 or 5.2 L). The Safari was also offered with Chrysler's 7.2 L "440 RB" engine, while the lower-priced Sahara retained the Scout's original bodywork and could be had with the Nissan SD33 diesel engine.
Engines
Engine produced by International Harvester:
IH 4-152
IH 4-196
IH SV-266
IH SV-304 (This is not the same engine as the AMC 304 V8)
IH SV-345
Built by American Motors Corporation
AMC 6–232
AMC 6–258
Built by Nissan
Nissan SD33 (diesel) (naturally aspirated)
Nissan SD33T (turbodiesel— very few in 1979, and 1980 only)
International offered the Scout with a variety of engines over its years of production. The Scout 80 (1961–1965) had the gasoline-powered 152 four-cylinder as its standard engine. From 1965 to 1971 (Models 800, 800A, and 800B), engine options were the gasoline-powered 196 four-cylinder, AMC 232 six-cylinder, 266 V-8, and the 304 V-8. A turbocharged version of the 152 four-cylinder engine was offered from 1965 to 1967.
The Scout II (made between 1971 and 1980) had the following engine options: the 196 4-cylinder, 232 6-cylinder (early production), 258 6-cylinder (later production), 304 V-8, and 345 V-8. International never installed a 392 V-8 or an AMC V-8 into a Scout. At the time, International did not manufacture a diesel engine small enough to be used in the Scout, and so starting in 1976 used the Nissan SD33 diesel engine as an option. This engine was replaced by the SD33T turbo diesel engine in 1980. A very small amount of Scouts left the factory in 1979 with the Nissan SD33T turbo diesel engine.
Axles and gear ratios
Dana 27 axles were used for the front and rear wheels in the 80 and 800 models until around 1968. Both front and rear differentials were offset to the passenger side for the purpose of lining up the driveshafts with the Dana 18 transfer case. With the transition to the 800A model, the rear axle was upgraded to a Dana 44, with a centered differential mated to the Dana 20 transfer case (which had replaced the Dana 18). Some Scouts from this transitional time are a mix of old and new designs, with the rear driveshaft running at an angle. The front axle was still a Dana 27 model, though if the buyer ordered the 3500-lb axle option, the front axle was upgraded to a hybrid unit built from a Dana 30 center section and 27 tubes. The V8 engine option included an automatic upgrade to the heavier-duty Dana 30 axle. The rear axle shafts changed from two pieces to one piece around 1968 or 1969. A Power-Lock limited-slip differential was provided as an option for both front and rear axles. Common gear ratios are 3.31, 3.73, or 4.27, though nearly any ratio was available by special order (in at least one instance, a Scout 800 was shipped with a 5.71).
In Scout IIs, Dana 30 front axles and Dana 44 rear axles were standard until 1974, with front Dana 44 axles as a special order. After 1974, Dana 44 front and rear axles became standard on all Scout IIs. Available gear ratios were 2.72, 3.07, 3.31, 3.54, 3.73, 4.09, 4.27, and 4.54. Track-Lock limited-slip differentials were optional.
Axles originally had a tag bolted to their differential cover stamped with their gear ratio, but this tag often rusted off over time or was removed intentionally. The line ticket can be checked to identify the axle model, gear ratio, and whether it is equipped with a traction device, using an International parts code book.
Use in off-road racing
Scout SSIIs were awarded honors for off-road racing during the late 1970s. In 1977, Jerry Boone, of Parker, Arizona, finished first among 4x4 production vehicles in the Baja 1000. Boone completed the run in 19 hours 58 minutes, crossing the finish line at Ensenada almost 2 hours ahead of his closest competitor: a Jeep CJ7. Only 9 of 21 vehicles that started the race finished the course. Boone ran even faster than Class IV modified 4x4 racers. Mr. Boone later revealed that they only had a month to prepare a stock SSII for the race and they were not sponsored by IH until after the race. Boone also won in 1978 at Riverside, California.
Sherman Balch, among many other accomplishments in off-road racing, won the off-road "world championship" in 1977 (the SCORE event in Riverside, California). Three other finishers along with Balch also drove Scouts. Balch also won the Baja 1000, the Mint 400, and three events in the fall of 1978 at Lake Geneva Raceway.
Sherman Balch and co-driver James Acker, driving a Scout SSII, later won virtually all major off-road races in 1982 offered on the West Coast/Mexico circuit by winning the Baja 250, the Baja 500, the Baja 1000, the Mint 400, and the Parker (Arizona) 400.
Line ticket
When an IH vehicle was ordered, a factory plan or construction sheet was created (when the order was sent to the factory) with the new vehicle's VIN or ID number, and all the codes for standard equipment and options that the salesman used to create this vehicle for his customer or inventory. This sheet was used to assemble the vehicle from beginning to finish. After the factory assembled the vehicle and the vehicle was shipped and sold, the line [setting] ticket identified such things as the engine type, transmission type, drive line, paint codes, gear ratio, and standard and optional equipment specific to that vehicle. Different parts were used on the same model in the same year. A very small copy of the line ticket was attached to each vehicle during the building process at the factory. The location of the ticket varied: 1971–1976 Scout IIs had their copies mounted under their hoods, attached to the cowl cover panels. The 1977–1980 Scout IIs had their copies on the inside of the glove box doors, and 1969–1975 pickups and Travelalls had them attached to the back of the glove boxes; depressing the keeper tabs on each side of the box lets the box swing down to reveal the ticket. If lost, line tickets can be ordered through several Scout parts specialists, due to their diligence in maintaining these valuable resources.
Scout III SSV concept vehicle
IH developed a concept prototype for the next version of the Scout in 1979 named the Scout III SSV, but due to the company's decision to discontinue the Scout product line, it was never put into production. The second prototype of the concept vehicle is displayed at the Auburn Cord Duesenberg Automobile Museum in Auburn, Indiana. It was a two-door with a sloped back window, built on a 100-in chassis with 162-hp V8.
Many people call this THE 1981 Scout. The SSV meant Scout Supplemental Vehicle, meant to be a limited production supplement to the regular model to help promote it, much as the Corvette supplements the Chevrolet line. While the SSV may have appeared in 1981 if it had reached production, designs existed for a new model in 1981 to replace the Scout II. Clay models of this showed an evolution of the Scout II into a more rounded body somewhat resembling the Chevrolet S-10 Blazer. The demise of the Scout line ended the SSV; the company continues to this day, having changed its name to Navistar in 1985 after selling the farm machinery business along with the International Harvester name.
Case IH Scout
In 2010, Case IH started production of a UTV side by side utility ATV named the Scout and Scout XL, also sold as New Holland Rustler. These UTVs were built by Club Car.
Possible revival
In September 2021, a report by Motor Trend reveled that Volkswagen Group may look to revive the Scout nameplate as a potential competitor to the Jeep Wrangler, Toyota 4Runner, and the revived Ford Bronco. VW Group had acquired the Scout trademarks earlier in the year when its commercial truck business Traton acquired Navistar. As VW Group is unlikely to acquire the International Harvester trademarks from Case IH even for a licensing deal, a revived Scout would either be sold under the Volkswagen nameplate as a sub-brand similar to the aforementioned Bronco or as a standalone off-road themed brand similar to Jeep; both options would use VW's existing dealership network in the United States. A revived Scout would also be all-electric.
References
Further reading
Banks, Michael. International Harvester Scout: The Complete Illustrated History. Enthusiast Books, 2018. .
Foster, Patrick. International Harvester Trucks, The Complete History. Motorbooks, 2015. .
External links
Binder Planet
Scout Light Line Photos
Scout History & Specs
Scout Image Gallery
1981 Scout 3 Prototype
Scouts West
Restored Scout Photos
Little Known Facts
Photos of IH vehicles in the NATMUS museum
Facebook page dedicated to the 80 & 800 models
All-wheel-drive vehicles
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Full-size sport utility vehicles
1970s cars
1980s cars
Cars introduced in 1961
Scout
Economy of Fort Wayne, Indiana
History of Fort Wayne, Indiana
Transportation in Fort Wayne, Indiana
Slanted engines
Off-road vehicles
Pickup trucks
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New media art includes artworks designed and produced by means of electronic media technologies, comprising virtual art, computer graphics, computer animation, digital art, interactive art, sound art, Internet art, video games, robotics, 3D printing, and cyborg art. The term defines itself by the thereby created artwork, which differentiates itself from that deriving from conventional visual arts (i.e. architecture, painting, sculpture, etc.). New Media art has origins in the worlds of science, art, and performance. Some common themes found in new media art include databases, political and social activism, Afrofuturism, feminism, and identity, a ubiquitous theme found throughout is the incorporation of new technology into the work. The emphasis on medium is a defining feature of much contemporary art and many art schools and major universities now offer majors in "New Genres" or "New Media" and a growing number of graduate programs have emerged internationally. New media art may involve degrees of interaction between artwork and observer or between the artist and the public, as is the case in performance art. Yet, as several theorists and curators have noted, such forms of interaction, social exchange, participation, and transformation do not distinguish new media art but rather serve as a common ground that has parallels in other strands of contemporary art practice. Such insights emphasize the forms of cultural practice that arise concurrently with emerging technological platforms, and question the focus on technological media per se. New Media art involves complex curation and preservation practices that make collecting, installing, and exhibiting the works harder than most other mediums. Many cultural centers and museums have been established to cater to the advanced needs of new media art.
History
The origins of new media art can be traced to the moving image inventions of the 19th century such as the phenakistiscope (1833), the praxinoscope (1877) and Eadweard Muybridge's zoopraxiscope (1879). From the 1900s through the 1960s, various forms of kinetic and light art, from Thomas Wilfred's 'Lumia' (1919) and 'Clavilux' light organs to Jean Tinguely's self-destructing sculpture Homage to New York (1960) can be seen as progenitors of new media art.
Steve Dixon in his book Digital Performance: New Technologies in Theatre, Dance and Performance Art argues that the early twentieth century avant-garde art movement Futurism was the birthplace of the merging of technology and performance art. Some early examples of performance artists who experimented with then state-of-the-art lighting, film, and projection include dancers Loïe Fuller and Valentine de Saint-Point. Cartoonist Winsor McCay performed in sync with an animated Gertie the Dinosaur on tour in 1914. By the 1920s many Cabaret acts began incorporating film projection into performances.
Robert Rauschenberg's piece Broadcast (1959), composed of three interactive re-tunable radios and a painting, is considered one of the first examples of interactive art. German artist Wolf Vostell experimented with television sets in his (1958) installation TV De-collages. Vostell's work influenced Nam June Paik, who created sculptural installations featuring hundreds of television sets that displayed distorted and abstract footage.
Beginning in Chicago during the 1970s, there was a surge of artists experimenting with video art and combining recent computer technology with their traditional mediums, including sculpture, photography, and graphic design. Many of the artists involved were grad students at The School of the Art Institute of Chicago, including Kate Horsfield and Lyn Blumenthal, who co-founded the Video Data Bank in 1976. Another artists involved was Donna Cox, she collaborated with mathematician George Francis and computer scientist Ray Idaszak on the project Venus in Time which depicted mathematical data as 3D digital sculptures named for their similarities to paleolithic Venus statues. In 1982 artist Ellen Sandor and her team called (art)n Laboratory created the medium called PHSCologram, which stands for photography, holography, sculpture, and computer graphics. Her visualization of the AIDS virus was depicted on the cover of IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications in November 1988. At the University of Illinois in 1989, members of the Electronic Visualization Laboratory Carolina Cruz-Neira, Thomas DeFanti, and Daniel J. Sandin collaborated to create what is known as CAVE or Cave Automatic Virtual Environment an early virtual reality immersion using rear projection.
In 1983, Roy Ascott introduced the concept of "distributed authorship" in his worldwide telematic project La Plissure du Texte for Frank Popper's "Electra" at the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris. The development of computer graphics at the end of the 1980s and real time technologies in the 1990s combined with the spreading of the Web and the Internet favored the emergence of new and various forms of interactive art by Ken Feingold, Lynn Hershman Leeson, David Rokeby, Ken Rinaldo, Perry Hoberman, Tamas Waliczky; telematic art by Roy Ascott, Paul Sermon, Michael Bielický; Internet art by Vuk Ćosić, Jodi; virtual and immersive art by Jeffrey Shaw, Maurice Benayoun, Monika Fleischmann, and large scale urban installation by Rafael Lozano-Hemmer. In Geneva, the Centre pour l'Image Contemporaine or CIC coproduced with Centre Georges Pompidou from Paris and the Museum Ludwig in Cologne the first internet video archive of new media art.
Simultaneously advances in biotechnology have also allowed artists like Eduardo Kac to begin exploring DNA and genetics as a new art medium.
Influences on new media art have been the theories developed around interaction, hypertext, databases, and networks. Important thinkers in this regard have been Vannevar Bush and Theodor Nelson, whereas comparable ideas can be found in the literary works of Jorge Luis Borges, Italo Calvino, and Julio Cortázar.
Themes
In the book New Media Art, Mark Tribe and Reena Jana named several themes that contemporary new media art addresses, including computer art, collaboration, identity, appropriation, open sourcing, telepresence, surveillance, corporate parody, as well as intervention and hacktivism. In the book Postdigitale, Maurizio Bolognini suggested that new media artists have one common denominator, which is a self-referential relationship with the new technologies, the result of finding oneself inside an epoch-making transformation determined by technological development.
New media art does not appear as a set of homogeneous practices, but as a complex field converging around three main elements: 1) the art system, 2) scientific and industrial research, and 3) political-cultural media activism. There are significant differences between scientist-artists, activist-artists and technological artists closer to the art system, who not only have different training and technocultures, but have different artistic production. This should be taken into account in examining the several themes addressed by new media art.
Non-linearity can be seen as an important topic to new media art by artists developing interactive, generative, collaborative, immersive artworks like Jeffrey Shaw or Maurice Benayoun who explored the term as an approach to looking at varying forms of digital projects where the content relays on the user's experience. This is a key concept since people acquired the notion that they were conditioned to view everything in a linear and clear-cut fashion. Now, art is stepping out of that form and allowing for people to build their own experiences with the piece. Non-linearity describes a project that escape from the conventional linear narrative coming from novels, theater plays and movies. Non-linear art usually requires audience participation or at least, the fact that the "visitor" is taken into consideration by the representation, altering the displayed content. The participatory aspect of new media art, which for some artists has become integral, emerged from Allan Kaprow's Happenings and became with Internet, a significant component of contemporary art.
The inter-connectivity and interactivity of the internet, as well as the fight between corporate interests, governmental interests, and public interests that gave birth to the web today, inspire a lot of current new media art.
Databases
One of the key themes in new media art is to create visual views of databases. Pioneers in this area include Lisa Strausfeld, Martin Wattenberg and Alberto Frigo. From 2004-2014 George Legrady's piece "Making Visible the Invisible" displayed the normally unseen library metadata of items recently checked out at the Seattle Public Library on six LCD monitors behind the circulation desk. Database aesthetics holds at least two attractions to new media artists: formally, as a new variation on non-linear narratives; and politically as a means to subvert what is fast becoming a form of control and authority.
Political and Social Activism
Many new media art projects also work with themes like politics and social consciousness, allowing for social activism through the interactive nature of the media. New media art includes "explorations of code and user interface; interrogations of archives, databases, and networks; production via automated scraping, filtering, cloning, and recombinatory techniques; applications of user-generated content (UGC) layers; crowdsourcing ideas on social- media platforms; narrowcasting digital selves on "free" websites that claim copyright; and provocative performances that implicate audiences as participants".
Afrofuturism
Afrofuturism is an interdisciplinary genre that explores the African diaspora experience, predominantly in the United States, by deconstructing the past and imagining the future through the themes of technology, science fiction, and fantasy. Musician Sun Ra, believed to be one of the founders of Afrofuturism, thought a blend of technology and music could help humanity overcome the ills of society. His band, The Sun Ra Arkestra, combined traditional Jazz with sound and performance art and were among the first musicians to perform with a synthesizer. The twenty-first century has seen a resurgence of Afrofuturism aesthetics and themes with artists and cooperation's like Jessi Jumanji and Black Quantum Futurism and art educational centers like Black Space in Durham, North Carolina.
Feminism and The Female Experience
Japanese artist Mariko Mori's multimedia installation piece Wave UFO (1999-2003) sought to examine the science and perceptions behind the study of consciousness and neuroscience. Exploring the ways that these fields undertake research in a materially reductionist manner. Mori's work emphasized the need for these fields to become more holistic and incorporate incites and understanding of the world from philosophy and the humanities. Swiss artist Pipilotti Rist's (2008) immersive video installation Pour Your Body Out explores the dichotomy of beauty and the grotesque in the natural world and their relation to the female experience. The large-scale 360-degree installation featured breast-shaped projectors and circular pink pillows that invited viewers to relax and immerse themselves in the vibrant colors, psychedelic music, and partake in meditation and yoga. American filmmaker and artist Lynn Hersman Leeson explores in her films the themes of identity, technology and the erasure of women's roles and contributions to technology. Her (1999) film Conceiving Ada depicts a computer scientist and new media artist named Emmy as she attempts and succeeds at creating a way to communicate through cyberspace with Ada Lovelace, an Englishwoman who created the first computer program in the 1840s via a form of artificial intelligence.
Identity
With its roots in outsider art, New Media has been an ideal medium for an artist to explore the topics of identity and representation. In Canada, Indigenous multidisciplinary artists like Cheryl L'Hirondelle and Kent Monkman have incorporated themes about gender, identity, activism, and colonization in their work. Monkman, a Cree artist, performs and appears as their alter ego Miss Chief Eagle Testickle, in film, photography, painting, installation, and performance art. Monkman describes Miss Chief as a representation of a two-spirit or non-binary persona that does not fall under the traditional description of drag.
Future of New Media Art
The emergence of 3D printing has introduced a new bridge to new media art, joining the virtual and the physical worlds. The rise of this technology has allowed artists to blend the computational base of new media art with the traditional physical form of sculpture. A pioneer in this field was artist Jonty Hurwitz who created the first known anamorphosis sculpture using this technique.
Longevity
As the technologies used to deliver works of new media art such as film, tapes, web browsers, software and operating systems become obsolete, New Media art faces serious issues around the challenge to preserve artwork beyond the time of its contemporary production. Currently, research projects into New media art preservation are underway to improve the preservation and documentation of the fragile media arts heritage (see DOCAM - Documentation and Conservation of the Media Arts Heritage).
Methods of preservation exist, including the translation of a work from an obsolete medium into a related new medium, the digital archiving of media (see the Rhizome ArtBase, which holds over 2000 works, and the Internet Archive), and the use of emulators to preserve work dependent on obsolete software or operating system environments.
Around the mid-90s, the issue of storing works in digital form became a concern. Digital art such as moving images, multimedia, interactive programs, and computer-generated art has different properties than physical artwork such as oil paintings and sculptures. Unlike analog technologies, a digital file can be recopied onto a new medium without any deterioration of content. One of the problems with preserving digital art is that the formats continuously change over time. Former examples of transitions include that from 8-inch floppy disks to 5.25-inch floppies, 3-inch diskettes to CD-ROMs, and DVDs to flash drives. On the horizon is the obsolescence of flash drives and portable hard drives, as data is increasingly held in online cloud storage.
Museums and galleries thrive off of being able to accommodate the presentation and preservation of physical artwork. New media art challenges the original methods of the art world when it comes to documentation, its approach to collection and preservation. Technology continues to advance, and the nature and structure of art organizations and institutions will remain in jeopardy. The traditional roles of curators and artist are continually changing, and a shift to new collaborative models of production and presentation is needed.
Preservation
see also Conservation and restoration of new media art
New media art encompasses various mediums all which require their own preservation approaches. Due to the vast technical aspects involved no established digital preservation guidelines fully encompass the spectrum of new media art. New media art falls under the category of "complex digital object" in the Digital Curation Centre's digital curation lifecycle model which involves specialized or totally unique preservation techniques. Complex digital objects preservation has an emphasis on the inherent connection of the components of the piece.
Education
In New Media programs, students are able to get acquainted with the newest forms of creation and communication. New Media students learn to identify what is or isn't "new" about certain technologies. Science and the market will always present new tools and platforms for artists and designers. Students learn how to sort through new emerging technological platforms and place them in a larger context of sensation, communication, production, and consumption.
When obtaining a bachelor's degree in New Media, students will primarily work through practice of building experiences that utilize new and old technologies and narrative. Through the construction of projects in various media, they acquire technical skills, practice vocabularies of critique and analysis, and gain familiarity with historical and contemporary precedents.
In the United States, many Bachelor's and Master's level programs exist with concentrations on Media Art, New Media, Media Design, Digital Media and Interactive Arts.
Leading art theorists and historians
Leading art theorists and historians in this field include Roy Ascott, Lev Manovich, Maurice Benayoun, Christine Buci-Glucksmann, Jack Burnham, Mario Costa, Edmond Couchot, Fred Forest, Oliver Grau, Margot Lovejoy, Robert C. Morgan, Dominique Moulon, Christiane Paul, Catherine Perret, Frank Popper, and Edward A. Shanken.
Types
The term New Media Art is generally applied to disciplines such as:
Artistic computer game modification
ASCII art
Bio Art
Cyberformance
Computer art
Critical making
Digital art
Demoscene
Digital poetry
Tradigital art
Electronic art
Experimental musical instrument building
Evolutionary art
Fax art
Generative art
Glitch art
Hypertext
Information art
Interactive art
Kinetic art
Light art
Motion graphics
Net art
Performance art
Radio art
Robotic art
Software art
Sound art
Systems art
Telematic art
Video art
Video games
Virtual art
Artists
Cultural centres
Australian Network for Art and Technology
Center for Art and Media Karlsruhe
Centre pour l'Image Contemporaine
Eyebeam Art and Technology Center
Foundation for Art and Creative Technology
Gray Area Foundation for the Arts
Harvestworks
InterAccess
Los Angeles Center for Digital Art (LACDA)
Netherlands Media Art Institute
NTT InterCommunication Center
Rhizome (organization)
RIXC
School for Poetic Computation (SFPC)
School of the Art Institute of Chicago
Squeaky Wheel: Film and Media Arts Center
V2 Institute for the Unstable Media
WORM
See also
ART/MEDIA
Artmedia
Aspect magazine
Culture jamming
Digital media
Digital puppetry
Electronic Language International Festival
Expanded Cinema
Experiments in Art and Technology
Interactive film
Interactive media
Intermedia
LA Freewaves
Net.art
New media art festivals
New media artist
New media art journals
New media art preservation
Perpetual Art Machine
Remix culture
VJing
References
Further reading
Maurice Benayoun, The Dump, 207 Hypotheses for Committing Art, bilingual (English/French) Fyp éditions, France, July 2011,
Timothy Murray, Derrick de Kerckhove, Oliver Grau, Kristine Stiles, Jean-Baptiste Barrière, Dominique Moulon, Jean-Pierre Balpe, Maurice Benayoun Open Art, Nouvelles éditions Scala, 2011, French version,
Vannevar Bush (1945). "As We May Think" online at As We May Think – The Atlantic Monthly
Roy Ascott (2003). Telematic Embrace: Visionary Theories of Art, Technology, and Consciousness (Ed.) Edward A. Shanken. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Barreto, Ricardo and Perissinotto, Paula “the_culture_of_immanence”, in Internet Art. Ricardo Barreto e Paula Perissinotto (orgs.). São Paulo, IMESP, 2002. .
Jorge Luis Borges (1941). "The Garden of Forking Paths." Editorial Sur.
Nicolas Bourriaud, (1997) Relational Aesthetics, Dijon: Les Presses du Réel, 2002, orig. 1997
Christine Buci-Glucksmann, "L’art à l’époque virtuel", in Frontières esthétiques de l’art, Arts 8, Paris: L’Harmattan, 2004
Christine Buci-Glucksmann, La folie du voir: Une esthétique du virtuel, Galilée, 2002
Valentino Catricalà, Media Art. Towards a New Definition of Arts in the Age of Technology. Siena: Gli Ori, 2015
Sarah Cook & Beryl Graham, Rethinking Curating: Art After New Media, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2010. .
Sarah Cook & Beryl Graham, "Curating New Media", Art Monthly 261, November 2002. online at Art Monthly
Sarah Cook, Verina Gfader, Beryl Graham & Axel Lapp, A Brief History of Curating New Media Art - Conversations with Curators, Berlin: The Green Box, 2010. .
Sarah Cook, Verina Gfader, Beryl Graham & Axel Lapp, A Brief History of Working with New Media Art - Conversations with Artists, Berlin: The Green Box, 2010. .
Fleischmann, Monika and Reinhard, Ulrike (eds.). Digital Transformations - Media Art as at the Interface between Art, Science, Economy and Society online at netzspannung.org, 2004,
Monika Fleischmann / Wolfgang Strauss (eds.) (2001). Proceedings of »CAST01//Living in Mixed Realities« Intl. Conf. On Communication of Art, Science and Technology, Fraunhofer IMK 2001, 401. (Print), (Internet).
Gatti, Gianna Maria. (2010) The Technological Herbarium. Avinus Press, Berlin, 2010 (edited, translated from the Italian, and with a preface by Alan N. Shapiro). online at alan-shapiro.com
Charlie Gere, (2002) Digital Culture, Reaktion
Charlie Gere, (2006) White Heat, Cold Logic: Early British Computer Art, co-edited with Paul Brown, Catherine Mason and Nicholas Lambert, MIT Press/Leonardo Books
Graham, Philip Mitchell, New Epoch Art, InterACTA: Journal of the Art Teachers Association of Victoria, Published by ACTA, Parkville, Victoria, No 4, 1990, , Cited In APAIS. This database is available on the, Informit Online Internet Service or on CD-ROM, or on Australian Public Affairs - Full Text
Oliver Grau (2003). Virtual Art: From Illusion to Immersion (Leonardo Book Series). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press/Leonardo Books. .
Oliver Grau (2007). (Ed.) MediaArtHistories. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press/Leonardo Books. .
Mark Hansen, (2004) New Philosophy for New Media (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press)
Dick Higgins, ‘Intermedia’ (1966), reprinted in Donna De Salvo (ed.), Open Systems Rethinking Art c. 1970, London: Tate Publishing, 2005
Lopes, Dominic McIver. (2009). A Philosophy of Computer Art. London: Routledge
Lev Manovich (2001). The Language of New Media Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press/Leonardo Books.
Lev Manovich, Ten Key Texts on Digital Art: 1970-2000 Leonardo - Volume 35, Number 5, October 2002, pp. 567–569
Christiane Paul, Challenges for a Ubiquitous Museum: Presenting and Preserving New Media
Lev Manovich (2003. "New Media from Borges to HTML", The New Media Reader. MIT Press.
Mondloch, Kate. Screens: Viewing Media Installation Art. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010.
Dominique Moulon, Tim Murray, Kristine Stiles, Derrick de Kerckhove, Oliver Grau Open Art, Maurice Benayoun, Nouvelles editions Scala, 2011,
Paul, Christiane (2003). Digital Art (World of Art series). London: Thames & Hudson. .
Robert C. Morgan, Commentaries on the New Media Arts Pasadena, CA: Umbrella Associates,1992
Janet Murray (2003). "Inventing the Medium", The New Media Reader. MIT Press.
Frank Popper (2007) From Technological to Virtual Art, MIT Press/Leonardo Books
Frank Popper (1997) Art of the Electronic Age, Thames & Hudson
Edward A. Shanken "Selected Writings on Art and Technology"
Edward A. Shanken Art and Electronic Media. London: Phaidon, 2009.
Mark Tribe and Reena Jana. New Media Art
Rainer Usselmann, (2003) (PDF) "The Dilemma of Media Art: Cybernetic Serendipity at the ICA London", Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press/Leonardo Journal - Volume 36, Number 5, pp. 389–396
Rainer Usselmann, (2002) "About Interface: Actualisation and Totality", University of Southampton
Wands, Bruce (2006). Art of the Digital Age, London: Thames & Hudson. .
Whitelaw, Mitchell (2004). Metacreation: Art and Artificial Life Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. .
Steve Dietz, Collecting New Media Art: Just Like Anything Else, Only Different
Anne-Cécile Worms, (2008) Arts Numériques: Tendances, Artistes, Lieux et Festivals M21 Editions 2008 .
Youngblood, Gene (1970). Expanded Cinema. New York. E.P. Dutton & Company.
Juan Martín Prada, Prácticas artísticas e Internet en la época de las redes sociales, Editorial AKAL, Madrid, 2012,
New Media Faculty, (2011). "New Media", University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Bailey, Chris & Hazel Gardiner. (2010). Revisualizing Visual Culture. Surrey, UK: Ashgate Publishing.
Jana, Reena and Mark Tribe. (2009). New Media Art. New York: Taschen.
Dale Hudson and Patricia R. Zimmermann. (2009). “Taking Things Apart: Migratory Archives, Locative Media, and Micropublics.” Afterimage vol. 36 no. 4 (January/February), pp. 14–19.
artists-with-/ Moss, Ceci. (2008). Thoughts on “New Media Artists v. Artists with Computers”. Rhizome
Nechvatal, Joseph. (2013). Whither Art? David Joselit's Digital Art Problem. "Hyperallergic: Sensitive to Art & its Discontents."
Joselit, David. (2012). After Art. Princeton: Princeton University Press. .
Guertin, C. (2012). Digital prohibition: Piracy and authorship in new media art. London: Continuum International Pub. Group. .
Catricalà, Valentino (2013). "Come l’avanguardia inventò il futuro. L’Optofono di Raoul Hausman, la 'visione elettromeccanica' di Lissitzky e le forme dell’energia", in "Imago. Rivista di studi sul cinema e i media", n. 7-8. (pp. 277–294).
Dale Hudson and Patricia R. Zimmermann. (2015). Thinking Through Digital Media Transnational Environments and Locative Places. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. companion website with links to projects
Janez Strehovec (2016). Text as Ride. Electronic Literature and New Media Art. Morgentown: West Virginia University Press (Computing Literature book series)-
Mass media technology
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Željko Ražnatović (, ; 17 April 1952 – 15 January 2000), better known as Arkan (), was a Slovenia-born Serbian mobster, politician, sports administrator, paramilitary commander and head of the Serb paramilitary force called the Serb Volunteer Guard during the Yugoslav Wars.
He was on Interpol's most wanted list in the 1970s and 1980s for robberies and murders committed in a number of countries across Europe, and was later indicted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia for crimes against humanity. Up until his assassination in January 2000, Ražnatović was the most powerful organized crime figure in the Balkans.
Early life
Željko Ražnatović was born in Brežice, a small border town in Lower Styria, PR Slovenia, FPR Yugoslavia. His father Veljko, was born in Rijeka Crnojevića near Cetinje, and had taken part in the Partisan liberation of Priština (Kosovo) during World War II. Later on, Veljko served as a decorated officer in the SFR-Yugoslav Air Force, earning high rank for his notable involvement in World War II. Veljko was stationed in Slovenian Styria at the time when his fourth child Željko was born.
Infant Željko spent part of his childhood in Zagreb (SR Croatia) and Pančevo (SR Serbia), before his father's job eventually took the family to the Yugoslav capital of Belgrade (SR Serbia), which is considered his hometown. He grew up with three older sisters in a strict, militaristic patriarchal household with regular physical abuse from his father. In a 1991 interview he recalled: "He didn't really hit me in a classical sense, he'd basically grab me and slam me against the floor."
In his youth, Ražnatović aspired to become a pilot as his father had been. Due to the highly demanding and significant positions of his parents, there appeared to be very little time in which a bond was able to be established between parents and children. Ražnatović's parents eventually divorced during his teenage years.
Teenaged Ražnatović was arrested for the first time in 1966 for snatching women's purses around Tašmajdan Park, spending a year at a juvenile detention center not far from Belgrade. His father then sent him to the seaside town of Kotor (SR Montenegro) in order to join the Yugoslav Navy, but young Ražnatović had other plans (ending up in Paris at the age of fifteen). In 1969 he was arrested by French police and deported home, where he was sentenced to three years at the detention center in Valjevo for several burglaries. During this time he organized his own gang in the prison.
In his youth, Ražnatović was a ward of his father's friend, the Slovenian politician and Federal Minister of the Interior, Stane Dolanc. Dolanc was chief of the State Security Administration (UDBA) and a close associate of President Josip Broz Tito. Whenever Ražnatović was in trouble, Dolanc helped him, allegedly as a reward for his services to the UDBA, as seen in the escape from the Lugano prison in 1981. Dolanc is quoted as having said: "One Arkan is worth more than the whole UDBA."
Criminal career
Western Europe
In 1972, aged 20, Ražnatović migrated to Western Europe. Abroad, he was introduced to and kept contact with many well-known criminals from Yugoslavia, such as Ljuba Zemunac, Ranko Rubežić, Đorđe "Giška" Božović, Goran Vuković, etc., all of whom were also occasionally contracted by the UDBA, and all of whom were since assassinated or otherwise killed. Ražnatović took the nickname "Arkan" from one of his forged passports. On 28 December 1973, he was arrested in Belgium following a bank robbery, and was sentenced to ten years in prison.
Ražnatović managed to escape from the Verviers prison on 4 July 1979. Although he was apprehended in the Netherlands on 24 October 1979, the few months he was free were enough for at least two more armed robberies in Sweden and three more in the Netherlands. Serving a seven-year sentence at a prison in Amsterdam, Ražnatović pulled off another escape on 8 May 1981 after someone slipped him a gun. Wasting no time, more robberies followed, this time in West Germany, where after less than a month of freedom he was arrested in Frankfurt on 5 June 1981 following a jewellery store stickup. In the ensuing shootout with police he was lightly wounded, resulting in his placement in the prison hospital ward. Looser security allowed Ražnatović to escape again only four days later, on 9 June, supposedly by jumping from the window, beating up the first passerby and stealing his clothing before disappearing. His final European arrest occurred in Basel, Switzerland, during a routine traffic check on 15 February 1983. However, he managed to escape again within months, this time from Thorberg prison on 27 April.
It is widely speculated that Ražnatović was closely affiliated with the UDBA throughout his criminal career abroad. He had convictions or warrants in Belgium (bank robberies, prison escape), the Netherlands (armed robberies, prison escape), Sweden (twenty burglaries, seven bank robberies, prison escape, attempted murder), West Germany (armed robberies, prison escape), Austria, Switzerland (armed robberies, prison escape), and Italy.
Return to Yugoslavia
Ražnatović returned to Belgrade in May 1983, continuing his criminal career by managing a number of illegal activities. In November of that year, six months after his return, a bank in Zagreb was robbed with the thieves leaving a rose on the counter (allegedly Ražnatović's signature from his robberies in Western Europe). Looking to question Ražnatović about his whereabouts during the robbery, two policemen, members of the Secretariat of Internal Affairs' (SUP) Tenth department from the Belgrade municipality of Palilula, showed up in civilian clothing at his mother's apartment on 27 March Street in Belgrade. Ražnatović happened to not be home at the moment, so the policemen introduced themselves to his mother as "friends of her son looking to return a cash debt they owed him" and asked the woman if they could wait for him to return to the apartment. Ražnatović's mother phoned him to say that two unknown males waited for him. Ražnatović showed up with a revolver and proceeded to shoot and wound both policemen. He was detained immediately; however, barely 48 hours later, he was released. The occurrence made it clear to all observers, especially his criminal rivals, that he enjoyed protection from the highest echelons of the Yugoslav political leadership.
Ražnatović spent the mid-1980s running "Amadeus" discothèque together with Žika Živac and Tapi Malešević. Located in the Tašmajdan neighbourhood, the club was reportedly another perk of their contractual work for the UDBA. Moreover, Ražnatović could be seen driving around Belgrade in a pink Cadillac and gambling on roulette in casinos all over the country, from Belgrade (Hotel "Slavija") and nearby Pančevo to Sveti Stefan (Hotel "Maestral" on the Miločer beach) and Portorož (Hotel "Metropol"). Following a game of poker in a private apartment at Ive Lole Ribara Street in Belgrade, an elevator altercation started with a tenant from the apartment building. Ražnatović reportedly broke the man's arm after beating him with a gun. Ražnatović could not avoid being charged this time and the trial saw an interesting exchange between him and the judge; during the pre-session identification, Ražnatović stated he was employed by the Secretariat of Internal Affairs. When this was challenged by the prosecutor, Ražnatović produced a document summarizing a mortgage loan he obtained from the UDBA for his house at Ljutice Bogdana Street. He ended up receiving a six-month sentence, which he served at the Belgrade Central Prison.
Yugoslav Wars
Early
Only days after the 1990 Croatian multi-party election, Ražnatović, who was the leader of the Delije (hooligan supporters of the football club Red Star Belgrade), was present at the away game against Croatian side Dinamo Zagreb at Stadion Maksimir on 13 May, a match that ended in the infamous Dinamo–Red Star riot. Ražnatović and the Delije, consisting of 1,500 people, were involved in a massive fight with the home team's football hooligans.
On 11 October 1990, as the political situation in Yugoslavia became tense, Ražnatović created a paramilitary group named the Serb Volunteer Guard (SDG). Ražnatović was the supreme commander of the unit, which was primarily made up of members of the Delije and his personal friends.
In late October 1990, Ražnatović traveled to Knin (in Croatia) to meet representatives of the Republic of Serbian Krajina, a Serb break-away region that sought to remain in FR Yugoslavia, as opposed to the Croatian government that seceded. On 29 November, Croatian police arrested him at the Croatian-Bosnian border crossing Dvor na Uni along with local Dušan Carić and Belgraders Dušan Bandić and Zoran Stevanović. Ražnatović's entourage was sent to Sisak and was charged with conspiracy to overthrow the newly formed Croatian state. Ražnatović was sentenced to twenty months in jail. He was released from Zagreb's Remetinec prison on 14 June 1991. It has been claimed that the Croatian and Serbian governments agreed on a DM1 million settlement for his release.
In July 1991, Ražnatović stayed for some time at the Cetinje monastery, with Metropolitan Amfilohije Radović. His group of men, fully armed, were allowed to enter the monastery, where they served as security. Ražnatović's group traveled from Cetinje to the Siege of Dubrovnik. On his return from Dubrovnik, he was again a guest at Cetinje.
War
The SDG (acronym for – ), also known as "Arkan's Tigers", was organized as a paramilitary force supporting the Serb armies, set up in a former military facility in Erdut. The force, led by Ražnatović and Milorad Ulemek ("Legija"), consisted of a core of 200 men and perhaps totaled no more than 500 to 1,000, but was much feared. Under Arkan's command the SDG massacred hundreds of people in eastern Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. It saw action from mid-1991 until late 1995, and was supplied and equipped privately, by the reserves of the Serbian police force or through capturing enemy arms.
When the Croatian War of Independence broke out in 1991, the SDG was active in the Vukovar region. After the Bosnian War broke out in April 1992, the unit moved between the Croatian and Bosnian fronts, engaging in multiple instances of ethnic cleansing by killing and forcefully deporting mostly Bosniak civilians. In Croatia, it fought in various areas in SAO Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia (Serbian Krajina). Ražnatović, reportedly, had a dispute over military operations with Krajina leader Milan Martić. In Bosnia, the SDG notably fought in battles in and around Zvornik, Bijeljina and Brčko, mostly against Bosniak and Bosnian Croat paramilitary groups, including killings of civilians.
In late 1995, Ražnatović's troops fought in the area of Banja Luka, Sanski Most and Prijedor. In October 1995, he left Sanski Most as the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) reclaimed the city.
Ražnatović personally led most of the operations, and rewarded his most efficient officers and soldiers with ranks, medals and eventually looted goods. Several younger soldiers were rewarded for their actions in and around Kopački Rit and Bijelo Brdo. Ražnatović reportedly sent one of his most trusted men, Radovan Stanišić, to Italy to start a relationship with Camorra boss Francesco Schiavone. According to Roberto Saviano, Schiavone eased arms smuggling to Serbia by stopping the Albanian mobsters' blocking of weapons routes, and helped money transfer into Serbia in the form of humanitarian aid amid the international sanctions. In exchange, the Camorra acquired companies, enterprises, shops and farms in Serbia at optimal prices.
Ražnatović has been accused of kidnapping Serb refugees who had fled to Serbia from Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina and forcing them into conscription. After Operation Storm in Croatia resulted in the collapse of the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) and exodus of Serb refugees fleeing to Serbia, the Serbian Interior Ministry rounded up over 5,000 refugees to conscript into the Serb Volunteer Guard (SDG). Military-aged men were forcibly rounded up after arriving in Serbia by local police and then sent to detention camp in Erdut against their will and without informing their families. Once in Erdut, the refugees' heads were shaved and all valuables were confiscated. The men were then subjected to days of physical and psychological torture from the SDG guards, which included extreme physical exercises, routine beatings, and often being subjected to humiliating acts. Ražnatović had been giving speeches accusing the refugees of being cowards and traitors, blaming them for the loss of RSK. Belgrade's Humanitarian Law Center has represented over 100 people suing the state of Serbia for forced mobilisation.
Post-war fame
Ražnatović came to serve as a popular icon for both Serbs and their enemies. For some Serbs he was a patriot and folk hero, while serving as an object of hatred and fear to Croats and Bosniaks.
In the postwar period after the Dayton agreement was signed, Ražnatović returned to his interests in sport and private business. The SDG was officially disbanded in April 1996, with the threat of being reactivated in case of war. In June of that year he took over a second division soccer team, FK Obilić, which he soon turned into a top caliber club, even winning the 1997–98 Yugoslav league championship.
According to Franklin Foer, in his book How Soccer Explains the World, Ražnatović threatened players on opposing teams if they scored against Obilić. This threat was underlined by the thousands of SDG veterans that filled his team's home field, chanting threats, and on occasion pointing pistols at opposing players during matches. One player told the British football magazine FourFourTwo that he was locked in a garage when his team played Obilić. Europe's football governing body, the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), considered prohibiting Obilić from participation in continental competitions because of its connections to Ražnatović. In response to this, Ražnatović stepped away from the position of president and gave his seat to his wife Svetlana. In a 2006 interview, Dragoslav Šekularac (who was coach of Obilić while Ražnatović was with the club) said claims that Ražnatović verbally and physically assaulted Obilić players were false. Ražnatović was a chairman of the Yugoslav Kickboxing Association.
Kosovo War and NATO bombing
According to chief judge Richard May from the United Kingdom, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia issued an indictment against Ražnatović on 30 September 1997 for war crimes of genocide or massacre against the Bosnian Muslim population, crimes against humanity and grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions. The warrant was not made public until 31 March 1999, a week after the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia had begun, as intervention in the Kosovo War (1998–99). Ražnatović's indictment was made public by the UN court's chief prosecutor Louise Arbour.
In the week before the start of NATO bombing, as the Rambouillet talks collapsed, Ražnatović appeared at the Hyatt hotel in Belgrade, where most Western journalists were staying, and ordered all of them to leave Serbia.
During the NATO bombing, Ražnatović denied the war crime charges against him in interviews he gave to foreign reporters. Ražnatović accused NATO of bombing civilians and creating refugees of all ethnicities, and stated that he would deploy his troops only in the case of a direct NATO ground invasion. After the U.S. bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, which killed three journalists and led to a diplomatic row between the United States and the People's Republic of China, the British Observer and Danish Politiken newspapers claimed the building might have been targeted because the office of the Chinese military attaché was being used by Ražnatović to communicate and transmit messages to his paramilitary group, the Tigers, in Kosovo. As neither paper offered any proof for this claim it was largely ignored by the media.
During an interview with Western journalists, while the three month period of the NATO bombing was ongoing, Ražnatović showed a small rubber part of the F-117A downed by the Yugoslav army (one of only five NATO aircraft destroyed, on 38,000 sorties), which he had taken as "a souvenir"; Yugoslav media falsely proclaimed that Ražnatović had downed the stealth fighter.
ICTY indictment
In March 1999, the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) announced that Ražnatović had been indicted by the Tribunal, although the indictment was only made public after his assassination. According to the indictment, Ražnatović was to have been prosecuted on 24 charges of crimes against humanity (Art. 5 ICTY Statute), grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions (Art. 2 ICTY Statute) and violations of the laws of war (Art. 3 ICTY Statute), for the following acts:
Forcibly detaining approximately thirty Muslim Bosniak men, in an inadequately ventilated room of approximately five square metres in size.
Transporting twelve non-Serb men from Sanski Most to an isolated location in the village of Trnova and shooting them, killing eleven of the men and critically wounding the twelfth.
Transporting approximately sixty-seven Bosniak Muslim men from Sanski Most, Šehovci, and Pobriježe to an isolated location in the village of Sasina, and shooting them, killing sixty-five of the captives and wounding two survivors.
Forcibly detaining approximately thirty-five Muslim Bosnian men in an inadequately ventilated room of about five square metres in size, withholding from them food and water, resulting in the deaths of two men.
Assassination
Ražnatović was assassinated, on Saturday, 15 January 2000, 17:05 GMT, in the lobby of the New Belgrade's hotel Continental (or Intercontinental), in a location where he was surrounded by other hotel guests. The killer, Dobrosav Gavrić, a 23-year-old junior police mobile brigade member, had ties to the underworld and was on sick leave at the time. He walked up alone toward his target from behind. Ražnatović was sitting and chatting with two friends and, according to BBC Radio, was filling out a betting slip. Gavrić waited for a few minutes, calmly walked up behind the party, and rapidly fired a succession of bullets from his CZ-99 pistol. Ražnatović was shot in his left eye and lapsed into a coma on the spot. His bodyguard Zvonko Mateović put him into a car, and rushed him to a hospital; he died on the way.
According to his widow Svetlana, Ražnatović died in her arms as they were driving to the hospital. His companions Milenko Mandić, a business manager, and Dragan Garić, a police inspector, were also shot to death by Gavrić, who in turn was shot and wounded by Mateović. A female bystander was seriously wounded in the shootout as well. After complicated surgery, Gavrić survived, but was disabled and confined to a wheelchair as the result of a spinal wound.
A memorial ceremony in Ražnatović's honour was held on 19 January 2000, with writer Branislav Crnčević, Yugoslav Left (JUL) official Aleksandar Vulin, singers Oliver Mandić, Toni Montano, and Zoran Kalezić, along with the entire first team of FK Obilić, including club director Dragoslav Šekularac, in attendance.
Željko Ražnatović was buried at the Belgrade New Cemetery with military honours by his volunteers and with funeral rites on 20 January 2000. Around 10,000 people attended the funeral.
Trials
Dobrosav Gavrić pleaded innocent but was convicted and sentenced to 19 years in prison. His accomplices received from 3 to 15 years each, after a year-long trial in 2002. However, the district court verdict was overturned by the Supreme Court because of "lack of evidence and vagueness of the first trial process". A new trial was conducted in 2006, ending on 9 October 2006 with guilty verdicts upheld for Gavrić as well as his accomplices, Milan Đuričić and Dragan Nikolić. Each man was sentenced to 30 years in prison.
Personal life
Željko Ražnatović fathered nine children by five different women. His eldest son Mihajlo was born in Gothenburg, in 1975, from a relationship with a Swedish woman. In 1992, 17-year-old Mihajlo decided to move to Serbia to live with his father. During this time the teenager was photographed wearing the uniform of his father's paramilitary unit during the Yugoslav Wars and according to a Swedish tabloid report the youngster participated in combat operations in Srebrenica. Mihajlo has since lived in Belgrade where he played for the Red Star Belgrade ice-hockey club off and on between 2000 and 2009, also representing Serbia-Montenegro on the national team level between 2002 and 2004. During this time he also ran a sushi restaurant in Belgrade called Iki Bar and dated Macedonian pop singer Karolina Gočeva. He left Serbia after that.
In 2013 he was in the news in Serbia again following the conclusion of a court case that had dragged on since 2005 over Ražnatović's failure to meet the repayment terms on a RSD1.1 million car loan he took out in 2002 from Komercijalna Banka. After continually failing to meet his monthly payments, the bank wanted the loan paid off in full in August 2005, and two years later took him to court. In June 2010 he was ordered to pay RSD3.3 million based upon the interest on the original loan. In the end, the verdict stated he owed the bank RSD2.9 million.
In June 1994, sometime after her separation from Željko Ražnatović, Natalija Martinović and their four children left Yugoslavia and moved to Athens, Greece, where Željko bought them an apartment in the suburb of Glyfada. After his assassination, Martinović disputed his will, claiming that Svetlana, his second wife, doctored it. In May 2000, she sued Svetlana over Željko's assets, including the villa at Ljutice Bogdana Street in which he and Svetlana lived (and where Svetlana continues to reside), claiming it was built with funds from a bank loan Martinović and Ražnatović took out in 1985. The court eventually ruled against Martinović. The court agreed with her assertions that the villa was built with money from a 1985 bank loan taken out by her and Ražnatović, but ruled she had forfeited any rights in future division of that asset when she signed the property over to Ražnatović in 1994 before moving to Greece.
In 2012, Željko Ražnatović's son by his first wife, Vojin Martinović, again accused Svetlana of falsifying his father's will. In response, Željko Ražnatović's former associate Borislav Pelević said that the villa at Ljutice Bogdana Street was not mentioned in the will as he had already signed it over to his second wife.
In popular culture
History Channel's 2003 documentary Targeted includes a part on Željko Ražnatović, Baby Face Psycho.
In the 2008 Serbian film The Tour, a group of Serbian actors go on a tour in war-torn Bosnia. Among other factions, they meet an unnamed paramilitary unit wearing insignia similar to those of the Serb Volunteer Guard. Unit's commander (played by Sergej Trifunović) is possibly based on Željko Ražnatović.
In the 2014 Serbian docu-drama series Dosije: Beogradski klanovi, one of the episodes tells the story of Željko Ražnatović.
Jormugand character Dragan Nikolaevich is based on Željko Ražnatović.
References
Biographies
Interviews
Interview with Jim Laurie, 23 December 1991.
Interview with local Bosnian Serb TV after takeover of Bijeljina, 1992.
Interview with RTV BK, 20 July 1997.
Interview with BBC, 1999.
Interview with ABC, 6 April 1999.
Interview with British reporter John Simpson, March 1999.
Interview during NATO bombings, 1999.
Interview with B92, April 1999.
Further reading
Todorovic, Alex, and Kevin Whitelaw. "A mobster, a robber, a Serbian hero." US News And World Report 31 January 2000.
External links
'Arkan's Paramilitaries: Tigers Who Escaped Justice' – Balkan Insight, 8 December 2014
'Gangster's life of Serb warlord' – BBC News, 15 January 2000
'Arkan: Underworld boss of Milošević's murder squad' – The Guardian, 19 January 2000
'Blood and Honey – A Balkan War Journal' – NPR, February 2001
'Dosije Arkan' – Vreme, November 2008
1952 births
2000 deaths
People from Brežice
Yugoslav criminals
Slovenian criminals
Male criminals
Serbian gangsters
Murdered Serbian gangsters
People murdered in Serbia
Party of Serbian Unity politicians
Members of the National Assembly of Serbia
Candidates for President of Serbia
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A winter service vehicle (WSV), or snow removal vehicle, is a vehicle specially designed or adapted to clear thoroughfares of ice and snow. Winter service vehicles are usually based on a dump truck chassis, with adaptations allowing them to carry specially designed snow removal equipment. Many authorities also use smaller vehicles on sidewalks, footpaths, and cycleways. Road maintenance agencies and contractors in temperate or polar areas often own several winter service vehicles, using them to keep the roads clear of snow and ice and safe for driving during winter. Airports use winter service vehicles to keep both aircraft surfaces, and runways and taxiways free of snow and ice, which, besides endangering aircraft takeoff and landing, can interfere with the aerodynamics of the craft.
The earliest winter service vehicles were snow rollers, designed to maintain a smooth, even road surface for sleds, although horse-drawn snowplows and gritting vehicles are recorded in use as early as 1862. The increase in motor car traffic and aviation in the early 20th century led to the development and popularisation of large motorised winter service vehicles.
History
Although snow removal dates back to at least the Middle Ages, early attempts merely involved using a shovel or broom to remove snow from walkways and roads. Before motorised transport, snow removal was seen as less of a concern; unpaved roads in rural areas were dangerous and bumpy, and snow and ice made the surface far smoother. Most farmers could simply replace their wagons with sleds, allowing the transport of heavy materials such as timber with relative ease. Early communities in the northern regions of the United States and Canada even used animal-drawn snow rollers, the earliest winter service vehicles, to compress the snow covering roads. The compression increased the life of the snow and eased passage for sleds. Some communities even employed snow wardens to spread or "pave" snow onto exposed areas such as bridges, to allow sleds to use these routes.
However, with the increase in paved roads and the increasing size of cities, snow-paving fell out of favour, as the resultant slippery surfaces posed a danger to pedestrians and traffic. The earliest patents for snowplows date back to 1840, but there are no records of their actual use until 1862, when the city of Milwaukee began operating horse-drawn carts fitted with snowplows. The horse-drawn snowplow quickly spread to other cities, especially those in areas prone to heavy snowfall.
The first motorised snowplows were developed in 1913, based on truck and tractor bodies. These machines allowed the mechanisation of the snow clearing process, reducing the labor required for snow removal and increasing the speed and efficiency of the process. The expansion of the aviation industry also acted as a catalyst for the development of winter service vehicles during the early 20th century. Even a light dusting of snow or ice could cause an aeroplane to crash, so airports erected snow fences around airfields to prevent snowdrifts, and began to maintain fleets of vehicles to clear runways in heavy weather.
With the popularisation of the motor car, it was found that plowing alone was insufficient for removing all snow and ice from the roadway, leading to the development of gritting vehicles, which used sodium chloride to accelerate the melting of the snow. Early attempts at gritting were resisted, as the salt used encouraged rusting, causing damage to the metal structures of bridges and the shoes of pedestrians. However, as the number of motoring accidents increased, the protests subsided and by the end of the 1920s, many cities in the United States used salt and sand to clear the roads and increase road safety. As environmental awareness increased through the 1960s and 1970s, gritting once again came under criticism due to its environmental impact, leading to the development of alternative de-icing chemicals and more efficient spreading systems.
Design
Winter service vehicles are usually based on a dump truck chassis, which are then converted into winter service vehicles either by the manufacturer or an aftermarket third-party. A typical modification involves the replacement of steel components of the vehicle with corrosion resistant aluminium or fibreglass, waterproofing any exposed electronic components, replacement of the stock hopper with a specially designed gritting body, the addition of a plow frame, reinforcement of the wheels, bumpers to support the heavy blade, and the addition of extra headlamps, a light bar, and retroreflectors for visibility.
Other common changes include the replacement of the factory stock tires with rain tires or mud and snow tires and the shortening of the vehicle's wheelbase to improve maneuverability. For smaller applications smaller trucks are used. In Canada, pickup trucks are used with snow removal operations with a blade mounted in front and optional de-icing equipment installed in the rear. Underbody scrapers are also used by some agencies and are mounted between axles, distributing plowing stresses on the chassis more evenly.
In most countries, winter service vehicles usually have amber light bars, which are activated to indicate that the vehicle is operating below the local speed limit or otherwise poses a danger to other traffic, either by straddling lanes or by spreading grit or de-icer. In some areas, such as the Canadian province of Ontario, winter service vehicles use the blue flashing lights associated with emergency service vehicles, rather than the amber or orange used elsewhere. In Michigan, green flashing lights are used. Many agencies also paint their vehicles in high-contrast orange or yellow to allow the vehicles to be seen more clearly in whiteout conditions.
Some winter service vehicles, especially those designed for use on footpaths or pedestrian zones, are built on a far smaller chassis using small tractors or custom made vehicles. These vehicles are often multi-purpose, and can be fitted with other equipment such as brushes, lawnmowers or cranes—as these operations are generally unable to run during heavy snowfalls, there is generally little overlap between the different uses, reducing the size of the fleet required by the agency or contractor.
Modern winter service vehicles will usually also have a satellite navigation system connected to a weather forecast feed, allowing the driver to choose the best areas to treat and to avoid areas in which rain is likely, which can wash away the grit used—the most advanced can even adapt to changing conditions, ensuring optimal gritter and plow settings. Most run on wheels, often with snow chains or studded tires, but some are mounted on caterpillar tracks, with the tracks themselves adapted to throw the snow towards the side of the road. Off-road winter service vehicles mounted on caterpillar tracks are known as snowcats. Snowcats are commonly fitted with snowplows or snow groomers, and are used by ski resorts to smooth and maintain pistes and snowmobile runs, although they can also be used as a replacement for chairlifts.
Military winter service vehicles are heavily armoured to allow for their use in combat zones, especially in Arctic and mountain warfare, and often based on combat bulldozers or Humvees. Military winter service vehicles have been used by the United Nations, Kosovo Force, and the US Army in Central Europe during the Kosovo War, while during the Cold War, the Royal Marines and Royal Corps of Signals deployed a number of tracked vehicles in Norway to patrol the NATO border with the Soviet Union.
Operation
Winter service vehicles are operated by both government agencies and by private subcontractors. Public works in areas which regularly receive snowfall usually maintain a fleet of their own vehicles or pay retainers to contractors for priority access to vehicles in winter, while cities where snow is a less regular occurrence may simply hire the vehicles as needed. Winter service vehicles in the United Kingdom are the only road-going vehicles entitled to use red diesel. Though the vehicles still use public highways, they are used to keep the road network operational, and forcing them to pay extra tax to do so would discourage private contractors from assisting with snow removal on public roads. Winter service vehicle drivers in the United States must hold a Class A or Class B commercial driver's license. Although some agencies in some areas, such as the US state of Minnesota, allow winter service vehicle drivers to operate without any extra training, most provide supplemental lessons to drivers to teach them the most effective and safe methods of snow removal. Many require that trainee drivers ride-along with more experienced drivers, and some even operate specially designed driving simulators, which can safely replicate dangerous winter driving conditions. Other organisations require that all staff have a recognised additional licence or certificate—the United Kingdom Highways Agency for example requires that all staff have both a City & Guilds qualification and a supplemental Winter Maintenance Licence.
Winter service vehicle drivers usually work part-time, before and during inclement weather only, with drivers working a 12- to 16-hour shift. Main roads are typically gritted in advance, to reduce the disruption to the network. Salt barns are provided at regular intervals for drivers to collect more grit, and bedding is provided at road maintenance depots for drivers to use between shifts in heavy or prolonged storms.
Weather conditions typically vary greatly depending on altitude; hot countries can experience heavy snowfall in mountainous regions yet receive very little in low-lying areas, increasing the accident rate among drivers inexperienced in winter driving. In addition, road surface temperatures can fall rapidly at higher altitudes, precipitating rapid frost formation. As a result, gritting and plowing runs are often prioritised in favour of clearing these mountain roads, especially at the start and end of the snow season. The hazardous roads through mountain passes pose additional problems for the large winter service vehicles. The heavy metal frame and bulky grit makes hill climbing demanding for the vehicle, so vehicles have extremely high torque transmission systems to provide enough power to make the climb. Furthermore, because the tight hairpin turns found on mountain slopes are difficult for long vehicles to navigate, winter service vehicles for use in mountainous areas are shortened, usually from six wheels to four.
Equipment
De-icer
De-icers spray heated de-icing fluid, most often using propylene glycol (formerly ethylene glycol was used), onto icy surfaces such as the bodies of aircraft and road surfaces. These prevent ice from forming on the body of the aircraft while on the ground. Ice makes the surface of the wings rougher, reducing the amount of lift they provide while increasing drag. The ice also increases the weight of the aircraft and can affect its balance.
Aircraft de-icing vehicles usually consist of a large tanker truck, containing the concentrated de-icing fluid, with a water feed to dilute the fluid according to the ambient temperature. The vehicle also normally has a cherry picker crane, allowing the operator to spray the entire aircraft in as little time as possible; an entire Boeing 737 can be treated in under 10 minutes by a single de-icing vehicle.
In road snow and ice control, brine is often used as an anti-icer rather than a de-icer. A vehicle carries a tank of brine, which is sprayed on the road surface before or at the onset of the storm. This keeps snow and ice from adhering to the surface and makes mechanical removal by plows easier. Solid salt is also wetted with brine or other liquid deicer. This speeds de-icing action and helps keep it from bouncing off the pavement into the gutter or ditch. Brine acts faster than solid salt and does not require compression by passing traffic to become effective. The brine is also more environmentally friendly, as less salt is required to treat the same length of road.
Airport runways are also de-iced by sprayers fitted with long spraying arms. These arms are wide enough to cross the entire runway, and allow de-icing of the entire airstrip to take place in a single pass, reducing the length of time that the runway is unavailable.
Front-end loader
Front-end loaders are commonly used to remove snow especially from sidewalks, parking lots, and other areas too small for using snowplows and other heavy equipment. They are sometimes used as snowplows with a snowplow attachment but commonly have a bucket or snowbasket, which can also be used to load snow into the rear compartment of a snowplow or dump truck. Front end loaders with large box-like front end attachment are used to clear snow in parking lots in malls and other institutions.
Gritter
A gritter, also known as a sander, salt spreader or salt truck, is found on most winter service vehicles. Indeed, the gritter is so commonly seen on winter service vehicles that the terms are sometimes used synonymously. Gritters are used to spread grit (usually rock salt), onto roads. The grit is stored in the large hopper on the rear of the vehicle, with a wire mesh over the top to prevent foreign objects from entering the spreading mechanism and hence becoming jammed. The salt is generally spread across the roadway by an impeller, attached by a hydraulic drive system to a small onboard engine. However, until the 1970s, the grit was often spread manually using shovels by men riding on the back of the truck, and some older spreading mechanisms still require grit be manually loaded into the impeller from the hopper.
Salt reduces the melting point of ice by freezing-point depression, causing it to melt at lower temperatures and run off to the edge of the road, while sand increases traction by increasing friction between car tires and roadways. The amount of salt dropped varies with the condition of the road; to prevent the formation of light ice, approximately is dropped, while thick snow can require up to of salt, independent of the volume of sand dropped. The grit is sometimes mixed with molasses to help adhesion to the road surface. However, the sweet molasses often attracts livestock, who lick the road.
Gritters are among the winter service vehicles also used in airports, to keep runways free of ice. However, the salt normally used to clear roads can damage the airframe of aircraft and interferes with the sensitive navigation equipment. As a result, airport gritters spread less dangerous potassium acetate or urea onto the runways instead, as these do not corrode the aircraft or the airside equipment.
Gritters can also be used in hot weather, when temperatures are high enough to melt the bitumen used in asphalt. The grit is dropped to provide a protective layer between the road surface and the tires of passing vehicles, which would otherwise damage the road surface by "plucking out" the bitumen-coated aggregate from the road surface.
Snow blower
Snow blowers, also known as rotating snowplows or snow cutters, can be used in place of snowplows on winter service vehicles. A snow blower consists of a rapidly spinning auger which cuts through the snow, forcing it out of a funnel attached to the top of the blower. Snow blowers typically clear much faster than plows, with some clearing in excess of of snow per hour, and can cut through far deeper snow drifts than a snowplow can. In addition, snow blowers can remove snow from the roadway completely, rather than piling it at the side of the road, making passage easier for other road users and preventing the windrow from blocking driveways.
Jet-powered snow blower
Some railroads occasionally use air-blowing machines, each powered by a jet engine, to clear snow from tracks and switches. In addition to physically blowing snow with the force of the air, they melt recalcitrant precipitation with exhaust temperatures over . Approximately 100 are believed to have been manufactured in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s; they are used so rarely that they are generally maintained indefinitely rather than being replaced. For example, in the Boston area the MBTA uses two model RP-3 Portec RMC Hurricane Jet Snow Blowers, nicknamed "Snowzilla", to clear heavy snows from the Ashmont–Mattapan High Speed Line and Wellington Yard. The jet snow blowers can be faster and gentler than conventional removal methods, but they consume a large amount of fuel.
Snow groomer
A snow groomer is a machine designed to smooth and compact the snow, rather than removing it altogether. Early snow groomers were used by residents of rural areas to compress the snow close to their homes, and consisted of a heavy roller hauled by oxen which compacted the snow to make a smooth surface for sledging. With the invention of the motor car, snow groomers were replaced by snowplows and snow blowers on public thoroughfares, but remained in use at ski resorts, where they are used to maintain smooth, safe trails for various wintersports, including skiing, snowboarding and snowmobiling. Snow groomers remained unchanged throughout the 20th century, with most consisting of heavy roller which could be attached to a tractor or snowcat and then hauled across the area to be groomed.
The development of more advanced electronic systems in the 1980s allowed manufacturers to produce snow groomers which could work on and replicate a much wider range of terrains, with the most modern even able to produce half-pipes and ramps for snowboarding. Snow groomers are also used in conjunction with snow cannons, to ensure that the snow produced is spread evenly across the resort. However, snow groomers have a detrimental effect on the environment within the resort. Regular pressure from the grooming vehicle increases the infiltration rate of the soil while decreasing the field capacity. This increases the rate at which water can soak through the soil, making it more prone to erosion.
Snow melter
A snow-melting vehicle works by scooping snow into a melting pit located in a large tank at the rear of the vehicle. Around the melting pit is a thin jacket full of warm water, heated by a powerful burner. The gases from the burner are bubbled through the water, causing some of the heated water to spill over into the melting pit, melting the snow instantly. The meltwater is discharged into the storm drains.
Because they have to carry the large water tank and fuel for the burner, snow melting machines tend to be much larger and heavier than most winter service vehicles, at around , with the largest being hauled by semi-trailer tractor units. In addition, the complicated melting process means that snow melting vehicles have a much lower capacity than the equivalent plow or blower vehicle; the largest snow melter can remove 500 metric tons of snow per hour, compared to the 5,000 metric tons per hour capacity of any large snow blower.
Snow melters are in some ways more environmentally friendly than gritters, as they do not spray hazardous materials, and pollutants from the road surface can be separated from the meltwater and disposed of safely. In addition, because the snow is melted on board, the costs of transporting snow from the site are eliminated. On the other hand, snow melting can require large amounts of energy, which has its own costs and environmental impact.
Snowplow
Many winter service vehicles can be fitted with snowplows, to clear roads which are blocked by deep snow. In most cases, the plows are mounted on hydraulically actuated arms, allowing them to be raised, lowered, and angled to better move snow. Most winter service vehicles include either permanently fixed plows or plow frames: 75% of the UK's Highways Agency vehicles include a plow frame to which a blade can be attached. Winter service vehicles with both a plow frame and a gritting body are known as "all purpose vehicles", and while these are more efficient than using dedicated vehicles, the weight of the hopper often decreases the range of the vehicle. Therefore, most operators will keep at least a few dedicated plowing vehicles in store for heavy storms.
In the event that specially designed winter service vehicles are not available for plowing, other service or construction vehicles can be used instead: among those used by various authorities are graders, bulldozers, skid loaders, pickup trucks and rubbish trucks. Front-end loaders can also be used to plow snow. Either a snowplow attachment can be mounted on the loader's arm in place of the bucket, or the bucket or snowbasket can be used to load snow into the rear compartment of a snowplow or dump truck, which then hauls it away. Snowplows are dangerous to overtake; often, the oncoming lane may not be completely free of snow. In addition, the plow blade causes considerable spray of snow on both sides, which can obscure the vision of other road users.
Snow sweeper
A snow sweeper uses brushes to remove thin layers of snow from the pavement surface. Snow sweepers are used after plowing to remove any remaining material missed by the larger vehicles in areas with very low snow-tolerance, such as airport runways and racing tracks, as the flexible brushes follow the terrain better than the rigid blades of snowplows and snow blowers. These brushes also allow the vehicle to be used on the tactile tiles found at traffic lights and tram stops, without damaging the delicate surface. Unlike other winter service vehicles, snow sweepers do not compress the snow, leaving a rough, high friction, surface behind them. This makes snow sweepers the most efficient method of snow removal for snow depths below . Snow deeper than this, however, can clog the brushes, and most snow sweepers cannot be used to clear snow deeper than . A more advanced version of the snow sweeper is the jet sweeper, which adds an air-blower just behind the brushes, in order to blow the swept snow clear of the pavement and prevent the loosened snow from settling.
Surface friction tester
The surface friction tester is a small fifth wheel attached to a hydraulic system mounted on the rear axle of the vehicle, used to measure road slipperiness. The wheel, allowed to roll freely, is slightly turned relative to the ground so that it partially slides. Sensors attached to the axis of the wheel calculate the friction between the wheel and the pavement by measuring the torque produced by the rotation of the wheel. Surface friction testers are used at airports and on major roadways before ice formation or after snow removal. The vehicle can relay the surface friction data back to the control centre, allowing gritting and clearing to be planned so that the vehicles are deployed most efficiently. Surface friction testers often include a water spraying system, to simulate the effects of rain on the road surface before the rain occurs. The sensors are usually mounted to small compact or estate cars or to a small trailer, rather than the large trucks used for other winter service equipment, as the surface friction tester works best when attached to a lightweight vehicle.
Materials
To improve traction and melt ice or snow, winter service vehicles spread granular or liquid ice-melting chemicals and grit, such as sand or gravel.
The most common chemical is rock salt, which can melt snow at low temperatures but has some unwanted side effects. If the salt concentration becomes high enough, it can be toxic to plant and animal life and greatly accelerate corrosion of metals, so operators should limit gritting to an absolute minimum. The dropped salt is eventually washed away and lost, so it may not be reused or collected after gritting runs. By contrast, the insoluble sand can be collected and recycled by street sweeping vehicles and mixed with new salt crystals to be reused in later batches of grit.
Sea salt may not be used, as it is too fine and dissolves too quickly, so all salt used in gritting comes from salt mines, a non-renewable source. As a result, some road maintenance agencies have networks of ice prediction stations, to prevent unnecessary gritting, which not only wastes salt but can also damage the environment and disrupt traffic.
The U.S. state of Oregon uses magnesium chloride, a relatively cheap chemical similar in snow-melting effects to sodium chloride, but less reactive, while New Zealand uses calcium magnesium acetate, which avoids the environmentally harmful chloride ion altogether. Urea is sometimes used to grit suspension bridges, as it does not corrode iron or steel at all, but urea is less effective than salt and can cost up to seven times more, weight-for-weight.
In some areas of the world, including Berlin, Germany, dropping salt is prohibited altogether except on the highest-risk roads; plain sand without any melting agents is spread instead. While this may protect the environment, it is more labour-intensive, as more gritting runs are needed; because the sand is insoluble, it tends to accumulate at the sides of the road, making it more difficult for buses to pull in at bus stops.
Grit is often mixed with hydrous sodium ferrocyanide as an anticaking agent which, while harmless in its natural form, can undergo photodissociation in strong sunlight to produce the extremely toxic chemical hydrogen cyanide. Although sunlight is generally not intense enough to cause this in polar and temperate regions, salt deposits must kept as far as possible from waterways to avert the possibility of cyanide-tainted runoff water entering fisheries or farms.
Gritting vehicles are also dangerous to overtake; as grit is scattered across the entire roadway, loose pieces can damage the paintwork and windows of passing cars. Loose salt does not provide sufficient traction for motorcycles, which can lead to skidding, especially around corners.
See also
Snow emergency
Snowplow
Snow removal
Wedge plow
References
Further reading
External links
General
Snow removal site links—National Snow and Ice Data Center
Real Time update for Gritted Roads in UK
Road snow removal
Driving in adverse weather conditions—The Highway Code
Winter Service—The Highways Agency
Photograph: Road rolling-about 1885-under direction of James Little, overseer of highways, Calumet Township, Michigan, US-The Bentley Historical Library
Winter driving advice
Airport snow removal
Winter services at Dresden Airport—Dresden Airport
Snow clearance at Vnukovo International Airport—Vnukovo International Airport
Engineering vehicles
Road safety
Snowplows
Snow removal
Trucks
Articles containing video clips
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Petchboonchu (born July 30, 1990) is a Thai Muay Thai fighter.
Petchboonchu started competing at the age of 7 and by the time he retired at 26, he had won a combined 13 Stadium and Thailand titles, making him one of the most decorated Muay Thai fighters ever. He is now a trainer at Evolve MMA in Singapore.
Titles and accomplishments
Professional Boxing Association of Thailand (PAT)
2006 Thailand 105 lbs Champion
2006 Thailand 108 lbs Champion
2007 Thailand 112 lbs Champion
2008 Thailand 122 lbs Champion
2012 Thailand 135 lbs Champion
2014 Thailand 135 lbs Champion
2014 Thailand 140 lbs Champion
Lumpinee Stadium
2007 Lumpinee Stadium 118 lbs Champion
2008 Lumpinee Stadium 126 lbs Champion
2009 Lumpinee Stadium 130 lbs Champion
2011 Lumpinee Stadium 135 lbs Champion
2013 Lumpinee Stadium 135 lbs Champion
World Muaythai Council
2013 WMC World 135 lbs Champion
Siam Keela
2013 Siam Keela "Fighter of the Year" Award
Rajadamnern Stadium
2014 Rajadamnern Stadium 140 lbs Champion
Toyota Marathon
2014 Toyota Marathon Tournament Champion
Muay Thai record
Fight record
|- style="background:#fbb;"
| 2015-12-08 || Loss ||align=left| Phetmorakot Petchyindee Academy || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 2015-09-20 || Win ||align=left| Matt Embree || Top King World Series || Laos || Decision || 3 || 3:00
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 2015-07-01 || Win ||align=left| Daniel Puertas Gallardo || T-One || China || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2015-06-11 || Win ||align=left| Chamuaktong Fightermuaythai || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2015-04-26|| Loss ||align=left| Kongsak Saenchaimuaythaigym || Rangsit Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2015-02-07|| Loss ||align=left| Bobo Sacko || La Nuit des Titans, Final || France || Decision || 3 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2015-02-07|| Win ||align=left| Mohamed Galaoui || La Nuit des Titans, Semi Finals || France || TKO || 2 ||
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2014-11-29 || Loss ||align=left| Greg Wooton || Power Of Scotland 17 || United Kingdom || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2014-10-31 || Loss ||align=left| Nong-O Kaiyanghadaogym || Toyota marathon || Thailand || Decision || 3 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2014-10-31 || Win ||align=left| Singdam Kiatmuu9 || Toyota tournament || Thailand || Decision || 3 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 2014-10-09 || Loss ||align=left| Yodwicha Por Boonsit || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
|- bgcolor="#FFBBBB"
| 2014-09-10 || Loss ||align=left| Yodwicha Por Boonsit || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2014-07-25 || Win ||align=left| Chamuaktong Fightermuaythai || Toyota Marathon, final || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 3 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2014-07-25 || Win ||align=left| Jimmy Vienot || Toyota Marathon, Semi finals || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 3 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2014-07-25 || Win ||align=left| Victor Nunez || Toyota Marathon, Quarter finals || Bangkok, Thailand || TKO || 2 ||
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2014-07-08 || Win ||align=left| Saensatharn P.K. Saenchai Muaythaigym || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || TKO || 2 ||
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2014-06-11 || Win ||align=left| Yodwicha Por Boonsit || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|-
|- bgcolor="#c5d2ea"
| 2014-05-08 || Draw ||align=left| Yodwicha Por Boonsit || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Draw|| 5 || 3:00
|-
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2014-02-28 || Win ||align=left| Yodwicha Por Boonsit || Lumpini Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2014-02-07 || Win ||align=left| Saenchai || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2014-01-07 || Win ||align=left| Pakorn PKSaenchaimuaythaigym || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2013-12-03 || Win ||align=left| Saenchai || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2013-10-31 || Win ||align=left| Vahid Shahbazi || Toyota Marathon || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2013-10-11 || Win ||align=left| Singdam Kiatmuu9 || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2013-08-08 || Loss ||align=left| Chamuaktong Fightermuaythai || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2013-07-12|| Loss ||align=left| Kongsak Saenchaimuaythaigym || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2013-05-10 || Loss ||align=left| Singdam Kiatmuu9 || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 2013-04-09 || Loss ||align=left| Yodwicha Por Boonsit || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2013-02-07 || Win ||align=left| Thongchai Sitsongpeenong || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- bgcolor="#fbb"
| 2013-01-04 || Loss ||align=left| Yodwicha Por Boonsit || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2012-12-07 || Win ||align=left| Diesellek Aoodonmuang || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2012-10-04 || Win ||align=left| Nong-O Kaiyanghadaogym || Rajadamnern Stadium Wanmitchai Fight || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2012-09-07 || Win ||align=left| Sagetdao Petpayathai || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2012-07-31 || Loss ||align=left| Wanchalerm Uddonmuang || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2012-07-07 || Loss ||align=left| Sagetdao Petpayathai || || Surathani, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2012-06-08 || Loss ||align=left| Nong-O Kaiyanghadaogym || Lumpinee Champion Krikkrai Fight || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2012-04-03 || Win ||align=left| Wanchalerm Uddonmuang || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2012-03-12 || Win ||align=left| Jomthong Chuwattana || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2011-10-07 || Loss ||align=left| Singdam Kiatmuu9 || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2011-09-13 || Win ||align=left| Saenchai || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2011-08-02 || Win ||align=left| Singdam Kiatmuu9 || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2011-07-07 || Win ||align=left| Sagetdao Petpayathai || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2011-06-10 || Win ||align=left| Singdam Kiatmuu9 || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2011-03-08 || Loss ||align=left| Sagetdao Petpayathai || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2010-11-02 || Loss ||align=left| Nong-O Kaiyanghadaogym || Suek Lumpinee-Rajadamnern Special || Bangkok, Thailand || TKO || 3 ||
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2010-10-05 || Loss ||align=left| Saenchai || Petyindee fights, Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2010-09-03 || Win ||align=left| Sagetdao Petpayathai || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2010-06-04 || Loss ||align=left| Sagetdao Petpayathai || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2010-05-07 || Loss ||align=left| Sagetdao Petpayathai || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2010-03-12 || Loss ||align=left| Nong-O Kaiyanghadaogym || Suek Petyindee, Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || TKO || 2 ||
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2010-02-10 || Win ||align=left| Orono Wor Petchpun || Daorungprabath Fight, Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;"
| 2009-12-08 || Loss ||align=left| Nong-O Kaiyanghadaogym || Lumpinee Birthday Show || Bangkok, Thailand || TKO || 1 ||
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2009-09-04 || Win ||align=left| Nong-O Kaiyanghadaogym || Suek Muay Thai champions of Lumpinee Champion Krikkrai || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2009-08-07 || Win ||align=left| Saenchai || Petchpiya Fight, Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#FFBBBB;"
| 2009-07-03 || Loss ||align=left| Saenchai || Lumpinee vs. Rajadamnern, Lumpinee Stadium, first opponent || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#FFBBBB;"
| 2009-05-01 || Loss ||align=left| Nong-O Kaiyanghadaogym || Suek Petsupapan, Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#FFBBBB;"
| 2009-04-03 || Loss ||align=left| Saenchai || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision (Unanimous) || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2009-03-06 || Win ||align=left| Jomthong Chuwattana || Suek Krikkrai Fights, Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2009-02-06 || Win ||align=left| Wuttidet Lukprabat || || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2008-12-09 || Win ||align=left| Saenghiran Loogbanyai || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2008-10-31 || Win ||align=left| Pansak Look Bor Kor || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2008-09-30 || Win ||align=left| Wuttidet Lukprabat|| Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2008-09-03 || Win ||align=left| Puengnoi Phetsupapan || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2008-08-08 || Win ||align=left| Karnchai Fairtex || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2008-07-29 || Win ||align=left| Tamwit Or Patcharee || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2008-07-04 || Win ||align=left| Rungruanlek Lookprabath || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2008-06-04 || Win ||align=left| Detnarong Sitjaboon || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2008-05-02 || Win ||align=left| Kaptiankane Narupai || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#FFBBBB;"
| 2008-02-29 || Loss ||align=left| Sam-A Gaiyanghadao || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || TKO (Low kicks) || 4 ||
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2008-01-29 || Win ||align=left| Meakpayak || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#FFBBBB;"
| 2008-01-04 || Loss ||align=left| Sam-A Gaiyanghadao || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2007-12-07 || Win ||align=left| Rakkiat Kiatprapat || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2007-11-02 || Win ||align=left| Doungpichit || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2007-07-06 || Win ||align=left| Panomrunglek Kiatmoo9 || Lumpinee Stadium || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2007-06-05 || Win ||align=left| Kompichit RiflorniaSauna || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2007-05-04 || Win ||align=left| Yodpetaek Sritmanarong || || Thailand || TKO || 2 ||
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2007-01-30 || Win ||align=left| Suwitlek K.Sapaotong || || Thailand || DQ || 4 ||
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2006-12-22 || Win ||align=left| Leamphet Sitjepatum || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2006-11-24 || Win ||align=left| Yodrachan Or Kietbanphot || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#FFBBBB;"
| 2006-07-14 || Win ||align=left| Lekkla Tanasuranakorn || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2006-04-25 || Win ||align=left| Lekkla Tanasuranakorn || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
! style=background:white colspan=9 |
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2006-03-24 || Win ||align=left| Yodpoj S.Skaorath || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2005-11-15 || Win ||align=left| Buriangnong || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2005-09-10 || Win ||align=left| Lemphet S.Werapon || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#FFBBBB;"
| 2005-08-10 || Win ||align=left| Lekkla Tanasuranakorn || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2005-07-29 || Win ||align=left| Petsiam S.Pantip || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2005-06-28 || Win ||align=left| Kaosod R.Kilaangtong || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#FFBBBB;"
| 2005-03-04 || Win ||align=left| Lekkla Tanasuranakorn || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2005-02-01 || Win ||align=left| Luktob Mor Siprasert || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2004-09-04 || Win ||align=left| Mi Romsitong || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|- style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"
| 2004-08-10 || Win ||align=left| Petchnoi || || Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00
|-
| colspan=9 | Legend:
References
1990 births
Living people
Petchboonchu FA Group
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doc-en-6524_0
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The architectural structures of Fredericksburg, Texas are often unique to the Texas Hill Country, and are historical edifices of the German immigrants who settled the area in the 19th Century. Many of the structures have historic designations on a state or national level. The Gillespie County Historical Society is actively involved in assisting with preservation.
On October 14, 1970, the Fredericksburg Historic District was added to the National Register of Historic Places in Texas.
Sunday Houses
The Sunday Houses are unique to the German immigrant culture of the Texas Hill Country. In reverse of the old European tradition of living in town while working the rural farms, the early Fredericksburg German settlers made their main homes on the acreage they worked. On their town lots, they erected Sunday Houses for overnight stays on their weekly travels into town for supplies and church attendance. Older generations would use the houses as a retirement house, as the younger generations inherited the acreage and the work. These houses were often made of limestone rock coated with whitewash inside and out. Depending on the individual family's need, these relatively small houses were designed for limited stays, with one or two ground floor rooms and an upper loft for sleeping. Standard design was a fireplace and a porch. Often there was an outside staircase leading to the loft. Many of these homes in Fredericksburg have been restored, with some of them being used as Bed and Breakfast retreats.
Pioneer Museum Complex
The Pioneer Museum Complex is located at 325 W Main Street. The 3.5 acre complex includes a museum and historical buildings.
The Vereins Kirche
The Vereins Kirche was designated a recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1967, marker number 10123.
Markplatz
The Vereins Kirche, or Peoples Church, was designed by Friedrich Schubbert (aka Friedrich Armand Strubberg) and became the first public building in Fredericksburg in 1847. It served as a nondenominational church, school, town hall, and fort. Locals refer to it as the Kaffeemühle (The Coffee Mill) Church for its shape. Pupils learned their lessons in their own German language, and their parents paid $1 per quarter in tuition for each child. The first teacher in the Vereins-Kirche in 1847 was Professor Johann (John) Leyendecker, who emigrated from Rhineland-Palatinate with his wife and five children. They sailed on the ship Riga, which left Antwerp on November 7, 1845, and arrived in Galveston on February 1, 1846. Leyendecker also provided his home for Catholic services. Leyendecker was succeeded as the Vereins Kirche teacher in 1848 by Jacob Brodbeck. The building models a style known as Carolingian architecture, similar to the Aachen Cathedral. Each side of the octagon was wide by high, with each side having a roof high, topped by a high octagonal cupola. A rooster weather vane that sat on top was destroyed by lightning and replaced by a cross. In 1896 (or 1897) the original building was torn down. The Vereins Kirche was rebuilt in 1936, using the cornerstone from the original building.
Arhelger Bathhouse
The Arhelger Bathhouse operated from 1910–1930 for travelers; it was donated by Kenneth and JoAnn Kothe in 1995.
Dambach-Besier House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1985, Marker number 10026.
515 E. Main
The 1869 limestone Dambach-Besier House serves as the West End Visitor Center for the Fredericksburg Convention and Visitors Bureau Welcome Center. The house originally sat on a lot which cost F. Dambach $70 in 1867. Widow Anna Besier acquired the property in 1881 and moved there so her children could attend school in town. She sold dairy products from the milk cows she kept across the street. Donated in 2005 by Kenneth and JoAnn Kothe, the house was disassembled, moved, and reconstructed at its current location.
Fassel-Roeder House
The Fassel-Roeder House began as a butcher shop in 1876, with living quarters added later. The centerpiece of the house is a coin-operated music box from Leipzig.
Fredericksburg Volunteer Fire Department Museum
The Fredericksburg Volunteer Fire Department Museum displays fire fighting equipment from the early 20th century. The Fredericksburg Volunteer Fire Department was begun in 1883 by the Turn Verein organization.
Kammlah House
309–315 W. Main Street
The 1849 Kammlah House, designated a recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1966, marker number 10064, was purchased by the Gillespie County Historical Society from the Kammlah family in 1955. This house was originally a one-room structure with stone floors and stone hearth, wall plaster over woven twig supports used in interior, and enlarged over the years by the Kammlahs, who operated the house as a general store for over 50 years. A barn and smokehouse are part of the property.
Walton-Smith Log Cabin
The 1880s Walton-Smith Log Cabin is a small log, stone, and mortar cabin with a one-room frame addition, built by John and Nancy Walton. It was moved and rebuilt at its current location in 1985 by Cox Restoration.
Weber Sunday House
The Weber Sunday House was built by August Weber in 1904, with no electricity or running water, for the family's weekly trips into town.
White Oak School
The White Oak School is one-room country schoolhouse which accommodated students in grades one through eight and was built in the 1920s. Teachers were required to speak both English and German, and the first teacher A.D. Fischer earned $30 a month. Financial support for the teacher and school was provided by a flat annual fee, plus an additional monthly stipend per student. Donated by Mr. and Mrs. Charles Feller.
Joseph Wilson and Ruth Ament Huffman Baines House
Designated a recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 2002, marker number 12975, the house at 102 W. College St was built in 1904 by the maternal grandparents of Lyndon B. Johnson, Joseph Wilson Baines (1846–1906) and Ruth Ament Huffman Baines (1854–1936). They constructed the exterior of the house out of prefabricated concrete blocks made locally by Basse Blocks.
Bank of Fredericksburg
120 E. Main Street
The Richardsonian Romanesque style bank building was designed in 1889 by architect Alfred Giles. He also designed two other structures in Fredericksburg, the old courthouse now known as the Fredericksburg Memorial Library, and the William Bierschwale house on Bowie Street.
A fourth design by Giles is the 1893 Morris Ranch Schoolhouse at Morris Ranch in Gillespie County.
Christian Crenwelge Place
Designated a recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1979, marker number 10023, the house at 312 W. Schubert is a Victorian-style Sunday House constructed in 1902. In 1872, German farmer and cabinetmaker Christian Crenwelge bought the property at a sheriff's sale, and temporarily operated a molasses factory here before building the home on the property.
Dangers Stone House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1974, Marker number 10027.
213 W. Creek Street
The Rev. Gottlieb Burchard Dangers arrived from Germany on June 20, 1845, on the ship Johann Dethardt. He moved to Fredericksburg in 1849, becoming the second Protestant minister in town. Rev. Dangers constructed this fachwerk house in 1851. An additional two rooms and a cellar were added later.
Domino Parlor
Designated a recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1980, marker number 10029, the stone structure business establishment at 222 E. Main Street, with its vaulted ceiling and cellar, was built in the early 1850s by John Schmidtzinsky. When H.R. Richter had a jewelry store and music store in the building, he held concerts in the front room. The building has also been home to the Domino Parlor restaurant.
Fredericksburg College Building
Designated a recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1971, marker number 10040, the building at 108 W. Travis Street was erected and organized in 1874 by the German Methodist Mission Conference of Texas and Louisiana -Methodist Episcopal Church, South. The hand-cut stone building housed an institute of higher learning which operated 1876–1884 and had 250 students at its peak.
Fredericksburg Social Turn Verein (Turner Hall)
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1994, Marker number 10043.
103 W. Travis
The Turnvereins, or athletic clubs, were begun in Germany by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn in 1811, and were brought to the United States by the Forty-Eighters political refugees. In Texas, it became two words, Turn Verein, and served as social, political and athletic centers. The German founders of the clubs in Texas were usually civic leaders, teachers, scientists and artists. Turners helped popularize bowling in the United States, advocated physical education and fitness, and lobbied local school boards for the inclusion of physical education classes in the curriculum. The Fredericksburg Social Turn Verein was established in 1871, with a gymnastics school and a 9-pin bowling alley. In 1872 the club began annual Christmas celebrations. The Turners instituted the City Volunteer Fire Department in 1883. The Fredericksburg Social Turn Verein moved to 103 W. Travis Street in 1909, and remains active as one of the city's oldest continuing organizations.
Gillespie County 1885 Jailhouse
Located at 117 San Antonio Street and designated a recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1980, marker number 10021, Gillespie County's first jail was a by building erected in 1852. John Raegner and John Walch constructed the second jail out of stone and iron near the courthouse for $413.50. It measured by . Ludwig Schmidt built the third jail in 1859 for $800. It measured by , constructed out of stone, and had four rooms and a cellar. A fourth jailhouse was built in 1874, and burned down in 1885, with one fatality being a prisoner.
The 1885 jailhouse is often referred to as the fourth jail, but is in actuality the fifth. C. F. Priess and Brothers Builders were contracted to build the two-story limestone structure, and construction costs came in at $9,962. The ground floor served as a holding area, as well as living quarters for the jailer. The second floor had two steel-clad cells, and maximum-security cells.
When the new Gillespie County Courthouse was built in 1939, the jail was on the third floor. Currently, a free-standing structure is in place.
Adolph Gold House
This house, at 212 E. Travis Street, was built in 1901 by Adolph Gold as part of an early subdivision; the house is constructed of native limestone and Basse Blocks. It was designated a recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1990, marker number 10046.
Gold-Grobe House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1989, Marker number 10047.
418 N. Llano Street
Peter Gold Sr. built the original one-story native limestone house in 1902. In 1914, Friedrich William Grobe purchased the house and added a second story with Basse Blocks.
Gun Cap Factory
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1964, Marker number 10050.
306 W. Main Street
Gunsmith Engelbert Krauskopf and silversmith Adolph Lungkwitz manufactured gun caps at this location during the Civil War.
Carl Henke House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1978, Marker number 10052.
116 E. Travis Street
Carl Henke was born Fredericksburg in 1848 and is believed to be the first boy baby born to the new German colonists. In 1874, he built the original native limestone structure for John Schmidt, in Sunday House style with an outside stairway. Henke purchased the house from Schmidt in the 1880s, and added a west-wide wing in 1911.
Keidel Memorial Hospital
254–258 E. Main
In 1909, Dr. Albert Keidel, son of Fredericksburg's first physician Dr. Wilhelm Victor Keidel, built Keidel Memorial Hospital. Albert Keidel died in 1914. Dr. Victor Keidel purchased the building in 1919, sold it in 1923 and bought it back in 1937. He adapted it to create the Keidel Memorial Hospital. The "Keidel Clinic" served the people of Fredericksburg until the larger and more modern Hill Country Memorial Hospital opened in 1971. The Keidel Memorial Hospital building now houses a Gourmet Kitchen Store, Der Kuchen Laden, owned by the granddaughter of Dr. Victor Keidel. Rathskeller restaurant is located in the basement space. Original furnishings of the building are cared for by Gillespie County Historical Society.
Kiehne-Hermann Home
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1976, Marker number 10065.
405 E. Main Street
German immigrant Frederick Kiehne built this hand-cut limestone, adobe brick and timber home in 1850. Kiehne was a local blacksmith and Gillespie County commissioner. He enlarged the house a decade later. Walter Foerster owned the house in the 1930s and made an additional enlargement. It was restored by Maria and Ronald Herrmann in the early 1970s.
Kloth-Ludwig Home
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1980, Marker number 10067.
414 E. Main Street
The native combination commercial-residential limestone building was constructed c. 1870 on property owned by John Adams Alberthal. Christian Kloth purchased the home in 1878. Upon his death in 1904, it was inherited by his daughters.
Johann Joseph Knopp House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1971, Marker number 10066.
309 W. Schubert Street
On a site purchased for $70 in gold, Johann Knopp and his wife Katherina Stein Knopp built this native limestone house in 1871. The house was restored in 1939 and remodeled in 1968.
Kuenemann House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1998, Marker number 11893.
413 W. Creek Street
Believed to have been built in 1846 by Heinrich Schupp. Frederick Kuenemann purchased this fachwerk house in 1866. Over the years, many additions and improvements were made by the Kuenemann family. By 1929, it was a private residence and nursing home.
Loeffler-Weber House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1971, Marker number 10072.
508 W. Main Street
Log cabin built in 1846–47 by Gerhard Rorig. Noted cabinetmaker Johann Martin Loeffler added typical rock and half-timber rooms and cooking fireplace, 1867; his son-in-law, J. Charles Weber, in 1905 restored the southeast lean-to. Restored 1964 by Mr. and Mrs. George A. Hill, III Consultant: Albert Keidel, Architectural Designer.
Maier-Alberthal House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1983, Marker number 10078.
324 E. Main Street
Believed to have been constructed c. 1860, Anton Maier bought the stone vernacular building in 1866. He deeded the building to his son-in-law August Alberthal. The building has housed various businesses – grocery store, general store, soda water factory, auto repair shop, and house of worship.
Meckel-Hanus Building
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1986, Marker number 10081.
302 E. Main Street
Believed to have been built as a one-story stone structure in 1860, Henry Meckel purchased the building in 1886. Meckel built a second story of Basse Blocks. Dr. J.J. Hanus bought the building in 1927 for a hospital, and altered the outer facade in 1929. From 1949 through 1979, it was a Catholic convent. Restored 1983 by Joe, Pat and Eric Vance.
Meinhardt-Pfeil Home
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1980, Marker number 10082.
125 W. San Antonio
Albert and Doris Meinhardt built the two-story native limestone home c. 1850. Upon Albert's death, Doris sold it to G. Adolph Pfeil, who operated a blacksmith ship and soda water factory from the structure.
Moritz-Hitzfeld-Jacoby House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1987, Marker number 10085.
608 N. Milam
This Victorian native limestone house was built in 1907 for Edmund and Anna Moritz. The house was purchased by Levi and Caroline Hitzfeld in 1941. Felix and Emmy Jacoby purchased it in 1941.
Mosel-Jordan-Duecker Haus
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1986, Marker number 10087.
121 E. San Antonio
Johann Nicholas Mosel built a limestone structure, possibly as a Sunday House, on his 1847 grant from the German Immigration Company. August William Jordan bought the house in 1860. Henry Duecker bought the house to use as a Sunday House, and made frame additions.
Mueller-Petmecky House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1983, Marker number 10083.
201 S. Washington
It is believed the original two-room fachwerk house was built between 1848 and 1850, by colonist Willis Wallace on land from the German Immigration Company. Heinrich Mueller Jr. later bought the home. His son-in-law A.W. Petmecky built a limestone addition in 1895.
Old Central Drugstore
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1985, Marker number 10014.
124 E. Main Street
Swiss immigrant and jeweler-watchmaker Alphons Walter erected the building in 1905. Sold in 1909 to Robert G. Striegler it was operated as the Central Drug Store by various proprietors for over 70 years. In 1954, the telephone exchange leased the second floor to house its switchboard and personnel. The building has also been home to a photography business and doctors offices.
Pape Log Cabin
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1974, Marker number 10092.
213 W. Creek
The Pape family was among the first colonists to arrive in Fredericksburg. The log cabin was built in 1846 from nearby post oak logs. It is believed the first roof was thatched grass
Patton Home
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1980, Marker number 10094.
107 N. Orange St.
Albert Lee Patton and his wife Emma Wahrmund Patton purchased property and built this native limestone house in 1876.
Albert Lee Patton Building
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1980, Marker number 10093.
222 W. Main
In 1897, Albert Lee Patton constructed a two-story native limestone building adjacent to his general store. The ground floor houses the Citizens Bank until it closed in 1932. The second floor was the Patton residence.
Pioneer Memorial Library (1882 Gillespie County Courthouse)
The Pioneer Memorial Library was designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1967, Marker number 10045.
115 W. Main Street
Designed by architect Alfred Giles, it served as the Gillespie County Courthouse from 1882 until 1939. The building was later renovated with underwriting from Mr. and Mrs. Eugene McDermott and was dedicated as a public library in 1967.
Added to the National Register of Historic Places in Texas on March 11, 1971, NRHP Reference #:71000935.
William Rausch House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1985, Marker number 10099.
107 S. Lincoln
William Rausch and his wife Olga Rausch bought this property in 1894, but did not build a house on it until 1906. At that time, they erected a native limestone house, with a central gable and jig-cut decorative trim.
Ressman-Boos House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1983, Marker number 10100.
511 E. Main Street
It is estimated that the earliest part of this fachwerk house was constructed in 1845. Later additions included log and clapboard construction. Christian and Katharina Ressmann purchased the home in 1866, and their family sold it in 1946 to Hilmar and Christian Boos.
Riley-Enderlin House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1987, Marker number 10102.
606 N. Adams
This home was built in 1909 by Franz Stein for Emil H and Bertha Riley. The home was purchased in 1912 by Civil War veteran Charles Enderlin, Sr.
Little Rock House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1965, Marker number 10103.
215B W. Main
Built shortly after the Civil War. School teacher Heinrich Ochs bought this house in 1868.
Schandua Building
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1979, Marker number 10109.
205 E. Main
This hand-hewn limestone building was erected in 1897 and served as a residence for John and Bertha Klein Schandua. The family lived on the second story, and the hardware store was on the bottom story. The Masonic Lodge used to meet on the second floor. The hardware store operated until 1972.
Pioneer Schandua House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1979, Marker number 10110.
111 E. Austin
Believed to have built before 1880, John Schandua purchased the house when he married Bertha Klein in 1883. The front room served at a bedroom and living area, while the back room was the children's bedroom. It was briefly used by the Bethany Lutheran Church.
Schmidt-Dietz Building
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1981, Marker number 10111.
218 W. Main Street
In the 1860s Ludwig Schmidt this two-story stone building as a hotel. It was leased to Louis Dietz in the 1890s, who ran both the Central Hotel and Dietz Hotel out of the building. Charles Schwarz bought the building in 1899 to open a store. The building has also housed a saloon, doctors' and lawyers' offices, and a drugstore.
Schmidt-Gold House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1981, Marker number 10112.
106 S. Lincoln
Lorenz Schmitz built this 2-1/2-story house in the 1860s. The house was enlarged to two floors in 1902 by Jacob Gold, Sr.
Schneider-Klingelhoefer House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1988, Marker number 101114.
714 Main Street
A typical German fachwerk design house, with a porch roof parapet, gable-end chimneys, and a decorative wood balustrade. This was built c. 1870 for German watchmaker-stonemason Ludwig Schneider. Louis Priess owned the house 1883–1890. Arthur Klingelhoefer bought the house in 1924 and a year later resided in it until his death in 1947.
Schwarz Building
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1981, Marker number 10115.
216 W. Main
Charles Schwarz and his wife Mary constructed this native limestone commercial building in 1907. Schwarz General Merchandise and Dry Goods store was on the ground floor, and family living quarters were on the second floor. The building has since housed a variety of businesses and civic organizations.
John Peter Tatsch House
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1965, Marker number 10121.
210 N. Bowie Street
Corner of N. Bowie and W. Schubert Street. Built by John Peter Tatsch in 1856 using local stone. Tatsch, his wife Maria Elizabeth and their daughters emigrated from Irmenach in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany in 1852. Tatsch became a master cabinetmaker in Fredericksburg, and his work is highly prized by collectors of Texas primitive furniture. He built the house himself, and the house was recorded by the Historic American Buildings Survey of the United States Department of Interior. The home's detailed plans were placed in the Library of Congress in 1936.
White Elephant Saloon
246 E. Main
Famous for its elephant relief parapet and rich iron cresting, the native limestone building was constructed in 1888 by John W. Kleck. Originally part of a chain of gentleman's resorts, the building was operated as a saloon until Prohibition.
Churches
Fredericksburg was founded on a tradition of religious tolerance. In 1847, Lyman Wight, with the blessing of John O. Meusebach, built a Mormon temple and founded the Zodiac community near Fredericksburg.
The Vereins Kirche was the first church in Fredericksburg, encompassing all religions under one roof. The majority of the initial settlers of Fredericksburg were of the Evangelical Protestant Church, but some were also Lutheran, Roman Catholic and Methodist. Catholics and Methodists broke away about 1848.
Bethany Lutheran Church
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1990, Marker number 10011.
110 W. Austin Street
On March 27, 1887, eighty families adopted a constitution for Die Evangelische Kirche (The Evangelical church). The congregation met in the Vereins Kirche until they moved their services to Southern Methodist Church. In 1889, they decided to build their own church on a piece of land which cost $200. The building was completed September 9, 1889. Its name was changed in 1932 to Evangelische Lutherische Bethanien Gemeinde. In 1938, the congregation erected a new church on a 3-acre site a block away. In 1954, the congregation adopted the English name Bethany Evangelical Lutheran Church.
Christian Methodist Episcopal Church
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1977, Marker number 10019.
520 E. Main Street
Christian Methodist Episcopal Church began in the 1870s as the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church in an 1877 school house which doubled as a worship house for black families who resided in the area. In 1887 Oscar Basse deeded the lot to trustees William McLane, Silas Russel, James Scruggins, and James Tinker. The building was restored in February 1976, and dedicated as the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church.
First Methodist Church
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1972, Marker number 10038.
312 W. San Antonio Street
First Methodist Church of Fredericksburg was founded 1849 by the Rev. Eduard Schneider, with charter members: Melchior and Rosine Bauer, Johann and Margaretha Durst, Friedrich and Sophie Ellebracht, Ernst and Dorothea Houy, Ferdinand and Maria Kneese, Ludwig Kneese, Heinrich and Catharine Steihl, Jacob and Catharine Treibs, Fritz and Fredericka (Mary) Winkel. In 1855, during pastorate of the Rev. C. A. Grote, a 40 x native stone church was built.
Holy Ghost Lutheran Church
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1981, Marker number 10056.
113 San Antonio Street
Evangelical Protestant Church of the Holy Ghost (Heilige Geist), later to be known as Holy Ghost Lutheran Church, split from the Vereins Kirche congregation in 1886. The cornerstone for the new church was laid in 1888, and the building was finished in 1893.
St. Barnabas Episcopal Church
Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1962, Marker number 10105.
W. Creek Street and S. Bowie Street
Architect: Overland Partners|Architects
St. Barnabas Episcopal Church began in 1946 as meetings in individual homes. President and Mrs. Lyndon B. Johnson attended the 1964 groundbreaking for the church building. Lady Bird Johnson presented the church with a stone from St. Barnabas Church in Cyprus that she had received from Archbishop Makarios on a 1962 visit to the island nation. Mrs. Johnson was a member of St. Barnabas in Fredericksburg, which became the Texas home church for the Johnsons. The President took communion there.
St. Mary's Catholic Church and Our Lady of Guadalupe Chapel
St. Mary's Catholic Church was added to the National Register of Historic Places in Texas in Texas on June 21, 1983, NRHP Reference #:83003143.
306 W. San Antonio
The Catholics began their congregation in 1846. After breaking away from the Vereins Kirche, they erected a log cabin church in 1848. Construction began on Marienkirche (old St. Mary's Church) in 1860. The cornerstone was laid June 1861. The native limestone building was complete November 1863, and a Native American was asked to ring its bell at the dedication. Our Lady of Guadalupe Chapel was built in 1919 to serve Spanish speaking residents of the area. Cornerstone for the new St. Mary's Catholic Church was laid July 4, 1905, built of native limestone in Gothic architecture. The church was completed in 1908.
Zion Lutheran Church
The Zion Lutheran Church was designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1964,
Marker number 10132
424 W. Main
Six Lutheran families broke away in 1852 and founded Zion's Evangelical Lutheran Church. On January 13, 1853, twelve founders signed its articles of organization. The cornerstones for the church were set on March 6, 1854, making it the oldest Lutheran Church in the Texas Hill Country.
Friends of Gillespie County Country Schools
Headquartered in Fredericksburg, the Friends of Gillespie County Country Schools is a group of former students and members of the community, interested in preserving the old country schools, along with the community clubs, and the history of Gillespie County for future generations.
Gallery
See also
History of Fredericksburg, Texas
List of museums in Central Texas
Further reading
References
Bibliography
External links
Pioneer Museum in Fredericksburg
Library of Congress Historic American Buildings Survey (Fredericksburg only)
Library of Congress Historic American Buildings Survey (Gillespie Co)
National Museum of the Pacific War
Buildings and structures in Fredericksburg, Texas
German-American history
German-American culture in Texas
Architecture in Texas
Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks
Fredericksburg
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The spread of HIV/AIDS has affected millions of people worldwide; AIDS is considered a pandemic. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that in 2016 there were 36.7 million people worldwide living with HIV/AIDS, with 1.8 million new HIV infections per year and 1 million deaths due to AIDS. Misconceptions about HIV and AIDS arise from several different sources, from simple ignorance and misunderstandings about scientific knowledge regarding HIV infections and the cause of AIDS to misinformation propagated by individuals and groups with ideological stances that deny a causative relationship between HIV infection and the development of AIDS. Below is a list and explanations of some common misconceptions and their rebuttals.
The relationship between HIV and AIDS
HIV is the same as AIDS
HIV is an acronym for human immunodeficiency virus, which is the virus that causes AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). Contracting HIV can lead to the development of AIDS or stage 3 HIV, which causes serious damage to the immune system. While this virus is the underlying cause of AIDS, not all HIV-positive individuals have AIDS, as HIV can remain in a latent state for many years. If undiagnosed or left untreated, HIV usually progresses to AIDS, defined as possessing a CD4+ lymphocyte count under 200 cells/μl or HIV infection plus co-infection with an AIDS-defining opportunistic infection. HIV cannot be cured, but it can be treated, and its transmission can be halted. Treating HIV can prevent new infections, which is the key to ultimately defeating AIDS.
Treatment
Cure
Highly Active Anti-Retroviral Therapy (HAART) in many cases allows the stabilization of the patient's symptoms, partial recovery of CD4+ T-cell levels, and reduction in viremia (the level of virus in the blood) to low or near-undetectable levels. Disease-specific drugs can also alleviate symptoms of AIDS and even cure specific AIDS-defining conditions in some cases. Medical treatment can reduce HIV infection in many cases to a survivable chronic condition. However, these advances do not constitute a cure, since current treatment regimens cannot eradicate latent HIV from the body.
High levels of HIV-1 (often HAART-resistant) develop if treatment is stopped, if compliance with treatment is inconsistent, or if the virus spontaneously develops resistance to an individual's regimen. Antiretroviral treatment known as post-exposure prophylaxis reduces the chance of acquiring an HIV infection when administered within 72 hours of exposure to HIV. These problems mean that while HIV-positive people with low viremia are less likely to infect others, the chance of transmission always exists. In addition, people on HAART may still become sick.
Sexual intercourse with a virgin will cure AIDS
The myth that sex with a virgin will cure AIDS is prevalent in South Africa. Sex with an uninfected virgin does not cure an HIV-infected person, and such contact will expose the uninfected individual to HIV, potentially further spreading the disease. This myth has gained considerable notoriety as the perceived reason for certain sexual abuse and child molestation occurrences, including the rape of infants, in South Africa.
Sexual intercourse with an animal will avoid or cure AIDS
In 2002, the National Council of Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (NSPCA) in Johannesburg, South Africa, recorded beliefs amongst youths that sex with animals is a means to avoid AIDS or cure it if infected. As with "virgin cure" beliefs, there is no scientific evidence suggesting a sexual act can actually cure AIDS, and no plausible mechanism by which it could do so has ever been proposed. While the risk of contracting HIV via sex with animals is likely much lower than with humans due to HIV's inability to infect animals, the practice of bestiality still has the ability to infect humans with other fatal zoonotic diseases.
HIV antibody testing is unreliable
Diagnosis of infection using antibody testing is a well-established technique in medicine. HIV antibody tests exceed the performance of most other infectious disease tests in both sensitivity (the ability of the screening test to give a positive finding when the person tested truly has the disease) and specificity (the ability of the test to give a negative finding when the subjects tested are free of the disease under study). Many current HIV antibody tests have sensitivity and specificity in excess of 96% and are therefore extremely reliable. While most patients with HIV show an antibody response after six weeks, window periods vary and may occasionally be as long as three months.
Progress in testing methodology has enabled detection of viral genetic material, antigens, and the virus itself in bodily fluids and cells. While not widely used for routine testing due to high cost and requirements in laboratory equipment, these direct testing techniques have confirmed the validity of the antibody tests.
Positive HIV antibody tests are usually followed up by retests and tests for antigens, viral genetic material and the virus itself, providing confirmation of actual infection.
HIV infection
HIV can be spread through casual contact with an HIV infected individual
One cannot become infected with HIV through normal contact in social settings, schools, or in the workplace. Other examples of casual contact in which HIV infection will not occur include shaking someone's hand, hugging or "dry" kissing someone, using the same toilet or drinking from the same glass as an HIV-infected person, and being exposed to coughing or sneezing by an infected person. Saliva carries a negligible viral load, so even open-mouthed kissing is considered a low risk. However, if the infected partner or both of the performers have blood in their mouth due to cuts, open sores, or gum disease, the risk increases. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has only recorded one case of possible HIV transmission through kissing (involving an HIV-infected man with significant gum disease and a sexual partner also with significant gum disease), and the Terence Higgins Trust says that this is essentially a no-risk situation.
Other interactions that could theoretically result in person-to-person transmission include caring for nose bleeds and home health care procedures, yet there are very few recorded incidents of transmission occurring in these ways. A handful of cases of transmission via biting have occurred, though this is extremely rare.
HIV-positive individuals can be detected by their appearance
Due to media images of the effects of AIDS, many people believe that individuals infected with HIV always appear a certain way, or at least appear different from an uninfected, healthy person. In fact, disease progression can occur over a long period of time before the onset of symptoms, and as such, HIV infections cannot be detected based on appearance.
HIV cannot be transmitted through oral sex
Contracting HIV through oral sex is possible, but it is much less likely than from anal sex and penile–vaginal intercourse. No cases of such a transmission were observed in a sample of 8965 people performing receptive oral sex.
HIV is transmitted by mosquitoes
When mosquitoes bite a person, they do not inject the blood of a previous victim into the person they bite next. Mosquitoes do, however, inject their saliva into their victims, which may carry diseases such as dengue fever, malaria, yellow fever, or West Nile virus and can infect a bitten person with these diseases. HIV is not transmitted in this manner. On the other hand, a mosquito may have HIV-infected blood in its gut, and if swatted on the skin of a human who then scratches it, transmission is hypothetically possible, though this risk is extremely small, and no cases have yet been identified through this route.
HIV survives for only a short time outside the body
HIV can survive at room temperature outside the body for hours if dry (provided that initial concentrations are high), and for weeks if wet (in used syringes/needles). However, the amounts typically present in bodily fluids do not survive nearly as long outside the body—generally no more than a few minutes if dry.
HIV can infect only homosexual men and drug users
HIV can transmit from one person to another if an engaging partner is HIV positive. In the United States, the main route of infection is via homosexual anal sex, while for women transmission is primarily through heterosexual contact. It is true that anal sex (regardless of the sex of the receptive partner) carries a higher risk of infection than most sex acts, but most penetrative sex acts between any individuals carry some risk. Properly used condoms can reduce this risk.
An HIV-infected female cannot have children
HIV-infected women remain fertile, although in late stages of HIV disease a pregnant woman may have a higher risk of miscarriage. Normally, the risk of transmitting HIV to the unborn child is between 15 and 30%. However, this may be reduced to just 2–3% if patients carefully follow medical guidelines.
HIV cannot be the cause of AIDS because the body develops a vigorous antibody response to the virus
This reasoning ignores numerous examples of viruses other than HIV that can be pathogenic after evidence of immunity appears. Measles virus may persist for years in brain cells, eventually causing a chronic neurologic disease despite the presence of antibodies. Viruses such as Cytomegalovirus, Herpes simplex virus, and Varicella zoster may be activated after years of latency even in the presence of abundant antibodies. In other animals, viral relatives of HIV with long and variable latency periods, such as visna virus in sheep, cause central nervous system damage even after the production of antibodies.
HIV has a well-recognized capacity to mutate to evade the ongoing immune response of the host.
Only a small number of CD4+ T-cells are infected by HIV, not enough to damage the immune system
Although the fraction of CD4+ T-cells that is infected with HIV at any given time is never high (only a small subset of activated cells serve as ideal targets of infection), several groups have shown that rapid cycles of death of infected cells and infection of new target cells occur throughout the course of the disease. Macrophages and other cell types are also infected with HIV and serve as reservoirs for the virus.
Furthermore, like other viruses, HIV is able to suppress the immune system by secreting proteins that interfere with it. For example, HIV's coat protein, gp120, sheds from viral particles and binds to the CD4 receptors of otherwise healthy T-cells; this interferes with the normal function of these signalling receptors. Another HIV protein, Tat, has been demonstrated to suppress T cell activity.
Infected lymphocytes express the Fas ligand, a cell-surface protein that triggers the death of neighboring uninfected T-cells expressing the Fas receptor. This "bystander killing" effect shows that great harm can be caused to the immune system even with a limited number of infected cells.
History of HIV/AIDS
The current consensus is that HIV was introduced to North America by a Haitian immigrant who contracted it while working in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the early 1960s, or from another person who worked there during that time. In 1981 on June 5, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) published a Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) describing cases of a rare lung infection, Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), in five healthy gay men in Los Angeles. This edition would later become MMWR's first official reporting of the AIDS epidemic in North America. By year-end, a cumulative total of 337 cases of severe immune deficiency had been reported, and 130 out of the 337 reported cases had died. On September 24, 1982, the CDC used the term "AIDS" (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) for the first time, and released the first case definition of AIDS: "a disease at least moderately predictive of a defect in cell-mediated immunity, occurring in a person with no known case for diminished resistance to that disease." The March 4, 1983 edition of the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) noted that most cases of AIDS had been reported among homosexual men with multiple sexual partners, injection drug users, Haitians, and hemophiliacs. The report suggested that AIDS may be caused by an infectious agent that is transmitted sexually or through exposure to blood or blood products, and issued recommendations for preventing transmission. Although most cases of HIV/AIDS were discovered in gay men, on January 7, 1983, the CDC reported cases of AIDS in female sexual partners of males with AIDS. In 1984, scientists identified the virus that causes AIDS, which was first named after the T-cells affected by the strain and is now called HIV or human immunodeficiency virus.
Origin of AIDS through human–monkey sexual intercourse
While HIV is most likely a mutated form of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), a disease present only in chimpanzees and African monkeys, highly plausible explanations for the transfer of the disease between species (zoonosis) exist not involving sexual intercourse. In particular, the African chimpanzees and monkeys which carry SIV are often hunted for food, and epidemiologists theorize that the disease may have appeared in humans after hunters came into blood-contact with monkeys infected with SIV that they had killed. The first known instance of HIV in a human was found in a person who died in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1959, and a recent study dates the last common ancestor of HIV and SIV to between 1884 and 1914 by using a molecular clock approach.
Tennessee State Senator Stacey Campfield was the subject of controversy in 2012 after stating that AIDS was the result of a human having sexual intercourse with a monkey.
Gaëtan Dugas as "patient zero"
The Canadian flight attendant Gaëtan Dugas has been referred to as "patient zero" of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, meaning the first case of HIV/AIDS in the United States. In fact, the "patient zero" moniker originated from a misinterpretation of a 1984 study that referred to Dugas as "patient O", where the O stood for "out of California". A 2016 study published in Nature found "neither biological nor historical evidence that [Dugas] was the primary case in the US or for subtype B as a whole."
AIDS denialism
There is no AIDS in Africa, as AIDS is nothing more than a new name for old diseases
The diseases that have come to be associated with AIDS in Africa, such as cachexia, diarrheal diseases and tuberculosis have long been severe burdens there. However, high rates of mortality from these diseases, formerly confined to the elderly and malnourished, are now common among HIV-infected young and middle-aged people, including well-educated members of the middle class.
For example, in a study in Côte d'Ivoire, HIV-seropositive individuals with pulmonary tuberculosis were 17 times more likely to die within six months than HIV-seronegative individuals with pulmonary tuberculosis. In Malawi, mortality over three years among children who had received recommended childhood immunizations and who survived the first year of life was 9.5 times higher among HIV-seropositive children than among HIV-seronegative children. The leading causes of death were wasting and respiratory conditions. Elsewhere in Africa, findings are similar.
HIV is not the cause of AIDS
There is broad scientific consensus that HIV is the cause of AIDS, but some individuals reject this consensus, including biologist Peter Duesberg, biochemist David Rasnick, journalist/activist Celia Farber, conservative writer Tom Bethell, and intelligent design advocate Phillip E. Johnson. (Some one-time skeptics have since rejected AIDS denialism, including physiologist Robert Root-Bernstein, and physician and AIDS researcher Joseph Sonnabend.)
A great deal is known about the pathogenesis of HIV disease, even though important details remain to be elucidated. However, a complete understanding of the pathogenesis of a disease is not a prerequisite to knowing its cause. Most infectious agents have been associated with the disease they cause long before their pathogenic mechanisms have been discovered. Because research in pathogenesis is difficult when precise animal models are unavailable, the disease-causing mechanisms in many diseases, including tuberculosis and hepatitis B, are poorly understood, but the pathogens responsible are very well established.
AZT and other antiretroviral drugs, not HIV, cause AIDS
The vast majority of people with AIDS never received antiretroviral drugs, including those in developed countries prior to the licensure of AZT in 1987. Even today, very few individuals in developing countries have access to these medications.
In the 1980s, clinical trials enrolling patients with AIDS found that AZT given as single-drug therapy conferred a survival advantage compared to placebo, albeit modest and short-lived. Among HIV-infected patients who had not yet developed AIDS, placebo-controlled trials found that AZT given as a single-drug therapy delayed, for a year or two, the onset of AIDS-related illnesses. The lack of excess AIDS cases and death in the AZT arms of these placebo-controlled trials effectively counters the argument that AZT causes AIDS.
Subsequent clinical trials found that patients receiving two-drug combinations had up to 50% increases in time to progression to AIDS and in survival when compared to people receiving single-drug therapy. In more recent years, three-drug combination therapies have produced another 50–80% improvements in progression to AIDS and in survival when compared to two-drug regimens in clinical trials. Use of potent anti-HIV combination therapies has contributed to dramatic reductions in the incidence of AIDS and AIDS-related deaths in populations where these drugs are widely available, an effect which would be unlikely if antiretroviral drugs caused AIDS.
Behavioral factors such as recreational drug use and multiple sexual partners—not HIV—account for AIDS
The proposed behavioral causes of AIDS, such as multiple sexual partners and long-term recreational drug use, have existed for many years. The epidemic of AIDS, characterized by the occurrence of formerly rare opportunistic infections such as Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), did not occur in the United States until a previously unknown human retrovirus—HIV—spread through certain communities.
Compelling evidence against the hypothesis that behavioral factors cause AIDS comes from recent studies that have followed cohorts of homosexual men for long periods of time and found that only HIV-seropositive men develop AIDS. For example, in a prospectively studied cohort in Vancouver, British Columbia, 715 homosexual men were followed for a median of 8.6 years. Among 365 HIV-positive individuals, 136 developed AIDS. No AIDS-defining illnesses occurred among 350 seronegative men, despite the fact that these men reported appreciable use of nitrite inhalants ("poppers") and other recreational drugs, and frequent receptive anal intercourse (Schechter et al., 1993).
Other studies show that among homosexual men and injection-drug users, the specific immune deficit that leads to AIDS—a progressive and sustained loss of CD4+ T-cells—is extremely rare in the absence of other immunosuppressive conditions. For example, in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study, more than 22,000 T-cell determinations in 2,713 HIV-seronegative homosexual men revealed only one individual with a CD4+ T-cell count persistently lower than 300 cells/µl of blood, and this individual was receiving immunosuppressive therapy.
In a survey of 229 HIV-seronegative injection-drug users in New York City, mean CD4+ T-cell counts of the group were consistently more than 1000 cells/µl of blood. Only two individuals had two CD4+ T-cell measurements of less than 300/µl of blood, one of whom died with cardiac disease and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma listed as the cause of death.
AIDS among transfusion recipients is due to underlying diseases that necessitated the transfusion, rather than to HIV
This notion is contradicted by a report by the Transfusion Safety Study Group (TSSG), which compared HIV-negative and HIV-positive blood recipients who had been given blood transfusions for similar diseases. Approximately 3 years following blood transfusion, the mean CD4+ T-cell count in 64 HIV-negative recipients was 850/µl of blood, while 111 HIV-seropositive individuals had average CD4+ T-cell counts of 375/µl of blood. By 1993, there were 37 cases of AIDS in the HIV-infected group, but not a single AIDS-defining illness in the HIV-seronegative transfusion recipients.
High usage of clotting factor concentrate, not HIV, leads to CD4+ T-cell depletion and AIDS in hemophiliacs
This view is contradicted by many studies. For example, among HIV-seronegative patients with hemophilia A enrolled in the Transfusion Safety Study, no significant differences in CD4+ T-cell counts were noted between 79 patients with no or minimal factor treatment and 52 with the largest amount of lifetime treatments. Patients in both groups had CD4+ T-cell-counts within the normal range. In another report from the Transfusion Safety Study, no instances of AIDS-defining illnesses were seen among 402 HIV-seronegative hemophiliacs who had received factortherapy.
In a cohort in the United Kingdom, researchers matched 17 HIV-seropositive hemophiliacs with 17 HIV-seronegative hemophiliacs with regard to clotting factor concentrate usage over a ten-year period. During this time, 16 AIDS-defining clinical events occurred in 9 patients, all of whom were HIV-seropositive. No AIDS-defining illnesses occurred among the HIV-negative patients. In each pair, the mean CD4+ T-cell count during follow-up was, on average, 500 cells/µl lower in the HIV-seropositive patient.
Among HIV-infected hemophiliacs, Transfusion Safety Study investigators found that neither the purity nor the amount of factor VIII therapy had a deleterious effect on CD4+ T-cell counts. Similarly, the Multicenter Hemophilia Cohort Study found no association between the cumulative dose of plasma concentrate and incidence of AIDS among HIV-infected hemophiliacs.
The distribution of AIDS cases casts doubt on HIV as the cause. Viruses are not gender-specific, yet only a small proportion of AIDS cases are among women
The distribution of AIDS cases, whether in the United States or elsewhere in the world, invariably mirrors the prevalence of HIV in a population. In the United States, HIV first appeared in populations of injection-drug users (a majority of whom are male) and gay men. HIV is spread primarily through unprotected sex, the exchange of HIV-contaminated needles, or cross-contamination of the drug solution and infected blood during intravenous drug use. Because these behaviors show a gender skew—Western men are more likely to take illegal drugs intravenously than Western women, and men are more likely to report higher levels of the riskiest sexual behaviors, such as unprotected anal intercourse—it is not surprising that a majority of U.S. AIDS cases have occurred in men.
Women in the United States, however, are increasingly becoming HIV-infected, usually through the exchange of HIV-contaminated needles or sex with an HIV-infected male. The CDC estimates that 30 percent of new HIV infections in the United States in 1998 were in women. As the number of HIV-infected women has risen, so too has the number of female AIDS patients in the United States. Approximately 23% of U.S. adult/adolescent AIDS cases reported to the CDC in 1998 were among women. In 1998, AIDS was the fifth leading cause of death among women aged 25 to 44 in the United States, and the third leading cause of death among African-American women in that age group.
In Africa, HIV was first recognized in sexually active heterosexuals, and AIDS cases in Africa have occurred at least as frequently in women as in men. Overall, the worldwide distribution of HIV infection and AIDS between men and women is approximately 1 to 1. In sub-Saharan Africa, 57% of adults with HIV are women, and young women aged 15 to 24 are more than three times as likely to be infected as young men.
HIV is not the cause of AIDS because many individuals with HIV have not developed AIDS
HIV infections have a prolonged and variable course. The median period of time between infection with HIV and the onset of clinically apparent disease is approximately 10 years in industrialized countries, according to prospective studies of homosexual men in which dates of seroconversion are known. Similar estimates of asymptomatic periods have been made for HIV-infected blood-transfusion recipients, injection-drug users and adult hemophiliacs.
As with many diseases, a number of factors can influence the course of HIV disease. Factors such as age or genetic differences between individuals, the level of virulence of the individual strain of virus, as well as exogenous influences such as co-infection with other microbes may determine the rate and severity of HIV disease expression. Similarly, some people infected with hepatitis B, for example, show no symptoms or only jaundice and clear their infection, while others suffer disease ranging from chronic liver inflammation to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Co-factors probably also determine why some smokers develop lung cancer while others do not.
HIV is not the cause of AIDS because some people have symptoms associated with AIDS but are not infected with HIV
Most AIDS symptoms result from the development of opportunistic infections and cancers associated with severe immunosuppression secondary to HIV.
However, immunosuppression has many other potential causes. Individuals who take glucocorticoids or immunosuppressive drugs to prevent transplant rejection or to treat autoimmune diseases can have increased susceptibility to unusual infections, as do individuals with certain genetic conditions, severe malnutrition and certain kinds of cancers. There is no evidence suggesting that the numbers of such cases have risen, while abundant epidemiologic evidence shows a very large rise in cases of immunosuppression among individuals who share one characteristic: HIV infection.
The spectrum of AIDS-related infections seen in different populations proves that AIDS is actually many diseases not caused by HIV
The diseases associated with AIDS, such as Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PCP) and Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC), are not caused by HIV, but rather result from the immunosuppression caused by HIV disease. As the immune system of an HIV-infected individual weakens, he or she becomes susceptible to the particular viral, fungal, and bacterial infections common in the community. For example, HIV-infected people in the Midwestern United States are much more likely than people in New York City to develop histoplasmosis, which is caused by a fungus. A person in Africa is exposed to pathogens different from individuals in an American city. Children may be exposed to different infectious agents compared to adults.
HIV is the underlying cause of the condition named AIDS, but the additional conditions that may affect an AIDS patient are dependent upon the endemic pathogens to which the patient may be exposed.
AIDS can be prevented with complementary or alternative medicine
Many HIV-infected people turn to complementary and alternative medicine, such as traditional medicine, especially in areas where conventional therapies are less widespread. However, the overwhelming majority of scientifically rigorous research indicates little or negative effect on patient outcomes such as HIV-symptom severity and disease duration, and mixed outcomes on psychological well-being. It is important that patients notify their healthcare provider prior to beginning any treatment, as certain alternative therapies may interfere with conventional treatment.
See also
International AIDS Society
Safe sex
Contaminated haemophilia blood products
Prevention of HIV/AIDS
References
External links
HIV.gov – The U.S. Federal Domestic HIV/AIDS Resource
HIV Basics at Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
HIV and AIDS
HIV/AIDS
HIV/AIDS denialism
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The Russian federal law "for the Purpose of Protecting Children from Information Advocating for a Denial of Traditional Family Values," also referred to in English-language media as the gay propaganda law and the anti-gay law, is a bill that was unanimously approved by the State Duma on 11 June 2013 (with just one MP abstaining—Ilya Ponomarev), and was signed into law by President Vladimir Putin on 30 June 2013.
The Russian government's stated purpose for the law is to protect children from being exposed to homosexuality—content presenting homosexuality as being a norm in society—under the argument that it contradicts traditional family values. The statute amended the country's child protection law and the Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses, to prohibit the distribution of "propaganda of non-traditional sexual relationships" among minors. This definition includes materials that "raises interest in" such relationships, cause minors to "form non-traditional sexual predispositions", or "[present] distorted ideas about the equal social value of traditional and non-traditional sexual relationships." Businesses and organizations can also be forced to temporarily cease operations if convicted under the law, and foreigners may be arrested and detained for up to 15 days then deported, or fined up to 5,000 rubles and deported.
The Kremlin's backing of the law appealed to the Russian nationalist far-right. The law was condemned by the Venice Commission of the Council of Europe (of which Russia is a member), by the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child and by human rights groups, such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch. The statute was criticized for its broad and ambiguous wording (including the aforementioned "raises interest in" and "among minors"), which many critics characterized as being an effective ban on publicly promoting the rights and culture of the LGBT community. The law was also criticized for leading to an increase and justification of homophobic violence, while the implications of the laws in relation to the then-upcoming Winter Olympics being hosted by Sochi were also cause for concern, as the Olympic Charter contains language explicitly barring various forms of discrimination.
Background
Despite the fact that the cities of Moscow and Saint Petersburg have been well known for their thriving LGBT communities, there has been growing opposition towards gay rights among politicians since 2006. The city of Moscow has actively refused to authorize gay pride parades, and former Moscow mayor Yuri Luzhkov supported the city's refusal to authorize the first two Moscow Pride events, describing them as "satanic" and blaming western groups for spreading "this kind of enlightenment" in the country. Fair Russia member of parliament Alexander Chuev was also opposed to gay rights and attempted to introduce a similar "propaganda" law in 2007. In response, prominent LGBT rights activist and Moscow Pride founder Nikolay Alexeyev disclosed on the television talk show К барьеру! that Chuev had been publicly involved in same-sex relationships prior to his time in office.
In 2010, Russia was fined by the European Court of Human Rights under allegations by Alexeyev that cities were discriminating against gays by refusing to approve pride parades. Although claiming a risk of violence, the court interpreted the decisions as being in support of groups which oppose such demonstrations. In March 2012, a Russian judge blocked the establishment of a Pride House in Sochi for the 2014 Winter Olympics, ruling that it would "undermine the security of Russian society", and that it contradicted with public morality and policies "in the area of family motherhood and childhood protection." In August 2012, Moscow upheld a ruling blocking Nikolay Alexeyev's requests for 100 years' worth of permission to hold Moscow Pride annually, citing the possibility of public disorder.
The bill "On Protecting Children from Information Harmful to Their Health and Development" introduced laws which prohibited the distribution of "harmful" material among minors. This includes content which "may elicit fear, horror, or panic in children" among minors, pornography, along with materials which glorify violence, unlawful activities, substance abuse, or self-harm. An amendment to the law passed in 2012 instituted a mandatory content rating system for material distributed through an "information and telecommunication network" (covering television and the internet), and established a blacklist for censoring websites which contain child pornography or content glorifying drug abuse and suicide.
The 2013 amendment, which added "propaganda of non-traditional sexual relationships" as a class of harmful content under the law was, according to the Government of Russia, intended to protect children from being exposed to content that portrays homosexuality as being a "behavioural norm". Emphasis was placed upon a goal to protect "traditional" family values; bill author Yelena Mizulina (the chair of the Duma's Committee on Family, Women, and Children, who has been described by some as a "moral crusader"), argued that "traditional" relations between a man and a woman required special protection under Russian law. The amendment also expanded upon similar laws enacted by several Russian regions, including Ryazan, Arkhangelsk (who repealed its law shortly after the passing of the federal version), and Saint Petersburg.
Mark Gevisser writes that the Kremlin's backing of the law was reflective of a "dramatic tilt toward homophobia" in Russia that began in the years preceding the law's passage. Gevisser writes that the law's passage allowed the Russian government to find "common ground" with the nationalist far right, and also appeal to the many Russians who view "homosexuality as a sign of encroaching decadence in a globalized era." He writes: "Many Russians feel they can steady themselves against this cultural tsunami by laying claim to 'traditional values,' of which rejection of homosexuality is the easiest shorthand. This message plays particularly well for a government wishing to mobilize against demographic decline (childless homosexuals are evil) and cozy up to the Russian Orthodox Church (homosexuals with children are evil)." Human Rights Watch noted that Putin's enactment of the law allowed him to pander to socially conservative voters at home and "position Russia as a champion of so-called 'traditional values'" on the global stage.
Contents
Article 1 of the bill amended On Protecting Children from Information Harmful to Their Health and Development with a provision classifying "propaganda of non-traditional sexual relationships" as a class of materials that must not be distributed among minors. The term is defined as materials that are "[aimed] at causing minors to form non-traditional sexual predispositions, notions of attractiveness of non-traditional sexual relationships, distorted ideas about the equal social value of traditional and non-traditional sexual relationships, or imposing information about non-traditional sexual relationships which raises interest in such relationships insofar as these acts do not amount to a criminal offence."
Article 2 makes similar amendments to "On basic guarantees for the rights of the child in the Russian Federation", commanding the government to protect children from such material.
Article 3 of the bill amended the Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses with Article 6.21, which prescribes penalties for violations of the propaganda ban: Russian citizens found guilty can receive fines of up to 5,000 rubles, and public officials can receive fines of up to 50,000 rubles. Organizations or businesses can be fined up to 1 million rubles and be forced to cease operations for up to 90 days. Foreigners may be arrested and detained for up to 15 days then deported, or fined up to 5,000 rubles and deported. The fines for individuals are much higher if the offense was committed using mass media or internet.
Reaction
According to a survey conducted in June 2013 by the state-owned All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion (also known as VTsIOM), at least 90 percent of Russians surveyed were in favour of the law. Over 100 conservative groups worldwide signed a petition in support for the law, with Larry Jacobs, manager of the World Congress of Families, supporting its aim to "prohibit advocacy aimed at involving minors in a lifestyle that would imperil their physical and moral health." President of Russia Vladimir Putin answered to early objections to the then-proposed bill in April 2013 by stating that "I want everyone to understand that in Russia there are no infringements on sexual minorities' rights. They're people, just like everyone else, and they enjoy full rights and freedoms". He went on to say that he fully intended to sign the bill because the Russian people demanded it. As he put it, "Can you imagine an organization promoting pedophilia in Russia? I think people in many Russian regions would have started to take up arms.... The same is true for sexual minorities: I can hardly imagine same-sex marriages being allowed in Chechnya. Can you imagine it? It would have resulted in human casualties." Putin also mentioned that he was concerned about Russia's low birth rate, as same-sex relationships do not produce children. In August 2013, Russian Sports Minister Vitaly Mutko also defended the law, equating it to protecting children from content that glorifies alcohol abuse or drug addiction. He also argued that the controversy over the law and its effects was "invented" by the Western media.
Criticism
The passing of the law was met with major international backlash, especially from the Western world, as critics considered it an attempt to effectively ban the promotion of LGBT rights and culture in the country. Article 19 disputed the claimed intent of the law, and felt that many of the terms used within were too ambiguous, such as the aforementioned "non-traditional sexual relationships", and "raises interest in". The organization argued that it "feasibly could apply to any information regarding sexual orientation or gender identity that does not fit with what the State considers as in-line with 'tradition'." The term "among minors" was also criticized as being ambiguous, since it is unclear whether it refers to being in the presence of minors, or any place where minors could be present. They argued that "predicting the presence of children in any space, on-line or off-line, is quite impossible and is a variable that the proponent of any expression will rarely be in absolute control of."
The law was condemned by human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon indirectly criticized the law. LGBT rights activists, human rights activists, and other critics stated that the broad and vague wording of the law, which was characterized as a ban on gay propaganda by the media, made it a crime to publicly make statements or distribute materials in support of LGBT rights, hold pride parades or similar demonstrations, state that gay relationships are equal to heterosexual relationships, or according to Human Rights Campaign (HRC) president Chad Griffin, even display LGBT symbols such as the rainbow flag or kiss a same-sex partner in public. The first arrest made under the law involved a person who publicly protested with a sign containing a pro-LGBT message.
The legislation reportedly led to an increase in violence against LGBT people in Russia. Russian LGBT Network chairman Igor Kochetkov argued that the law "[has] essentially legalised violence against LGBT people, because these groups of hooligans justify their actions with these laws," supported by their belief that gays and lesbians are "not valued as a social group" by the federal government. Reports surfaced of activity by groups such as 'Occupy Paedophilia' and 'Parents of Russia', who lured alleged "paedophiles" into "dates" where they were tortured and humiliated. In August 2013, it was reported that a gay teenager was kidnapped, tortured, and killed by a group of Russian Neo-Nazis. Violence also increased during pro-gay demonstrations; on 29 July 2013, a gay pride demonstration at Saint Petersburg's Field of Mars resulted in a violent clash between activists, protesters, and police.
In January 2014, a letter, co-written by chemist Sir Harry Kroto and actor Sir Ian McKellen and co-signed by 27 Nobel laureates from the fields of science and the arts, was sent to Vladimir Putin urging him to repeal the propaganda law as it "inhibits the freedom of local and foreign LGBT communities." In February 2014, the activist group Queer Nation announced a planned protest in New York City outside the Russian consulate on 6 February 2014, timed to coincide with the opening ceremonies of the 2014 Winter Olympics. The same day, gay rights group All Out similarly coordinated worldwide protests in London, New York City, Paris, and Rio de Janeiro. On 8 February 2014, a flash mob was held in Cambridge, England featuring same-sex couples embracing and hugging, as part of a video project known as "From Russia With Love".
The TV documentary Stephen Fry: Out There explored gay rights and homophobia (fear of gays and lesbians) in numerous countries in the world, including Russia. In it, Stephen Fry interviews a lesbian couple who discuss their fears that simply being out to their 16-year-old daughter and her friends could be taken as breaking this law, due to the law's prohibition "on anyone disseminating information about homosexuality to under 18s". The LGBT news magazine The Advocate described the law as criminalising "any positive discussion of LGBT people, identities, or issues in forums that might be accessible to minors. In practice, the law has given police broad license to interpret almost any mention of being LGBT—whether uttered, printed, or signified by waving a rainbow flag—as just cause to arrest LGBT people." The US State Department in its 2013 report on human rights in Russia noted the clarification from Roskomnadzor (the Russian Federal Service for Supervision in the Sphere of Telecom, Information Technologies and Mass Communications) that the "gay propaganda" prohibited under the law includes materials which "directly or indirectly approve of people who are in nontraditional sexual relationships." One couple interviewed by Fry said: "Of course we are afraid because we really don't know what's going to happen next in the country. ... You just don't know if they can incarcerate you tomorrow for something or not." Fry also interviewed politician Vitaly Milonov, the original proponent of the law, whose attempts to defend it have been strongly criticized; Milonov responded branding Fry as "sick" for making a suicide attempt while filming the documentary in an interview in which he also compared homosexuality with bestiality.
Incompatibility with the European Convention of Human Rights
There is a general consensus that the law violates the European Convention of Human Rights, which Russia ratified. In the 2017 case Bayev and Others v. Russia brought by three Russian LGBT activists following their convictions under local anti-propaganda laws, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that the laws in question violated the applicants' freedom of speech and right not to be discriminated against in the exercise of Convention rights. The court found that "the authorities reinforce[d] stigma and prejudice and encourage[d] homophobia, which is incompatible with the notions of equality, pluralism and tolerance in a democratic society".
The Council of Europe's advisory body on constitutional law, the Venice Commission, passed a resolution in 2013 stating that bans on "propaganda of homosexuality" "are incompatible with ECHR and international human rights standards" for several reasons. First, these bans were worded too vaguely to satisfy the requirement in Article 10 ECHR that limits on freedom of expression must be "prescribed by law". Second, "homosexuality as a variation of sexual orientation, is protected under the ECHR and as such, cannot be deemed contrary to morals by public authorities, in the sense of Article 10 § 2 of The ECHR". Third, the laws only target "propaganda of homosexuality" but not "propaganda of heterosexuality", which amounts to discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation under Article 14 ECHR.
Protests
A number of protests were held against the law, both locally and internationally. Activists demonstrated outside New York City's Lincoln Center at the opening night of the Metropolitan Opera on 23 September 2013, which was set to feature Tchaikovsky's opera Eugene Onegin. The protests targeted Tchaikovsky's own homosexuality, and the involvement of two Russians in the production; soprano Anna Netrebko and conductor Valery Gergiev, as they were identified as vocal supporters of Putin's government.
On 12 October 2013, the day following National Coming Out Day, a protest organized by at least 15 activists was held in Saint Petersburg. The protest site was occupied by a large number of demonstrators, some of whom were dressed as Russian Orthodox priests and Cossacks. In total, 67 protestors were arrested for creating a public disturbance.
Activists also called for a boycott of Stolichnaya vodka, who had prominently branded itself as a Russian vodka (going as far as to dub itself "[the] Mother of All Vodkas from The Motherland of Vodka" in an ad campaign). However, its Luxembourg-based parent company, Soiuzplodoimport, responded to the boycott effort, noting that the company was not technically Russian, did not support the government's opinion on homosexuality, and described itself as a "fervent supporter and friend" of LGBT people.
Proposed similar laws in Kyrgyzstan
In 2014, a bill modeled after the Russian anti-gay law was proposed in the parliament of Kyrgyzstan; the measure, which "drew a welter of criticism from multiple rights groups, governments, the United Nations Human Rights Council and the European parliament," would provide for even harsher penalties than the Russian law. The bill passed its first two readings by wide margins (79–7 and then 90–2) but faltered after two of the legislation's lead sponsors failed to win reelection. In 2016, the legislation was again raised in parliament, but was held up in subcommittee.
Prosecutions and other effects
The first arrest made under the propaganda law occurred just hours after it was passed: 24-year-old activist Dmitry Isakov was arrested in Kazan for publicly holding a sign reading "Freedom to the Gays and Lesbians of Russia. Down With Fascists and Homophobes", and ultimately fined 4,000 rubles (US$115). Isakov had performed a similar protest in the same location the previous day as a "test" run, but was later caught in an altercation with police officers who targeted his pro-gay activism, and arrested him for swearing. He would be released without charge, but pledged to return there the next day to show that he would "not be cowed by such pressure." Isakov also claimed that he had been fired from his job at a bank as a result of the conviction.
In December 2013, Nikolay Alexeyev and Yaroslav Yevtushenko were fined 4,000 rubles for picketing outside a children's library in Arkhangelsk with banners reading, "Gays aren't made, they're born!" Their appeal was denied.
In January 2014, Alexander Suturin, editor-in-chief of the Khabarovsk newspaper Molodoi Dalnevostochnik, was fined 50,000 rubles (US$1,400) for publishing a news story discussing the teacher Alexander Yermoshkin, who had been fired for self-admittedly holding "rainbow flash mobs" in Khabarovsk with his students, and was subsequently attacked by right-wing extremists because of his sexuality. The fine centred around a quote in the article by the teacher, who stated that his very existence was "effective proof that homosexuality is normal."
Elena Klimova has been charged under the law multiple times for operating Children-404—an online support group for LGBT youth on the social networking services VKontakte and Facebook. The first of these charges was overturned in February 2014, after a court ruled in consultation with a mental health professional that the group "helps teenagers exploring their sexuality to deal with difficult emotional issues and other problems that they may encounter", and that these activities did not constitute "propaganda of non-traditional sexual relationships" as defined under the law. In January 2015, Klimova was sent to court for the same charges. They were overturned on appeal, only for the same court to convict Kilmova and issue a fine of 50,000 rubles in July 2015, pending an appeal.
In November 2014, one day after current Apple Inc. CEO Tim Cook publicly announced that he was proud of being gay, it was reported that an iPhone-shaped memorial honoring its late co-founder Steve Jobs had been removed from a Saint Petersburg university campus by its installer, the West European Financial Union (ZEFS). It was alleged that the memorial was removed due to the law because it was in an area frequented by minors. In September 2015, Apple became the subject of an investigation by officials in Kirov for implementing emoji on its operating systems which depict same-sex relationships, over whether they may constitute a promotion of non-traditional sexual relationships to minors. Roskomnadzor later ruled that by themselves, emoji depicting same-sex couples did not constitute a violation of the propaganda law, as whether they have a positive or negative connotation depends on their actual context and usage.
In March 2018, Roskomnadzor has blocked access within the nation to a prominent website for the Russian LGBT community Gay.ru for violating a law on gay propaganda.
Effects on sports
The 2013 World Championships in Athletics, held at Moscow's Luzhniki Stadium in August 2013, were overshadowed by comments and protests over the law by athletes. After winning a silver medal at the event, U.S. runner Nick Symmonds stated that "whether you're gay, straight, black, white, we all deserve the same rights. If there's anything I can do to champion the cause and further it, I will, shy of getting arrested." Swedish athletes Emma Green Tregaro and Moa Hjelmer painted their fingernails in rainbow colors as a symbolic protest. However, Tregaro was forced to re-paint them after they were deemed a political gesture that violated the rules of the IAAF. In response, she re-painted them red as a symbol of love. Russian pole vaulter Yelena Isinbayeva criticized Tregaro's gesture as being disrespectful to the host country, stating in a press conference that "we have our law which everyone has to respect. When we go to different countries, we try to follow their rules. We are not trying to set our rules over there. We are just trying to be respectful." After Isinbayeva's remarks attracted widespread criticism, she argued that her choice of words had been "misunderstood" due to poor English.
The implications of the law on Russia's hosting of two major international sporting events, the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi (where seven LGBT athletes, all female, were expected to compete) and the 2018 FIFA World Cup, were called into question. In the case of the World Cup, FIFA had recently established an anti-discrimination task force, and was also facing criticism for awarding the 2022 World Cup to the country of Qatar, where homosexuality is illegal; in August 2013, FIFA requested information from the Russian government on the law and its potential effects on the association football tournament. In the case of the Winter Olympics, critics considered the law to be inconsistent with the Olympic Charter, which states that "[discrimination] on grounds of race, religion, politics, gender or otherwise is incompatible with belonging to the Olympic Movement." In August 2013, the International Olympic Committee "received assurances from the highest level of government in Russia that the legislation will not affect those attending or taking part in the Games", and also received word that the government would abide by the Olympic Charter. The IOC also confirmed that it would enforce Rule 50 of the Olympic Charter, which forbids political protest, against athletes who make displays of support for the LGBT community at the Games. Vladimir Putin also made similar assurances prior to the Games, but warned LGBT attendees that they would still be subject to the law.
Athletes and supporters used the Olympics as leverage for further campaigns against the propaganda law. A number of athletes came out as lesbian, gay, or bisexual to spread awareness of the situation in Russia, including Australian snowboarder Belle Brockhoff, Canadian speed skater Anastasia Bucsis, gold medal figure skater Brian Boitano, and Finnish swimmer Ari-Pekka Liukkonen. There were also calls to boycott the Games, drawing comparisons to the Summer Olympics of 1980 in Moscow, the last time the Olympics were held on what is now Russian soil. A campaign known as Principle 6 was established in collaboration between a group of Olympic athletes, the organizations All Out and Athlete Ally, and clothing maker American Apparel, selling merchandise (such as clothing) with a quotation from the Olympic Charter to support pro-LGBT organizations. Toronto advertising copywriter Brahm Finkelstein also began to market a rainbow-coloured matryoshka doll set known as "Pride Dolls", designed by Italian artist Danilo Santino, to benefit the Gay and Lesbian International Sport Association, organizers of the World Outgames.
Action was leveraged directly against Olympic sponsors and partners as well; in late-August 2013, the Human Rights Campaign sent letters to the ten Worldwide Olympic Partner companies, urging them to show opposition towards anti-LGBT laws, denounce homophobic violence, ask the IOC to obtain written commitments for the safety of LGBT athletes and attendees, and oppose future Olympic bids from countries that outlaw support for LGBT equality. In February 2014, prior to the games, a group of 40 human rights organizations (including Athlete Ally, Freedom House, Human Rights Campaign, Human Rights Watch and Russian LGBT Network among others) also sent a joint letter to the Worldwide Olympic Partners, urging them to use their prominence to support the rights of LGBT athletes under the Olympic Charter, and pressure the IOC to show greater scrutiny towards the human rights abuses of future host countries. On 3 February 2014, USOC sponsor AT&T issued a statement in support of LGBT rights at the Games, becoming the first major Olympic advertiser to condemn the laws. Several major non-sponsors also made pro-LGBT statements to coincide with the opening of the Games; Google placed a quotation from the Olympic Charter and an Olympic-themed logo in the colours of the rainbow flag on its home page worldwide, while Channel 4 (who serves as the official British broadcaster of the Paralympics) adopted a rainbow-coloured logo and broadcast a "celebratory", pro-LGBT advert entitled "Gay Mountain" on 7 February 2014, alongside an interview with former rugby union player and anti-homophobia activist Ben Cohen. As part of its Dispatches series, Channel 4 had also broadcast a documentary during the week of the Opening Ceremony entitled Hunted, which documented the violence and abuse against LGBT people in Russia in the wake of the law.
Effects on video games
In May 2014, it was revealed that in accordance with the propaganda law, the computer game The Sims 4—a new installment in a life simulation game franchise published by Electronic Arts which has historically allowed characters to participate in same-sex relationships, and allowed players to give their characters a customised gender, had been given an "18+" rating, restricting its sale to adults only. In contrast, the pan-European ratings board PEGI has historically rated The Sims games as being suitable for those aged 12 and over.
In December 2016, the video game FIFA 17 (which is also published by Electronic Arts) was targeted for an event that allowed users to obtain rainbow-coloured shoelaces for their virtual footballers, in support of a pro-LGBT advocacy campaign backed by the English Premier League. MP Irina Rodnina stated that relevant authorities needed to "verify the possibility of distributing this game on the territory of the Russian Federation".
In December 2016, Blizzard Entertainment geo-blocked a tie-in web comic for its game Overwatch in Russia for containing a scene of the character Tracer, who was confirmed as being lesbian, kissing her partner, another woman. Blizzard cited the gay propaganda law as reasoning for the block. The game itself is not blocked in the country.
In February 2021, Miitopia received an 18+ rating due to the ability of same-sex Miis being able to form "relationships" with each other despite no actual sexual content whatsoever being present in the game.
See also
Bayev and Others v. Russia
Concerns and controversies at the 2014 Winter Olympics
List of 2018 FIFA World Cup controversies
Hungarian anti-LGBT law
References
Further reading
2013 in Russia
Censorship in Russia
LGBT rights in Russia
LGBT-related legislation
Gay Propaganda Law
Homophobia
Censorship of LGBT issues
LGBT-related controversies
Conspiracy theories in Russia
June 2013 events in Russia
2013 in LGBT history
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Shepperton is an urban village in the Borough of Spelthorne, Surrey, approximately south west of central London. Shepperton is equidistant between the towns of Chertsey and Sunbury-on-Thames. The village is mentioned in a document of 959 AD and in the Domesday Book.
In the early 19th century, resident writers and poets included Rider Haggard, Thomas Love Peacock, George Meredith and Percy Bysshe Shelley, who were attracted by the proximity of the River Thames. The river was painted at Walton Bridge in 1754 by Canaletto and in 1805 by Turner. Shepperton Lock and nearby Sunbury Lock were built in the 1810s to facilitate river navigation.
Urbanisation began in the latter part of the 19th century, with the construction in 1864 of the Shepperton Branch Line, which was sponsored by William Schaw Lindsay, the owner of Shepperton Manor. Its population rose from 1,810 residents in the early 20th century to a little short of 10,000 in 2011. Lindsay had hoped to extend the railway via Chertsey to connect to the South Western Main Line, however the village station remains a terminus. The rise in population and passing trade led to small businesses lining most of its high street by the end of the 20th century.
Shepperton Film Studios is in the neighbouring village of Littleton, approximately to the north. The Swan Sanctuary and two SSSIs, one of which is managed by Surrey Wildlife Trust, are nearby.
History
While a history summary of 1994 indicates that Shepperton meant Shepherd's habitation, which would earlier have transliterated into late Saxon language as Sceapheard-ton, the place has been found in "a document of 959 AD" as Scepertune, which the book Middlesex (Robbins, 1953), states instead meant Shepherd's farm. The name of one of the older lanes, Sheep Walk, may date to the medieval period and was perhaps on a wide tract of low-lying meadows which produced the Middlesex wool, namely marsh wool, which was included in a valuation of 1343. The valuation was two years after Edward III imposed wool tax — Middlesex rendered a sack for every s of the county (contributing in total 236 sacks) – much of which however appears from contemporary returns to have been collected from other riversides in the county including, in particular, Hampton (which includes Hampton Court).
Shepperton in the Domesday Book of 1086 was recorded by the Norman conquerors as Scepertone, with a population of 25 households and was held by Westminster Abbey; (excluding any wood, marsh and heath) it had eight hides, pasture for seven carucates and one weir (worth 6s 8d per year). In total the annual amount rendered was £6.
The Church Lane and Church Square area, leading to and next to the river predates by several centuries the High Street as the village nucleus. When the Thames Valley Railway built in 1864 the terminus of Shepperton railway station, north, for the 12 initial years a single train and track running to and from Strawberry Hill, the village slowly expanded into its northern fields. Its coming which was largely due to contributions and permission of W. S. Lindsay the owner of Shepperton's manor.
The River Thames was important for transport from the late 13th century and carried barley, wheat, peas and root vegetables to London's markets; later timber, building materials such as bricks, sand and lime, and gunpowder, see the Wey Navigation.
While the village was wholly agricultural until the 19th century, there are originally expensive gravestones of the local minor gentry in the churchyard, two of which are dedicated to their naturalised black servants, Benjamin and Cotto Blake who both died in 1781. These bear the inscription "Davo aptio, Argo fidelior, ipso Sanchone facetior". During this long period since the conquest the wealth of the local rector and his bishop was great: William Grocyn was rector 1504–1513 and was an Oxford classical academic who corresponded regularly with Erasmus and Lewis Atterbury (1707–31) expended much of the large parish revenues on having the large tower rebuilt.
A large net income of rents and tithes of £499 per year was paid to the rectory belonging to S. H. Russell in 1848; this compares to £600 of poor relief, including for supporting its workhouse, paid out in 1829.
A change to secular council-administered rather than church-administered public services followed the establishment of poor law unions and Sanitary Districts and was completed with the founding, in 1889, of the Middlesex County Council and Staines Rural District from 1896. In 1930 on the rural district's abolition, Shepperton became part of the Sunbury-on-Thames Urban District until its dissolution into a reduced and reconfigured county of Surrey in 1965. Three districts of the historic county thus did not become part of Greater London: Staines Urban District also joined Surrey and Potters Bar Urban District joined Hertfordshire.
Use in semi-fiction and alleged hauntings
In semi-fiction, George Eliot's Scenes of Clerical Life telling the Sad Fortunes of The Rev. Amos Barton, gives a thinly veiled picture of Chilvers Coton's church and village in the early 19th century in which she uses the name Shepperton. If anything real is to be gleaned for its use, it is perhaps a passing similarity. Shepperton Manor by John Mason Neale was contemporaneously written in 1844 fifteen years after he had spent six years living in the village. Old parts of Shepperton are said to be haunted by the ghost of a headless monk. Battlecrease Hall (formerly home to Walter Hayes, Ford Motor Company executive and a founder of the company's Formula One programme) is alleged by its owners and certain visitors to have poltergeists.
Conservation areas
Church Square in Old Shepperton
Leading to this is a short, since 1989 bypassed, winding lane from the High Street to Church Square, flanked by Shepperton Manor and the cricket ground, with some listed walls. Sir Nikolaus Pevsner described the view looking towards the south-east of the square with its now listed buildings and river opening as "one of the most perfect village pictures that the area has to offer". It offers two pub/restaurants two hotels, the Anchor Hotel and the Warren Lodge Hotel. In this little square there is also the King's Head public house.
The riverside manor, late 18th century, (its predecessor, as with the church here, predates the 12th century), features a room painted and rendered to look like a tent or draped damask. Also Grade II* listed is the c. 1500 timber framed Old Rectory refronted in the early 18th century, and including a reception hall built in 1498. Its front cladding has mathematical tiles.
Listed in the same high category of listed building is the parish church, St Nicholas' – its dedication is as with the ancient riverside churches of Thames Ditton and Chiswick. Also architecturally Grade II* is restored half timbered Winches Cottage on the west side of the lane which is 17th century.
Lower Halliford
The village includes the neighbourhood of Lower Halliford, formerly a near but separate hamlet, which historian Susan Reynolds places at the eastern end of a reduced, river bend-consumed half of the early medieval village, east of the Old Shepperton Conservation Area due to erosion.
This area is typified by a small number of detached classical three-storey 18th century riverside houses high on the riverside road on the outside of the river bend; the bend being flanked by riverside meadows with small boat moorings, low rise chalet-style houses to the south west, the Las Palmas Estate, named after the land once being that of the Spanish Ambassador; further west by the wooded Shepperton Cricket Club and by the village Green, Bishop Duppas Park to the east, formerly Lower Halliford Common and in a small part owned by the Old Manor House (Halliford).
From the 1760s—1860s a ropery was an industry here then from the 1860s—1870s brick clay was extracted.
Halliford Manor, confusingly also called The Old Manor, dates to at least the 13th century and ownership became royal, being held by Elizabeth I and the wives of Charles I and Charles II. The Bishop of Winchester, Brian Duppa (1588–1662) owned the waterside meadows adjoining to the south and was also an important landowner in Croydon's history, see Duppas Hill. Wealthy writers built or expanded homes here in the 19th century, primarily as summer residences, such as Rider Haggard, Thomas Love Peacock, George Meredith and Percy Bysshe Shelley.
The Old Manor became yet another rebuilt Georgian house. The house which features a modillioned eaves cornice and glazing-bar sash windows to the first floor. Halliford School in the centre of this area was the 18th–19th century home of Emma Hamilton, mistress of Admiral Nelson.
The 21st century fully renovated hotel and restaurant (formerly the Ship), Harrison's with river views is here beside the shorter Red Lion public house which in turn has a narrow, secluded south-facing public house picnic area overlooking the relatively narrow, non-tidal river Thames. It is for this reason a bridge and ferry was recorded here from 1274 to 1410.
The tern is applicable also to the mostly riverside homes and public park almost surrounded by the River Thames, south of the road from Kingston to Chertsey including next to Walton Bridge by Walton on Thames. The main park is Bishop Duppas Park and almost surrounds completely the Old Manor.
There is mention of Halliford in 962 and there was a settlement there by 1194. However the division into Upper and Lower Halliford does not appear until the late 13th century. Upper Halliford is a large hamlet in the parish of Sunbury, but Lower Halliford was almost certainly the main settlement of the manor. The creation of Desborough Cut diverted the main navigation of the Thames away from the Lower Halliford and Shepperton loop, rendering flooding far less common.
The poet Thomas Love Peacock lived at Elm Bank House here from 1822 until his death in 1866. He is buried in Shepperton New Cemetery.
Manygate Lane
The field land and large houses on this estate were bought by Lyon Homes from landowner and developer Edward Scott in the 1950s.
This estate of buildings on this street are in a conservation area for proving a successful modular development in geometric, white-painted modernism from in the 1960s, one of very few private sector estate housing experiments of the 1960s with terraced, white panelled communal landscaped front gardens by Swiss architect Edward Schoolheifer; this American Radburn style was also used by Eric Lyons Span Developments in Ham Common, Richmond, London, Blackheath, London and New Ash Green, Kent.
Localities
The conservation areas of Old Shepperton and Lower Halliford are localities, as is Littleton.
Charlton
Charlton is a suburban hamlet and narrow area to the north, bounded to the west by the Queen Mary Reservoir in Littleton, bounded to the east and south by Thames water treatment works from that reservoir and by the M3 motorway. As a well-developed hamlet, bounded by farms, it also referred to as a village or neighbourhood. Its post town is Shepperton. Its parish is Sunbury-on-Thames. In the south of the neighbourhood, on the Shepperton side of the motorway are a general waste transfer station, further fields and Sunbury Golf Course, which has 18 holes and is bisected by the Shepperton railway line.
Charlton appears in Domesday Book as Cerdentone. It was held by Roger de Rames. Its domesday assets were: 5 hides; 1½ ploughs (with potential for 3½), meadow for 4 ploughs, cattle pasture. It rendered £1 10s 0d. However this manor was in the parish of Sunbury and unlike the three adjoining manors, Shepperton, Halliford and Sunbury did not reach down to the river public meadowlands, used for grazing of animals.
Shepperton Green
Shepperton Green is that part of the village which continues immediately west of the M3 motorway, north-west of the village centre. Across the River Ash, Surrey, which is no more than a stream most of the year, adjoining, to its north is Littleton. Taken together with Littleton, three farms operate on the edges of this conjoined residential area, providing a buffer to the north and west. Shepperton's central SSSI is on the south side of the motorway Sheep Lake Walk and meadows, managed by Surrey Wildlife Trust. To the west are large lakes (one sifted and worked for gravel). This means that Shepperton Green with Littleton is buffered to all sides, except for its eastern side with its road bridge to Shepperton proper, classified as Shepperton Town ward and county council electoral division. This area is currently grouped with Laleham for all local elections.
High Street and economy
Shepperton has a traditional high street, shorter than that at nearby Ashford with two medium-size supermarkets, village hall, library, shops, optician, hairdressers, a wide range of restaurants, several cafés, with the railway terminus at the northern end.
Shepperton railway station saw high ticketed entries and exits for a settlement of its size to 422,000 (6 April 2010 – 5 April 2011), being a terminus with main commercial destinations being in the City of London, Kingston upon Thames. commercial hubs of West London and South London accessed along the route; this is supplemented by secondary school usage, with a substantial state school and private school.
History board
The Village Hall in the High Street has a large depiction of the economic life and of the history of the village. In October 2011, a group of children from St Nicholas C of E Primary School won a competition to create the history board, which was then edited by a graphic designer and officially opened by the mayor with a large ceremony and some press, after Sunbury had held a similar competition. The board itself includes a grassland to represent the pastures and provides local information.
Public services
Four infant/junior/primary schools, a senior comprehensive school and senior private school are in the village.
See List of schools in Surrey
Home Office policing in Shepperton is provided by Surrey Police. Public transport is co-ordinated by Surrey County Council who also provide the statutory emergency fire and rescue service who have a station in Sunbury.St Peter's Hospital on the far side of Chertsey is a large NHS hospital administrated by Ashford and St Peter's Hospitals NHS Trust. It was opened under its existing name in 1947. The South East Coast Ambulance Service Foundation Trust provides emergency patient transport to and from this facility. Other forms of health care are provided for locally by several small clinics and surgeries.
Waste management is co-ordinated by the local authority via the Surrey Waste Disposal Authority and domestic waste collected by Spelthorne Borough Council. Locally produced inert waste for disposal is sent to landfill in Alfold and Shefford, and a proportion to energy from waste plants in Slough and Kent to lower landfill tax. Plans have been approved to permit gasification in Charlton in the north of the Shepperton post town as part of the county's Eco Park to take up to half of the county's residual waste. Shepperton's distribution network operator for electricity is UK Power Networks; aside from renewables there are no power stations in the area. Thames Water manages Shepperton's drinking and waste water; water supplies being sourced from the London sources including several reservoirs fed by the River Thames locally. There are water treatment works at Ashford, Hampton and sewage treatment works at Isleworth.
Topography
Shepperton has a long boundary with the River Thames in its southernmost salient, which almost surrounds Spelthorne. Old Shepperton is almost surrounded by the extreme southern meander within this. Prehistoric glacial retreat north of this has made the north bank almost flat for a considerable distance and as such, elevation never exceeds 14 m above mean sea level (on the border of Laleham). The river never exceeds 11.5 m, (beside Dumsey Meadow and under Chertsey Bridge). The lowest elevation is 9 m in flood meadows at the confluence of the Ash with the Thames. The Ash is the border with Littleton and Sunbury-on-Thames (mostly, to the northeast, with its technical hamlet, Upper Halliford).
Dumsey Meadow SSSI is the only piece of undeveloped, unfenced water meadow by the river remaining on the River Thames below Caversham, and is home to a variety of rare plants and insects.
The Swan Sanctuary moved to an old gravel extraction site by Fordbridge Road in 2005 from its former base in Egham.
On the opposite bank are in downstream order are Chertsey Bridge and Chertsey Meads, the now residential Hamm Court riverside neighbourhood, three islands, (the first two of which have multiple properties) (Lock, Hamhaugh and D'Oyly Carte, one large man-made island, (Desborough), and the riverside parts of Walton on Thames, the upstream part of which is also open land, Cowey Sale Park. The towpath is the official route of three passing through the Shepperton reaches (of the Thames Path) as heading upstream from Hampton Court Palace another marked version takes Walton Bridge, the official version takes the Shepperton-Weybridge Ferry and another marked version crosses to the north bank at Chertsey Bridge.
Upper Halliford
Upper Halliford has since the early 20th century been in Shepperton post town, and almost contiguous, but with its own station, residential roads, fair and shopping parade, even an Upper Halliford Village sign. Arguably in modern analysis it is a village, with the second highest concentration of development in the post town.
Shepperton Green
This neighbourhood is smaller than the adjoining village, separated by the M3 motorway and some adjoining meadows and fields. The second of the borough's Green Belt SSSIs, Sheep Walk Meadows, is a key feature of Shepperton Green, bounding it, to its south. A Saxon and medieval burial ground gives its name to the Saxon Junior School who use it for playing fields and has Scheduled status. A farm combined with a significant amount of fishing and gravel lakes form the outskirts and within the clustered settlement an estate of the homes was built as non-serving personally barracks for the British Army.
Demography and housing
Historic figures
The population of Shepperton, according to the census of 1801, was 731. This number increased gradually to 858 forty years later, increasing further to the end of the 19th century. Between 1891 and 1901 its population rose by 511 to 1,810. The population also rose substantially between 1931 and 1951, to 6,060 people. Data for 1801–1951 is available at Britain Through Time. The 2001 and 2011 Censuses give detailed information about the Town ward and Shepperton Green.
Other
The settlement had 9,753 residents, living in 4,301 households. Of those, 83.6% of residents described their health as 'good', for this overall figure, above the regional average. Of these people 47.3% described their health as very good, below the regional average. 20.4% of 16- to 74-year-olds had no work qualifications, below the English average of 22.5%. In 2011 the area had only 114 people who were in the category "never worked/long-term unemployed".Ward map confirming correlation of ward to output areas Office for National Statistics Retrieved 16 December 2013
Housing, area and population
The average level of accommodation in the region composed of detached houses was 28%, the average that was apartments was 22.6%.
The proportion of households in the settlement who owned their home outright compares to the regional average of 35.1%. The proportion who owned their home with a loan compares to the regional average of 32.5%. The remaining % is made up of rented dwellings (plus a negligible % of households living rent-free).
Culture
Film
Shepperton Studios
Shepperton Studios is home to a multi-disciplinary film production facility from on-set, through to television and various forms of animation. This also acts as a base for on-location film work for television dramas in the South East and in films, for instance for productions partly shot in the Burnham Beeches woods less than away. These adjoin Shepperton Green, in the now negligible village of Littleton. In the 1930s its Littleton manor's core, which covered was converted into film production lots. This was reduced to in 1973. Works produced or shot wholly or in part on its 15 stages, other lots or in its extensive animation facilities since the new millennium include: Billy Elliot, Chocolat, Gladiator (2000)Bridget Jones's Diary, Gosford Park (2001), Spy Game (2001)About a Boy, Bend It Like Beckham (2002)Love Actually (2003)Alexander, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Troy, Wimbledon (2004)Batman Begins, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Sahara, Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005)The Da Vinci Code (2006)Atonement, Elizabeth: The Golden Age, The Golden Compass (2007)Inkheart, Moon, Nine, The Young Victoria (2009)Clash of the Titans, Robin Hood (2010)Captain America: The First Avenger, Hugo (2011)Anna Karenina, John Carter (2012)Fast & Furious 6, Gravity, Thor: The Dark World (2013)
Halliford Studios
Lower Halliford, a completely contiguous so also integral part of Shepperton, used to be home to Halliford Film Studios, opposite the Manygate Lane conservation area, built in 1955 and one of the first film studios devoted to TV commercial production. It was an independent film studio used for commercials, small television productions and other short "promos". The studio was recently closed and demolished.
Literature
George Eliot depicted Shepperton as set out above.
Shepperton was the home of author J. G. Ballard, the so-called "Seer of Shepperton", and provides the setting for his novels Crash (in which a couple become sexually aroused through car crashes and was written as the M3 motorway was being built past the end of his street) and The Unlimited Dream Company.
Shepperton is mentioned in the novel The War of the Worlds by H. G. Wells, in which its destruction is described along with nearby settlements.
Fine art
J. M. W. Turner painted in 1805 two scenes of the shimmering river and fishermen on the far banks of the Lower Halliford part of Shepperton including the wide landscape work Walton Bridges widely exhibited in 1807 following a previous similar work by Canaletto of the scene in 1754.Tate Gallery Turner: Walton Bridges Retrieved 13 July 2013
Sport and recreation
There are recreation grounds for football on both sides of the M3: one in Shepperton Green and two in Shepperton/Lower Halliford; one has adjoining tennis courts. Through the town there is the Thames Path and there are popular adjacent flat cycling routes to Windsor, Hampton Court Palace and Richmond. There is a golf course north of the station in the historic parish of Sunbury so anachronistically named Sunbury Golf Club and for a time American Golf at Sunbury with two courses, a driving range and Crown Golf Academy as Sunbury is a larger settlement.
Desborough Sailing Club is based here with its own dinghy basin, private inlet and secluded reach of the river Thames and international medal-winner training club Queen Mary Reservoir Sailing Club lies between Shepperton and Ashford.
Angling is substantial at Halliford Mere fisheries and on the River Thames itself.
Shepperton has a thriving cricket club, which has teams in the Fullers Surrey County League.
Places of worship
There are several churches in the village covering three denominations of Christianity.
The architecturally listed stone-clad church to St Nicholas on the preserved village square (Church of England) is led by the rector of Shepperton, Rev Chris Swift and is committed to helping the largest Shepperton primary school and contributes to a wide range of local good causes.St Nicholas Church Website Retrieved 7 August 2013
Founded in 1936, St John Fisher Roman Catholic church led by Fr Tom Quinn adopts a vibrant approach to parish life involving "Prayer, Partnership, Pilgrimage, and Panto" the last two of which are annual and the first two of which are intended to be daily or regular activities of its believers. The parish places emphasis on helping the housebound and sick, CAFOD and takes part in the Westminster Diocese pilgrimage to Lourdes.
Jubilee Church, Shepperton was formed as a new church in 1982 to celebrate in modern "mainstream Christianity" being less focussed on ceremony than the two oldest UK churches. Its twin values are: "Love the Lord your God with all your heart ... and your neighbour as your self." and Make disciples.Jubilee Church, Shepperton Retrieved 8 July 2013
Littleton has a co-led Church of England; Upper Halliford has a Baptist church for further details of which see those articles.
Notable people
Notable residents, past and present including less historic literary figures than mentioned above, include:
Ian Allan, publisher of railway books
Olivia Anderson, South African international cricketer
Celestine Babayaro, Nigerian footballerBankruptcy and Individual Insolvency Register entry no 437 dated 4 January 2011. Retrieved 8 July 2013
J. G. Ballard, English novelist, short story writer and essayist
Lynne Reid Banks, late 20th century author with children's best-seller The Indian in the Cupboard (1980) with four sequels and adult novels such as The L-Shaped Room (1960)
John Boorman, film director
Bernard Braden and Barbara Kelly, television presenters and producers.
Ray Dorset, lead singer of Mungo Jerry and songwriter of chart-topper Feels Like I'm in Love''
Frank Finlay, actor
John Gregson, actor and his wife Thea Gregory, actress
Walter Hayes, Ford public relations executive instrumental in developing the company's Formula One programme
Steve Holley, Paul McCartney's drummer in 'Wings'
Tom Jones, singer
Janet Munro, actress, and Ian Hendry, actor, lived on Pharaoh's Island in Shepperton
Janek Schaefer, British Composer of the Year in Sonic Art has a studio in Shepperton, 'innerspaces' inspired by J.G.Ballard
Major-General Robert Elliott "Roy" Urquhart CB DSO GOC of the 1st Airborne Division
Ruth Wilson, actress
Notes and references
Notes
References
External links
Villages in Surrey
Borough of Spelthorne
Populated places on the River Thames
Places formerly in Middlesex
Churches on the Thames
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The 2018 New Brunswick general election was held on September 24, 2018, to elect the 49 members of the 59th New Brunswick Legislature, the governing house of the province of New Brunswick, Canada.
Two smaller parties — the People's Alliance and the Greens — made breakthroughs, winning three seats each, and potentially holding the balance of power. The People's Alliance entered the legislature for the first time, while the Greens increased their seat count from one. This marked the first time since the 1991 election that four parties won representation in the legislature. The election was also contested by the provincial New Democrats, newcomers KISS NB, and eight independents.
This is the first election since 1920 that did not return a majority for any party. The Progressive Conservatives won the most seats, with 22, but incumbent Liberal Premier Brian Gallant, whose party secured only 21 seats despite winning the popular vote by six percentage points, indicated that he would seek the confidence of the legislature and attempt to form a minority government.
On September 25, Gallant met with the Lieutenant Governor Jocelyne Roy-Vienneau and received permission to continue in office. On November 2, Gallant's minority government was defeated in a non-confidence vote. On November 9, Progressive Conservative leader Blaine Higgs was sworn in as premier with a minority government.
Timeline
September 22, 2014 – The New Brunswick Liberal Association, led by Brian Gallant, won a narrow majority government, defeating incumbent Premier David Alward's Progressive Conservatives, which became the second single-term government in New Brunswick's history.
September 23, 2014 - Alward announces his resignation as Progressive Conservative leader.
October 18, 2014 - Bruce Fitch became interim leader of the Progressive Conservative Party.
December 10, 2014 - The NDP executive rejects Cardy's resignation as leader, urging him to continue and offering him a salary as he has been working as leader on a volunteer basis.
October 22, 2016 - Blaine Higgs becomes the leader of the Progressive Conservative Party in a leadership election.
January 1, 2017 - Dominic Cardy resigns as leader of the NDP, and as a party member. He subsequently joins the PCs as Chief of Staff to Leader Blaine Higgs.
January 8, 2017 - Rosaire L'Italien is chosen as interim leader of the NDP by the party's executive.
August 10, 2017 - Jennifer McKenzie is acclaimed as the new leader of the NDP.
Summary of seat changes
Results
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | Political party
! rowspan=2 | Party leader
! colspan=5 | MLAs
! colspan=4 | Votes
|-
! Candidates
!2014
!Dissol.
!2018
!±
!#
!%
! ± (pp)
!% whererunning
|align=left|Blaine Higgs
|49
|21
|21
|22
|1
|121,300
|31.89%
|2.75
|31.89%
|align=left|Brian Gallant
|49
|27
|24
|21
|3
|143,791
|37.80%
|4.92
|37.80%
|align=left|Kris Austin
|30
|–
|–
|3
|3
|47,860
|12.58%
|10.44
|20.60%
|align=left|David Coon
|47
|1
|1
|3
|2
|45,186
|11.88%
|5.27
|12.41%
|align=left|Jennifer McKenzie
|49
|–
|–
|–
|–
|19,039
|5.01%
|7.97
|5.01%
|align=left|KISS NB
|align=left|Gerald Bourque
|9
|–
|–
|–
|–
|366
|0.10%
|
|0.49%
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2"|Independent
|8
|–
|1
|–
|1
|2,821
|0.74%
|0.15
|4.46%
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="4"|Vacant
|2
| colspan="5"|
|-style="background:#E9E9E9;"
|-style="background:#E9E9E9;"
|colspan="8" align="left"|Ballots rejected
|1,412
|colspan="2"|
|- style="background:#E9E9E9;"
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="3"|Total
|241
|49
|49
|49
|–
|381,775
|100.00%
|
|-style="background:#E9E9E9;"
|colspan="8" align="left"|Eligible voters and turnout
|568,671
|67.13%
|2.48
|}
Results by region
Detailed analysis
Aftermath
On election night, Higgs claimed victory, saying his team had received a mandate; however, Gallant did not resign, instead stating his intent to remain in office by securing support on a vote-by-vote basis. The following day, Gallant met with Lieutenant Governor Jocelyne Roy-Vienneau and received permission to continue in office and attempt to seek confidence of the legislature. On September 27, Higgs met with Roy-Vienneau, and was told that if Gallant was unable to secure the confidence of the House, he would be called on to form government; shortly afterwards, Higgs called on Gallant to either resign or immediately recall the legislature.
In the immediate aftermath of the election, both Kris Austin of the People's Alliance and David Coon of the Green Party were noncommittal in their support: Austin pledged to work with any party willing to work with him, but said the party won't sacrifice its "values and ideals" to do so; while Coon said his caucus would take time to figure out how they would align themselves, but would not be able to work with anyone uncommitted to rights for linguistic minorities or combatting climate change. Gallant opted to pursue a partnership with the Green Party, ruling out any arrangement with the PCs or PA because they don't share Liberal "values". Higgs initially ruled out any formal agreements with other parties, but later said that a four-year agreement like in British Columbia would be ideal for stability.
Austin agreed to support to a Progressive Conservative government for 18 months, though no formal agreement was made. Coon said his party would negotiate with both the Liberals and Progressive Conservatives. On October 10, Coon announced that the Green Party would not formally side with either party, and would base their votes on their own "declaration of intent". Accordingly, Coon said that their support for the throne speech depends on its "merits", and that his caucus would be free to vote their own way on the speech.
The results drew notice elsewhere in Canada. Parti Québécois leader Jean-François Lisée described the results as "an advertisement for our proposal for proportional representation." Andrew Weaver, leader of the Green Party of British Columbia, suggested that Coon should make an agreement with the Progressive Conservatives. The Globe and Mail published an editorial calling for electoral reform, as did National Post columnist Andrew Coyne.
On November 1, Gallant's Liberal minority government was defeated by a non confidence vote (25-23) by the opposition Progressive Conservatives and People's Alliance. On November 9, Blaine Higgs was sworn in as premier.
Opinion polls
Candidates by region
Legend
bold denotes cabinet minister, speaker or party leader
italics denotes a potential candidate who has not received his/her party's nomination
† denotes an incumbent who is not running for re-election or was defeated in nomination contest
* denotes an incumbent seeking re-election in a new district
NOTE: Candidates' names are as registered with Elections New Brunswick
Northern
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Restigouche West
||
|Gilles LePage4233
|
|David Moreau961
|
|Charles Thériault2540
|
|Beverly A. Mann263
|
|
|
|Travis Pollock(KISS)62
||
|Gilles LePage
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Campbellton-Dalhousie
||
|Guy Arseneault3720
|
|Diane Cyr1761
|
|Annie Thériault637
|
|Thérèse Tremblay721
|
|Robert Boudreau558
|
|
||
|Vacant
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Restigouche-Chaleur
||
|Daniel Guitard4430
|
|Charles Stewart826
|
|Mario Comeau831
|
|Paul Tremblay621
|
|
|
|
||
|Daniel Guitard
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Bathurst West-Beresford
||
|Brian Kenny4351
|
|Yvon Landry1082
|
|Mike Rau503
|
|Anne-Renée Thomas443
|
|
|
|James Risdon(KISS)64
||
|Brian Kenny
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Bathurst East-Nepisiguit-Saint-Isidore
||
|Denis Landry3550
|
|Michelle Branch858
|
|Robert Kryszko421
|
|Jean Maurice Landry2026
|
|
|
|
||
|Denis Landry
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Caraquet
||
|Isabelle Thériault5420
|
|Kevin Haché1827
|
|Yvon Durelle330
|
|Katy Casavant548
|
|
|
|Guilmond Hébert(Ind.)373
||
|Hédard Albert†
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Shippagan-Lamèque-Miscou
|
|Wilfred Roussel3949
||
|Robert Gauvin4048
|
|
|
|Albert Rousselle578
|
|
|
|Philippe Tisseuil(Ind.)178
||
|Wilfred Roussel
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Tracadie-Sheila
||
|Keith Chiasson4320
|
|Claude Landry2390
|
|Nancy Benoit390
|
|Francis Duguay1213
|
|
|
|Stéphane Richardson(Ind.)544
||
|Serge Rousselle†
|}
Miramichi
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Miramichi Bay-Neguac
||
|Lisa Harris3512
|
|Debi Tozer1741
|
|James (Junior) Denny349
|
|Willie Robichaud718
|
|Terry Collette2047
|
|
||
|Lisa Harris
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Miramichi
|
|Bill Fraser2825
|
|Peggy McLean1154
|
|Louann Savage189
|
|Douglas Mullin110
||
|Michelle Conroy3788
|
|
||
|Bill Fraser
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Southwest Miramichi-Bay du Vin
|
|Andy Hardy1909
||
|Jake Stewart2960
|
|Byron J. Connors447
|
|Roger Vautour97
|
|Art O'Donnell2925
|
|Dawson Brideau19
||
|Jake Stewart
|}
Southeastern
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Kent North
|
|Emery Comeau3301
|
|Katie Robertson1112
||
|Kevin Arseneau4056
|
|Neil Gardner171
|
|
|
|Roger Richard(Ind.)194
||
|Bertrand LeBlanc†
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Kent South
||
|Benoit Bourque5595
|
|Ricky Gautreau1848
|
|Alain Rousselle1304
|
|Serge Rémi Parent436
|
|
|
|
||
|Benoît Bourque
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Shediac Bay-Dieppe
||
|Brian Gallant6162
|
|Paulin Blaise Ngweth1353
|
|Michel Albert906
|
|Michel Boudreau764
|
|
|
|
||
|Brian Gallant
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Shediac-Beaubassin-Cap-Pelé
||
|Jacques LeBlanc5919
|
|Marcel Doiron2081
|
|Greta Doucet888
|
|Lise Potvin428
|
|
|
|
||
|Victor Boudreau†
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Memramcook-Tantramar
|
|Bernard LeBlanc3137
|
|Etienne Gaudet1518
||
|Megan Mitton3148
|
|Hélène Boudreau410
|
|
|
|
||
|Bernard LeBlanc
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Dieppe
||
|Roger Melanson5173
|
|Pierre Brine998
|
|
|
|Joyce Richardson1057
|
|
|
|
||
|Roger Melanson
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Moncton East
||
|Monique LeBlanc3626
|
|Marty Kingston2771
|
|Matthew Ian Clark925
|
|Anthony Crandall424
|
|
|
|
||
|Monique LeBlanc
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Moncton Centre
||
|Rob McKee2698
|
|Claudette Boudreau-Turner982
|
|Jean-Marie Nadeau771
|
|Jessica Caissie229
|
|Kevin McClure309
|
|Chris Collins(Ind.)1200
||
|Chris Collins
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Moncton South
||
|Cathy Rogers3099
|
|Moira Murphy2090
|
|Laura Sanderson628
|
|Amy Johnson249
|
|Marilyn Crossman-Riel466
|
|
||
|Cathy Rogers
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Moncton Northwest
|
|Courtney Pringle-Carver2963
||
|Ernie Steeves3186
|
|Keagan Slupsky437
|
|Cyprien Okana297
|
|Myrna Geldart875
|
|
||
|Ernie Steeves
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Moncton Southwest
|
|Susy Campos2667
||
|Sherry Wilson2920
|
|Sarah Colwell907
|
|Hailey Duffy503
|
|
|
|
||
|Sherry Wilson
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Riverview
|
|Brent Mazerolle2053
||
|R. Bruce Fitch3701
|
|Stephanie Coburn542
|
|Madison Duffy249
|
|Heather Collins1005
|
|
||
|Bruce Fitch
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Albert
|
|Catherine Black1775
||
|Mike Holland3479
|
|Moranda van Geest870
|
|Betty Weir375
|
|Sharon Buchanan1546
|
|James Wilson(Ind.)87
||
|Brian Keirstead†
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Gagetown-Petitcodiac
|
|Brigitte Noel1153
||
|Ross Wetmore3674
|
|Marilyn Merritt-Gray1097
|
|Anne Marie F. Richardson165
|
|Craig Dykeman1892
|
|Carolyn MacDonald(KISS)56
||
|Ross Wetmore
|}
Southern
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Sussex-Fundy-St. Martins
|
|Ian Smyth1212
||
|Bruce N. Northrup3816
|
|Fred Harrison505
|
|Dawna Robertson254
|
|Jim Bedford1874
|
|David Raymond Amos54
||
|Bruce Northrup
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Hampton
|
|Carley Parish1454
||
|Gary Crossman3702
|
|John Sabine743
|
|Layton Peck384
|
|Dana Hansen1246
|
|
||
|Gary Crossman
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Quispamsis
|
|Aaron Kennedy2078
||
|Blaine Higgs4691
|
|Mark Woolsey445
|
|Ryan Jewkes239
|
|Keith Porter795
|
|
||
|Blaine Higgs
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Rothesay
|
|Stephanie Tomilson2001
||
|Hugh J. (Ted) Flemming3542
|
|Ann McAllister571
|
|Josh Floyd251
|
|Michael Griffin722
|
|
||
|Ted Flemming
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Saint John East
|
|Clare Manzer1775
||
|Glen Savoie3017
|
|Lynaya Astephen373
|
|Alex White402
|
|Matthew Thompson1047
|
|
||
|Glen Savoie
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Portland-Simonds
|
|John MacKenzie1703
||
|Trevor A. Holder3168
|
|Sheila Croteau435
|
|Kim Blue449
|
|
|
|Artie Watson191
||
|Trevor Holder
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Saint John Harbour
||
|Gerry Lowe1865
|
|Barry Ogden1855
|
|Wayne Dryer721
|
|Jennifer McKenzie836
|
|Margot Brideau393
|
|
||
|Ed Doherty†
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Saint John Lancaster
|
|Kathleen Riley-Karamanos1727
||
|Dorothy Shephard3001
|
|Doug James582
|
|Tony Mowery414
|
|Paul Seelye922
|
|
||
|Dorothy Shephard
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Kings Centre
|
|Bill Merrifield1785
||
|Bill Oliver3267
|
|Bruce Dryer731
|
|Susan Jane Shedd342
|
|Dave Peters1454
|
|
||
|Bill Oliver
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Fundy-The Isles-Saint John West
|
|Rick Doucet2422
||
|Andrea Anderson-Mason3808
|
|Romey Frances Heuff469
|
|Keith LeBlanc203
|
|Doug Ellis1104
|
|
||
|Rick Doucet
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Saint Croix
|
|John B. Ames2436
||
|Greg Thompson3249
|
|Donna Linton1047
|
|Jan Underhill89
|
|Joyce Wright1466
|
|
||
|John Ames
|}
Capital Region
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Oromocto-Lincoln-Fredericton
|
|John Fife2306
||
|Mary E. Wilson2399
|
|Tom McLean903
|
|Justin Young159
|
|Craig Rector1741
|
|
||
|Jody Carr†
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Fredericton-Grand Lake
|
|Wendy Tremblay955
|
|Pam Lynch2433
|
|Dan Weston472
|
|Glenna Hanley114
||
|Kris Austin4799
|
|Gerald Bourque19
||
|Pam Lynch
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|New Maryland-Sunbury
|
|Alex Scholten2210
||
|Jeff Carr3844
|
|Jenica Atwin902
|
|Mackenzie Thomason143
|
|Morris Shannon2214
|
|Danelle Titus14
||
|Jeff Carr
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Fredericton South
|
|Susan Holt1525
|
|Scott Smith1042
||
|David Coon4273
|
|Chris Durrant132
|
|Bonnie Clark616
|
|
||
|David Coon
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Fredericton North
||
|Stephen Horsman2443
|
|Jill Green2182
|
|Tamara White1313
|
|Scarlett Tays139
|
|Lynn King1651
|
|
||
|Stephen Horsman
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Fredericton-York
|
|Amber Bishop1652
|
|Kirk Douglas MacDonald2777
|
|Amanda Wildeman1393
|
|Evelyne Godfrey103
||
|Rick DeSaulniers3033
|
|Sandra Bourque34
||
|Kirk MacDonald
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Fredericton West-Hanwell
|
|Cindy Miles2404
||
|Dominic Cardy2739
|
|Susan Jonah1490
|
|Olivier Hébert171
|
|Jason Paull1803
|
|
||
|Brian Macdonald†
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Carleton-York
|
|Jackie Morehouse1556
||
|Carl Urquhart3118
|
|Sue Rickards837
|
|Robert Kitchen255
|
|Gary Lemmon2583
|
|Lloyd Maurey40
||
|Carl Urquhart
|}
Upper River Valley
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Carleton
|
|Christy Culberson1197
||
|Stewart Fairgrieve2982
|
|Amy Anderson1247
|
|Adam McAvoy82
|
|Stewart B. Manuel2026
|
|
||
|Stewart Fairgrieve
|-
|style="background:whitesmoke;"|Carleton-Victoria
||
|Andrew Harvey3116
|
|Margaret C. Johnson2872
|
|Paula Shaw503
|
|Margaret Geldart114
|
|Terry Leigh Sisson960
|
|Carter Edgar58
||
|Andrew Harvey
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Victoria-La Vallée
||
|Chuck Chiasson3570
|
|Danny Soucy3212
|
|Paul Plourde468
|
|Lina Chiasson307
|
|
|
|
||
|Chuck Chiasson
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Edmundston-Madawaska Centre
||
|Jean-Claude (JC) D'Amours4668
|
|Gérald Levesque1437
|
|Sophie Vaillancourt702
|
|Anne-Marie Comeau206
|
|
|
|
||
|Vacant
|-
| style="background:whitesmoke;"|Madawaska Les Lacs-Edmundston
||
|Francine Landry4191
|
|Jeannot Volpé1826
|
|Denis Boulet945
|
|Cécile Richard-Hébert156
|
|
|
|
||
|Francine Landry
|}
Footnotes
References
External links
2018
New Brunswick General
21st century in New Brunswick
2018 in New Brunswick
| 5,814
|
doc-en-6621_0
|
Luther Quinter McCarty (March 17, 1892 – May 24, 1913) was an American professional boxer who competed from 1911 to 1913. He was considered by most to be the greatest of all the "white hope" fighters who fought during the time of Jack Johnson. He claimed the Heavyweight Championship during Jack Johnson's troubles with the United States Government, with many boxing historians rating him the man with the best chance of defeating Johnson. McCarty was ranked #10 on The Ring magazine's list of the best American heavyweights of the 1910s.
McCarty, solidly built and agile, stood about 6'4", and used his 80" reach to throw his strong left jab to both his opponent's head and body with equal accuracy. Though he was at his best controlling the action from a distance, he also possessed a powerful right hand, a devastating left hook to the body, and a punishing uppercut - called Betsy - that he would use when his opponents tried to fight him in close. In addition to his physical strengths, McCarty also had a cool fighting style, never appearing in the ring too nervous or affected by his opponents.
Early life
Luther Quinter McCarty was born on 20 March 1892 to Maggie McCarty (née Scott), a native of Ireland, and Anton P. McCarty, a cure-all elixirs salesman and proprietor of the White Eagle Medicine Company. Depending on the source, he was born on a farm 30 miles southwest of Lincoln, Nebraska, on a ranch near McCook, Driftwood Creek, Wild Horse Canyon, or in a hollow somewhere in Hitchcock County. His mother was reported to be a stout six feet and 200 pounds, whilst his father stood six feet, five inches tall at 315 pounds. In 1893, Mrs. McCarty died, giving birth to a stillborn son, and as there was no woman in the home, both Luther and young-sister Hazel were taken in by two of McCarty's good neighbours, Mr. and Mrs. John Houlahan, while Anton worked away in his fields of broom corn. He grew up in Piqua, Ohio, and spent time at Sidney gym, as he resided in Sidney since 1907. By 1910, eighteen-year-old Luther decided to go west to lead his life as a cowboy, and found work on a farm in Montana, as an itinerant farmhand, breaking horses. In 1910, he – along with friend Lefty Williams – paid 50 cents to join O'Leary's Athletic Club gymnasium.
Professional boxing career
Early career
During the first winter in Montana he began boxing with some of the locals, and soon caught the eye of the local fight promoters. He was a substitute for Yank Kenny, who left town the day before the fight, and on January 7, 1911, in his first recorded fight, he knocked out Wat Adams in the second round, and after had had several bouts in Montana, North Dakota, and Canada, fighting seven times, winning seven fights, by stoppage. Of these such bouts included legendary iron-chinned Joe Grim, earning a draw spending his energy in trying to knockout the "toughest man on earth". He had worked as a sparring partner in Culbertson, Montana, in the fall of 1911. And additionally, on December 6, 1911, McCarty fought Joe Cox (6-1, 4 KOs), and stopped him in the sixth-round by way of an uppercut.
On December 18, 1911, Fury fought 25-year-old contender Jeff Clark (60–5–8, 30 KOs) in a non-title bout in Springfield, Missouri. With the exception of the first and second rounds, which were rushed by McCarty, Clark was easily in the lead. The fourth and fifth rounds were evenly contested, but in the third round Clark hooked a left to McCarty's chin, which floored him, though McCarty was up at the count of four. Through the sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth rounds, McCarty was outclassed and ultimately lost a points-decision. After defeating McCarty, Clark was said to be matched to fight Harry Wuest on December 28, 1911, followed by that of Joe Jeanette at Memphis in January 1912. After his defeat by Clark, less than two-weeks after, McCarty faced Harry Wuest, in which he followed another loss in the form of a newspaper decision. Following his defeat to Wuest, McCarty returned to achieve five consecutive knockouts in his defeats of Jim Harper, Bill Schultz, and Joe Hagan. McCarty returned to the ring on May 3, 1912 at the Springfield Athletic Club, Springfield, Missouri against Carl Morris (13–2–0, 9 KOs), to which McCarty caught him with a clean right-uppercut to the jaw which sent Morris down in the sixth-round. There was some confusion over how long Morris was down after being put there by McCarty. Morris claimed he was only down six seconds while referee Edward W Cochrane, who was not allowed to utter an audible count by local police, claimed Morris was down fourteen seconds, in which most of the ringside agreed with. The fifth consecutive knockout came in the form of his defeat of Jack Reed on May 23, 1912.
Rise through the ranks
On August 5, 1912, McCarty lost the fight via newspaper decision to experienced Jim Stewart. In the fourth, Stewart landed his right on McCarty's jaw with all his might, resulting in his opponent dropping his hands and grinning. McCarty started off with a rush, taking Stewart by surprise and slamming him back against the ropes with a volley of left and right swings and straight punches. Stewart stopped almost everything. McCarty started with a left jab to the face. In the ninth round, McCarty nearly floundered to the floor from weariness when Stewart made him miss. On August 6, 1912, The New York Times wrote that "McCarty did his best work with a left hook. He showed plenty of punching power with this hand. And occasionally he jarred Stewart with his right, but his work with this hand was crude. He was continually trying for Stewart's stomach, but he seemed unable to land in a manner which carried any speed behind the blow. He rushed continually, with his arms extended at full length, and wasted the power which the blow would have carried had he stood still and snapped his punches."
Following his loss to Stewart, McCarty began his journey towards the top of the heavyweight division by facing future lineal champion Jess Willard (10–2–0, 7 KOs) at Madison Square Garden on August 19, 1912. At the weigh-in, Luther, 20 at the time of the fight, weighed in at 203 and a one-quarter pounds, one of the heaviest he had weighed professionally; Willard, 30, came in heavier at 224 pounds. On August 20, 1912, The New York Times wrote: "Willard's great height and reach had McCarty baffled in the first two rounds, but in the next two the Westerner tore in at a clip that gave promise of an easy victory, if not a knockout. Willard came back strong, however, in the later rounds of the bout, drove McCarty back with his accurate left jabs, shook McCarty from head to toes with terrific right uppercuts, and had him bleeding from the mouth, nose and forehead. Both of McCarty's eyes were swollen when he left the right, and Willard carried a large bruise on his left cheek." The fight was granted a draw from The New York Sun, Chicago Tribune, The Boston Daily Globe, whilst being granted a newspaper decision for Willard from The New York Times. Willard was given the verdict almost unanimously by the New York papers, and it was said in reports of the contest that McCarty was hardly able to land one telling blow on him. Undeterred by his previous two results, McCarty fought and beat Jim Barry, Jack McFarland and Al Kaufman , by way of knockout.
On December 10, 1912, McCarty fought against Fireman Jim Flynn (60–16–20, 40 KOs) in Vernon, California, with the winner to face Al Palzer on January 1, 1913 for the heavyweight championship of the world. McCarty weighed 205 pounds, marginally higher than his previous fights, with Flynn coming in at 190 pounds. Flynn entered with a record of 10–1–0–1 in his previous twelve bouts. McCarty improved his record to 16–2–3 with 14 stoppage wins, with a sixteenth-round technical knockout over Flynn. Flynn was an easy target for McCarty's best blows, including a left jab and a right-cross. Although Flynn was outclassed from the first round, he was first in trouble in the eighth-round when a short right sent him to the map for the count. Twice more before the end of the round Flynn went down, once rolling over on the floor three times before rising to his knee, where he crouched with blood pouring in a stream from his mouth and face, while Eyton tolled the seconds. Both of Flynn's eyes were closed, his right ear was pounded to a grisly pulp, his noise broken and his lips driven to shreds between his teeth, resulting in referee Charles Eyton heeding the demands of the howling crowd to stop the fight. After the fight, Flynn remarked: "Jim Corbett said in a mouthful after his second fight with Jeffries - 'he was too damned big.' That goes for me here. I never new they made men so game."
World White heavyweight champion
McCarty vs. Palzer
In December 10, 1912, after McCarty's stoppage of Flynn, it was announced that McCarty would face White heavyweight champion Al Palzer (8–3–0–1, 5 KOs) on January 1, 1912. On January 1912, Jack Johnson had begun active training again with the idea of getting back into the game, with Johnson remarking: "As far as McCarty and Palzer fighting for the championship — it is absurd. McCarty may be a wonderful boxer, but I will bet $10,000 that I can beat McCarty, Palzer and Willard in the same ring and take on one 15 minutes after defeating the other [...] When I fought Jeffries I told the public just how the bout would come out [...] I hope that the American public will forget some of the things that have been said about Johnson and let some of the 'black hopes' and 'white hopes' meet Johnson and fight it out and let the best man win."
At the official weigh-in, before the fight, Palzer tipped the scales at 218 pounds, while McCarty weighed 205 pounds. Prior to the fight, Palzer remarked: "I'll win any time between the first and the tenth. If the one good old punch doesn't do the work early in the fight I'll wear him down long before the limit. McCarty can't stand my pace. I'm in good shape and never was so confident in my life." However, McCarty stated: "I expect to be a world's champion tonight. I never saw Palzer box, but I'm willing to take anything he can send to give one back. I just ask no quarter. Just let us get together and let the better man go out of the ring with the belt around his waist. I won't be surprised if I land the knockout within two rounds, but I'm ready for whatever comes." Through seventeen rounds and into the eighteenth, McCarty out boxed, out-generaled and out-punched Palzer, and in the eighteenth had Palzer wobbling sadly, his knees shaking under the great strain of the body they no longer were able to support steadily. A succession of lefts and rights to the head, which rocked Palzer to the bottom of his immense frame and caused blood to stream from cuts on his eyes and lips. As the bell signalled the start of the eighteenth-round, McCarty stung Palzer with a left to the jaw, followed by a right to his head. Palzer reeled away, wobbly and shaken. McCarty stalked him for the kill, and referee Eyton knifed in between the two, raised his hands, and the bout was over. Upon his defeat of Palzer, he was given a diamond-studded belt, valued at five thousand dollars, and was the recognised white heavyweight champion of the world. After the events of the Palzer fight, Jack Johnson (54–10–10–3, 25 KOs) set side the tradition that required the champions to wait for others to challenge them, and called on McCarty to face him for the lineal championship. Speaking after the fight, McCarty said: "When I accepted the heavy-weight championship belt, I agreed to an unwritten clause that I should never fight a negro [...] Well, I'm going to live up to my contract.", and that he would not fight Johnson "under any circumstances.”"
McCarty vs. Pelkey
On April 26, soon after his win over Palzer, McCarty again beat Flynn, this time more decisively, with McCarty leading throughout the fight and frequently compelled his opponent to clinch to avoid his vicious straight left jabs. Although he appeared to be outclassed from the start, Flynn, rushed into clinch after clinch and succeeded in landing many blows on the champion at close quarters. McCarty, however seemed to be in the pink of condition and was not affected by Flynn's hooks [...] With straight jabs he pounded away at his opponent's face. At the end of the first round Flynn's nose was bleeding, in the second round his mouth was cut and before the close of the bout one eye was nearly closed. He followed his win over Flynn with a ten-round, no-decision bout with Frank Moran in New York. Moran was considered to be a trial-horse, but he gave McCarty a tough fight, and demonstrated that McCarty lacked a true knockout punch. Nevertheless, McCarty survived the ten-round battle and won a newspaper decision according to The New York Times. Another three-round exhibition with an unknown, Fred Fulton, occurred on May 15.
Less than a month after beating Moran, McCarty travelling to Calgary, Alberta to take a "stay busy" fight with Canadian heavyweight Arthur Pelkey while he waited to fight another top contender or perhaps Jack Johnson himself. McCarty smiled as he entered the ring on May 24, 1913, while Pelkey looked grim and determined. During the first round of a fight billed as the World White Heavyweight Championship held on May 24, 1913, a few blows were thrown, but nothing of consequence. According to The New York Times, McCarty lashed out with left jabs and found Pelkey's face, leaving a reddened countenance, with Pelkey rushing in and scoring with an uppercut. McCarty's head shook and his neck muscles bulged. From his face went the smile he had carried only moments before. From the corner, Billy McCarney, McCarty's manager, screamed to his fighter: "Move! Move! Keep moving and stick out your left!" McCarty, in a daze, on uncooperative legs, did not heed the advice. He stumbled around the ring, his face bloodless, and he took another left-right combination to the jaw. McCarty smiled, and turned slightly and fell flat on his back in the ring, with the cheers of the crowd quickly turned silent as McCarty didn't move. A chance blow just below the heart of McCarthy after one minute and forty-five seconds of fighting caused his death. The blow struck McCarthy just below the heart, sending him reeling, to which he fell heavily to the floor. The referee began the count and eventually McCarty was hauled to his corner, and as his faction attempted to revive him: Luther McCarty was dead.
McCarty's death was front-page news around the world, as it was the first time in history that a champion had been killed in the ring, while also being the first time any boxer had been killed in the ring in Canada. Everyone connected with the fight suffered, with Billy McCarney, and the referee, Ed W. Smith, The Chicago Evening American sports editor, were arrested. Tommy Burns, the promoter, was indicted for manslaughter. Arsonists burned down Tommy Burns's Arena, and boxing was banned in Alberta. On learning of McCarty's death "Pelkey broke down and cried like a child all the way to the police barracks. "I killed a man, I killed a man" were the only words that passed his lips for over an hour. Pelkey was arrested by the North-West Mounted Police and charged with manslaughter, and although he was absolved from blame by the Coroner's report, the shock of having killed McCarty in the ring ruined Pelkey. He had become an uncomfortable man to have around, and was remembered in boxing history as the man who killed Luther McCarty. On June 4, 1913, according to Windsor Star, Pelkey was described as a broken man, with his nerves being torn to shreds by the events of the few preceding days: "He may never fight again, but if he does, there appears to be every possibility that the recollection of the one blow to McCarthy's chin will make him an easy mark for opponents." Whilst adding that Pelkey declared that he is unsure what he'll do, though stated he wishes to defend his title, but whether he'll be able to or not is a matter for the future to decide.
Offers by theatrical promoters flooded in to put Pelkey on stage, no doubt in re-creation exhibitions of this bout, all of which he seems to have refused. Reportedly Pelkey did not want to fight again, but was forced into it because of legal fees incurred to defend himself in the aftermath of the tragedy. Pelkey had lost his first four bouts when returning to the ring after McCarty's death, and lost his title to Jack Johnson's sparring partner, Gunboat Smith. He could no longer defend himself in the ring, losing almost every bout after the McCarty fight, usually getting knocked out after a beating. Pelkey finally settled in Ford City, Ontario to become a police officer and city councilman, and seemed to have recovered a semblance of redemption before contracting a sleeping sickness that was sweeping Canada and died at the age of 36, having secured a draw against Young Peter Jackson three months prior.
Personal life
McCarty, aged sixteen, was married in Sidney, Ohio of May 28, 1907, to nineteen-year-old Rhoda Wright, the daughter of Amanda (née Stumpff) and Theodore Wright, a prosperous farmer. On February 14, 1911, the couple had a daughter, Cornelia Alberta. His cousins Tom and Joe McCarty were fellow professional boxers in the heavyweight division. On March 8, 1913, he was among some of the top personalities in boxing who paid their respects at the grave of middleweight Stanley Ketchel at Holy Cross Cemetery in Grand Rapids, Michigan.
Death
The exact cause has never been fully determined. It was at first believed that heart failure was the cause, but this was later doubted by physicians, who found that a dislocation of a vertebra in his neck had taken place, and it was the accepted theory by most that this injury had been caused a few days previous when the champion was riding a bucking mustang and that Pelkey's blow caused a further dislocation, resulting in McCarty's death. On May 25, 1913, The Salt Lake Tribune published that physicians at the ringside stated that death was due to heart trouble. Several medical men clambered through the ropes and did all in their power to resuscitate the unconscious McCarty. The doctors stated that McCarty had valvular heart trouble and that this had been aggravated by the excitement. After the physicians had been working over him for about ten-minutes, Dr. Aull, one of the physicians who attended McCarty, stated that McCarty was breathing naturally and would soon come around. A hypodermic was injected, but it failed to have any effect and it was then that McCarty was removed to the open air. Billy McCarney, manager of McCarty, stated that Luther had had stomach trouble for a week previous to the bout, in which stomach tablets were taken and he was compelled to lay off from heavy training for two days last week. McCarney stated that thirty seconds before the fall, McCarty struck a crouching position, such as he used in delivering an uppercut and had winked at McCarty in his corner. Dr. Aull declared after the death of the champion that he had kept close track of all the blows struck and that not one below of enough power to do any damage had been landed and that Pelkey was not in anyway responsible for the death of McCarthy. All physicians unite in declaring death was due to heart trouble and not to any blow, although admitting that Pelkey's thrust to the heart capped the climax, as the heart was then almost bursting with blood caused by the excitement. On May 27, 1913, The New York Times the coroner's jury exonerated Pelkey, with H. S. Mosher performing the autopsy on McCarty's body. He revealed that death was caused by a spinal haemorrhage, the result of a dislocation of the neck. Mosher remarked that the fall could not have produced that result, and found heart conditions such as to entirely preclude the supposition that death came from a blow over the heart. Burns, McCarney, and SMith were unable to account for the way in which McCarty received his fatal injuries, in which they said the blows exchanged a force insufficient to have scored a knockdown. McCarney stated that eight-ounce gloves were used and the men obeyed the rules not to hold or hit in clinches, with him asserting on the witness stand that McCarty was in good condition when he entered the ring.
Once McCarty's body arrived in Ohio, his casket was set up at the Wagner, Grover and Company furniture store and more than 7,500 people filed past it in one night and the following morning. The casket was then paraded through town in a hearse drawn by the two white Arabian horses that his father used to pull his medicine show wagon. Newspaper representatives from big dailies throughout the country were there covering the funeral, as well as magazine writers of national reputation. Some 2,500 people joined the funeral procession to Forest Hill Cemetery, in Piqua, Ohio, where McCarty is buried. The Dayton Daily News reported that "...several thousand persons looked upon the face of the dead fighter as his body lay in state." Among the mourners were Luther's estranged wife, Rhoda, and Cornelia, his daughter, whom had travelled from their home in Fargo, North Dakota. McCarty's grave – in a plot that now includes his dad, his stepmother, Caroline, and his older sister Elleta – has a front stone bearing the appropriately chiselled text: "The Champion Rests.", with the head of his grave reading: "He Knew No Wrong".
Legacy
Today, the legacy of McCarty is widely forgotten. However, he was once considered one of the top Heavyweight prospects during the 1910s by fellow boxers and boxing experts:
Nat Fleischer, founder of The Ring magazine, and Sam Andre in A Pictorial History of Boxing (1959) wrote of the effort to dethrone Jack Johnson as Heavyweight Champion and named some splendid fighters, to which they furthered: "The 'White Hopes' thrived between 1910 and 1915, and they were a mighty impressive lot, far better than the majority of the contenders in recent years. For a time it seemed that Frank Moran might be the successful candidate, and then the eyes of the boxing world became centred on a better all-around heavyweight, Luther McCarty."
DeWitt Van Court, boxing instructor of James J. Jeffries, asserted that McCarty was "[...] unquestionably the greatest young heavyweight prospect since the days of John L. Sullivan. McCarty had a huge frame, standing six feet four inches tall and having a reach of eighty-one inches. He weighed 205 pounds and stripped in the finest of condition and had really only begun to fill out at the time he died."
Dan Cuoco, boxing historian and director of the International Boxing Research Organization stated, "Luther McCarty was big and strong and considered by most boxing experts as the best of the 'White Hopes."
Billy McCarney, promoter of McCarty, elected McCarty as the greatest heavyweight ever. He anticipated that people would think sentiment caused him to choose McCartysince he developed and managed him but gave his reasons as follows. "[McCarty] was a natural born fighter. He had only two years of ring experience. Never had seen a boxing bout until he was forced in as a substitute at a show he attended with some cowboy friends [...] He was a combination of speed, cleverness, gameness and hitting ability. Immune to punishment, loving the lust of battle, gifted with every physical requirement - Luther McCarty was the world's greatest heavyweight"
John Lardner, American sports writer, conceded that McCarty "may well have been the best fighter of all the white hopes." He quotes Fleischer as saying, "There is little doubt that had McCarty lived he would have won the title [...] McCarty ... was not as big as Willard, but he was quite large ... and fast for his size."
Professional boxing record
Notes
References
External links
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1892 births
1913 deaths
American male boxers
American people of Irish descent
Boxers from Nebraska
Deaths due to injuries sustained in boxing
Heavyweight boxers
People from Hitchcock County, Nebraska
Sportspeople from Nebraska
World boxing champions
World heavyweight boxing champions
World white heavyweight boxing champions
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The terms 7th July, July 7th, and 7/7 (pronounced "Seven-seven") have been widely used in the Western media as a shorthand for the 7 July 2005 bombings on London's transport system. In the Chinese language, this term is used to denote the Battle of Lugou Bridge started on July 7, 1937, marking the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War.
Events
Pre-1600
1124 – The city of Tyre falls to the Venetian Crusade after a siege of nineteen weeks.
1456 – A retrial verdict acquits Joan of Arc of heresy 25 years after her death.
1520 – Spanish conquistadores defeat a larger Aztec army at the Battle of Otumba.
1534 – Jacques Cartier makes his first contact with aboriginal peoples in what is now Canada.
1575 – The Raid of the Redeswire is the last major battle between England and Scotland.
1585 – The Treaty of Nemours abolishes tolerance to Protestants in France.
1601–1900
1667 – An English fleet completes the destruction of a French merchant fleet off Fort St Pierre, Martinique during the Second Anglo-Dutch War.
1770 – The Battle of Larga between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire takes place.
1777 – American forces retreating from Fort Ticonderoga are defeated in the Battle of Hubbardton.
1798 – As a result of the XYZ Affair, the US Congress rescinds the Treaty of Alliance with France sparking the "Quasi-War".
1807 – The first Treaty of Tilsit between France and Russia is signed, ending hostilities between the two countries in the War of the Fourth Coalition.
1834 – In New York City, four nights of rioting against abolitionists began.
1846 – US troops occupy Monterey and Yerba Buena, thus beginning the US conquest of California.
1863 – The United States begins its first military draft; exemptions cost $300.
1865 – Four conspirators in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln are hanged.
1892 – The Katipunan is established, the discovery of which by Spanish authorities initiated the Philippine Revolution.
1898 – US President William McKinley signs the Newlands Resolution annexing Hawaii as a territory of the United States.
1901–present
1907 – Florenz Ziegfeld Jr. staged his first Follies on the roof of the New York Theater in New York City.
1911 – The United States, UK, Japan, and Russia sign the North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911 banning open-water seal hunting, the first international treaty to address wildlife preservation issues.
1915 – The First Battle of the Isonzo comes to an end.
1915 – Colombo Town Guard officer Henry Pedris is executed in British Ceylon for allegedly inciting persecution of Muslims.
1916 – The New Zealand Labour Party was founded in Wellington.
1928 – Sliced bread is sold for the first time (on the inventor's 48th birthday) by the Chillicothe Baking Company of Chillicothe, Missouri.
1930 – Industrialist Henry J. Kaiser begins construction of Boulder Dam (now known as Hoover Dam).
1937 – The Marco Polo Bridge Incident (Lugou Bridge) provides the Imperial Japanese Army with a pretext for starting the Second Sino-Japanese War (China-Japan War).
1937 – The Peel Commission Report recommends the partition of Palestine, which was the first formal recommendation for partition in the history of Palestine.
1941 – The US occupation of Iceland replaces the UK's occupation.
1944 – World War II: Largest Banzai charge of the Pacific War at the Battle of Saipan.
1946 – Mother Francesca S. Cabrini becomes the first American to be canonized.
1946 – Howard Hughes nearly dies when his XF-11 reconnaissance aircraft prototype crashes in a Beverly Hills neighborhood.
1952 – The ocean liner passes Bishop Rock on her maiden voyage, breaking the transatlantic speed record to become the fastest passenger ship in the world.
1953 – Ernesto "Che" Guevara sets out on a trip through Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, and El Salvador.
1958 – US President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs the Alaska Statehood Act into law.
1959 – Venus occults the star Regulus. This rare event is used to determine the diameter of Venus and the structure of the Venusian atmosphere.
1963 – Buddhist crisis: Police commanded by Ngô Đình Nhu, brother and chief political adviser of South Vietnam President Ngo Dinh Diem, attacked a group of American journalists who were covering a protest.
1978 – The Solomon Islands becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
1980 – Institution of sharia law in Iran.
1980 – During the Lebanese Civil War, 83 Tiger militants are killed during what will be known as the Safra massacre.
1981 – US President Ronald Reagan appoints Sandra Day O'Connor to become the first female member of the Supreme Court of the United States.
1983 – Cold War: Samantha Smith, a US schoolgirl, flies to the Soviet Union at the invitation of Secretary General Yuri Andropov.
1985 – Boris Becker becomes the youngest player ever to win Wimbledon at age 17.
1991 – Yugoslav Wars: The Brioni Agreement ends the ten-day independence war in Slovenia against the rest of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
1992 – The New York Court of Appeals rules that women have the same right as men to go topless in public.
1997 – The Turkish Armed Forces withdraw from northern Iraq after assisting the Kurdistan Democratic Party in the Iraqi Kurdish Civil War.
2003 – NASA Opportunity rover, MER-B or Mars Exploration Rover–B, was launched into space aboard a Delta II rocket.
2005 – A series of four explosions occurs on London's transport system, killing 56 people, including four suicide bombers, and injuring over 700 others.
2007 – The first Live Earth benefit concert was held in 11 locations around the world.
2012 – At least 172 people are killed in a flash flood in the Krasnodar Krai region of Russia.
2013 – A De Havilland Otter air taxi crashes in Soldotna, Alaska, killing ten people.
2016 – Ex-US Army soldier Micah Xavier Johnson shoots fourteen policemen during an anti-police protest in downtown Dallas, Texas, killing five of them. He is subsequently killed by a robot-delivered bomb.
2019 – The United States women's national soccer team defeated the Netherlands 2–0 at the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup Final in Lyon, France.
Births
Pre-1600
611 – Eudoxia Epiphania, daughter of Byzantine emperor Heraclius
1053 – Emperor Shirakawa of Japan (died 1129)
1119 – Emperor Sutoku of Japan (died 1164)
1207 – Elizabeth of Hungary (died 1231)
1482 – Andrzej Krzycki, Polish archbishop (died 1537)
1528 – Archduchess Anna of Austria (died 1590)
1540 – John Sigismund Zápolya, King of Hungary (died 1571)
1585 – Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel, English courtier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Northumberland (died 1646)
1601–1900
1616 – John Leverett, Governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony (died 1679)
1752 – Joseph Marie Jacquard, French merchant, invented the Jacquard loom (died 1834)
1766 – Guillaume Philibert Duhesme, French general (died 1815)
1831 – Jane Elizabeth Conklin, American poet and religious writer (died 1914)
1833 – Félicien Rops, Belgian painter and illustrator (died 1898)
1843 – Camillo Golgi, Italian physician and pathologist, Nobel Prize laureate (died 1926)
1846 – Heinrich Rosenthal, Estonian physician and author (died 1916)
1848 – Francisco de Paula Rodrigues Alves, Brazilian politician, 5th President of Brazil (died 1919)
1851 – Charles Albert Tindley, American minister and composer (died 1933)
1855 – Ludwig Ganghofer, German author and playwright (died 1920)
1859 – Rettamalai Srinivasan, Indian politician (died 1945)
1860 – Gustav Mahler, Austrian composer and conductor (died 1911)
1861 – Nettie Stevens, American geneticist (died 1912)
1869 – Rachel Caroline Eaton, American academic (died 1938)
1869 – Fernande Sadler, French painter and mayor (died 1949)
1874 – Erwin Bumke, German lawyer and jurist (died 1945)
1880 – Otto Frederick Rohwedder, American engineer, invented sliced bread (died 1960)
1882 – Yanka Kupala, Belarusian poet and writer (died 1941)
1883 – Toivo Kuula, Finnish conductor and composer (died 1918)
1884 – Lion Feuchtwanger, German author and playwright (died 1958)
1891 – Tadamichi Kuribayashi, Japanese general and poet (died 1945)
1893 – Herbert Feis, American historian and author (died 1972)
1893 – Miroslav Krleža, Croatian author, poet, and playwright (died 1981)
1895 – Virginia Rappe, American model and actress (died 1921)
1898 – Arnold Horween, American football player and coach (died 1985)
1899 – George Cukor, American director and producer (died 1983)
1900 – Maria Bard, German stage and silent film actress (died 1944)
1900 – Earle E. Partridge, American general (died 1990)
1901–present
1901 – Vittorio De Sica, Italian actor and director (died 1974)
1901 – Sam Katzman, American director and producer (died 1973)
1901 – Eiji Tsuburaya, Japanese cinematographer and producer (died 1970)
1902 – Ted Radcliffe, American baseball player and manager (died 2005)
1904 – Simone Beck, French chef and author (died 1991)
1905 – Marie-Louise Dubreil-Jacotin, French mathematician (died 1972)
1906 – William Feller, Croatian-American mathematician and academic (died 1970)
1906 – Anton Karas, Austrian zither player and composer (died 1985)
1906 – Satchel Paige, American baseball player and coach (died 1982)
1907 – Robert A. Heinlein, American science fiction writer and screenwriter (died 1988)
1908 – Revilo P. Oliver, American author and academic (died 1994)
1909 – Gottfried von Cramm, German tennis player (died 1976)
1910 – Doris McCarthy, Canadian painter and author (died 2010)
1911 – Gian Carlo Menotti, Italian-American composer (died 2007)
1913 – Pinetop Perkins, American singer and pianist (died 2011)
1915 – Margaret Walker, American novelist and poet (died 1998)
1917 – Fidel Sánchez Hernández, Salvadoran general and politician, President of El Salvador (died 2003)
1917 – Iva Withers, Canadian-American actress and singer (died 2014)
1918 – Bob Vanatta, American head basketball coach (died 2016)
1918 – Jing Shuping, Chinese businessman (died 2009)
1919 – Jon Pertwee, English actor (died 1996)
1921 – Ezzard Charles, American boxer (died 1975)
1921 – Adolf von Thadden, German lieutenant and politician (died 1996)
1922 – Alan Armer, American director, producer, and screenwriter (died 2010)
1922 – James D. Hughes, American Air Force lieutenant general
1923 – Liviu Ciulei, Romanian actor, director, and screenwriter (died 2011)
1923 – Whitney North Seymour Jr., American politician (died 2019)
1923 – Eduardo Falú, Argentinian guitarist and composer (died 2013)
1924 – Natalia Bekhtereva, Russian neuroscientist and psychologist (died 2008)
1924 – Karim Olowu, Nigerian sprinter and long jumper (died 2019)
1924 – Mary Ford, American singer and guitarist (died 1977)
1924 – Eddie Romero, Filipino director, producer, and screenwriter (died 2013)
1925 – Wally Phillips, American radio host (died 2008)
1926 – Nuon Chea, Cambodian politician (died 2019)
1926 – Anand Mohan Zutshi Gulzar Dehlvi, Urdu poet (died 2020)
1927 – Alan J. Dixon, American lawyer and politician, 34th Illinois Secretary of State (died 2014)
1927 – Charlie Louvin, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (died 2011)
1927 – Doc Severinsen, American trumpet player and conductor
1928 – Patricia Hitchcock, English actress
1928 – Kapelwa Sikota Zambian nurse and health official (died 2006)
1929 – Hasan Abidi, Pakistani journalist and poet (died 2005)
1929 – Sergio Romano, Italian writer, journalist, and historian
1930 – Biljana Plavšić, 2nd President of Republika Srpska
1930 – Hamish MacInnes, Scottish mountaineer and author (d. 2020)
1930 – Theodore Edgar McCarrick, American cardinal
1930 – Hank Mobley, American saxophonist and composer (died 1986)
1931 – David Eddings, American author and academic (died 2009)
1932 – T. J. Bass, American physician and author (died 2011)
1932 – Joe Zawinul, Austrian jazz keyboardist and composer (died 2007)
1933 – David McCullough, American historian and author
1934 – Robert McNeill Alexander, British zoologist (died 2016)
1935 – Gian Carlo Michelini, Italian-Taiwanese Roman Catholic priest
1936 – Egbert Brieskorn, German mathematician and academic (died 2013)
1936 – Jo Siffert, Swiss race car driver (died 1971)
1936 – Nikos Xilouris, Greek singer-songwriter (died 1980)
1937 – Tung Chee-hwa, Hong Kong businessman and politician, 1st Chief Executive of Hong Kong
1938 – James Montgomery Boice, American pastor and theologian (died 2000)
1939 – Elena Obraztsova, Russian soprano and actress (died 2015)
1940 – Ringo Starr, English singer-songwriter, drummer, and actor
1941 – Marco Bollesan, Italian rugby player and coach (died 2021)
1941 – John Fru Ndi, Cameroonian politician
1941 – Michael Howard, Welsh lawyer and politician
1941 – Bill Oddie, English comedian, actor, and singer
1941 – Jim Rodford, English bass player (died 2018)
1942 – Carmen Duncan, Australian actress (died 2019)
1943 – Joel Siegel, American journalist and critic (died 2007)
1944 – Feleti Sevele, Tongan politician; Prime Minister of Tonga
1944 – Tony Jacklin, English golfer and sportscaster
1944 – Glenys Kinnock, Baroness Kinnock of Holyhead, English educator and politician,
1944 – Emanuel Steward, American boxer and trainer (died 2012)
1944 – Ian Wilmut, English-Scottish embryologist and academic
1945 – Michael Ancram, English lawyer and politician
1945 – Adele Goldberg, American computer scientist and academic
1945 – Helô Pinheiro, inspiration for the song "The Girl from Ipanema"
1947 – Gyanendra, King of Nepal
1947 – Howard Rheingold, American author and critic
1949 – Shelley Duvall, American actress, writer, and producer
1954 – Simon Anderson, Australian surfer
1955 – Len Barker, American baseball player and coach
1957 – Jonathan Dayton, American director and producer
1957 – Berry Sakharof, Turkish-Israeli singer-songwriter and guitarist
1958 – Alexander Svinin, Russian figure skater and coach
1959 – Billy Campbell, American actor
1960 – Kevin A. Ford, American colonel and astronaut
1960 – Ralph Sampson, American basketball player and coach
1963 – Vonda Shepard, American singer-songwriter and actress
1964 – Dominik Henzel, Czech-Swedish actor and comedian
1965 – Mo Collins, American actress, comedian and screenwriter
1965 – Jeremy Kyle, English talk show host
1966 – Jim Gaffigan, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter
1967 – Tom Kristensen, Danish race car driver
1968 – Jorja Fox, American actress
1969 – Sylke Otto, German luger
1969 – Joe Sakic, Canadian ice hockey player
1969 – Cree Summer, American-Canadian actress
1970 – Wayne McCullough, Northern Irish boxer
1970 – Min Patel, Indian-English cricketer
1970 – Erik Zabel, German cyclist and coach
1971 – Christian Camargo, American actor, producer, and screenwriter
1972 – Lisa Leslie, American basketball player and actress
1972 – Manfred Stohl, Austrian race car driver
1972 – Kirsten Vangsness, American actress and writer
1973 – José Jiménez, Dominican baseball player
1973 – Kārlis Skrastiņš, Latvian ice hockey player (died 2011)
1974 – Patrick Lalime, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster
1975 – Tony Benshoof, American luger
1975 – Louis Koen, South African rugby player
1975 – Adam Nelson, American shot putter
1976 – Bérénice Bejo, Argentinian-French actress
1976 – Dominic Foley, Irish footballer
1976 – Vasily Petrenko, Russian conductor
1976 – Ercüment Olgundeniz, Turkish discus thrower and shot putter
1978 – Chris Andersen, American basketball player
1978 – Davor Kraljević, Croatian footballer
1979 – Ibrahim Sulayman Muhammad Arbaysh, Saudi Arabian terrorist (died 2015)
1979 – Anastasios Gousis, Greek sprinter
1979 – Douglas Hondo, Zimbabwean cricketer
1980 – John Buck, American baseball player
1980 – Serdar Kulbilge, Turkish footballer
1980 – Michelle Kwan, American figure skater
1981 – Mahendra Singh Dhoni, Indian cricketer
1982 – Jan Laštůvka, Czech footballer
1982 – George Owu, Ghanaian footballer
1983 – Justin Davies, Australian footballer
1984 – Minas Alozidis, Greek hurdler
1984 – Alberto Aquilani, Italian footballer
1984 – Mohammad Ashraful, Bangladeshi cricketer
1985 – Marc Stein, German footballer
1986 – Ana Kasparian, American journalist and producer
1986 – Udo Schwarz, German rugby player
1986 – Sevyn Streeter, American singer-songwriter
1988 – Kaci Brown, American singer-songwriter
1988 – Lukas Rosenthal, German rugby player
1989 – Landon Cassill, American race car driver
1989 – Miina Kallas, Estonian footballer
1989 – Karl-August Tiirmaa, Estonian skier
1990 – Lee Addy, Ghanaian footballer
1990 – Pascal Stöger, Austrian footballer
1991 – Alesso, Swedish DJ, record producer and musician
1992 – Ellina Anissimova, Estonian hammer thrower
1992 – Dominik Furman, Polish footballer
1994 – Timothy Cathcart, Northern Irish race car driver (died 2014)
1997 – Mizuho Habu, Japanese idol
1999 – Moussa Diaby, French footballer
Deaths
Pre-1600
984 – Crescentius the Elder, Italian politician and aristocrat
1021 – Fujiwara no Akimitsu, Japanese bureaucrat (born 944)
1162 – Haakon II Sigurdsson, king of Norway (born 1147)
1285 – Tile Kolup, German impostor claiming to be Frederick II
1304 – Benedict XI, pope of the Catholic Church (born 1240)
1307 – Edward I, king of England (born 1239)
1345 – Momchil, Bulgarian brigand and ruler
1531 – Tilman Riemenschneider, German sculptor (born 1460)
1568 – William Turner, British ornithologist and botanist (born 1508)
1572 – Sigismund II Augustus, Polish king (born 1520)
1573 – Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, Italian architect, designed the Church of the Gesù and Villa Farnese (born 1507)
1593 – Mohammed Bagayogo, Malian scholar and academic (born 1523)
1600 – Thomas Lucy, English politician (born 1532)
1601–1900
1607 – Penelope Blount, Countess of Devonshire, English noblewoman (born 1563)
1647 – Thomas Hooker, English minister, founded the Colony of Connecticut (born 1586)
1701 – William Stoughton, American judge and politician, Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay (born 1631)
1713 – Henry Compton, English bishop (born 1632)
1718 – Alexei Petrovich, Russian tsarevich (born 1690)
1730 – Olivier Levasseur, French pirate (born 1690)
1758 – Marthanda Varma, Raja of Attingal (born 1706)
1764 – William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath, English politician, Secretary at War (born 1683)
1776 – Jeremiah Markland, English scholar and academic (born 1693)
1790 – François Hemsterhuis, Dutch philosopher and author (born 1721)
1816 – Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Irish playwright and poet (born 1751)
1863 – William Mulready, Irish genre painter (born 1786)
1865 – George Atzerodt (born 1833)
1865 – David Herold (born 1842)
1865 – Lewis Payne (born 1844)
1865 – Mary Surratt (born 1823)
1890 – Henri Nestlé, German businessman, founded Nestlé (born 1814)
1901–present
1901 – Johanna Spyri, Swiss author (born 1827)
1913 – Edward Burd Grubb Jr., American general and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Spain (born 1841)
1922 – Cathal Brugha, Irish revolutionary and politician, active in the Easter Rising, Irish War of Independence; first Ceann Comhairle and first President of Dáil Éireann (born 1874)
1925 – Clarence Hudson White, American photographer and educator (born 1871)
1927 – Gösta Mittag-Leffler, Swedish mathematician and academic (born 1846)
1930 – Arthur Conan Doyle, British writer (born 1859)
1932 – Alexander Grin, Russian author (born 1880)
1932 – Henry Eyster Jacobs, American theologian and educator (born 1844)
1939 – Deacon White, American baseball player and manager (born 1847)
1950 – Fats Navarro, American trumpet player and composer (born 1923)
1955 – Ali Naci Karacan, Turkish journalist and publisher (born 1896)
1956 – Gottfried Benn, German author and poet (born 1886)
1960 – Francis Browne, Irish priest and photographer (born 1880)
1964 – Lillian Copeland, American discus thrower and shot putter (born 1904)
1965 – Moshe Sharett, Ukrainian-Israeli lieutenant and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Israel (born 1894)
1968 – Jo Schlesser, French race car driver (born 1928)
1971 – Claude Gauvreau, Canadian poet and playwright (born 1925)
1972 – Athenagoras I of Constantinople (born 1886)
1973 – Max Horkheimer, German philosopher and sociologist (born 1895)
1973 – Veronica Lake, American actress (born 1922)
1978 – Francisco Mendes, Guinea-Bissau lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Guinea-Bissau (born 1933)
1980 – Dore Schary, American director, producer, and screenwriter (born 1905)
1982 – Bon Maharaja, Indian guru and religious writer (born 1901)
1984 – George Oppen, American poet and author (born 1908)
1987 – Germaine Thyssens-Valentin, Dutch-French pianist (born 1902)
1990 – Bill Cullen, American television panelist and game show host (born 1920)
1990 – Cazuza, Brazilian singer and songwriter (born 1958)
1993 – Rıfat Ilgaz, Turkish author, poet, and educator (born 1911)
1993 – Mia Zapata, American singer (born 1965)
1994 – Carlo Chiti, Italian engineer (born 1924)
1994 – Friedrich August Freiherr von der Heydte, German general (born 1907)
1998 – Moshood Abiola, Nigerian businessman and politician (born 1937)
1999 – Julie Campbell Tatham, American author (born 1908)
1999 – Vikram Batra, Param Vir Chakra, Indian Army personnel (born 1974)
2000 – Kenny Irwin Jr., American race car driver (born 1969)
2001 – Fred Neil, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (born 1936)
2003 – Izhak Graziani, Bulgarian trumpet player and conductor (born 1924)
2006 – Syd Barrett, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (born 1946)
2006 – Juan de Ávalos, Spanish sculptor (born 1911)
2006 – John Money, New Zealand-American psychologist and author (born 1921)
2007 – Anne McLaren, British scientist (born 1927)
2007 – Donald Michie, British scientist (born 1923)
2008 – Bruce Conner, American sculptor, painter, and photographer (born 1933)
2008 – Dorian Leigh, American model (born 1917)
2011 – Allan W. Eckert, American historian and author (born 1931)
2011 – Dick Williams, American baseball player, coach, and manager (born 1929)
2012 – Ronaldo Cunha Lima, Brazilian poet and politician (born 1936)
2012 – Dennis Flemion, American drummer (born 1955)
2012 – Doris Neal, American baseball player (born 1928)
2012 – Jerry Norman, American sinologist and linguist (born 1936)
2012 – Leon Schlumpf, Swiss politician (born 1927)
2013 – Artur Hajzer, Polish mountaineer (born 1962)
2013 – Robert Hamerton-Kelly, South African-American pastor, theologian, and author (born 1938)
2013 – Donald J. Irwin, American lawyer and politician, 32nd Mayor of Norwalk, Connecticut (born 1926)
2013 – Ben Pucci, American football player and sportscaster (born 1925)
2014 – Alfredo Di Stéfano, Argentinian-Spanish footballer and coach (born 1926)
2014 – Eduard Shevardnadze, Georgian general and politician, 2nd President of Georgia (born 1928)
2014 – Peter Underwood, Australian lawyer and politician, 27th Governor of Tasmania (born 1937)
2015 – Maria Barroso, Portuguese actress and politician (born 1925)
2015 – Bob MacKinnon, American basketball player and coach (born 1927)
2021 – Robert Downey Sr., American actor and director. Father of Robert Downey Jr. (born 1936)
2021 – Jovenel Moïse, Haitian entrepreneur and politician, President of Haiti from 2017 until July 7, 2021, when he was assassinated. (born 1968)
2021 – Dilip Kumar, Indian film actor (born 1922)
2021 – Dilip Kumar, Indian film actor (born 1922)
Holidays and observances
Christian feast day:
Æthelburh of Faremoutiers
Felix of Nantes
Illidius
Job of Manyava (Ukrainian Orthodox Church)
Willibald (Catholic Church)
July 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Solomon Islands from the United Kingdom in 1978.
Ivan Kupala Day (Belarus, Poland, Russia, Ukraine)
Saba Saba Day (Tanzania)
Tanabata (Japan)
World Chocolate Day
References
External links
Days of the year
July
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Infinity Train is an American animated television series created by Owen Dennis, previously a writer and storyboard artist on Regular Show. The pilot for the series was released by Cartoon Network on November 1, 2016, before being picked-up for a full miniseries due to positive reception, which premiered on Cartoon Network on August 5, 2019. After the conclusion of the first season, Cartoon Network announced that the series would continue as an anthology series. The second season debuted on Cartoon Network on January 6, 2020. The third season began airing on HBO Max on August 13, 2020, with ten episodes airing across three weeks, and the fourth season was released in its entirety on April 15, 2021.
The series is set on a gigantic, mysterious and seemingly endless train traveling through a barren landscape, whose cars contain a variety of bizarre, fantastical and impossible environments. Passengers on the train proceed from car to car by completing challenges which help them resolve their psychological trauma and emotional issues. Every season of Infinity Train (referred to as a "Book", each with its own separate subtitle) follows its own storyline and set of characters, although some characters appear across multiple seasons.
All four seasons of Infinity Train have received critical acclaim for their complex themes and characters, writing, uniqueness, visual animation style, and voice acting. In August 2020, Dennis stated that, although he wanted to continue the series for a total of eight seasons, most of the crew had been laid off and the series was at risk of not being renewed for a fifth season; Dennis suggested that HBO Max might be concerned that the series' stories and themes were too dark and unappealing to children. Promotional material for the fourth season refers to it as the final season of Infinity Train.
Synopsis
The series is set on a seemingly endless train traveling through a barren landscape; the cars of the train contain a variety of bizarre and fantastical environments. The passengers on the train are people it picks up who have unresolved emotional issues or trauma. As they travel through the train's cars, their adventures inside them give them the opportunity to confront and resolve their emotional problems, represented by a glowing number on their hand that goes down as they confront these issues. Once they resolve their issues and their number reaches zero, a portal opens and they are able to leave the train and return home.
The first season focuses on Tulip Olsen, a girl struggling with her parents' recent divorce. She is accompanied by a small, confused robot named "One-One", and Atticus, the ruler of a kingdom of talking corgis. She eventually uncovers many of the train's secrets and confronts Amelia, a passenger who, instead of resolving her trauma from her husband's death, has usurped the role of Conductor from One-One and tried to take control of the train. Before leaving the train, Tulip persuades Amelia to try to adapt to the changes in her life.
In one first-season episode, Tulip frees her own reflection from the mirror world, and the two part ways. The second season focuses on the emancipated Mirror Tulip ("MT"), now on the run from enforcers attempting to execute her as punishment for abandoning her role as Tulip's reflection. She teams up with Jesse, a new train passenger, as well as Alan Dracula, a silent deer with a variety of powers. She helps Jesse leave the train by helping him learn to stand up for himself, and he returns to the train to help her escape to the outside world, as well.
The third season centers on Grace and Simon, the leaders of a cult of rogue passengers who vandalize the train and assault its denizens to keep their numbers high. Their travels with a young girl named Hazel and her gorilla friend, Tuba, make Grace more sympathetic to the train's denizens. After Simon kills Tuba, it is revealed that Hazel herself is one of Amelia's creations, and Grace realizes what she thought she knew about the train is wrong. After fighting off Simon's attempt to usurp control, Grace begins facing up to and mending her mistakes.
Set decades earlier, during the period while Amelia is establishing control over the train, the fourth season centers on Ryan and Min-Gi, two best friends who want to become famous musicians. Their relationship is strained due to Ryan's brashness and Min-Gi's fear of the future. While on the train, they meet a talking service bell named Kez who has trouble owning up to her mistakes. Ryan and Min-Gi come to realize that they need each other in order for them to move forward in life, while Kez finally apologizes to other train denizens she harmed.
Episodes
Shorts
From October 18, 2019, a series of ten shorts titled "The Train Documentaries" was uploaded onto the Cartoon Network app and YouTube channel. Each short focuses on One-One showcasing a different car on the train, including "The Green Car", "The Tiny Wizard Car", and "The Kaiju Car".
Cast and characters
Overview
Main characters
Book 1 – The Perennial Child
Tulip Olsen (Ashley Johnson) – A 13-year-old girl struggling with her parents' divorce who finds herself trapped on the train when trying to get to a game-design camp. She is analytical, down-to-earth, and determined to get off the train.
Naomi Hansen and Lily Sanfelippo voice younger versions of Tulip, respectively at age 5 and from age 6 to 8.
One-One – A spherical robot consisting of two separate hemisphere-shaped robots, formerly collectively known simply as One. In Book 1, One-One accompanies Tulip on her journey, and eventually learns that it is the rightful Conductor of the train. At the end of Book 1, One-One resumes its duties as Conductor, overseeing the operations of the train and passengers. Throughout the background of Book 4, set in 1986, One bonds with Amelia, loosening restrictions on the passengers, before she usurps his position as the Conductor.
Glad-One (Jeremy Crutchley) – The exuberant and optimistic part of One-One.
Sad-One (Owen Dennis) – The morose and pessimistic part of One-One.
Atticus (Ernie Hudson) – A talking Corgi and the king of Corginia, one of the train cars. He accompanies Tulip on her journey.
Book 2 – Cracked Reflection
"MT" (Ashley Johnson) – Tulip's reflection, freed from the mirror world by Tulip in an episode of Book 1. At the start of Book 2, she has been living on the train as a fugitive from the reflection police. She accompanies Jesse on his journey through the train while struggling with her sense of identity as an independent person, rather than Tulip's reflection or a construct of the train. Upon leaving the train at the end of Book 2, she names herself Lake.
Jesse Cosay (Robbie Daymond) – A passenger who becomes MT's friend and helps her escape the train. He is easygoing and friendly, but has a hard time resisting peer pressure; his experience on the train teaches him how to stand up for his friends and his younger brother. Upon initially leaving the train in the middle of Book 2, he returns in order to help MT leave too.
Alan Dracula – A magical shapeshifting white-tailed deer, a denizen of the train who accompanies MT and Jesse.
Book 3 – Cult of the Conductor
Grace Monroe (Kirby Howell-Baptiste) – The young adult leader of the Apex, a gang of passengers who aim to raise their numbers to remain on the train indefinitely, and believe One-One to be an impostor who usurped the role of Conductor. After appearing as a secondary antagonist in Book 2, Grace returns as one of the main protagonists of Book 3, in which she gradually begins to see the error of her ways and decides to try to fix her mistakes.
Brooke Singleton voices Grace as a child
Simon Laurent (Kyle McCarley) – Grace's second-in-command and best friend, who first appears alongside her in Book 2. Although the two are very close, they gradually drift apart during Book 3, due to Simon's unwillingness to acknowledge his mistakes and learn from them.
Samuel Faraci voices Simon as a child
Hazel (Isabella Abiera) – A 6-year-old girl who travels the train. Although she has a number on her hand, it does not glow; unknown to her, she is actually a denizen of the train created by Amelia's experiments.
Tuba (Diane Delano) – Hazel's gorilla friend and protector, a denizen of the train.
Book 4 – Duet
Min-Gi Park (Johnny Young) – A young man who is hesitant to pursue his dreams of being a musician and feels pressured to live a conventional life instead.
Ryan Akagi (Sekai Murashige) – Min-Gi's best friend, who aspires to become a famous musician and tends to make rash decisions.
Kez (Minty Lewis) – A sentient concierge bell who accompanies Ryan and Min; her thoughtless behavior has made her many enemies among the train's other denizens.
Recurring characters
The Cat (Kate Mulgrew) – A talking cat who is a collector and con artist, and runs a variety of businesses on the train. In Book 1, she is an agent for Amelia. Book 3 reveals that her name is Samantha, and she was Simon's companion when he first boarded the train. (Recurring Book 1 and Book 3; Guest Book 2 and Book 4)
Randall (Rhys Darby) - A liquid person who creates duplicates of himself at will. (Recurring Book 1; Guest Book 2 and Book 3)
Amelia Hughes (Lena Headey) – A passenger who overthrew One-One and usurped his position as the Conductor, hoping to use the train to recreate her dead husband Alrick Timmens (Matthew Rhys). In Book 3, Amelia works with One-One to make amends and undo the mistakes she made on the train. (Recurring Book 1 and Book 3, Recurring Book 4)
The Steward (Ashley Johnson) – A menacing robot that assists the Conductor. (Recurring Book 1, Book 4; Cameos Books 2–3)
Ghoms (Dee Bradley Baker) – Dog/cockroach-like creatures that inhabit the Wasteland outside the train and attempt to suck the life-force out of the living. (Recurring Book 1 and Book 3; Cameo Book 2)
Megan Olsen (Audrey Wasilewski) – Tulip's struggling mother and Andy's ex-wife who works as a nurse. (Recurring Book 1)
Andy Olsen (Mark Fite) – Tulip's depressed father and Megan's ex-husband. (Recurring Book 1)
Mikayla (Reagan Gomez-Preston) — Tulip's best friend before she gets on the train. (Recurring Book 1)
The Reflection Police, or "Flecs" – A pair of officers pursuing MT in order to destroy her for abandoning her responsibility as Tulip's reflection. (Guest Book 1; Recurring Book 2)
Agent Mace (Ben Mendelsohn) – The gruff senior partner of the team.
Agent Sieve (Bradley Whitford) – The more upbeat junior partner to Mace.
Toad / Terrance (Owen Dennis) – A toad whom passengers must kick in order to exit the Toad Car. (Recurring Book 2)
Nathan "Nate" Cosay (Justin Felbinger) – Jesse's younger brother. (Recurring Book 2)
Lucy (Jenna Davis) – A young girl and member of the Apex. She lost an eye because of a harpoon pack. (Cameo Book 2; Recurring Book 3)
Todd (Antonio Raul Corbo) - A young boy and member of the Apex. (Guest Book 2; Recurring Book 3)
One (Jeremy Crutchley) - The conductor of the train and the previous combined form of One-One (Recurring Book 4)
Parka Denizens (Kari Wahlgren and Keith Ferguson) – A trio of parka-wearing train denizens, who seek retribution against Kez for unintentionally transforming them. (Recurring Book 4)
Cow Creamer (Audrey Wasilewski) – A French porcelain cow raising a giant sentient piglet, who pursues Kez for making her ward cry. (Recurring Book 4)
Pig Baby/Toddler (J. K. Simmons) – A giant sentient piglet raised by Cow Creamer. (Recurring Book 4)
Judge Morpho (Margo Martindale) – A caterpillar sheriff of an Old West town who metamorphoses into a butterfly judge, who seeks to punish Kez for leaving a tea stain on their town charter. (Recurring Book 4)
Nigel - a silent astronaut bouncer who guards the entrance to a space-themed nightclub, who also pursues Kez for getting him fired from his job. (Recurring Book 4)
Morgan (Margaret Cho) – A sentient castle whom Kez used to reside in. (Recurring Book 4)
Guest voices for Book One include Matthew Rhys and Ron Funches. Guest voices for Book Two include Wayne Knight, Laraine Newman, Nea Marshall Kudi, Bill Corbett, and Rhys Darby. Guest voices for Book Three include Rhys Darby, Edi Patterson, Phil LaMarr, and Alfred Molina. Guest voices for Book Four include Steve Park, Thomas Lennon, and Donald Faison.
Production history
Conception and influences
Prior to creating Infinity Train, Owen Dennis worked as a storyboard artist on Regular Show. Dennis conceived Infinity Train in 2010, originally as a film. He was inspired by "the feeling of waking up in an unsettling space" which he felt while on a return flight to the U.S. from China. Claiming when he had "woken up. I looked around, and there were a bunch of people staring into screens in the dark in this quiet room. I thought this was kind of creepy. And it sort of started from there." Like protagonist Tulip, Dennis created video games as an amateur in his teens, including point-and-click adventure games and mods for titles such as Half-Life 2 and Unreal Tournament 2004. He has stated that Myst has been one of his primary influences since he was 13, and its influence continued in Infinity Train. He also cites Doctor Who, Agatha Christie, The NeverEnding Story, The Matrix, Philip K. Dick, Star Trek: Voyager, Sliders, and "The Mysterious Stranger" segment from The Adventures of Mark Twain as influences, along with novels such as Nightbirds on Nantucket and The Wolves of Willoughby Chase. Dennis has also described Infinity Train as "Saw for kids," in that each season is essentially a morality play based around machinery designed to help one overcome personal issues and appreciate life.
Development
Infinity Train has three staff writers, who make up the main story team in addition to showrunner Dennis and supervising producer/director Maddie Queripel. Cole Sanchez served on the story team for Book 1's development but departed to work as supervising producer on Summer Camp Island. The process on each episode was that a writer would make an outline, an expansion of the outline, a script, and then would send it to a team of two board artists. The 'boarders' would have 5 weeks to make thumbnails, then the full boards, and then clean them up, before it would be sent away for animation. The animation is done by Sunmin Image Pictures in Seoul, South Korea using traditional animation methods.
2016 pilot
The pilot was first released on the Cartoon Network App and VOD on November 1, 2016, and released the following day on the official Cartoon Network YouTube channel. The short garnered a million views within its first month of availability and has since gained 5.2 million views as of July 2020, making it the most viewed pilot on the channel while two other originals, Welcome to My Life is the second most viewed pilot, and Twelve Forever (later moved to Netflix) being the third most viewed pilot. A petition to greenlight Infinity Train was made shortly after the pilot was released and garnered over 57,000 signatures. On March 11, 2018, Cartoon Network's official website launched a teaser for Infinity Train that confirmed the pilot had been greenlit as a full series and would premiere in 2019.
Full production
In July 2018, a sneak peek of the first season was revealed on the Cartoon Network panel at the 2018 San Diego Comic-Con. It was released a couple of hours later on Cartoon Network's social media platforms. A full trailer for Infinity Train was released in June 2019 which was unlocked by playing the show theme on the Infinity Train website. It was later uploaded to Cartoon Network's YouTube channel. On July 11, 2019, the show was confirmed to premiere on August 5, 2019. On July 20, 2019, the first episode was shown during the Infinity Train panel at San Diego Comic-Con. It was then released on the Cartoon Network app and website later that same day. The first season would be 10 episodes long, with two episodes airing each night from August 5 to August 9, 2019.
From October 18, 2019, Cartoon Network started uploading a series of Infinity Train shorts onto their app and YouTube channel called "The Train Documentaries", which focused on One-One showing off a number of cars in the train, including "The Green Car", "Tiny Wizard Car", "The Kaiju Car" and "The Tech Support Car".
A promo after the final episode of the first season confirmed the series would return. On November 22, 2019, the Infinity Train website was updated with a new claw machine puzzle. Completing the puzzle leads to a trailer for Book 2. The trailer was then released officially the next day.
Book Two debuted on January 6, 2020.
On July 6, 2020, Book 3 was officially announced with a release date of August 13, 2020. Unlike its predecessors, it aired on HBO Max instead of Cartoon Network. Dennis revealed in a reply to a tweet that Infinity Train was originally planned to air on HBO Max from the beginning, but due to the streaming service's delay from its original 2019 launch date, the first two seasons were aired on Cartoon Network instead. It was later revealed at San Diego Comic-Con that the book would be titled Cult of the Conductor. Book 3 was released in three batches, with the first five episodes debuting on August 13, the next three on August 20, and the final two on August 27.
On February 17, 2021, Book 4 was officially announced with a teaser trailer containing distorted audio.
Future
On August 16, 2020, while Infinity Train Book 3 was releasing on HBO Max, Dennis reported that though the team had plans for more seasons, the whole crew and most of the production staff had been laid off, and the possibility of a series renewal depended on the series' viewership on HBO Max.
When asked how many more seasons of Infinity Train were planned, Dennis stated "We have rough ideas for themes and which characters we'd like to follow for five more seasons, up to season eight. Feels like '8' is a good place to stop because it looks like an infinity symbol." When asked what he would like to do with the series in the future, Dennis expressed interest in exploring other time periods of the train, as well as a movie following Amelia's story. Dennis also stated that a season with an older Tulip was considered.
Dennis expressed interest in doing Infinity Train comic books that "are in canon and could be written by or starring non-Americans." Dennis said that there were plans to make an Infinity Train video game, and there was an Infinity Train VR experience "where you hung out and solved puzzles in Corginia." Dennis also stated that a choose-your-own-adventure novel was considered. However, all of these projects were shelved when company priorities shifted.
On March 11, 2021, it was announced that Infinity Train would end with its fourth season. Dennis clarified on Twitter that he did not intend for it to be the final season, and remains open to continuing the show in the future if given the opportunity.
In a Reddit AMA on April 16, 2021, the day after Book 4's release, Dennis confirmed that Book 5 would have been the aforementioned Amelia-focused movie, and although a full script had been written, Cartoon Network Studios passed it on because they didn't think it had a "child entry point." Dennis also claimed that books 5, 6, 7, and 8 would have covered the themes of grief, guilt, revenge, and acceptance, respectively, and Book 8 would have touched on Alzheimer's disease. Dennis and series writer Lindsay Katai stated that there were also plans for an Infinity Train Christmas special.
On May 8, 2021, Dennis released a mockup frame from the unproduced Book 5 in response to a fan movement to renew the show trending #1 worldwide and in multiple regions on Twitter.
Gallery Nucleus in Alhambra, California held an official Infinity Train art show from September 25 to October 3, 2021. The exhibition featured a collection of Infinity Train art by the crew of the show, exclusive Infinity Train merchandise, and a panel featuring the show's creator, Owen Dennis.
Soundtrack
On December 6, 2019, Infinity Train: Book 1 (Original Soundtrack) was released with 27 songs from the first season, including extended versions of "Running Away" and "Boogie Bash (The Monster Party Car)". On April 15, 2021, the song "Train to Nowhere" from Book 4 was released as a single.
Home media
Infinity Train: Book One was released on DVD on April 21, 2020. It includes animatics, commentary tracks, and The Train Documentaries shorts. Infinity Train: Book Two was released on DVD on May 25, 2021.
Reception
Critical reception
Infinity Train received critical acclaim upon its debut. On Rotten Tomatoes, each season has an approval rating of 100%, with season 1 based on reviews from 8 critics and the other three from 6 each.
Caroline Cao of /Film declared it a "wild triumph", while Nerdist's Andrea Towers declared it "one of the best animated programs of the year." Reuben Baron of CBR favorably compared it to Cartoon Network's animated miniseries Over the Garden Wall in its perfection, hailing it as "a beautifully handled piece of self-contained, character-driven storytelling." Skyler Johnson from Comic Watch called it "excellent", with "emotional depth that is rarely seen in children's television", "witty, clever humor", and "stellar voice action." Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media gave the series 5 out of 5 stars. In her review Ashby praised the positive messages about friendship and self-reflection. Ashby also praised the character of Tulip and the show's emotional moments.
The third season of Infinity Train particularly received critical acclaim. William Hughes of The A.V. Club praised season 3 for its darker themes and messages, hailing it as "the best, most challenging season yet." Petrana Radulovic from Polygon praised the series' complex character arcs and noted the third season is a testament to the infinite potential of the premise. Andrew Kolondra Jr. from The Vanderbilt Hustler called season 3 "genre-defying" and said "thanks to shows like Infinity Train, the modern animation world is finally approaching a point at which it may break free of the notion that animation is 'just for kids.'" Observer Media said the show has grown into its own, developing a compelling world and internal mysteries "that will draw you in with a masterclass in character development to fuel your drive to keep going." Beth Elderkin of io9 praised season 3 for "enhancing the show's dedication to avoiding black-and-white views of morality". Elderkin particularly praised episode 5 of season 3 for its "stunning revelations" saying "it's worth watching for those alone."
The fourth and final season of Infinity Train also received positive notice, though reception was considerably subdued compared to Book 3. The bulk of criticism was directed towards its lighthearted tone after the darker themes of the previous season, as well as its lack of finality, though many critics acknowledged in their reviews that Book 4 was not intended to be the final season. Darren Franich of Entertainment Weekly still hailed it as "a solid season of television." James Poniewozik of The New York Times agreed that the ending was bittersweet with the knowledge that the series was ending before the creative team had planned, but praised its humor and characters.
Ratings
As the show first entered production, the pilot for Infinity Train was first aired on Cartoon Network on Saturday February 11, 2017 at 6:00 AM without any advertisements for it. Despite this, the pilot pulled in approximately 703,000 views amongst the 18–49 year old demographic and ranked as the 33rd of the top 50 original cable telecasts for February 11, 2017.
In September 2020, Parrot Analytics found that the audience demand for Infinity Train was 21.3 times the demand of the average TV series in the United States within 30 days of its release. In December 2020, Observer Media reported that Infinity Train was the fourth most-watched original series on HBO Max since its launch in May.
Awards and nominations
Infinity Train: The Perennial Child was nominated in 2020 at the 47th Annie Awards in the category Best Special Production.
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
(2016 short film)
(TV Series)
2010s American animated television series
2010s American anthology television series
2010s American comedy-drama television series
2010s American mystery television series
2010s American supernatural television series
2010s American teen drama television series
2019 American television series debuts
2020s American animated television series
2020s American anthology television series
2020s American comedy-drama television series
2020s American mystery television series
2020s American supernatural television series
2020s American teen drama television series
2021 American television series endings
American children's animated adventure television series
American children's animated anthology television series
American children's animated drama television series
American children's animated science fantasy television series
American children's animated supernatural television series
American children's animated mystery television series
American fantasy drama television series
Animated television series about cats
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Anime-influenced Western animated television series
Cartoon Network original programming
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HBO Max original programming
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Television series about cults
Television series set in 2019
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Lipid signaling, broadly defined, refers to any biological signaling event involving a lipid messenger that binds a protein target, such as a receptor, kinase or phosphatase, which in turn mediate the effects of these lipids on specific cellular responses. Lipid signaling is thought to be qualitatively different from other classical signaling paradigms (such as monoamine neurotransmission) because lipids can freely diffuse through membranes (see osmosis). One consequence of this is that lipid messengers cannot be stored in vesicles prior to release and so are often biosynthesized "on demand" at their intended site of action. As such, many lipid signaling molecules cannot circulate freely in solution but, rather, exist bound to special carrier proteins in serum.
Sphingolipid second messengers
Ceramide
Ceramide (Cer) can be generated by the breakdown of sphingomyelin (SM) by sphingomyelinases (SMases), which are enzymes that hydrolyze the phosphocholine group from the sphingosine backbone. Alternatively, this sphingosine-derived lipid (sphingolipid) can be synthesized from scratch (de novo) by the enzymes serine palmitoyl transferase (SPT) and ceramide synthase in organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and possibly, in the mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs) and the perinuclear membranes. Being located in the metabolic hub, ceramide leads to the formation of other sphingolipids, with the C1 hydroxyl (-OH) group as the major site of modification. A sugar can be attached to ceramide (glycosylation) through the action of the enzymes, glucosyl or galactosyl ceramide synthases. Ceramide can also be broken down by enzymes called ceramidases, leading to the formation of sphingosine, Moreover, a phosphate group can be attached to ceramide (phosphorylation) by the enzyme, ceramide kinase. It is also possible to regenerate sphingomyelin from ceramide by accepting a phosphocholine headgroup from phosphatidylcholine (PC) by the action of an enzyme called sphingomyelin synthase. The latter process results in the formation of diacylglycerol (DAG) from PC.
Ceramide contains two hydrophobic ("water-fearing") chains and a neutral headgroup. Consequently, it has limited solubility in water and is restricted within the organelle where it was formed. Also, because of its hydrophobic nature, ceramide readily flip-flops across membranes as supported by studies in membrane models and membranes from red blood cells (erythrocytes). However, ceramide can possibly interact with other lipids to form bigger regions called microdomains which restrict its flip-flopping abilities. This could have immense effects on the signaling functions of ceramide because it is known that ceramide generated by acidic SMase enzymes in the outer leaflet of an organelle membrane may have different roles compared to ceramide that is formed in the inner leaflet by the action of neutral SMase enzymes.
Ceramide mediates many cell-stress responses, including the regulation of programmed cell death (apoptosis) and cell aging (senescence). Numerous research works have focused interest on defining the direct protein targets of action of ceramide. These include enzymes called ceramide-activated Ser-Thr phosphatases (CAPPs), such as protein phosphatase 1 and 2A (PP1 and PP2A), which were found to interact with ceramide in studies done in a controlled environment outside of a living organism (in vitro). On the other hand, studies in cells have shown that ceramide-inducing agents such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha α (TNFα) and palmitate induce the ceramide-dependent removal of a phosphate group (dephosphorylation) of the retinoblastoma gene product RB and the enzymes, protein kinases B (AKT protein family) and C α (PKB and PKCα). Moreover, there is also sufficient evidence which implicates ceramide to the activation of the kinase suppressor of Ras (KSR), PKCζ, and cathepsin D. Cathepsin D has been proposed as the main target for ceramide formed in organelles called lysosomes, making lysosomal acidic SMase enzymes one of the key players in the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis. Ceramide was also shown to activate PKCζ, implicating it to the inhibition of AKT, regulation of the voltage difference between the interior and exterior of the cell (membrane potential) and signaling functions that favor apoptosis. Chemotherapeutic agents such as daunorubicin and etoposide enhance the de novo synthesis of ceramide in studies done on mammalian cells. The same results were found for certain inducers of apoptosis particularly stimulators of receptors in a class of lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) called B-cells. Regulation of the de novo synthesis of ceramide by palmitate may have a key role in diabetes and the metabolic syndrome. Experimental evidence shows that there is substantial increase of ceramide levels upon adding palmitate. Ceramide accumulation activates PP2A and the subsequent dephosphorylation and inactivation of AKT, a crucial mediator in metabolic control and insulin signaling. This results in a substantial decrease in insulin responsiveness (i.e. to glucose) and in the death of insulin-producing cells in the pancreas called islets of Langerhans. Inhibition of ceramide synthesis in mice via drug treatments or gene-knockout techniques prevented insulin resistance induced by fatty acids, glucocorticoids or obesity.
An increase in in vitro activity of acid SMase has been observed after applying multiple stress stimuli such as ultraviolet (UV) and ionizing radiation, binding of death receptors and chemotherapeutic agents such as platinum, histone deacetylase inhibitors and paclitaxel. In some studies, SMase activation results to its transport to the plasma membrane and the simultaneous formation of ceramide.
Ceramide transfer protein (CERT) transports ceramide from ER to the Golgi for the synthesis of SM. CERT is known to bind phosphatidylinositol phosphates, hinting its potential regulation via phosphorylation, a step of the ceramide metabolism that can be enzymatically regulated by protein kinases and phosphatases, and by inositol lipid metabolic pathways. Up to date, there are at least 26 distinct enzymes with varied subcellular localizations, that act on ceramide as either a substrate or product. Regulation of ceramide levels can therefore be performed by one of these enzymes in distinct organelles by particular mechanisms at various times.
Sphingosine
Sphingosine (Sph) is formed by the action of ceramidase (CDase) enzymes on ceramide in the lysosome. Sph can also be formed in the extracellular (outer leaflet) side of the plasma membrane by the action of neutral CDase enzyme. Sph then is either recycled back to ceramide or phosphorylated by one of the sphingosine kinase enzymes, SK1 and SK2. The product sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) can be dephosphorylated in the ER to regenerate sphingosine by certain S1P phosphatase enzymes within cells, where the salvaged Sph is recycled to ceramide. Sphingosine is a single-chain lipid (usually 18 carbons in length), rendering it to have sufficient solubility in water. This explains its ability to move between membranes and to flip-flop across a membrane. Estimates conducted at physiological pH show that approximately 70% of sphingosine remains in membranes while the remaining 30% is water-soluble. Sph that is formed has sufficient solubility in the liquid found inside cells (cytosol). Thus, Sph may come out of the lysosome and move to the ER without the need for transport via proteins or membrane-enclosed sacs called vesicles. However, its positive charge favors partitioning in lysosomes. It is proposed that the role of SK1 located near or in the lysosome is to ‘trap’ Sph via phosphorylation.
It is important to note that since sphingosine exerts surfactant activity, it is one of the sphingolipids found at lowest cellular levels. The low levels of Sph and their increase in response to stimulation of cells, primarily by activation of ceramidase by growth-inducing proteins such as platelet-derived growth factor and insulin-like growth factor, is consistent with its function as a second messenger. It was found that immediate hydrolysis of only 3 to 10% of newly generated ceramide may double the levels of Sph. Treatment of HL60 cells (a type of leukemia cell line) by a plant-derived organic compound called phorbol ester increased Sph levels threefold, whereby the cells differentiated into white blood cells called macrophages. Treatment of the same cells by exogenous Sph caused apoptosis. A specific protein kinase phosphorylates 14-3-3, otherwise known as sphingosine-dependent protein kinase 1 (SDK1), only in the presence of Sph.
Sph is also known to interact with protein targets such as the protein kinase H homologue (PKH) and the yeast protein kinase (YPK). These targets in turn mediate the effects of Sph and its related sphingoid bases, with known roles in regulating the actin cytoskeleton, endocytosis, the cell cycle and apoptosis. It is important to note however that the second messenger function of Sph is not yet established unambiguously.
Sphingosine-1-Phosphate
Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), like Sph, is composed of a single hydrophobic chain and has sufficient solubility to move between membranes. S1P is formed by phosphorylation of sphingosine by sphingosine kinase (SK). The phosphate group of the product can be detached (dephosphorylated) to regenerate sphingosine via S1P phosphatase enzymes or S1P can be broken down by S1P lyase enzymes to ethanolamine phosphate and hexadecenal. Similar to Sph, its second messenger function is not yet clear. However, there is substantial evidence that implicates S1P to cell survival, cell migration, and inflammation. Certain growth-inducing proteins such as platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), insulin-like growth factor (IGF) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) promote the formation of SK enzymes, leading to increased levels of S1P. Other factors that induce SK include cellular communication molecules called cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and interleukin-1 (IL-1), hypoxia or lack of oxygen supply in cells, oxidized low-density lipoproteins (oxLDL) and several immune complexes.
S1P is probably formed at the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane in response to TNFα and other receptor activity-altering compounds called agonists. S1P, being present in low nanomolar concentrations in the cell, has to interact with high-affinity receptors that are capable of sensing their low levels. So far, the only identified receptors for S1P are the high-affinity G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), also known as S1P receptors (S1PRs). S1P is required to reach the extracellular side (outer leaflet) of the plasma membrane to interact with S1PRs and launch typical GPCR signaling pathways. However, the zwitterionic headgroup of S1P makes it unlikely to flip-flop spontaneously. To overcome this difficulty, the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter C1 (ABCC1) serves as the "exit door" for S1P. On the other hand, the cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR) serves as the means of entry for S1P into the cell. In contrast to its low intracellular concentration, S1P is found in high nanomolar concentrations in serum where it is bound to albumin and lipoproteins. Inside the cell, S1P can induce calcium release independent of the S1PRs—the mechanism of which remains unknown. To date, the intracellular molecular targets for S1P are still unidentified.
The SK1-S1P pathway has been extensively studied in relation to cytokine action, with multiple functions connected to effects of TNFα and IL-1 favoring inflammation. Studies show that knockdown of key enzymes such as S1P lyase and S1P phosphatase increased prostaglandin production, parallel to increase of S1P levels. This strongly suggests that S1P is the mediator of SK1 action and not subsequent compounds. Research done on endothelial and smooth muscle cells is consistent to the hypothesis that S1P has a crucial role in regulating endothelial cell growth, and movement. Recent work on a sphingosine analogue, FTY270, demonstrates its ability to act as a potent compound that alters the activity of S1P receptors (agonist). FTY270 was further verified in clinical tests to have roles in immune modulation, such as that on multiple sclerosis. This highlights the importance of S1P in the regulation of lymphocyte function and immunity. Most of the studies on S1P are used to further understand diseases such as cancer, arthritis and inflammation, diabetes, immune function and neurodegenerative disorders.
Glucosylceramide
Glucosylceramides (GluCer) are the most widely distributed glycosphingolipids in cells serving as precursors for the formation of over 200 known glycosphingolipids. GluCer is formed by the glycosylation of ceramide in an organelle called Golgi via enzymes called glucosylceramide synthase (GCS) or by the breakdown of complex glycosphingolipids (GSLs) through the action of specific hydrolase enzymes. In turn, certain β-glucosidases hydrolyze these lipids to regenerate ceramide. GluCer appears to be synthesized in the inner leaflet of the Golgi. Studies show that GluCer has to flip to the inside of the Golgi or transfer to the site of GSL synthesis to initiate the synthesis of complex GSLs. Transferring to the GSL synthesis site is done with the help of a transport protein known as four phosphate adaptor protein 2 (FAPP2) while the flipping to the inside of the Golgi is made possible by the ABC transporter P-glycoprotein, also known as the multi-drug resistance 1 transporter (MDR1). GluCer is implicated in post-Golgi trafficking and drug resistance particularly to chemotherapeutic agents. For instance, a study demonstrated a correlation between cellular drug resistance and modifications in GluCer metabolism.
In addition to their role as building blocks of biological membranes, glycosphingolipids have long attracted attention because of their supposed involvement in cell growth, differentiation, and formation of tumors. The production of GluCer from Cer was found to be important in the growth of neurons or brain cells. On the other hand, pharmacological inhibition of GluCer synthase is being considered a technique to avoid insulin resistance.
Ceramide-1-Phosphate
Ceramide-1-phosphate (C1P) is formed by the action of ceramide kinase (CK) enzymes on Cer. C1P carry ionic charge at neutral pH and contain two hydrophobic chains making it relatively insoluble in aqueous environment. Thus, C1P reside in the organelle where it was formed and is unlikely to spontaneously flip-flop across membrane bilayers.
C1P activate phospholipase A2 and is found, along with CK, to be a mediator of arachidonic acid released in cells in response to a protein called interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and a lipid-soluble molecule that transports calcium ions (Ca2+) across the bilayer, also known as calcium ionophore. C1P was also previously reported to encourage cell division (mitogenic) in fibroblasts, block apoptosis by inhibiting acid SMase in white blood cells within tissues (macrophages) and increase intracellular free calcium concentrations in thyroid cells. C1P also has known roles in vesicular trafficking, cell survival, phagocytosis ("cell eating") and macrophage degranulation.
Phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate (PIP2) Lipid Agonist
PIP2 binds directly to ion channels and modulates their activity. PIP2 was shown to directly agonizes Inward rectifying potassium channels(Kir). In this regard intact PIP2 signals as a bona fide neurotransmitter-like ligand. PIP2's interaction with many ion channels suggest that the intact form of PIP2 has an important signaling role independent of second messenger signaling.
Second messengers from phosphatidylinositol
Phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate (PIP2) Second Messenger Systems
A general second messenger system mechanism can be broken down into four steps. First, the agonist activates a membrane-bound receptor. Second, the activated G-protein produces a primary effector. Third, the primary effect stimulates the second messenger synthesis. Fourth, the second messenger activates a certain cellular process.
The G-protein coupled receptors for the PIP2 messenger system produces two effectors, phospholipase C (PLC) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K). PLC as an effector produces two different second messengers, inositol triphosphate (IP3) and Diacylglycerol (DAG).
IP3 is soluble and diffuses freely into the cytoplasm. As a second messenger, it is recognized by the inositol triphosphate receptor (IP3R), a Ca2+ channel in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane, which stores intracellular Ca2+. The binding of IP3 to IP3R releases Ca2+ from the ER into the normally Ca2+-poor cytoplasm, which then triggers various events of Ca2+ signaling. Specifically in blood vessels, the increase in Ca2+ concentration from IP3 releases nitric oxide, which then diffuses into the smooth muscle tissue and causes relaxation.
DAG remains bound to the membrane by its fatty acid "tails" where it recruits and activates both conventional and novel members of the protein kinase C family. Thus, both IP3 and DAG contribute to activation of PKCs.
Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) as an effector phosphorylates phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate (PIP2) to produce phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PIP3). PIP3 has been shown to activate protein kinase B, increase binding to extracellular proteins and ultimately enhance cell survival.
Activators of G-protein coupled receptors
See main article on G-protein coupled receptors
Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA)
LPA is the result of phospholipase A2 action on phosphatidic acid. The SN-1 position can contain either an ester bond or an ether bond, with ether LPA being found at elevated levels in certain cancers. LPA binds the high-affinity G-protein coupled receptors LPA1, LPA2, and LPA3 (also known as EDG2, EDG4, and EDG7, respectively).
Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P)
S1P is present at high concentrations in plasma and secreted locally at elevated concentrations at sites of inflammation. It is formed by the regulated phosphorylation of sphingosine. It acts through five dedicated high-affinity G-protein coupled receptors, S1P1 - S1P5. Targeted deletion of S1P1 results in lethality in mice and deletion of S1P2 results in seizures and deafness. Additionally, a mere 3- to 5-fold elevation in serum S1P concentrations induces sudden cardiac death by an S1P3-receptor specific mechanism.
Platelet activating factor (PAF)
PAF is a potent activator of platelet aggregation, inflammation, and anaphylaxis. It is similar to the ubiquitous membrane phospholipid phosphatidylcholine except that it contains an acetyl-group in the SN-2 position and the SN-1 position contains an ether-linkage. PAF signals through a dedicated G-protein coupled receptor, PAFR and is inactivated by PAF acetylhydrolase.
Endocannabinoids
The endogenous cannabinoids, or endocannabinoids, are endogenous lipids that activate cannabinoid receptors. The first such lipid to be isolated was anandamide which is the arachidonoyl amide of ethanolamine. Anandamide is formed via enzymatic release from N-arachidonoyl phosphatidylethanolamine by the N-acyl phosphatidylethanolamine phospholipase D (NAPE-PLD). Anandamide activates both the CB1 receptor, found primarily in the central nervous system, and the CB2 receptor which is found primarily in lymphocytes and the periphery. It is found at very low levels (nM) in most tissues and is inactivated by the fatty acid amide hydrolase. Subsequently, another endocannabinoid was isolated, 2-arachidonoylglycerol, which is produced when phospholipase C releases diacylglycerol which is then converted to 2-AG by diacylglycerol lipase. 2-AG can also activate both cannabinoid receptors and is inactivated by monoacylglycerol lipase. It is present at approximately 100-times the concentration of anandamide in most tissues. Elevations in either of these lipids causes analgesia and anti-inflammation and tissue protection during states of ischemia, but the precise roles played by these various endocannabinoids are still not totally known and intensive research into their function, metabolism, and regulation is ongoing. One saturated lipid from this class, often called an endocannabinoid, but with no relevant affinity for the CB1 and CB 2 receptor is palmitoylethanolamide. This signaling lipid has great affinity for the GRP55 receptor and the PPAR alpha receptor. It has been identified as an anti-inflammatory compound already in 1957, and as an analgesic compound in 1975. Rita Levi-Montalcini first identified one of its biological mechanisms of action, the inhibition of activated mast cells. Palmitoylethanolamide is the only endocannabinoid available on the market for treatment, as a food supplement.
Prostaglandins
Prostaglandins are formed through oxidation of arachidonic acid by cyclooxygenases and other prostaglandin synthases. There are currently nine known G-protein coupled receptors (eicosanoid receptors) that largely mediate prostaglandin physiology (although some prostaglandins activate nuclear receptors, see below).
FAHFA
FAHFAs (fatty acid esters of hydroxy fatty acids) are formed in adipose tissue, improve glucose tolerance and also reduce adipose tissue inflammation. Palmitic acid esters of hydroxy-stearic acids (PAHSAs) are among the most bioactive members able to activate G-protein coupled receptors 120. Docosahexaenoic acid ester of hydroxy-linoleic acid (DHAHLA) exert anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving properties.
Retinol derivatives
Retinaldehyde is a retinol (vitamin A) derivative responsible for vision. It binds rhodopsin, a well-characterized GPCR that binds all-cis retinal in its inactive state. Upon photoisomerization by a photon the cis-retinal is converted to trans-retinal causing activation of rhodopsin which ultimately leads to depolarization of the neuron thereby enabling visual perception.
Activators of nuclear receptors
See the main article on nuclear receptors
Steroid Hormones
This large and diverse class of steroids are biosynthesized from isoprenoids and structurally resemble cholesterol. Mammalian steroid hormones can be grouped into five groups by the receptors to which they bind: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and progestogens.
Retinoic acid
Retinol (vitamin A) can be metabolized to retinoic acid which activates nuclear receptors such as the RAR to control differentiation and proliferation of many types of cells during development.
Prostaglandins
The majority of prostaglandin signaling occurs via GPCRs (see above) although certain prostaglandins activate nuclear receptors in the PPAR family. (See article eicosanoid receptors for more information).
See also
Allostery
Cell signaling
Protein dynamics
Lysophospholipid receptors
List of signaling molecule types
References
Signal transduction
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This is a list of women artists who were born in America or whose artworks are closely associated with that country. Included are recognized American women artists, known for creating artworks that are primarily visual in nature, in traditional media such as painting, sculpture, photography, printmaking, ceramics as well as in more recently developed genres, such as installation art, performance art, conceptual art, digital art and video art.
A
Berenice Abbott (1898–1991), photographer
Gertrude Abercrombie (1909–1977), Surrealist painter
Marjorie Acker (1894–1985), painter
Pat Adams (born 1928), painter
Kathleen Gemberling Adkison (1917–2010), abstract expressionist painter
Irma Aguayo, muralist
Ariele Alasko, designer, woodworker
Grace Albee (1890–1985), printmaker
Maxine Albro (1903–1966), painter, muralist, lithographer, mosaic artist, sculptor
Mabel Alvarez (1891–1985), painter
Laurie Anderson (born 1947), performance artist, musician
Eleanor Antin (born 1935), performance artist, installation art
Janine Antoni (born 1964), sculptor, installation artist
Ida Applebroog (born 1929), painter, sculptor
Mia Araujo, painter
Diane Arbus (1923–1971), photographer
Julie Ault (born 1957), collaborative artist, curator
Lynne Avadenka, printmaker, book artist
Alice Aycock (born 1946), sculptor
Helene Aylon, (1931–2020), painter
B
Carrie Ann Baade (born 1974), painter
Alice Baber (1928–1982), painter
Alexandra Backford (1942–2010), painter
Lucy Bacon (1857–1932), painter
Peggy Bacon (1895–1987), printmaker, painter, illustrator
Gretchen Baer (born 1963), painter, performance artist
Jo Baer (born 1929), painter
Frances Bagley (born 1946), sculptor
Margarete Bagshaw (1964–2015), painter, clay artist
Jean Bales (1946–2004), painter, printmaker
Rina Banerjee (born 1963), painter, sculptor
Colette Bangert (born 1934), new media artist
Hayley Barker (born 1973), painter
Alice Pike Barney (1857–1931), painter
Hannelore Baron (1926–1987), collage artist
Jennifer Bartlett (born 1941), painter
Ruth Henshaw Bascom (1772–1848), folk art portraitist
Jean Cory Beall, (1909–1978), painter
Betty Beaumont (born 1946), site-specific artist
Cecilia Beaux (1855–1942), painter
Aisha Tandiwe Bell, mixed media artist
Caroline M. Bell (1874–1970), painter
Emilie Benes Brzezinski (born 1932), sculptor
Lynda Benglis (born 1941), sculptor
Debra Bermingham (born 1953), interior scenes and still lifes
Becca Bernstein (born 1977), painter
Judith Bernstein (born 1942), feminist artist
Helen Bershad (born 1934), abstract expressionist painter
Rachel Bess (born c. 1979), painter
Isabel Bishop (1902–1988), painter, printmaker
Nell Blaine (1922–1996), painter
Lucile Blanch (1895–1981), painter
Erlena Chisolm Bland (1923–2009), painter
Gertrude Bleiberg (1921–2001), painter
Rebecca Bluestone (born 1953), tapestry artist
Meghan Boody (born 1964), surrealist artist
Margaret Boozer (born 1966), ceramist
Nancy Borowick (born 1985), photographer
Dorr Bothwell (1902–2000), painter, printmaker
Margo Consuela Bors (born 1942), mural painter
Pauline Boumphrey (1886–1959), sculptor
Louise Bourgeois (1911–2010), sculptor, printmaker
Margaret Bourke-White (1904–1971), photographer
Sandra Bowden (born 1943), painter
Katherine Bowling (born 1955), landscape artist
Dorothy Braudy, painter
Sarah Brayer (born 1957), painter, paper artist, printmaker
Cornelia Breitenbach (1948–1984), textile artist
Karen Breschi (born 1941), ceramic artist
Bessie Marsh Brewer (1884–1952), painter, printmaker
Anna Richards Brewster (1870–1952), painter
Allyn Bromley (born 1928), printmaker
Leigh Brooklyn (born 1987), figurative artist
Caroline Shawk Brooks (1840–1913), sculptor
Romaine Brooks (1874–1970), painter
Joan Brown (1938–1990), painter
Laura Bruce (born 1959), artist
Fran Bull (born 1938), painter, printmaker, sculptor, installation artist
Edith Woodman Burroughs (1871–1916), sculptor
Lilian Thomas Burwell (born 1927), painter, sculptor
Deborah Butterfield (born 1949), sculptor
Kathy Butterly (born 1963), sculptor
Charlot Byj (1920–1983), greeting card artist
Charlie Bynar, (born 1966), watercolor painter
C
Victoria Cabezas (born 1950), conceptual artist, photographer
Nancy Calef, contemporary figure painter
Sheila Cameron, contemporary graphic designer
Floy Campbell (1873–1945), painter
Pauline Campanelli (1943–2001), painter, writer
Kate Carew (1869–1961), caricaturist
Rhea Carmi (born 1942), abstract expressionist
Virginia Cartwright (born 1943), ceramic artist
Mary Cassatt (1844–1926), painter, printmaker
Eda Nemoede Casterton (1877–1969), painter
Rosemarie Castoro (1939–2015), painter, sculptor
Elizabeth Catlett (1915–2012), sculptor, printmaker
Vija Celmins (born 1938), painter, graphic artist, printmaker
Aleah Chapin (born 1986), portrait painter
Sarah Charlesworth (1947–2013), conceptual artist, photographer
Louisa Chase (1951–2016), painter
Judy Chicago (born 1939), installation artist, sculptor
Marie Z. Chino (1907–1982), potter, ceramic artist
Chryssa (1933–2013), sculptor
Anne Chu (1959–2016), sculptor
Alson S. Clark (1876–1949), painter
Grace Clements (1905–1969), muralist, mosaic artist
Caroline Morgan Clowes (1838–1904), painter
Cora Cohen (born 1943), painter
Hannah Cohoon (1788–1864), painter
Bethany Collins (born 1984), book artist
Ethel Blanchard Collver (1875–1955), impressionist painter
Austine Wood Comarow (1942–2020), light artist
Alice Cooper (1875–1937), sculptor
Annette Corcoran (born 1930), graphic artist, ceramist
Sue Jean Covacevich (1905-1998), painter
Susanne Crane (born 1966), painter
Susan Crile (born 1942), painter
Imogen Cunningham (1883–1976), photographer
D
Fra M. Dana (1874–1948), painter
Jo Davidson (1883–1952), sculptor
Eleanor Layfield Davis (1911–1985), painter, sculptor
Helena Smith Dayton (1879–1960), painter, sculptor
Rosetta DeBerardinis, contemporary painter
Pat DeCaro (born 1951), painter
Angel De Cora (1871–1919), painter, illustrator
Virginia Dehn (1922–2005), painter, printmaker
Dorothy Dehner (1901–1994), sculptor, printmaker
Perla de Leon (born 1952), photographer
Jenny Eakin Delony (1866–1949), painter
Elizabeth Demaray, sculptor
Maya Deren (1917–1961), avant-garde filmmaker and theorist, photographer
Mamie Deschillie (1920-2010), folk artist
Lillian Desow-Fishbein (1921–2004), painter
Heather Dewey-Hagborg (born 1982), information art, bio-hacker
Lesley Dill (born 1950), multi-media artist
Margaret Dillard, contemporary painter
Francesca DiMattio (born 1981), painter, sculptor
Edith Dimock (1876–1955), painter
Eulabee Dix (1878–1961), miniatures painter
Michele Oka Doner (born 1945), sculptor, printmaker, video artist
Seena Donneson (1924–2020), sculptor
Bailey Doogan (born 1941), painter
Helen Thomas Dranga (1866–1940), painter
Katherine S. Dreier (1877–1952), painter
Rosalyn Drexler (born 1926), painter
Elsie Driggs (1898–1992), painter
E
Margaret Fernie Eaton (1871–?), book plate illustrator
Abastenia St. Leger Eberle (1878–1942), sculptor
Sheila Elias (born 1945), installation artist
Mary Endico (born 1954), watercolor painter
Nita Engle (1925–2019), painter
Janeil Engelstad, contemporary artist, curator
Marisol Escobar (1930–2016), sculptor, printmaker
Inka Essenhigh (born 1969), painter
Dulah Marie Evans (1875–1951), painter, illustrator, printmaker, photographer, etcher
Lin Evola (born 1950), sculptor
F
Claire Falkenstein (1908–1997), sculptor
Cornelia Adele Strong Fassett (1831–1898), portrait painter
Sonya Fe (born 1952), painter
Jo Feiler (born 1951), photographer
Mildred Feinberg (1899–1990), painter
Lauren Fensterstock (born 1975), installation artist, sculptor, goldsmith
Jackie Ferrara (born 1929), sculptor
Carole Feuerman (born 1945), sculptor
Perle Fine (1905–1988), abstract painter
Janet Fish (born 1938), painter
Audrey Flack (born 1931), painter
Hertha E. Flack (1916–2019), painter, philanthropist
Enid Foster (1895–1979), sculptor, performance artist
Constance Edith Fowler (1907–1996), painter, printmaker
Helen Frank (born 1930), painter, printmaker
Jane Frank (1918–1986), painter
Helen Frankenthaler (1928–2011), painter, printmaker
Andrea Fraser (born 1965), performance artist
Laura Gardin Fraser (1889–1966), sculptor
Susie Frazier (born 1970), mixed media artist
Helen C. Frederick (born 1945), printmaker
Jane Freilicher (1924–2014), painter
Edith Frohock (1917–1997), painter, printmaker
Wilhelmina Weber Furlong (1878–1962), painter
G
Wanda Gág (1893–1946), printmaker, illustrator
Ellen Gallagher (born 1965), painter, mixed media artist
Jacalyn Lopez Garcia (born 1953), multimedia artist
Elizabeth Jane Gardner (1837–1922), painter
Sonia Gechtoff (1926–2018), painter
Mary Gehr (1913–1997), painter, printmaker
Nellie Huntington Gere (1868–1949), painter, illustrator
Sybil Gibson (1908–1995), painter
Ruth Gikow (1915–1982), muralist
Helen Gilbert (1922–2002), painter, kinetic sculptor
Charlotte Gilbertson (1922–2014), painter, printmaker
Margarete Garvin Gillin (1833–1915), painter
Jane Emmet de Glehn (1873–1961), painter
Judith Godwin (1930–2021), painter
Leah Golberstein, contemporary installation artist
Margery E. Goldberg (born 1950), painter, sculptor
Sarah Beth Goncarova (born 1980), painter, sculptor, installation artist
Elizabeth Goodridge (1798–1882), miniatures painter
Sarah Goodridge (1788–1853), miniatures painter
Lori K. Gordon (born 1958), multi-media artist
April Gornik (born 1953), painter
Nancy Graves (1939–1995), sculptor, painter, printmaker
Dorothy Grebenak (1913–1990), pop art, textile artist
Elizabeth Shippen Green (1871–1954), illustrator
Glenda Green (born 1945), painter
Mary Sheppard Greene (1869–1958), painter, illustrator
Lucila Villaseñor Grijalva, muralist
Mimi Gross (born 1940), painter
Hilda Grossman Morris (1911–1991), sculptor
MK Guth (born 1963), installation artist
H
Hildegarde Haas (1926–2002), painter
Carol Haerer (1933–2002), painter
Lauren Halsey (born 1987), installation artist
Elaine Hamilton-O'Neal (1920–2010), painter
Helen Hardin (1943–1984), painter
Tracy Harris (born 1958), painter
Jan Harrison (born 1944), painter, sculptor
Rachel Harrison (born 1966), sculptor, photographer
Grace Hartigan (1922–2008), painter
Jann Haworth (born 1942), sculptor
Mary Heebner (born 1951), painter
Carolyn Heller (1937–2011), painter, decorative artist
Nestor Hernández (1961–2006), photographer
Eva Hesse (1936–1970), sculptor
Cornelia Ellis Hildebrandt (1876–1962), miniature painter
Claude Raguet Hirst (1855–1942), trompe-l'œil painter, woodworker
Beth Van Hoesen (1926–2010), printmaker
Camille Hoffman (born 1987), installation artist
Nancy Holt (1938–2014), sculptor, installation artist
Jenny Holzer (born 1950), conceptual artist
Edna Boies Hopkins (1872–1937), woodblock printer
Violet Hopkins (born 1973), painter
Naomi Louise Sunderland Hosterman (1903–1990), painter
Letitia Huckaby (born 1972), photographer, mixed media
Winnifred Hudson (1905–1996), abstract painter
Anita Huffington (born 1934), sculptor
Regina Olson Hughes (1895–1993), botanical illustrator
Anna Hyatt Huntington (1876–1973), sculptor
Luchita Hurtado (1920–2020), painter
Alice Clary Earle Hyde (1876-1943), botanical artist
J
Wendy W. Jacob (born 1958), sculptor
Laura Ann Jacobs (born 1960), sculptor, mixed media artist
Yvonne Jacquette (born 1934), painter, printmaker
Shirley Jaffe (1923–2016), painter
Terrell James (born 1955), painter, sculptor
Angela Jansen (born 1929), painter, sculptor
Annette P. Jimerson (born 1966), painter
Cathy Josefowitz (1956–2014), painter
Joni T. Johnson (1934–1988), painter
Joan Jonas (born 1936), video, performance artist, other media
Lois Mailou Jones (1905–1998), painter
Lorna Jordan (1954–2021), environmental artist
Joanne Julian, contemporary mixed media artist
K
Susan Kaprov (born 1946), multi-disciplinary artist
Gertrude Käsebier (1852–1934), photographer
Lila Katzen (1925–1998), sculptor
Betty Keener Archuleta (1928–1998), painter
Alice De Wolf Kellogg (1862–1900), painter
Mary Kelly (born 1941), conceptual artist
Greta Kempton (1901–1991), portrait painter
Catherine Kernan (born 1948), painter
Sandy Kessler Kaminski (born 1969), painter, mixed-media artist
Ilah Marian Kibbey (1883–1957), genre and landscape painter
Karen Kilimnik (born 1955), painter, installation artist
Dorothy Stratton King (1909–2007), painter, printmaker
Emma B. King (1857–1933), impressionist
MaPo Kinnord (born 1960), ceramic artist, sculptor
Sam Kirk (born 1981), street artist, muralist
Mary Kirkwood (1904–1995), portrait painter, muralist
Marilyn Kirsch (born 1950), painter
Minnie Klavans (1915-1999), painter
Fay Kleinman (1912–2012), painter
Hedy Klineman, contemporary portrait painter
Anna Elizabeth Klumpke (1856–1942), painter
Gwendolyn Knight (1914–2005), painter
Cynthia Knott (born 1952), seascape painter
Alison Knowles (born 1933), Fluxus performance artist, printmaker
Florence Koehler (1861–1944), designer, jeweler
Ida Kohlmeyer (1912–1997), painter, sculptor
Elaine de Kooning (1918–1989), painter
Marni Kotak (born 1974), performance artist
Margia Kramer (born 1939), mixed-media artist
Lee Krasner (1908–1984), painter
LaVerne Krause (1924–1987), printmaker, painter
Barbara Kruger (born 1945), photographer, graphic artist, sculptor
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Rachel Lachowicz (born 1964), painter
Suzanne Lacy (born 1945), installations, video, performance artist
Anna Coleman Ladd (1878–1939), sculptor
Millie Rose Lalk (1895–1943), painter
Rosy Lamb (born 1973), painter, sculptor
Dorothea Lange (1895–1965), photographer
Ellen Lanyon (1926–2013), painter
Barbara Latham (1896–1989), painter, printmaker, illustrator
Louise Lawler (born 1947), photographer
Nancy Lawton (1950–2007), silver point artist
Mary Le Ravin (1905–1992), multimedia artist
Doris Lee (1905–1983), painter
Zoe Leonard (born 1961), photographer, visual artist
Sherrie Levine (born 1947), conceptual artist
Fran Lew (born 1946), painter
Ann Lewis (born 1981)
Edmonia Lewis (1845–1911), sculptor
Maya Lin (born 1959), installation artist
Pat Lipsky (born 1941), painter
Llanakila, contemporary painter, digital artist
Lucile Lloyd (1894–1941), muralist
Judith Lodge (born 1941), painter, photographer
Zoe Longfield (1924–2013), abstract expressionist artist
Angela Lorenz (born 1965), book artist
Helen Lundeberg (1908–1999), painter
Genevieve Springston Lynch (1891–1960), painter
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Cornelia MacIntyre Foley (1909–2010), painter
Florence MacKubin (1857–1918), portrait painter
Ethel Magafan (1916–1993), painter
Silvia Malagrino (born 1950), multimedia artist, filmmaker
Maxine Martell (born 1937)
Agnes Martin (1912–2004), painter
Louise Martin (1911-1995), photographer
Maria Martinez (1887–1980), potter, ceramist
Soraida Martinez (born 1956), painter
Emily Mason (1932–2019), painter
Mercedes Matter (1913–2001), painter
Amanda Matthews (born 1968), sculptor, painter, public art designer
Louisa Matthíasdóttir (1917–2000), painter
Randi Matushevitz (born 1965), painter
Cornelia F. Maury (1866–1942), portrait painter
Brookie Maxwell (1956–2015), artist, curator
Nell Brooker Mayhew (1875–1940), painter
Paula McCartney (born 1971), photographic works
Renee McGinnis (born 1962), painter
Sarah McKenzie (born 1971), painter
Alexa Meade (born 1986), body artist
Nellie Meadows (1915–2006), artist
Donna Meistrich (born 1954), painter, sculptor, animator
Dalila Paola Méndez (born 1975), painter
Ana Mendieta (1948–1985), performance artist
Nora Chapa Mendoza (born 1932), abstract painter
Adah Isaacs Menken (1835–1868), actress, painter, poet
Geneva Mercer (1889–1984), sculptor
Betty Merken, painter, printmaker, abstract geometric monotypes
Deborah Mesa-Pelly (born 1968), painter
Frances Myers, printmaker
Eleanore Mikus (1927–2017), painter
Melissa Miller (born 1951), painter
Joan Mitchell (1925–1992), painter, printmaker
Edna Zyl Modie (1886–1981), painter
Charlotte Moorman (1933–1991), Fluxus, performance artist
Rebecca Jo Morales (born 1962), painter
Dorothy Morang (1906–1994), painter
Ree Morton (1933–1977), painter, sculptor
Jill Moser (born 1956), painter
Grandma Moses (1860–1961), painter
Ruth Mountaingrove (1923–2016), photographer, poet
Brenna Murphy (born 1986), psychedelic art
Elizabeth Murray (1940–2007), painter, printmaker
Grace H. Murray (1872–1944), watercolor painter
Laura Myntti (born 1962), painter
Caroline Mytinger (1897–1980), painter
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Elva Nampeyo (1926–1985), potter, ceramic artist
Fannie Nampeyo (1900–1987), potter, ceramic artist
Iris Nampeyo (c. 1860–1942), potter, ceramic artist
Inez Nathaniel-Walker (1911-1990), artist
Alice Neel (1900–1984), painter
Anne Neely (born 1946), painter
Deborah Nehmad (born 1952), printmaker, mixed-media artist
Pamela Nelson, contemporary painter, installation artist
Abigail May Alcott Nieriker (1840–1879), artist
Gladys Nilsson (born 1940), painter
Tameka Norris (born 1979), performance artist
Kenda North (born 1951), photographer
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Violet Oakley (1874–1961), muralist
Linda Obermoeller (1941–1990), portrait painter
Mina Fonda Ochtman (1862–1924), painter
Georgia O'Keeffe (1887–1986), painter
Rose O'Neill (1874–1944), comic strip artist
Catherine Opie (born 1961), photographer
Sono Osato (born 1960), artist
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Josephine Paddock (1885–1964), painter
Bashka Paeff (1894–1979), sculptor
Susanna Paine (1792–1862), portrait painter
Louise Parks (born 1945), painter
Irene E. Parmelee (1847–1934), portrait painter
Dellamarie Parrilli (born 1949), abstract expressionist, action painter
Clara Weaver Parrish (1861–1925), painter, printmaker, stained glass designer
Betty Parsons (1900–1982), painter, gallerist
Eunice Parsons (born 1916), modernist collagist
Pat Passlof (1928–2011), painter
Christina Patoski (born 1948), photographer, video artist
Ruthe Katherine Pearlman (1913–2007), painter, art educator
Leemour Pelli (born 1964). painter
Agnes Lawrence Pelton (1881–1961), modernist painter
Beverly Pepper (1924–2020), sculptor, painter
Isabelle Clark Percy West (1882–1976), designer
I. Rice Pereira (1902–1971), abstract painter
Lilla Cabot Perry (1848–1933), painter
Elizabeth Peyton (born 1965), painter
Nan Phelps (1904–1990), painter
Eunice Pinney (1770–1849), watercolor painter
Adrian Piper (born 1948), conceptual artist
Vanessa Platacis (born 1973), painter and installation artist
Alethea Hill Platt (1860–1932), painter
Gloria Plevin (born 1934), painter
Stephanie Pogue (1944–2002), printmaker
Susan Mohl Powers (born 1944), sculptor, painter
Mary Elizabeth Price (1877–1965), painter
Ann Purcell (born 1941), painter
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Dextra Quotskuyva (born 1928), potter, ceramic artist
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Raquel Rabinovich (born 1929), painter, sculptor
Yvonne Rainer (born 1934), performance artist, choreographer, dancer
Sophy Regensburg (1885–1974), naïve painter
Deborah Remington (1930–2010), painter, printmaker
Christie Repasy (born 1958), floral painter
Linda Ridgway (born 1947), sculptor
Judy Rifka (born 1945), painter, video artist
Faith Ringgold (born 1930), painter, fabric artist
Anne Louise Gregory Ritter (1868–1929), painter, ceramicist
Adelaide Alsop Robineau (1865–1929), painter, potter
Dorothea Rockburne (born 1932), painter
Anita Rodriguez (born 1941), painter
Julia Rommel (born 1980), abstract painter
Stephanie Rond (born 1973), painter
Louise Emerson Ronnebeck (1901–1980), painter
Christine Rosamond (1947–1994), painter
Esther Rose (1901–1990), painter, calligrapher
Martha Rosler (born 1943), video, photo-text, installation, performance art
Barbara Rossi (born 1940), painter
Susan Rothenberg (1945–2020), painter, printmaker
Suze Rotolo (1943–2011), book artist, illustrator
Meridel Rubenstein (born 1948), photographer, installation artist
Katie Ruiz (born 1984), painter
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Alison Saar (born 1956), sculptor, installation artist
Betye Saar (born 1926), assemblage artist
Betty Sabo (1928–2016), landscape painter, sculptor
Kay Sage (1898–1963), painter
Anna M. Sands (1860–1927/1940), painter
Augusta Savage (1892–1962), sculptor
Anne Savedge, contemporary photographer
Kerri Scharlin, painter and conceptual artist
Lonny Schiff (born 1929), collage artist
Rachel Schmeidler, multi-media artist
Carolee Schneemann (1939–2019), performance artist
Joan Schulze (born 1936), textile artist
Donna N. Schuster (1883–1953), painter
Ethel Schwabacher (1903–1984), painter
Barbara Schwartz (1949–2006), painter, sculptor
Lillian Schwartz (born 1927), digital artist
Janet Scudder (1869–1940), sculptor
Bernarda Bryson Shahn (1903–2004), painter, lithographer
Ann Leda Shapiro (born 1946), painter
Honoré Desmond Sharrer (1920–2009), painter
Susan Louise Shatter (1943–2011), landscape painter
Ruth Faison Shaw (1888–1969), painter
Judith Shea (born 1948), sculptor
Mary Michael Shelley (born 1950), carver, painter
Kara Shepherd (born 1911), surrealist painter
Cindy Sherman (born 1954), photographer
Lauren Silva (born 1987), painter
Laurie Simmons (born 1949), photographer
Lorna Simpson (born 1960), photographer
Schandra Singh (born 1977), painter
Sylvia Sleigh (1916–2010), painter
Jaune Quick-To-See Smith (born 1940), painter, printmaker
Jessie Willcox Smith (1863–1935), illustrator
Kiki Smith (born 1954), sculptor, printmaker, multi-media
Amanda Snyder (1894–1980), painter, printmaker
Joan Snyder (born 1940), painter
Judith Solodkin (born 1945), printmaker
Malia Solomon (1915–2005), textile artist
Kathleen Mary Spagnolo (1919–2016), painter
Elizabeth Sparhawk-Jones (1885–1968), painter
Meredyth Sparks (born 1972), multimedia artist
Nancy Spero (1926–2009), painter, printmaker, collage artist
Betty Spindler (born 1943), ceramist
Laura Splan (born 1973), multimedia artist
Molly Springfield (born 1977), drawer
Linda St. Clair (born 1952), wildlife painter
Wendy Red Star (born 1981), multimedia artist
Anita Steckel (1930–2012), graphic artist
Marsha Steinberg (born 1946), painter, etcher
Monika Steiner (born 1972), sculptor
Bettina Steinke (1913–1999), painter, muralist
Pat Steir (born 1940), painter
Hedda Sterne (1910–2011), painter
Lizbeth Stewart (1948–2013), ceramist
Elena Stonaker (born 1985), textile artist
Georgianna Stout (born 1967), graphic designer
Renee Stout (born 1958), sculptor
Marjorie Strider (1931–2014), sculptor
Jane Stuart (1812–1888), portrait painter
Michelle Stuart (born 1933), painter, sculptor, photographer
Altoon Sultan (born 1948), painter
Carol Sutton (born 1945), painter
Liza Sylvestre, visual artist
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Anne Tabachnick (1927–1995), painter
Dorothea Tanning (1910–2012), painter, surrealist
Fay Morgan Taylor (1909–1990), modernist artist
Juliet Thompson (1873–1956), painter
Hannah Tompkins (1920–1995), painter, printmaker
Selina Trieff (1934–2015), abstract artist
Virginia True (1900–1989), painter
Anne Truitt (1921–2004), sculptor
Wu Tsang (born 1982), filmmaker, performance artist
Diane Tuckman (born 1939), silk painter
Mym Tuma (born 1940), painter, mixed media
Ruth Tunstall Grant (1945–2017), painter
Lynne Woods Turner (born 1951), abstract painter
Vadis Turner (born 1977), mixed media, textile artist
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Ruth Pershing Uhler (1895–1967), painter, curator
Mierle Laderman Ukeles (born 1939), installation artist
Audrey Ushenko (born 1945), figurative painter
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Aramenta Dianthe Vail (1820–1888), miniatures painter
Clover Vail (born 1939), print-maker
Jessie Rose Vala (born 1977), installation artist
Lesley Vance (born 1977), painter
Bessie Potter Vonnoh (1872–1955), sculptor
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Marion Wachtel (1875–1951), painter
Stacy Lynn Waddell (born 1966), painter
Carol Wald (1935–2000), illustrator
Kara Walker (born 1969), painter, printmaker, installation artist
Mildred Waltrip (1911–2004), illustrator
Nina B. Ward (1885–1944), painter
Carol Wax (born 1953), printmaker
Andrea Way (born 1949), painter, sculptor
Stacey Lee Webber (born 1982), metalsmith
Carrie Mae Weems (born 1953), photographer
Susan Weil (born 1930), painter
Clara Barck Welles (1869–1965), silversmith
Jean Wells (born 1949), mosaic sculptor
Bessie Wheeler (born 1876), painter
Candace Wheeler (1827–1923), interior and textile designer
Karen Wheeler (born 1955), painter
Lindsey White (born 1980), multi-media artist
Elizabeth Whiteley (born 1945), multi-media artist
Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney (1875–1942), sculptor
Charmion Von Wiegand (1896–1983), painter
Harriet "Hattie" Elizabeth Wilcox (1869–1943), ceramics artist
Hannah Wilke (1940–1993), multi-media artist
Mary Rogers Williams (1857–1907), painter
Edwina Florence Wills (1915–2002), sculptor
Cordelia Wilson (1873–1953), painter
Jane Wilson (1924–2015), painter
Mary Ann Wilson (fl. 1810–1825), watercolor painter
Jacqueline Winsor (born 1941), sculptor
Leona Wood (1921–2008), painter
Thelma Wood (1901–1970), silverpoint artist
Francesca Woodman (1958–1981), photographer
Anna Woodward (1868–1935), painter
Amy Namowitz Worthen (born 1946), printmaker, engraver
Patience Wright (1725–1786), sculptor
Henriette Wyeth (1907–1997), painter
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Enid Yandell (1870–1934), sculptor
Mary Agnes Yerkes (1886–1989), painter
Daisy Youngblood (born 1945), ceramic artist, sculptor
Judy Youngblood (born 1948, painter
Marlene Tseng Yu (born 1937), abstract painter
Lisa Yuskavage (born 1962), painter
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Bhakti Ziek (born 1946), textile artist
Andrea Zittel (born 1965), sculptor, installation artist
Marguerite Zorach (1887–1968), painter, textile artist
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American women artists, List of
Artists, List of American women
Women artists, List of American
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Elbert Leander "Burt" Rutan (; born June 17, 1943) is a retired American aerospace engineer and entrepreneur noted for his originality in designing light, strong, unusual-looking, and energy-efficient air and space craft. He designed the record-breaking Voyager, which in 1986 was the first plane to fly around the world without stopping or refueling, and the Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer, which in 2006 set the world record for the fastest (342 mph/551 km/h in 67 hours) and longest (25,766 miles/41,466 km) nonstop non-refueled circumnavigation flight in history. In 2004, Rutan's sub-orbital spaceplane design SpaceShipOne became the first privately funded spacecraft to enter the realm of space, winning the Ansari X-Prize that year for achieving the feat twice within a two-week period.
With his VariEze and Long-EZ designs, which first flew in 1975 and 1979 respectively, Rutan is responsible for helping popularize both the canard configuration and the use of moldless composite construction in the homebuilt aircraft industry, the latter a technique that was adopted in several production and commercial aircraft in the following decades as well. He is the founder or co-founder of multiple aerospace companies, including the Rutan Aircraft Factory, Scaled Composites, Mojave Aerospace Ventures, and The Spaceship Company.
Rutan has designed 46 aircraft throughout his career, been included in the Time 100 Most Influential People in the World list for the year 2004, been the co-recipient of both the Collier and National Air and Space Museum trophies on two occasions (each for his accomplishments with Voyager in 1986 and SpaceShipOne in 2004), received six honorary doctoral degrees, and has won over 100 different awards for aerospace design and development. In 1995, he was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame. Rutan has five aircraft on display in the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.: the VariEze, Quickie, Voyager, SpaceShipOne, and the Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer. He is the younger brother of former test pilot and United States Air Force fighter pilot, Dick Rutan, who has piloted many of his earlier original designs on class record-breaking flights.
Life and career
Born in 1943 in Estacada, Oregon, 30 miles southeast of Portland, and raised in Dinuba, California, Burt Rutan displayed an early interest in aircraft design. By the time he was eight years old he was designing and building model aircraft. His first solo flight piloting an airplane was in an Aeronca Champ in 1959. In 1965 he graduated third in his class from the California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly-San Luis Obispo) with a BS degree in aeronautical engineering.
From 1965 to 1972, Rutan was a civilian flight test project engineer for the U.S. Air Force at Edwards Air Force Base, working on nine projects including the LTV XC-142 VSTOL transport and spin tests of the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom fighter. He left to become Director of Development of the BD-5 aircraft for Bede Aircraft in Newton, Kansas, a position he held until 1974.
In June 1974, Rutan returned to California to establish the Rutan Aircraft Factory. In this business he designed and developed prototypes for several aircraft, mostly intended for amateur builders. His first design, executed while he was still at Bede, was the VariViggen, a two-seat pusher single-engine craft of canard configuration. The canard would become a feature of many Rutan designs, notably the very popular VariEze and Long-EZ.
In April 1982, Rutan founded Scaled Composites, LLC, which has become one of the world's pre-eminent aircraft design and prototyping facilities. Scaled Composites is headquartered in Mojave, California, at the Mojave Air & Space Port. That same year, Beechcraft contracted Rutan's Scaled Composites to refine the design and build the prototype Beechcraft Starship.
In 1987, Rutan received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In 1988, he was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum and in 1995, the National Aviation Hall of Fame at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. Rutan was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1989 for leading the engineering, design, construction, and testing of a series of aircraft, including Voyager. In 2004, after SpaceShipOne flew, he was listed as one of Time magazine's "100 Most Influential People in the World" and as Inc. Magazines "Entrepreneur of the Year". In 2005, he received the NAS Award in Aeronautical Engineering from the National Academy of Sciences.
In 2007, Northrop Grumman became the sole owner of Rutan's Scaled Composites.
In a 2010 interview, Rutan articulated his motivation for developing suborbital spaceflight technology projects with SpaceShipOne and SpaceShipTwo. In it he said, "we can achieve some breakthroughs," making such flight "orders of magnitude safer and orders of magnitude more affordable. I'm taking this step because I think achieving something that has never existed in manned spaceflight – and that is high volume and public access – I think it is important to do that and to do it as soon as possible."
He retired from Scaled Composites in April 2011. That same year, he received the Daniel Guggenheim Medal and became recognized as a Living Legend of Aviation, receiving the Bob Hoover Freedom of Flight Award from the Kiddie Hawk Air Academy. In 2012, Rutan spoke on "Innovation and the Space Race" to the World Affairs Council, as recorded on C-Span. Flying magazine ranked him at number 18 on their 2013 list, "51 Heroes of Aviation". Rutan was also a recipient of the prestigious Wright Brothers Memorial Trophy in 2015. In 2021, he received his second eponymous Bob Hoover award with the AOPA's R.A. “Bob” Hoover Trophy, given to "people in the industry who have made major contributions over the course of their careers to key areas within general aviation."
He is married to Tonya Rutan and together they have two children.
Aircraft designs
In a 45-year career, many of Rutan's designs have often been quite dissimilar from their predecessors. The Los Angeles Times said of his designs: "His airplanes and spacecraft take on all types of sleek shapes and sizes, looking more like the work of a sculptor than an engineer. In all, Rutan has come up with 367 individual concepts — of which 45 have flown."
Homebuilt aircraftVariViggen and VariViggen SPIn 1968, he began building his first design, the VariViggen, which first flew in April 1972. It had the rear wing, forward canard, and pusher configuration design elements which became his trademarks. In lieu of wind tunnel testing, Rutan developed aerodynamic parameters for the VariViggen using a model rigged atop his station wagon, and measured the forces while driving on empty roads.
The VariViggen was the Rutan model 27. A new set of outer wings, with winglets, was later developed by Rutan for the VariViggen, producing the VariViggen SP, Rutan model 32. The VariViggen was named in honor of the Saab 37 Viggen, a canard-configured fighter jet developed in Sweden. One VariViggen, built in France and named Micro Star, was powered by two Microturbo TRS-18 jet engines in lieu of the usual piston engine.VariEze and Long-EZThe VariViggen design led to the successful VariEze (pronounced "very easy") homebuilt aircraft designs, in which he pioneered the use of moldless glass-reinforced plastic construction in homebuilts. The prototype, designated Model 31, made its public debut at the 1975 EAA Convention and Fly-In (now called AirVenture) in Oshkosh, Wisconsin. That same year, his brother Dick Rutan set a world distance record in the under-500 kg (1100 lb) class in the VariEze, and these aircraft went on to set other world records in this class.
They were also the first aircraft to fly with NASA-developed winglets.
Rutan later revised the VariEze design, providing more volume for fuel and cargo, resulting in the Rutan model 61 Long-EZ, designed to be powered by a Lycoming O-235, although some have used Lycoming O-320s or Lycoming O-360s. The Long-EZ had a range of , over twice that of the VariEze. The Long-EZ also has a revised wing spar design that is not subject to the 2.5 g positive, 1.5 g negative, maximum load factor limit applied to the VariEze after the discovery of problems with some VariEze wings.QuickieRutan was approached by Gene Sheehan and Tom Jewett to develop a single-seat personal sport aircraft. Following a preliminary canard project (model 49), a tandem wing configuration was eventually designed, to be powered by an 18 hp Onan industrial engine. The prototype (Rutan model 54) was built in 1977 and registered as N77Q. After 5 months of testing, Quickie Aircraft marketed the aircraft as the Rutan model 54 Quickie in 1978.
Two derivatives of the Quickie were subsequently developed, both expanded to include two seats. Quickie Aircraft had Gary LaGare develop the Q2, while Viking Aircraft developed the Viking Dragonfly.SolitaireThe 1982 Sailplane Homebuilders Association (Now the Experimental Soaring Association) opened a competition for a homebuilt, self-launching sailplane. Rutan designed the model 77 Solitaire for this competition, which it won. The sailplane was canard-configured, with a retractable engine ahead of the cockpit.
Research aircraftGrizzlyRutan designed the model 72 Grizzly to investigate the possibility of a STOL canard aircraft. It was retired after testing in 1982.Lotus MicrolightRutan was approached by Colin Chapman, the founder of Lotus Cars, to design a single-seat ultralight aircraft. Again, a canard configuration was developed, the Rutan model 91. Colin Chapman's untimely death in 1982 brought this project to an end, after the aircraft had flown.Ames AD-1In the 1980s NASA issued a contract to Ames Industrial Company of Bohemia, New York to develop a small, low-cost aircraft to investigate Robert T. Jones's (a NASA researcher at NASA's Ames Research Center) oblique wing concept. Ames turned to Rutan, who designed a small, fiberglass airframe, powered by two Microturbo TRS-18 jet engines. This was the Rutan model 35, the Ames AD-1. After completion of the test program, the AD-1 was retired in 1982 and is now on exhibit in the Hiller Aviation Museum in San Carlos, California.ARESThe Scaled Composites ARES, also called the "Mudfighter", is a full-size flying and shooting prototype of a lightweight low cost aircraft with a similar ground attack and support role as the A-10. The aircraft first flew in 1990.BoomerangA departure from the canard design was the 1996 Boomerang, perhaps one of the unconventional designer's most unconventional aircraft. The aircraft, the Rutan model 202 Boomerang, is an asymmetric twin-engine tractor configuration aircraft with one engine on the fuselage and another mounted on a pod. A November 1996 Popular Mechanics feature article said it "looks more like a trimotor that lost its right boom and engine".BiPodThe BiPod, Rutan's latest design in association with his company Scaled Composites, is a hybrid flying car. Announced in July 2011, the twin-pod vehicle has a wingspan of 31 feet 10 inches; with the wings reconfigured (stowed between the pods), the car has a width of 7 feet 11 inches and fits in a single-car garage. The design has two 450 cc four-cycle engines, one in each pod, which power a pair of generators that in turn power the electric motors used for propulsion. "Lithium-ion batteries in the nose of each pod will provide power during take off and an emergency backup for landing. With a cruising speed of , Scaled says the Model 367 BiPod would have a range of ." The plane can fly at which reduces the range to . "Out on the road, this roadable aircraft, which carries of fuel, is expected to have a driving range of 820 miles. It has a claimed electric-only range of 35 miles." Flight controls are in the right pod, road controls (steering wheel and brakes) in the left.
Performance aircraftAmsoil RacerThe Rutan model 68 Amsoil Racer was a racing aircraft of Quickie configuration, built in 1981. It set several speed records, but crashed at the 1983 Reno Air Races and was unsalvageable.VoyagerThe Rutan model 76 Voyager was the first airplane to fly nonstop, without refueling around the world. Piloted by Rutan's brother Dick and Jeana Yeager the airplane made the round the world flight over 9 days in December 1986. Around-the-world flights had been accomplished by military crews using in-flight refueling.
Burt developed a twin-engined (piston engines, one pusher and one tractor) canard-configured design. The pusher engine ran continuously, the tractor engine was used for take-off and initial climb to altitude, then was shut down.
The aircraft was first flown with two Lycoming O-235 engines. After development work, it was reengined with a Continental O-200 (modified to include liquid cooling) as the pusher engine and a Continental O-240 as the tractor engine.
As a proving flight the aircraft made a record setting endurance flight off the coast of California. In December 1986, they took off from Edwards Air Force Base in California and flew around the world (westward) in nine days, fulfilling the aircraft's design goals and setting multiple world absolute flight distance records. The Voyager was retired and now hangs in the Milestones of Flight exhibit in the National Air and Space Museum (NASM) main exhibit hall, with the Wright Flyer, Spirit of St. Louis and Bell X-1.
Burt and Dick Rutan, along with Yeager, made headlines for their efforts as the Voyager team and received the 1986 Collier Trophy and Presidential Citizens Medal from President Ronald Reagan.CatbirdThe Scaled Composites Model 81 Catbird is a five-seat, single-engined pressurized airplane. The airplane was configured as a three-surface aircraft (canard, main wing, and tail) and first flew in 1988. After serving as Rutan's personal airplane, it was retired. The Catbird is notable for winning the CAFE Challenge aircraft efficiency prize in 1993.Pond RacerThe 1991 Pond Racer was an Unlimited Class racing airplane. Concerned about the dwindling numbers of World War II aircraft, with many being consumed by use as Unlimited Class racers at the Reno Air Races, Bob Pond contracted Rutan and Scaled to design and build an Unlimited Class racer. After design studies, a twin-engined, conventional configured layout was chosen. The aircraft was powered by two 1000 hp Electromotive-Nissan VG-30 3-liter GTP piston engines running on methanol. The aircraft was built and tested before delivery to the customer. It appeared at the Reno Air Races in 1991, 1992 and 1993. The aircraft was destroyed in a forced landing crash on September 14, 1993, killing pilot Rick Brickert.ProteusThe Model 281 Proteus is a tandem-wing high-endurance aircraft designed by Rutan and built by Scaled Composites to investigate the use of aircraft as high altitude telecommunications relays. The aircraft's requirements were designed by Angel Technologies and Broadband.com. Its first flights were in 1998. It holds several altitude records, set in 2000.GlobalFlyerOn March 3, 2005, the Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer, an aircraft similar to the Voyager design but built by Scaled using stiffer materials and a single jet engine, completed the first solo non-stop, non-refueled flight around the world with adventurer Steve Fossett as pilot. Reducing weight was critical to the design, and Rutan is quoted as facetiously telling his staff that when they finish building a part, they must throw it up in the air for a weight test, and "If it comes down, it's too heavy". Between February 7, 2006 – February 11, 2006, Fossett and the GlobalFlyer set a record for the longest flight in history: , the third absolute world record set with this aircraft before being flown to the NASM Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. The Global Flyer is the sixth aerospace vehicle designed by Rutan in the NASM collection.SkiGullThe SkiGull is an amphibious aircraft that was publicly announced at the 2015 EAA AirVenture gathering, post Rutan's retirement. His most recent design, the aircraft is a two-seat composite/titanium aircraft equipped with a retractable ski undercarriage that can have wheels attached for water, snow or land operations, landing on around 400 feet of surface but with a range to cross oceans. It has two electric motors with forward-folding reversible propellers to simplify docking and give optional takeoff power. The SkiGull is being developed and funded privately, and had its first test flight in November 2015.
Contracted aircraftTriumphThe 1988 Scaled Composites Triumph was a twin-engine, business jet prototype designed and built for Beechcraft. The aircraft is a three lifting surface design, with both a small forward wing, and a small conventional horizontal stabilizer in a T-tail configuration.Visionair VantageThe VisionAire VA-10 Vantage is a prototype single-engined light business-jet (or "very light jet", also known as VLJ) developed by VisionAire Jets Corporation. In 1996 Rutan designed the first prototype, a proof-of-concept aircraft intended to confirm the design's handling, which resulted in several problems and a redesign of the aircraft in 1998.V-Jet IIThe Williams V-Jet II, which first flew in 1997, was a VLJ designed and built as a test bed and demonstrator aircraft for Williams International's new FJX-1 turbofan engine. It served as the design inspiration for the Eclipse 500, and was retired in 2001.Adam M-309The Adam M-309 CarbonAero was a technology demonstrator six-seat civil utility aircraft designed by Rutan and built by Scaled Composites in the early 2000s. It developed into the A500, which is produced by Adam Aircraft Industries.StratolaunchIn 2011, Rutan and Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen announced the Stratolaunch, a space launch carrier aircraft built by Scaled Composites for Allen's Stratolaunch Systems to carry air launch to orbit rockets.
Spacecraft designsSpaceShipOneRutan made headlines again in June 2004 with SpaceShipOne, which became the first privately built, flown and funded manned craft to reach space. The project, named "Tier One" (later known as Tier 1b), was developed and flown by Mojave Aerospace Ventures, which is part-owned by Scaled Composites and was a joint venture between Paul Allen and Rutan. On October 4, the SpaceShipOne team won the Ansari X Prize, completing two flights within two weeks, flying with the equivalent weight of 3 persons, and doing so while reusing at least 80% of the vehicle hardware. The project team was honored with the 2004 Collier Trophy, awarded by the National Aeronautic Association for "greatest achievement in aeronautics or astronautics in America." The craft embodies Rutan's unique style, and is another of the "icons of flight" displayed in the NASM Milestones of Flight exhibit.SpaceShipTwo ProjectVirgin Galactic—an offshoot of businessman and investor Sir Richard Branson's Virgin Group, and the parent company of Branson and Rutan's 2005 spacecraft manufacturing startup The Spaceship Company—announced that it would begin space tourism flights in 2008 using craft based on the designs of SpaceShipOne. Dubbed SpaceShipTwo, these new craft, also designed by Rutan, are intended to allow six "experience optimized" passengers to glimpse the planet from 70 to 80 miles up in suborbital space. Production of the first of five planned SpaceShipTwo craft has started, but commercial flights did not begin in 2008 as planned. An explosion at the Scaled Composite factory at the Mojave Spaceport on July 26, 2007, which killed three engineers and seriously injured three others, may have contributed to the delay. They were testing components for SpaceShipTwo, but Scaled Composites remained dedicated to perfecting the design of SpaceShipTwo. Virgin continues to work on developing SpaceShipTwo, but it has stopped predicting when commercial spaceflights will begin. A further SpaceshipTwo accident on October 31, 2014 (VSS Enterprise tail number: N339SS) resulted in the death of copilot Michael Alsbury and injuries to the pilot.
Rutan was also working with t/Space in the mid-2000s on the development of an air launched, two-stage-to-orbit, manned spacecraft. It was intended to have a taxi capacity to carry passengers to the International Space Station. In June 2005, air drop tests of quarter scale mockups verified the practicality of air release and rotation to vertical.White Knight One and TwoOn July 28, 2008, Richard Branson unveiled Scaled Composites White Knight Two "Eve," at the Mojave Spaceport. The jet-powered cargo aircraft is based on SpaceShipOne's successful mothership, White Knight One, which was designed by Rutan and based on Proteus. Flight tests were set to begin in September 2008. The launch customer of White Knight Two is Virgin Galactic, which will have the first 2 units, and exclusive rights to the craft for the first few years. In 2008, Branson predicted that the maiden space voyage would take place within 18 months: "It represents... the chance for our ever-growing group of future astronauts and other scientists to see our world in a completely new light." Virgin Galactic contracted Rutan to build the mothership and spacecraft.
Retirement and post-retirement work
On November 3, 2010, Scaled Composites announced the retirement of Rutan:
"Burt Rutan, founder of aerospace research firm Scaled Composites in 1982, had announced his plans to retire in April 2011. He currently serves as Scaled's chief technical officer and, following his retirement, Burt will assume the title of founder and chairman emeritus. Burt has worked in California's Antelope Valley for more than 45 years, initially as flight test project engineer for the Air Force and in 1974 he founded the Rutan Aircraft Factory to develop experimental aircraft for homebuilders."
"Burt is known worldwide as a legendary genius in aircraft design in the aviation world. I am very fortunate and proud to have worked by his side for the past 28 years," says President Douglas B. Shane. "We wish Burt and his wife, Tonya, the very best the future holds for them."
On April 1, 2011, Rutan retired from Scaled Composites to his home in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho.
Rutan has continued working out of his home in retirement on various designs since stepping down from Scaled Composites in 2011. That year he said that he was working on one more innovative design.
In July 2011, this was revealed to be a hybrid flying car, the Model 367 BiPod.
In 2015 he began water and flight testing a prototype of a new amphibian aircraft, the Rutan SkiGull, intended to be capable of flying between Hawaii and California, cruising at , taking off or landing in about on challenging surfaces including rough terrain, seas, grass, snow, or ordinary runways, fueled by ordinary automotive or marine gasoline, and having small electric motors for power assists or emergency landing.
Rutan also advised on the design of the Paul Allen-funded Stratolaunch space launch carrier since retiring in 2011, which is the world's largest airplane by wingspan, and in 2019 announced that he was working on a new eVTOL.
Awards and accolades (partial list)
Rutan has received numerous awards and honors for aerospace design and development throughout his over 50-year-long career. Below is a list of some of his most notable tributes and accolades.
Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA)'s August Raspet Award (1976)
Presidential Citizens Medal (1986)
National Aeronautic Association (NAA)'s Collier Trophy (1986 and 2004)
National Air and Space Museum Trophy (1987, 2005 and 2012)
National Aviation Hall of Fame Inductee (1995)
EAA's Freedom of Flight Award (1996)
Listed among the Time 100 (2004)
Inc. Magazine'''s "Entrepreneur of the Year" (2004)
The Explorers Club Medal (2005)
National Space Society (NSS)'s Von Braun Award (2005)
NSS's Robert A. Heinlein Memorial Award (2008)
Kiddie Hawk Air Academy's Living Legends of Aviation Award (2011)
Daniel Guggenheim Medal (2011)
Ranked No. 18 in Flying Magazines "51 Heroes of Aviation" (2013)
NAA's Wright Brothers Memorial Trophy (2015)
Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA)'s Bob Hoover Trophy (2021)
See also
Rutan Defiant, homebuilt with twin push-pull engines and 4 seats
Hugo Junkers, German engineer and aircraft designer, considered the first aerospace airframe materials innovator, with the all-metal J 1 in 1915
Klapmeier brothers, founders of Cirrus Aircraft, inaugurated major change in production airframe manufacturing, with the all-composite SR20 in 1999
Paul Poberezny, founder of the Experimental Aircraft Association and EAA Annual Convention & Fly-In, designed and built several homebuilt aircraft
Black Sky: The Race for Space, a 2005 documentary about Rutan, SpaceShipOne and the Ansari X Prize
References
External links
Stargazer - online resource on every known Rutan project
Rutan online biography
National Aviation Hall of Fame biography
Rutan speech "The real future of space exploration" (TED2006), Monterey, CA; recorded February 2006 (duration: 20 min)
Rutan talk at the 2012 "The UP Experience" conference, Houston, Texas; recorded October 25, 2012 (duration: 26 min)
Articles
The Designer: Burt Rutan - Airport Journals (2005)
The wit and wisdom of Burt Rutan - The Space Review (2011)
Burt Rutan: Icon of Homebuilding and Space Travel - Aircraft Spruce'' (2012)
1943 births
Living people
Aircraft designers
American aerospace engineers
American aerospace businesspeople
American aviators
Aviation inventors
Aviation pioneers
California Polytechnic State University alumni
Collier Trophy recipients
Engineers from California
Engineers from Oregon
National Aviation Hall of Fame inductees
People from Dinuba, California
People from Estacada, Oregon
Presidential Citizens Medal recipients
Space advocates
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The 3rd Light Horse Brigade was a mounted infantry brigade of the Australian Imperial Force (AIF), which served in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. The brigade was initially formed as a part-time militia formation in the early 1900s in Victoria. In 1914, the brigade was re-constituted as part of the AIF. The brigade first saw action while serving with the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps during the Gallipoli campaign where they were noted for their attack during the Battle of the Nek. After being withdrawn to Egypt in February 1916 they were involved in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign until the end of the war. They were attached to a number of different formations being part of the Anzac Mounted Division in March 1916 and the Australian Mounted Division in June 1917, who they remained with until the end of the war. After the war, the AIF light horse regiments were demobilised and disbanded; however, the brigade briefly existed as a part-time militia formation in New South Wales until 1921 when its regiments were reorganised into cavalry brigades.
History
Early formation
The 3rd Light Horse Brigade was initially raised as part of the militia in the early 1900s, being formed sometime between 1902 and 1905. That formation was raised in Victoria, and consisted of three Australian Light Horse regiments – the 7th, 8th and 9th – all of which bore the territorial designation of the Victorian Mounted Rifles. The 7th was based in several locations including Seymour, Broadford and Mansfield; the 8th was based in Wangaratta, Rutherglen, Beechworth and other smaller centres; and the 9th was based in Echuca, Ballarat, Bendigo and several other smaller depots. In 1912, an Army-wide reorganisation resulted in some regimental designations being redistributed. At this time, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was reconstituted in New South Wales, and consisted of the 7th (New South Wales Lancers), 9th (New South Wales Mounted Rifles) and the 11th (Australian Horse). The 7th was based around Parramatta, Sydney, Penrith and Windsor; the 9th was centred around Sydney, Camden, and Dubbo, with several other minor depots; and the 11th was based at several depots including Goulburn, Cooma, and Bega, New South Wales.
World War I
Formation and service at Gallipoli
At the outbreak of the war August 1914 the Australian Government decided to raise the all-volunteer Australian Imperial Force (AIF) consisting of 20,000 troops comprising an infantry division and a light horse brigade of three regiments to be used at the discretion of Britain. These regiments were raised from volunteers for overseas service, as the provisions of the Defence Act did not allow conscripts to be deployed overseas. Nevertheless, many of the recruits were drawn from the various militia light horse formations created as a consequence of the Kitchener Report 1910 and the introduction of Universal Training, although they were assigned to freshly raised units that were separate to the light horse regiments raised as part of the militia. Initial enlistments outstripped expectations and, as a result, a total of three light horse brigades were created in the early part of the war, each comprising three regiments, a machine gun squadron, a field ambulance, a veterinary section, supply, artillery and other supporting sections. As well, two divisional cavalry regiments were formed.
The 3rd Light Horse Brigade was raised as part of the 3rd Contingent that was hastily put together at the beginning of October 1914. Brigade headquarters opened in Melbourne in early November, with equipment issuing, training and troop organisation beginning at Broadmeadows on 6 November. The brigade was organised into three regiments – the 8th, 9th and 10th – each consisting of approximately 520 fighting men organised into three squadrons. The 8th was recruited from Victoria, the 9th from Victoria and South Australia, and the 10th from Western Australia. These units were raised throughout September and October, and the brigade embarked for the Middle East in late 1914 and early 1915.
After arriving in Egypt in February – March 1915, the brigade undertook training at Mena Camp. Training focused initially on individual skills, before progressing to collective training at squadron, regimental and eventually brigade level. The brigade's first commander was Colonel (later Brigadier General) Frederic Godfrey Hughes, a pre-war officer in the part-time militia. During the early part of the war, the brigade was attached to the New Zealand and Australian Division.
In mid-May 1915, the brigade was deployed to Gallipoli as reinforcements for the infantry that had landed in April, who had become pinned around a small perimeter around a beachhead at Anzac Cove; deployed in a dismounted role, the brigade was assigned as corps troops directly under the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps. About a quarter of the strength of each light horse regiment remained in Egypt with their horses; however, additional reinforcements were provided prior to their arrival at Gallipoli, to bring them up to strength. Although there were concerns about the age of the brigade's commander, upon arrival, the brigade was assigned to hold part of the defensive perimeter that had been established around the beachhead at Anzac Cove. The regiments were pushed into the line around Walker's Ridge and Russell's Top, assuming control of positions previously held by the New Zealanders, and undertook mainly defensive roles throughout the remainder of the campaign. During this time, the light horsemen undertook patrolling operations, manned outposts, carried out sniping and worked to dig trenches and lay down wire obstacles.
In August, the Allies attempted to break the deadlock on the Gallipoli peninsula, launching the August Offensive in an effort to secure the heights around Sari Bair, Chunuk Bair and Baby 700. During this effort, the 8th and 10th Light Horse Regiments took part in the attack at the Nek on 7 August, while the 9th was placed in reserve. Planned as a feint to draw attention away from efforts elsewhere, the attack proved costly for the light horsemen. Due to poor coordination, efforts to support the attack broke down, and the preparatory artillery barrage ended before the attack began, allowing the defending Ottoman troops to return to their firing positions before the first wave set out. Attacking across the narrow front, the first wave of 150 men were all killed or wounded shortly after leaving their trenches. Nevertheless, three more waves were pushed forward before the attack was halted. Total casualties in the two regiments amounted 234 killed and 138 wounded. On 27 August, the 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments were sent as reinforcements to support the attack on Hill 60, which secured a link between Anzac Cove and Suvla. For his actions during this battle, Lieutenant Hugo Throssell later received the Victoria Cross. For the remainder of the campaign, the brigade undertook defensive duties. Hughes became ill late in the Gallipoli campaign and was evacuated. In his stead, the brigade major, John Antill, assumed command of the brigade in early October 1915.
By mid-December all three regiments were withdrawn from the peninsula, as part of the general withdrawal that followed the decision to abandon the position. The brigade was tasked with holding the line while the evacuation took place; a party of 40 men from the 8th Light Horse Regiment under Lieutenant Colonel Leslie Maygar were among the last to leave. They were subsequently returned to Egypt, sailing via Mudros.
Sinai and Palestine campaign
After the evacuation from Gallipoli, the Australian and New Zealand forces in the Middle East were reorganised. There were a large number of reinforcements that had arrived in Egypt at this time, and while the infantry was to be deployed to the Western Front, the mounted units were to remain in the Middle East. This resulted in the establishment of the Anzac Mounted Division, which consisted of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades, and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, under the command of Major General Harry Chauvel. At this time, the brigade was provided with a British Territorial horsed artillery battery, the 1/1st Inverness-shire Battery, which was detached from the British IV Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery (T.F.). Until July 1916, the brigade was supported by a machine gun section, but this was then expanded to a full squadron, equipped with 12 machine guns. A light horse training regiment was also established for each brigade, to provide trained reinforcements, while other supporting elements including signals, logistic, engineer, medical and veterinary support units were also assigned.
In the early part of 1916, the brigade was employed in a defensive capacity to prevent an Ottoman attack on the Suez Canal, working to the east of the canal. In late March, the 8th Light Horse Regiment undertook a reconnaissance patrol to Muksheib to ascertain available water supplies there. While the defences were built up in the north, the light horsemen undertook a series of raids in the southern Sinai, to channel the Ottoman troops towards the main defensive positions. These raids were tasked with attacking outposts and destroying water sources. Over the period 11–14 April, a squadron from the 9th Light Horse Regiment, along with a small number of men from the 8th Light Horse Regiment, undertook a raid on Jifjafa, advancing east of the Suez Canal to attack a bore drilling site; the raid proved successful and resulted in the destruction of the well and capture of the small Ottoman garrison force.
By late July an attack on the canal was expected, and the mounted troops were deployed to harass the advancing Ottoman forces. On the night of 3–4 August, the Battle of Romani began when an Ottoman force ran into positions occupied by the 1st Light Horse Brigade. The 3rd Light Horse Brigade was in the No. 2 Section of the canal zone during the initial fighting at Romani, but was hurriedly pushed forward to Dueidar, although this proved too slow to press the advantage. Tasked with a flanking role, the brigade was ill-prepared for this action, lacking the experience of the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades, and deploying without necessary combat clothing and equipment; late in the afternoon on 5 August, the brigade attacked an Ottoman strongpoint to the south of Katia around Hamisah, capturing over 400 prisoners and a quantity of equipment, including several machine guns. After the main fighting at Romani, the brigade was involved in flanking operations around Hod el Sagi, and then later supported the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade during the Battle of Bir el Abd on 9 August, tasked with advancing to Salmana on the El Arish road, in an effort to threaten the Ottoman left flank. The Ottoman defences proved too strong, though, and initial efforts by the brigade proved slow. The troopers advanced on horseback, attempting to rush the defences, but defensive fire checked their efforts and forced them to dismount. Using fire and manoeuvre techniques, a general advance began but it was carried out over too narrow a front, and after two hours was subjected to a heavy counter-attack. This triggered a withdrawal, during which a heavy artillery bombardment killed many of the 8th Light Horse Regiment's horses that were being led back by hand. In response, the 10th Light Horse Regiment was pushed forward to assist the 9th, and they succeeded in shoring up the line. The heavy resistance resulted in the Anzac Mounted Division being withdrawn to Oghratina, while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade held the left flank around Hod Abu Dhahab overnight.
Command of the brigade passed to John Royston after Antill was selected to command an infantry brigade on the Western Front. Meanwhile, the brigade continued operations against the Ottoman rearguard elements, and by 12 August the oasis area had been cleared. The brigade remained in the forward areas until 21 August. A period of patrolling and small scale raids followed as the front was slowly advanced towards the frontier with Palestine. By the end of the year, the British Empire forces were in a position to undertake an advance into the eastern Sinai, following the establishment of a railway and pipeline through the northern Sinai. In late December, the brigade took part in the Battle of Maghdaba, after a advance across the desert. On 23 December, the brigade carried out a flanking move to the north of the town, to cut off the garrison, while other elements of the Anzac Mounted Division attacked from the north-west. The attack was heavily resisted, and the Australians lack artillery support to suppress the defenders; late in the day, as water for the horses became a concern the order was given for the Australians withdraw. At the last moment, elements from the 1st Light Horse Brigade secured a redoubt to the north-west, while the 10th Light Horse Regiment moved around the eastern flank and took two positions to the south. This triggered the collapse of the Ottoman defence and allowed for a general advance. In early January 1917, another action was fought to capture Rafa. Initially, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was held back in reserve, but as the dismounted attack stalled, they too were committed. At the point that the attack broke down, the New Zealanders captured one of the redoubts which proved to be the key to unlocking the Ottoman defence. Once the town was captured, Chauvel withdrew the bulk of his forces towards El Arish to replenish supplies and rest, and to keep them out of range of Ottoman reinforcements; meanwhile, two regiments from the 3rd Light Horse Brigade formed a rearguard to delay the Ottomans and prevent them from retaking Rafa.
In February and March 1917, the Desert Column was reorganised and expanded. The arrival of several brigades of British yeomanry troopers from Salonika resulted in the decision to raise a new division, the Imperial Mounted Division. In order to bolster these troops with an experienced element, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was transferred from the Anzac Mounted Division to the newly formed Imperial Mounted Division. At this time, the Inverness-shire Battery remained with the Anzac Mounted Division, and the brigade subsequently received the 1/1 Nottingham Battery, which was detached from the XIX Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery (T.F.).
The focus for the brigade's operations throughout 1917 was the capture of the town of Gaza. The First Battle of Gaza was fought on 26 March. During the attack, the Imperial Mounted Division was tasked with forming a screen to encircle the town and protect the infantry attack from reinforcements; however, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was detached from the Imperial Mounted Division to reinforce the Anzac Mounted Division's attack to the north-west of the town, around El Meshaheran and El Mineh, in the early afternoon. Later, when the screen requested reinforcements after coming under attack from Ottoman reinforcements, the 8th and 9th Light Horse Regiments were sent back and secured some of the high ground to the north-west, which helped stabilise the line around Hill 405. The 10th Light Horse Regiment, forming the divisional reserve, also helped fill a gap in the line late in the day. Despite some progress in entering the town, the attempt to capture Gaza failed when the order to withdraw was given as night fell due to concerns about the arrival of Ottoman reinforcements.
A second attempt at capturing Gaza came on 19 April. In the days before the attack, the brigade undertook reconnaissance work near Wadi el Ghuzze. The Ottoman position was located about inland from the coast, around the edge of the dunes. It was strongly defended and despite efforts to reinforce the attack with tanks and gas, the direct attack proved costly and unsuccessful. The Imperial Mounted Division was heavily committed, undertaking several dismounted attacks against two south-eastern redoubts, during which the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was sent against Atawineh. Coming under heavy fire, the dismounted troopers advanced close to the redoubt and secured a number of prisoners before being halted by defensive fire and ordered to halt. Elsewhere, the infantry attack stalled, despite some gains, and eventually, with darkness falling and ammunition running low, the attack was called off.
In June, the Imperial Mounted Division was renamed the Australian Mounted Division, and a new Yeomanry Mounted Division was created as the Desert Column was expanded to a full corps, the Desert Mounted Corps. In the aftermath of the Second Battle of Gaza, British planners decided to attempt an indirect approach, focusing their efforts on Beersheba, about from Gaza in an effort to turn the Ottoman flank. On 30 October, the Battle of Beersheba was fought. Shortly before the battle, Brigadier General Lachlan Chisholm Wilson took command of the brigade. During the fighting, the 8th Light Horse Regiment provided a screen, the rest of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was detached from the Imperial Mounted Division to reinforce the Anzac Mounted Division attack the high ground around Tel el Saba; this took most of the day, but ultimately helped set the conditions for the 4th Light Horse Brigade's charge. Late in the afternoon, the brigade was sent to assist the attack from the east, where resistance continued until late in the day when the garrison began to flee, resulting in the capture of the town and most of its vital water wells.
The breakthrough at Beersheba paved the way for the opening of the Southern Palestine Offensive; after Gaza was captured, the brigade took part in the pursuit of the withdrawing Ottoman forces and the advance towards Jerusalem, during which they played a supporting role in actions at Haeira and Sheria and Mughar Ridge, as the Australian Mounted Division advanced towards Summil. For the capture of Jerusalem, the 10th Light Horse Regiment was detached to the British 5th Mounted Brigade to enter the city. A period of rest followed during the winter months, during which a defensive line was occupied before operations recommenced in February 1918. The British Empire troops pushed their line east towards the Jordan River to occupy the western part of the valley, and in late April and early May, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade took part in raid on Es Salt. During the action, the brigade forced a crossing around Damieh and then drove towards Es Salt, where a charge by the 8th Light Horse Regiment secured the town. The brigade held the town until 3 May when they were ordered to withdraw back to the Jordan following setbacks elsewhere. The brigade's return to the western bank was supported by aircraft from No. 3 Squadron AFC.
Summer was spent by the Jordan River amidst oppressive heat and vector borne diseases, during which there was a lull in the fighting. During this time, the troopers rotated between occupying the defensive line, resting and training; the brigade received cavalry training during this time, and was instructed in the use of swords, but the weapons were not issued at this time and the troopers used bayonets during this training. In early July, Ottoman and German forces launched an attack on the troops holding the Jordan Valley. The weight of the attack fell against other formations, but in the wake of the Battle of Abu Tellul the 3rd Light Horse Brigade relieved the 1st Light Horse Brigade in the forward areas.
In August, further sword training took place, and the Australian Mounted Division was finally issued with swords in preparation for a renewed offensive, during which they would be employed in a more traditional cavalry role. Meanwhile, the Anzac Mounted Division remained a mounted rifle formation. In September, the British Empire forces launched their attack. The Australian Mounted Division, including the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, launched a cavalry advance along the coast driving towards Damascus, while the Anzac Mounted Division undertook a secondary effort further inland. Commencing 19 September, the brigade took part in a series of actions as part of the wider Battle of Megiddo and Battle of Sharon. On 21 September, the brigade took part in the capture of Jenin, during which they drew swords to rout a large group of Ottoman troops that had been fleeing the battle zone. The brigade then advanced from Nazareth to capture Tiberias, near the Sea of Galilee, where they fought a brief action against withdrawing rearguard forces. Two days later, the brigade attempted to cross the upper Jordan River at Jisr Benat Yakub but found the bridge there had been destroyed; after forcing an alternate crossing another skirmish was fought against rearguard forces. On 29 September, the rearguard held up the advance again around Sasa, and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was committed to an attack in the evening, clearing the way for the 4th Light Horse Brigade to roll up part of the withdrawing force, securing a large number of prisoners. In the final advance towards Damascus, the brigade was tasked with interdicting the Damascus – Homs road, but was delayed around the Barada Gorge, before entering Damascus and moving through the town to complete their task. They were involved in several minor actions to the north while the remainder of the Australian Mounted Division remained in Damascus.
This was the brigade's last major action of the war. The brigade remained around Damascus until late in October when it began the advance towards Homs where the Australian Mounted Division was to replace the 4th Cavalry Division. On 30 October, the Ottomans surrendered, and the Armistice of Mudros came into effect, bringing an end to the fighting in the theatre.
Disbandment and perpetuation
After the conclusion of hostilities, the Australian Mounted Division undertook occupation duties in Tripoli, near the coast, until it returned to Egypt in early 1919. The brigade's individual regiments were used to quell unrest during the Egyptian revolt; commencing in March. The brigade continued patrols until late June 1919, when the troops were withdrawn from Zagazig back to Moascar for embarkation. The individual regiments embarked for Australia in early July. The horses remained behind due to cost and quarantine issues, and were either destroyed or undertook further service in Egypt or Syria.
Throughout late 1918 and early 1919, the process of demobilising the AIF continued, although this would not be complete until 1921. At this time, the militia formations that had remained in Australia for home service were reorganised to realign them with the recruitment areas that had contributed to the AIF regiments, and to replicate the AIF's organisational structure and designations. These formations had continued to exist alongside the AIF in Australia, albeit largely on paper only as they had been reduced significantly due to large-scale enlistment in the AIF, and a lack of funds and resources for training. By 1919, a 3rd Light Horse Brigade had been formed in the militia, consisting of the 6th (New South Wales Mounted Rifles), 16th (Hunter River Lancers), and 22nd Light Horse Regiments, which were based Orange, Maitland, and Bathurst, in New South Wales.
In the first couple of years after the war, plans were made to reorganise the home forces to meet the needs of peacetime while providing a strong base upon which to mobilise if necessary. By 1921, when the AIF was officially disbanded, plans were approved to raise two cavalry divisions, each of three brigades, utilising a mix of voluntary enlistment and compulsory service. At this time, the brigades were designated as cavalry brigades, rather than light horse brigades, and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade ceased to exist. Within the new structure, the 16th Light Horse Regiment became part of the 2nd Cavalry Brigade, while the 6th was assigned to the 4th Cavalry Brigade. The 22nd Light Horse was reconstituted in Tasmania as part of the 12th Mixed Brigade with its former personnel being used to raise the 1st and 21st Light Horse Regiments in its former locations.
Composition
During World War I, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade consisted of the following:
8th Light Horse Regiment
9th Light Horse Regiment
10th Light Horse Regiment
3rd Light Horse Machine Gun Squadron
3rd Light Horse Signal Troop
3rd Light Horse Field Ambulance
3rd Light Horse Brigade Train
8th Mobile Veterinary Section
1/1st Inverness-shire Battery (from the British IV Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery (T.F.)) (1916–1917)
1/1 Nottingham Battery (from the XIX Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery (T.F.)) (1917–1919)
3rd Light Horse Training Regiment
3rd Light Horse Double Squadron (1916)
Commanders
The following officers commanded the brigade during the war:
Brigadier General Frederic Godfrey Hughes: 17 October 1914 – 8 October 1915;
Brigadier General John MacQuarie Antill: 8 October 1915 – 8 August 1916;
Brigadier General John Robinson Royston: 8 August 1916 – 30 October 1917;
Brigadier General Lachlan Chisholm Wilson: 30 October 1917 – August 1919.
See also
1st Light Horse Brigade
2nd Light Horse Brigade
4th Light Horse Brigade
5th Light Horse Brigade
References
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Australian Light Horse Studies Centre
Kitchener Report, 1910, Australian National Archives
3rd Light Horse Brigade war diary, Australian War Memorial
Australian Light Horse
Military units and formations established in 1902
Military units and formations disestablished in 1921
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Antonio María de Oriol y Urquijo (1913–1996) was a Spanish politician and businessman. Politically he supported the Traditionalist cause, first as a Carlist militant and then as a Francoist official. In 1955–1977 he was a member of Cortes Españolas; in 1957–1965 he headed the welfare department in the Ministry of Interior; in 1965–1973 he served as the Minister of Justice; in 1973–1978 he was a member of the Council of the Realm and in 1973–1979 he presided over the Council of State. As businessman he was active in companies controlled by the Oriol family, holding executive positions in Iberdrola, Patentes Talgo and other entities.
Family and youth
Antonio Oriol was born to a family of Catalan origins, its first members noted in the history of Spain in the 17th century. Buenaventura Oriol Salvador sided with the legitimists during the First Carlist War. In recognition of his merits the claimant awarded him with Marquesado de Oriol in 1870; he was elected to the Cortes in 1872. The son of his brother and Antonio's paternal grandfather, José María Oriol Gordo (1845–1899), a native of Tortosa, joined Carlos VII during the Third Carlist War and served as Jefe de Ayudantes of general Dorregaray. Following the amnesty he settled in Bilbao and married descendant to a local high bourgeoisie Urigüen family. His son and Antonio's father, José Luis Oriol Urigüen (1877–1972), in the mid-1930s emerged as a Carlist political mogul in Álava. He wed Catalina de Urquijo y Vitórica, descendant to an oligarchic family which controlled much of the Biscay finance. In the early 20th century Oriol Urigüen replaced his father-in-law as CEO of Hidroeléctrica Española and later developed a number of other businesses; he is considered one of the most important Spanish entrepreneurs of the 20th century.
José Luis and Catalina initially lived in a family estate in Getxo, the affluent suburb of Bilbao and hub of the oligarchic Basque bourgeoisie; however, they soon moved to Madrid. The couple had 8 children, all brought up in great wealth but also in a fervently religious ambience; Antonio was born as the fourth son; he had also a younger brother. It is not clear whether like at least one of his older brothers, he frequented a Jesuit high school in the capital. At unspecified time though probably in the early 1930s he enrolled at Department of Law at the Madrid university and graduated in juridical sciences in 1935. He prepared to join the family business but did so no sooner that after the Civil War.
In 1940 Antonio Oriol married María de la Soledad Díaz de Bustamante y Quijano (died 1990). She descended from a wealthy Cantabrian family of entrepreneurs, though her father – who married into another industrial fortune - lived already in Madrid. The couple settled at the grand Oriol family estate near Majadahonda; it was shared with Antonio's brothers, two of them – Lucas and especially José María – growing to high Francoist officials and business tycoons. Antonio and Soledad had seven children; all the sons became high corporate executives, but they did not engage in politics. The daughter María married Miguel Primo de Rivera y Urquijo, grandson of the dictator and later one of key people behind the Spanish transition to democracy. Among 39 of Oriol's grandchildren the best known is Rocio Primo de Rivera Oriol, author of few fiction and history books; her brother Fernando gained attention in 2019 when claiming ducado de Primo de Rivera. Most of the grandchildren are well set in the world of Spanish societé and business; in 2020 the Oriol family clan was listed as the 180. richest family in Spain.
Early public engagements and civil war (before 1940)
Antonio's mother descended from a well known Basque family of liberal convictions, but four generations of his paternal ancestors were related to Traditionalism, even though his father adhered to a generic conservative monarchism and politically engaged in Carlism only in his 50s. Like his three older brothers, Antonio inherited legitmist preferences from forefathers and during his student years in Madrid he was active in the Carlist academic organisation, Agrupación Escolar Tradicionalista; none of the sources consulted provides information on any roles he might have performed. According to one author already in his teens he enlisted to the paramilitary Requeté organisation and remained involved in its ranks throughout all of the Republic years. Officially he was noted in the press as donating to Catholic charity and in secondary roles during some Carlist rallies in Madrid.
Oriol was engaged in Carlist anti-republican conspiracy of the spring of 1936. He was assigned to join the coup in Álava; on July 18 he hid in Palacio Verástegui in Vitoria. He planned to join the military, supposed to rise the following day. Indeed, the Vitoria-based sub-units of the 5. Mountain Regiment “Flandes” did rise and the city was swiftly seized by the rebels. Early Oriol's military assignment is not clear; it is known that in mid-September he served in requeté troops which took San Sebastián. Since later this month he was seconded to the 2. Requeté Company, incorporated into the 3. Battalion of the Flandes regiment; it was deployed North to Vitoria, in the mountain range which separated Alava from Western parts of Gipuzkoa, controlled by the loyalists. In October 1936 the unit took part in heavy fightings on the Isusquiza hill. Antonio was hit and taken to the rear; few days later on the same section his brother Fernando was mortally wounded.
Following recovery in November Oriol was seconded to the alferéz provisional course in Burgos; already as provisional lieutenant he joined the 2. Company, deployed to unblock encircled Villareal de Alava, in December. In the first half of 1937 the unit engaged in the Biscay campaign; shuttled to the central front it took part in the battle of Brunete in July. In September, renamed to 8. Compañía del Requeté de Alava, it was deployed in Cantabria; during later combat in Asturias Oriol was already commanding the 1. Section. Following the Northern campaign the company took part in victory parade in Vitoria, to be shuttled to Teruel by the end of 1937. Oriol was wounded for the second time near Mata de los Olmos in March 1938; treated in the hospital, he re-joined his unit in June at the Castellón front. He commanded the section during heavy fightings in Sierra de Pandols during the Battle of Ebro; the campaign earned him an individual Military Medal. In December 1938 the company was deployed in Huesca, to take part in the Catalonia offensive in early 1939. In March promoted to capitán de infantería, Oriol finished the war commanding his unit near Cartagena.
Businessman (1940–1955)
There is very little information on Oriol's engagements of the 1940s. It is known that unlike his older brother José María, who assumed major party and administrative posts of early Francoism, he did not engage in politics. Throughout most of the decade he stayed away from public sight and except family events, he was not noted in the press. He did not resume his pre-war Carlist engagements and is not mentioned by historiographic works dealing with Traditionalism of the so-called primer franquismo. According to few available sources he dedicated himself to family business and remained active in “various companies”, controlled by the Oriol oligarchy. It is not clear whether he lived in Madrid or elsewhere. In the mid-1940s he was noted as resident of the Cantabrian Santander; this was probably because of his role in executive board of VALCA, the Santander-based chemical company Sociedad Española de los Productos Fotográficos, founded by the Oriols and 3 other Basque families.
It seems that the key Oriol's business focus was on Tren Articulado Ligero Goicoechea Oriol (TALGO), the new manufacturing and transportation railway company launched by his father jointly with Alejandro Goicoechea in 1942. Since the mid-1940 it was already an exclusive family enterprise, but due to cash shortages and technological problems the company was struggling to launch large scale high-speed train services. As TALGO was unable to address production problems domestically, manufacturing was contracted in the United States. Oriol is known to have spent some time in New York, where he signed a contract with American Car and Foundry and supervised production of locomotives and the rolling stock for the train known as Talgo II.
In 1950 Oriol ascended to Chief Executive Officer of TALGO; the company figured prominently in the official propaganda, expected to demonstrate robustness of the industry and modernizing capacity of the regime. Apart from developing production, his other major task was closing negotiations with RENFE over usage of the state railway network; in 1950 the first commercial service was launched between Madrid and Hendaye. The Oriols were not happy with the arrangement and complained about their limited say on timetables and routes. In 1953 the contract was re-negotiated and concluded on the entirely new basis; TALGO was manufacturing and maintaining trains, operated by state railways as RENFE property. The new arrangement allowed the company to repay bank loans and stimulated further development; in the 1950s TALGO trains were already serving at a number of national routes. Oriol stepped down from chairmanship in the mid-1950s, reportedly to assume political jobs. However, he entered the new Comité de Gerencia of the company.
Welfare and Social Works (1955–1965)
In 1955 Oriol was nominated to the FET Consejo Nacional, which ensured his place in the Francoist quasi-parliament, Cortes Españolas. Exact mechanism of his elevation is not clear, though it was part of a wider political change; it came simultaneously with rise of his two brothers, since Lucas took his Cortes ticket as representative of syndicates and José María as personal Franco's appointee. At unspecified time in the mid-1950s Oriol was appointed also FET's Delegado Nacional de Auxilio Social and became president of Cruz Roja Española. In early 1957 he was nominated Director General of Beneficiancia y Obras Sociales, the department of welfare located within the Ministry of Interior structures. None of the sources consulted clarifies Oriol's rapid ascent, though there is little doubt that he owed his position in the ministry to acquaintance with Camilo Alonso Vega, who himself had assumed the Interior just one month earlier; during the war years Alonso was Oriol's direct military superior.
Following minor administrative re-adjustments the focus of the department was on re-shaping the social security framework. Until the late 1950s it operated in residual mode, related to various administrative bodies; the system was non-coordinated and calibrated to meet basic requirements. Since 1959 it got formatted as modern state welfare system. In 1960 it was based on newly created Fondo Nacional de Asistencia Social and few other funds; they were included in standard budgetary provisions, while freshly set up Juntas Provinciales de Beneficiencia reported to civil governors. The system was enhanced with further regulations, issued either as ministerial decrees or as official legislation. The regular social security scheme was complete with Ley de Bases de la Seguridad Social, adopted in 1963. It introduced two modes of social security, “protección básica” and “protección complementaria”. As a consequence, the Francoist social security scheme started to resemble these of most Western European countries. A present-day historiographer summarizes the evolution as migration from “Beneficiencia del Estado” to the “Asistencia Social” pattern; another one claims that it moved from a heterogeneous “sistema de Seguros Sociales” to an integrated “sistema de Seguridad Social”. It is not clear how much credit for modernization of the system should be given to Oriol personally.
In the press of the era Oriol was noted during typical official ceremonies, e.g. opening of hospitals or child care centers, inspecting local welfare administration or commencing various specific campaigns – e.g. the 1963 one against illiteracy – of the Spanish Red Cross. Though he did not take part in big politics, in 1957 together with numerous offshoot Carlists he visited the Alfonsist claimant in his Estoril residence and declared him the legitimate Traditionalist heir; since then he cautiously promoted the Juanista case. He also tried to counter advances of the Javierista Carlists, even though he openly admitted own Carlist credentials. Because of this at times he could have run into problems with more zealous Falangists like Fernando Herrero Tejedor; however, he was careful that ultimately, the Traditionalist identity did not stand in the way of his career.
Minister of Justice (1965–1973)
In 1965 Oriol was nominated Minister of Justice, since 1938 the office held mostly by Traditionalists. Oriol's appointment was part of Franco's balancing game; in this case, ministers related to ACNDP and Carlism provided counter-weight to these associated with Opus Dei. His first main project was work on the 1966-adopted Ley Orgánica del Estado, major legislation which produced systematization and clarification of existing arrangements with minor reforms introduced; Oriol endorsed it claiming that the regime was in constant evolution.
A key thread of Oriol's work was dealing with Church issues. From the onset busy with religious affairs, he co-ordinated work on the law on religious liberty. The draft generated great tension especially among the Traditionalists; Oriol claimed the project complied with key civil rights but did not dismantle Catholic unity; the law was eventually passed in 1967. Since the late 1960s he was involved in negotiations of a new concordat, a thorny issue related to increasingly anti-Francoist position of the Spanish Church. He opposed changes advocated by the Vatican which would diminish official state prerogatives; following unsuccessful attempt to push through an own project in 1970, he officially hailed the existing regulations; confidential negotiations went on, but bore no fruit. Another religion-related issue was the rising number of priests charged with political offences. In 1968 Oriol set up a prison in Zamora, intended only for the religious. In the 1970s he was increasingly involved in hardly veiled propaganda war with the hierarchy; he admitted some unease about Zamora, but still presented it as a model solution. At the same time he voiced against “Marxist infiltration” among the clergy, demonstrated outrage at public statements of some hierarchs and took some religious appointments as personal insult.
As minister Oriol presided over continuous relaxation of the penal policy. He declared that Spain “had the second lowest prison population in the world” after the Netherlands. The number of inmates kept going down, paired with decreasing number of death penalties carried out; over 10 years there were 13 executions and 19 cases of clemency. However, in the early 1970s Oriol admitted to 3,000 political prisoners; they were all subject to amnesty of 1971. During his tenure he was also responsible for adoption of Ley Orgánica de la Justicia y de los Códigos Procesales Civil y Penal, the legislation which partially reformed and consolidated the civil and penal codes.
When summarizing his tenure some historians consider him “more of a technocrat than a politician”. Indeed, he is not mentioned as major protagonist of power struggle within the Francoist regime of the era; however, he enjoyed personal confidence of Franco and was in position to mount own personal intrigues. He confronted Javierista maneuvers. In his capacity of minister he denied Spanish citizenship to Don Javier and tried to marginalize independent Carlism, claiming that all Traditionalists sided with the regime; he earned virulent hostility of the Carlist youth in return. His monarchist efforts were crowned when in 1969 Don Juan Carlos was officially declared the future king.
Council of State: twilight of the regime (1973–1975)
In July 1973 Oriol left the Ministry of Justice when nominated by Franco to Consejo de Estado, a high consultative body. At the same he assumed its presidency, which in turn ensured seat in Consejo del Reino, another council with some personal prerogatives; he became one of the highest-positioned carlo-francoists. None of the sources consulted clarifies whether the nominations were a step forward or a step back in Oriol's career; he abandoned the office which guaranteed real power to take seats in prestigious, but largely ceremonial and decorative bodies. It is neither clear whether Oriol's move should be associated with death of another Carlist Joaquín Bau, whose passing away in May vacated both seats, or rather was related to Carrero Blanco forming his own, the first non-Franco-led government in June. Oriol retained his seat in the Cortes, doubly eligible by virtue of membership in the Falangist Consejo Nacional and due to presidency in Consejo de Estado.
For Oriol the years of 1973-1975 were a string of visits, lectures, sittings and other events, associated with officialdom related to presidency of Consejo de Estado and membership in Consejo del Reino; they were dutifully reported in the press. They carried little of political substance; when speaking, Oriol declared faith in resilience of the Francoist system and seemed not to have noticed the apparent dramatic decline in Franco's health. Some of his addresses contained veiled references to understanding among all Spaniards and phrases which renounced division into the victors and the vanquished. Many of his statements pointed to Don Juan Carlos as the key person for the future, though some advanced ambiguous comments as to the role of the military.
During the last years of Francoism Oriol emerged as supporter of “asociaciones políticas”, a long-discussed concept supposed to enable institutionalization of political factions. Himself he tried to build a pro-regime Traditionalist grouping; as early as in 1972 he participated in buildup of Hermandad de Maestrazgo, originally an ex-requeté society designed as pro-Juan-Carlos “primera organización monárquica” and intended to attract a broader spectrum of politicians. He then switched to another project, not based on the ex-combatant platform but assuming a more typical political shape; it was also founded on Traditionalist principles. In 1974 Oriol was seen on traditional Carlist feast, and in early 1975 he tried to organize a “Traditionalist summit”. Following adoption of new legislation on political associations, in mid-1975 the organization eventually materialized as Union Nacional Española with Oriol as one of its leaders. It grouped either Carlists who had amalgamated into Francoism during earlier decades or other regime politicians who hoped that the monarchy of Juan Carlos would ensure continuity of the system, possibly with some minor rectifications.
Council of State: transición (1975–1979)
Following the crowning of Don Juan Carlos Oriol assisted the new king in his personal maneuvers, aimed at consolidating power in hands of more liberal politicians. Though in December 1975 he declared the Francoist system well-organized, in April 1976 he admitted that “Francoism could not operate without Franco”; however, he imagined the change as evolution and not a rupture. He voiced against the perspective of a multi-party regime and envisioned the reform as building the system of associations, operating within Movimiento. He was very active in development of UNE structures, in April 1976 emerging as president of its Consejo Asesor. Some viewed Oriol as representative of hardline post-Francoist “búnker”; in reply he confirmed his commitment to evolution and hostility to fundamental changes. He called the Arias government not to deal with individuals seeking system breakup and demonstrated his allegiance to the memory of Franco. In May 1976 Oriol jointly with hardline Traditionalists and possibly in collusion with security services co-engineered an operation aimed at blocking the Hugocarlista rally at Montejurra; it left 2 progressist militants dead.
In June 1976 Oriol cautiously adhered to suggestions of some reformers and contributed to appointment of Adolfo Suarez as the new prime minister. He kept opposing legalization of political parties and insisted on allegiance to the Movimiento principles; he tried to shape the draft electoral law accordingly. However, in November 1976 and unlike his brother José María, Oriol voted in favor of Ley para la Reforma Política, dubbed “suicide of the Francoist Cortes”. As it turned out that his membership in Consejo del Reino was not legally compatible with position in the UNE executive he resigned the latter.
In December 1976 Oriol, as president of Consejo de Estado theoretically the 4th person of the kingdom, was kidnapped by a Marxist terrorist organization GRAPO. His captors declared him an iconic Francoist responsible for repressive legislation and demanded exchange for left-wing political prisoners. The abduction triggered speculation that the government was losing control and the country might slip into the unknown. However, following two months in captivity, on February 11, 1977 Oriol was rescued by Spanish security forces in a raid at a GRAPO hideout in Alcorcon.
As the last Francoist Cortes was dissolved in 1977, Oriol lost his procurador mandate. Possibly involved in leading UNE into Alianza Popular, he did not take part in the June elections to the constituent assembly. At the time he was getting increasingly sidetracked and his activity throughout 1977 and 1978 was mostly about official but politically irrelevant duties of two Councils he used to sit in; also his public statements demonstrated increasing detachment and veiled disappointment. He lost his seat in Council of the Realm when the institution was abolished by the new constitution in 1978; having reached the regular retirement age Oriol ceased as president and member of Consejo de Estado in 1979. Against the rising tide he kept demonstrating reverence to Franco and attended numerous commemorative and homage post-Francoist rallies, as prestigious guest taking part also in religious, local, or other ceremonies.
Retirement (after 1979)
Having lost all seats in party and state structures in 1979 Oriol became a political retiree. However, he remained engaged in ex-combatant organization and in 1980 acted as president during the congress of Derecha Democrática Española, a short-lived centre-right amalgam. Some historians claim he was active behind the scenes when mounting “operación De Gaulle”, allegedly a plan to topple Suarez and replace him with a military leader; Oriol was reportedly “centro neurálgico de la conspiración”. In aftermath of the failed coup d’état of 1981 some media identified him as political sponsor of Antonio Tejero; Oriol sued them for libel. Others speculated that with Oriol's record of longtime promoter and supporter of Juan Carlos, his taking part in the conspiracy was unlikely.
In the 1980s Oriol appeared in public in relation to various post-Francoist events, never missing during anniversary rallies commemorating Franco's death or attending funerals of other regime officials; he also acted as vicepresidente segundo of Fundación Francisco Franco. As president of Hermandad de Alféreces Provisionales in 1985 he protested against anti-Franco harangues of some state officials, deemed to “break the national harmony”; in a 1986 declaration he professed “la idea de la reconciliación que habría de presidir el futuro de la Patria” and voiced against “revancha que algunos sectores de España pretenden renovar”. In 1987 Oriol seemed supportive of Blas Piñar's idea of building a political right-wing “acción organizada”, but in the late 1980s he was not reported as adhering to the Piñar-led Frente Nacional. Rather seldom he appeared in the media, e.g. when noted for legal action of ex-Francoist ministers who sued for alleged pension irregularities or when interviewed on TV.
Oriol remained in executive bodies of various companies related to the family business conglomerate; they included Argón, Compañía Minero-Metalúrgica Los Guindos, Electra de Viesgo, Electricista Alcoyana, Fuerzas Eléctricas del Noroeste, Iberdrola, Patentes Talgo, and Vidrieras de Llodio. At some opportunities he appeared in public, e.g. when opening the Madrid-Paris TALGO connection. He started to withdraw from commercial engagements in the late 1980s; he resigned his key post in the board of Iberdrola in 1990, replaced by own son. In the 1990s Oriol was recorded in public only in relation to his presidency of Confederación de Combatientes and Hermandad Nacional de Alféreces Provisionales ex-combatant organizations. Though at that time he was in conflict with Blas Piñar, some of their rallies managed to attract significant crowds. His death was noted in most nationwide press titles; some adhered to respectful tone and e.g. listed his numerous decorations, some repeated speculations about his alleged involvement in the 1981 plot and some merely re-printed standard news agency messages.
See also
Carlism
Carlo-francoism
Traditionalism (Spain)
Francoism
Jose Maria de Oriol y Urquijo
Jose Luis de Oriol y Uriguen
Footnotes
Further reading
Alfonso Ballestero, José Ma de Oriol y Urquijo, Madrid 2014, , 9788483569160
External links
Isuskitza: la colina de la sangre, Carlist account of the Isusquiza battle
Oriol at Aunamendi Eusko Entziklopedia online
Oriol's record at the official Cortes service
Oriol as Council of State president at No-Do footage of 1969
footage of Oriol as "first notary of state" during Juan Carlos' designation of 1969 (2:50 to 3:30)
20th-century Spanish businesspeople
20th-century Spanish lawyers
Carlists
Complutense University of Madrid alumni
Crosses of Military Merit
FET y de las JONS politicians
Francoist Spain
Justice ministers of Spain
Kidnapped people
Members of paramilitary organizations
Members of the Cortes Españolas
Missing person cases in Spain
Order of Civil Merit members
People from Getxo
Red Cross personnel
Spanish business executives
Spanish military personnel of the Spanish Civil War (National faction)
Spanish rebels
Spanish Roman Catholics
Talgo
Spanish people of Catalan descent
Politicians from Madrid
Businesspeople from Madrid
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Eblaite (, also known as Eblan ISO 639-3), or Palaeo-Syrian, is an extinct East Semitic language used during the 3rd millennium BCE by the populations of Northern Syria. It was named after the ancient city of Ebla, in modern western Syria. Variants of the language were also spoken in Mari and Nagar. According to Cyrus H. Gordon, although scribes might have spoken it sometimes, Eblaite was probably not spoken much, being rather a written lingua franca with East and West Semitic features.
The language was discovered through cuneiform tablets found in Ebla.
Discovery
The 1964 discovery at the Tell Mardikh site in Northern Syria of an ancient city from the second half of the third millennium BCE completely altered archeological knowledge of the time, as it indicated the existence of a contemporary urban culture during the Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia, within a geographic zone where, at the time, previous excavations had revealed nothing on the same scale.
In agreement with Ignace Gelb's theories on the subject of all inhabited centers in Syria of the same era, it appeared that the Tell Mardikh civilization's cultural identity did not necessarily fall within the Semitic family. However, in 1968, the discovery at the same site of a statue bearing an ancient Akkadian inscription, mentioning the king Ibbit-Lim of Ebla, soon contradicted this hypothesis. It therefore became possible not only to identify this city as the ancient city of Ebla, referred to in numerous Mesopotamian and Egyptian sources, but additionally, considering the strong linguistic connotations of the king's name, to specify the identity as Amorite. It became necessary, however, to revise these conclusions again, after the 1974 discovery in the ancient ruins of a Bronze Age palace (2400-2225 BCE) of 42 cuneiform tablets, then of 17,000 others the following year, revealing a language which had nothing in common with Amorite, which used archaic morphological characters present in Akkadian, with incontestable lexical similarities to West Semitic languages such as Hebrew or Aramaic. Excavations were directed by Professor Paolo Matthiae and the inscriptions translated by Giovanni Pettinato.
This opposition between a West Semitic lexicon and an Akkadian morphology led to the increase of discussions and controversies surrounding the nature of this language. For P. Fronzaroli, this opposition would indicate an Akkadian dialect which had undergone a strong Western influence. On the other hand, Giovanni Garbini favored nuancing this approach, drawing attention to the fragility of a comparison with Akkadian that is too narrow, pointing out that there is no other contemporary model with which to draw comparisons. In his "Considerations on the Language of Ebla," he highlighted the artificial character of this opposition between morphology and lexicon, considering that "Akkadian differs from Western Semitic as we knew it hitherto because the latter was documented only on the phase following Amorite innovation. If it is traced back to the time before these innovations, a northwestern pre-Amorite Semitic begins to emerge, which is concordant with Akkadian just because the latter preserved its earlier characters after Amorite invasion". Essentially basing his study on the lexicon, G. Pettinato was nevertheless the first to announce in 1975 the discovery of a new Semitic language, to which he gave the name "Paleo-Canaanite." Though the scientific community was in favor of accepting this idea, they were not unanimous regarding Pettinato's proposed name. In fact, while indicating advantageously its similarity to Hebrew, Ugaritic, or Phoenician, the name proved nevertheless incapable of indicating its morphological roots in East Semitic languages. G. Garbini then proposed the term "Paleo-Syrian," but again, this proved just as inadequate to convey the Mesopotamian particularities and was not accepted. Therefore, without a name to fit this new language's different linguistic characteristics, "Eblaite" was finally chosen.
Nature of the documents
Of the Eblaite corpus, whose publication began in 1974 as stated above, the majority of discovered documents are administrative or economic in nature, along with about a hundred historical tablets as well as some scholastic writings: lexicons, syllabaries, or bilingual texts. To this list, we must also add a few rare literary texts: fragments of myths, epics, hymns, proverbs, as well as some documents for conjuration.
From a linguistic perspective, although a great number of these documents were effectively written in Sumerian, a rather large portion of these only used the language ideogrammatically, as confirmed by certain Semitic elements added to the Sumerograms - such as morphological markers, suffix pronouns, or certain prepositions - which reveal an underlying language distinct from Sumerian.in U4 DINGIR a-mu-su3 NIDBA
"the day when the god of his father had his festival"Such writing practices obviously made approaching Eblaite difficult. Fortunately, some rare documents, bilingual letters or tablets, mostly written syllabically, enabled the breaking down of this graphical barrier and the clarification of our knowledge of this language.
Of course if we add to this collection the onomastic material, which in Semitic languages typically consists of short sentences, the portion of the Eblaite corpus that is usable from a linguistic perspective remains relatively narrow and limited from a morphological, syntactical, or lexical point of view.
The graphical barrier and writing practices
The main difficulty faced by those studying the language of Ebla arose largely from issues in the writing system. Indeed, Eblaite shares its cuneiform writing system with the Sumerian, Akkadian, Hittite, Hurrian, and Elamite languages, a graphical system where each symbol may have collectively or separately an ideogrammatic and/or phonetic value. In the first case, the symbol or chain of symbols simply signifies an idea that is understandable by way of its Sumerian meaning; in the second case, the symbol indicates, with a more-or-less large approximation based on writing practices, the form of an Eblaite term following a principle of syllabic decomposition.
The comparative study of Eblaite symbols reveals some differences with the systems used by other schools of scribes. On the other hand, the Eblaite syllabary, without being identical, bears significant similarities with that of the ancient Akkadian used in Kish during the Early Dynastic Period (DA II).
In fact, three transcription practices appear in the Ebla texts: one exclusively syllabic, another using both syllabism and ideography, and the last largely employing the ideographic principle. Included in the first category is mostly the incantatory texts and the writing of anthroponyms; in the second, the epistolary, historical, and literary documents, not to mention some diplomatic texts; and in the third, economic and administrative texts, relating to the management and stewardship of the palace where ideography is a sufficient system for the writing of realia. Qualitatively and quantitatively, this situation entirely resembles that of the Mesopotamian corpus.
The small portion of syllabic documents, compared to the large quantity of texts written using Sumerian logograms, had led G. Pettinato to consider, at first, that these documents were written in Sumerian. Such a hypothesis obviously no longer holds today with regard to our understanding of the writing and formulation practices particular to Sumerian and Eblaite scribes. These graphical conventions are so specific that they are very often sufficient to identify the language underlying the ideograms. Thus, for example, the Sumerian practice of writing filiation following the formula X DUMU Y ("X son of Y") stands out from the Akkadian and Eblaite practice which prefers the phrasing X DUMU.NITA Y.
However, if, as we just saw, we can identify a signified of Semitic origin beneath a Sumerogram, it remains difficult to extract its signifier. Fortunately, the restoration of phonetic values to these symbols has been made possible by the existence of bilingual lexical lists, where each Sumerian ideogram has its Eblaite form specified in a glossary using syllabic writing.
Even when the phonetic value of the word is specified, a whole series of semantic problems remains, still obstructing our understanding. For example, when an Eblaite scribe uses the symbol LUGAL meaning "king" in Sumerian, he transcribes it with its Akkadian value šarrum but translates it as "dignitary." This simple example shows the gaps in interpretation that may result from reading Eblaite symbols while only considering their Sumerian values.
As for the strictly syllabic system of writing, it is not free of issues either. The rarity of Vowel + Consonant -type symbols (VC) require certain approximations in the transcription of words. Thus we find the term ʾummum "mother" syllabically rendered as u3-mu-mu. Additionally, while Sumerian sometimes proceeds morphologically by reduplication of a word to make it plural, Eblaite reuses this practice with the same meaning, but transforming it into a simple graphical signified. In this way we find forms along the lines of nasi11-nasi11 to write the plural of nas11 "the people." Furthermore it is not uncommon that the writing presents a defective character, where all the morphological markers are not indicated: ḫa-za-an šu-ba-ti = *ḫazānum yimḫur "the mayor takes it."
To these issues we can also add those connected with the intrinsic limits of the Sumerian writing system, incapable of rendering a portion of Semitic languages' phonological system. As Diakonoff specifies, the Sumerian system is organized upon a tense~lax opposition and can only with great difficulty render the voiced~unvoiced opposition as well as the emphatics of Semitic languages. Thus we find the syllables /da/, /ṭa/, and /ta/ transcribed with the same symbol DA, as well as the syllables /gu/, /ku/, and /qu/ with the same symbol GU.
For the same reasons, it is equally impossible for the Sumerian writing system to render the laryngeals and pharyngeals of Eblaite. However, to overcome these difficulties, they used - just like ancient Akkadian - graphical conventions such as the use of the symbols E and MA to render the phonemes /ḥ/ or /ʿ/, or else by playing on syllabic symbols which end in the vowel /e/, which is nothing but the vocalic trace of one of the two preceding articulations.
Additionally, as shown by the written forms la-ḫa for /laḫān/ or ba-da-a for /baytay/ for example, the phonemes /w/, /y/, /m/, and /n/ are not rendered graphically in the final or initial position. Taking these two examples again, notice that, for one, the quantity of the vowels is not rendered by the writing (the form da-za-a for /taṣṣaʾā/ "they will go out" shows us that double consonants face the same fate) and secondly, that the vowel /a/ is used equally to represent the syllables /ʾa/, /ya/, and /ay/.
Phonological system
As shown above, the difficulties with reading Eblaite texts complicate approaching its phonological system.
Studying the usage context for the symbols I, I2, A, ʾA, ḪA, etc. with regard to the writing conventions of Akkadian scribes enabled the determination, beyond some identification difficulties created by the graphical barrier, of "the existence and autonomy of the phonemes /h/, /ḥ/, and /ḫ/ confirmed by the realization of the vowel /a/ as [ɛ] in the closed syllables /ḥaC/ and /ʾaC/, as well as the tendency to extend this phenomenon to the vowel /a/ followed by a pharyngeal. It is currently lacking the elements to determine the existence of a phoneme /ġ/ or a variant [ġ]."
Also through a contextual analysis of the symbols z + Vowel (V): ze2, s + V: se11, š + V, Pelio Fronzaroli confirmed the existence of the phonemes /s/, /ṣ/, /ḍ/, and /ẓ/, as well as the phonemes /s/, /š/, and /ṯ/, a group to which it is perhaps also necessary to add /z/.
As for the existence of diphthongs, this remains questionable. The diphthong /ay/ seems to be conserved in Eblaite as illustrated by the form /ʿayn-ʿayn/ tho it is still preseved in other semitic languages which have lost the diphthong. However, the reality of this phoneme is heavily discussed by I. Gelb: "The main difference between Fronzaroli's treatment of the diphthong /aj/ at Ebla and mine is that Fronzaroli believes (...) that the original diphthong /aj/ was preserved in Eblaite (even though not written), while I take it to have developed to /ā/."
Here we should also highlight the issue of the unstable realization of liquids with the alternation of /r/ and /l/. I. Gelb speculated two reasons for this phenomenon: "If the weakness of the r / l phoneme (which is amply exemplified at Ebla) should be considered as an indication of the Hurrian influence on Eblaic phonology, then we should note that this feature is characteristic not only of Hurrian (and other languages in the general area), but also of Egyptian, and may therefore be either a surviving feature of the Semito-Hamitic (or Afro-Asiatic) or a cross-linguistic areal feature."
Pronominal system
Eblaite has two forms of personal pronouns: independent and suffix. Additionally, the texts have also revealed a determinative pronominal form as well as interrogative forms. The epigraphical material does not always allow a complete reconstruction of the paradigms, and the gaps must be filled on the basis of linguistic comparisons as well as internal reconstitutions that take the language's own structures into account.
Special forms for the masculine second and third person accusative and dative:
Determinative pronouns
Interrogative pronouns
Indefinite pronouns
Nominal system
Eblaite presents a nominal system that is comparable to that of Akkadian and whose traces are found in certain Semitic languages. In particular, there are three inflectional categories: gender, with masculine and feminine forms; number, with singular, dual, and plural; and finally case, covering both syntactical relationships like the nominative, accusative, and genitive cases, but also more concrete relationships like the dative and locative cases. This organization of the nominal morphology was likely that of all Semitic languages until the first millennium BCE. Today, only Arabic retains the trace of it.
Noun declension
Verbal system
Eblaite's verbal system follows the same structure as that of other Semitic languages, where the paradigmatic framework is organized based upon a double axis: the derivational axis, within which the verb's basic form goes through a certain number of modifications, and the inflectional axis, where the verb takes on an aspectual, personal, or modal value through a system of suffixation and prefixation.
Classification
Eblaite has been described as an East Semitic language or a North Semitic language; scholars notice the great affinity between Eblaite and pre-Sargonic Akkadian and debate the relation between the two.
North Semitic classification
Edward Lipiński, noting that in the third millennium BC, there was no clear border between East Semitic languages and West Semitic languages, calls Eblaite a Paleo Syrian language and explains the similarities with Akkadian by the use of the same system of writing borrowed from Sumer. Lipiński separates Eblaite from Akkadian, assigning the latter to the East Semitic languages while classifying Eblaite with Amorite and Ugaritic into a grouping he names the North Semitic languages.
East Semitic classification
Scholars such as Richard I. Caplice, Ignace Gelb and John Huehnergard, have the view that Eblaite is an East Semitic language not to be seen as an early Akkadian dialect, because the differences with other Akkadian dialects are considerable.
Manfred Krebernik says that Eblaite "is so closely related to Akkadian that it may be classified as an early Akkadian dialect", although some of the names that appear in the tablets are Northwest Semitic.
Eblaite is considered by the East-Semitic classification supporters as a language which exhibits both West-Semitic and East-Semitic features. Grammatically, Eblaite is closer to Akkadian, but lexically and in some grammatical forms, Eblaite is closer to West-Semitic languages.
References and notes
Bibliography
Alfonso Archi 1987. “ Ebla and Eblaite ” in Eblaitica : Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language. Publications of the Center for Ebla Research at New York University. Vol no 1 edited by C. Gordon. Eisenbrauns, p. 7–17
A. Cagni 1981. La lingua di Ebla, Atti del convegno internazionale (Napoli, 21-23 Aprile 1980). Istituto universitario orientale, Series Minor XIV, Naples.
R. Caplice 1981. “Eblaite and Akkadian” in La lingua di Ebla, Atti del convegno internazionale (Napoli, 21-23 Aprile 1980). Istituto universitario orientale, Series Minor XIV, Naples. p. 161–164
K. Cathart 1984. “The Language of Ebla” in Proceeding of Irish Biblical Association (I.B.A.) no 8, edited by A. D. H. Mayes. Dublin. p. 49–56
M. Civil 1984. “Bilingualism in logographically written languages : Sumerian in Ebla” in Il Bilinguismo a Ebla, Atti del convegni internazionale (Napoli 19-22 aprile 1982) a cura di Luigi Cagni, Naples, p. 75–97
G. Conti 1984. “Arcaismi in Eblaita” in Studies on the language of Ebla. Edited by Pelio Fronzaroli. Quaderni di Semitica no 13. Istituto di Linguistica e di Lingue orientali, Universita di Firenze. Florence. p. 159–172
M. Dahood 1981. “The linguistic classification of Eblait” in La lingua di Ebla, Atti del convegno internazionale (Napoli, 21-23 Aprile 1980). Istituto universitario orientale, Series Minor XIV, Naples. p. 177–179
I. Diakonoff 1984. “An evaluation of Eblaite” in Studies on the langage of Ebla. Edited by Pelio Fronzaroli. Quaderni di Semitica no 13. Istituto di Linguistica e di Lingue orientali, Universita di Firenze. Florence. p. 1–10
Igor Diakonoff 1990. “The importance of Ebla for History and Linguistics” in Eblaitica, Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language. Vol n°2, edited by Cyrus Gordon, Winona Lake, Indiana. pp. 3–29
P. Fronzaroli 1977. “L’interferenza linguistica nella Siria settentrionale del III milenio” in Interferenza linguistica, Atti del convegno della Societa di Glottologia. Perugia p. 27–43
P. Fronzaroli 1978. “La contribution de la langue d’Ebla à la connaissance du sémitique archaïque” in (C.R.R.A.) no 25 p. 27–43
P. Fronzaroli 1979. “Problemi di fonetica eblaita” in Studi Eblaitica no 1. Rome p. 64–89
P. Fronzaroli 1982. “Per una valutazione della morphologia eblaita” in Studi Eblaiti no 5. Rome p. 95 120
P. Fronzaroli 1984. “The Eblaic Lexicon : Problems and Apparaisal” in Studies on the langage of Ebla. Edited by Pelio Fronzaroli. Quaderni di Semitica no 13. Istituto di Linguistica e di Lingue orientali, Universita di Firenze. Florence. p. 117–157
G. Garbini 1984. “La lingua di Ebla” in Le lingue semitiche, Studi di Storia linguistica. Istituto universitario Orientale, Series Minor XX. Naples. p. 65–78
I. J. Gelb 1958. “La lingua degli Amoriti” in Atti della Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Rendiconti morali, Serie VIII, vol n°XIII fasc. 3-4, p. 143–164
I. J. Gelb 1961 a. Old akkadian writing and Grammar. Material for the Assyrian dictionary no 2, second édition, revised and enlarged. Chicago.
I. J. Gelb 1961 b. “The Early History of West Semitic Peoples” in Journal of Cuneiform Studies no 15, p. 27–47
I. J. Gelb 1977. “Thought about Ibla, A preliminary Evaluation," March 1977 in Monographic Journals of the Near East, Syro-Mesopotamian Studies I/1, pp. 3–30
I. J. Gelb 1981. “ Ebla and the Kish civilisation” in La lingua di Ebla, Atti del convegno internazionale (Napoli, 21-23 Aprile 1980). Istituto universitario orientale, Series Minor XIV, Naples. pp. 9–73
Cyrus Gordon 1990. “Eblaite and Northwest Semitic” in Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language. Publications of the Center for Ebla Research at New York University. Vol n°2 edited by C. Gordon. Eisenbrauns, pp. 127–139
C. Gordon 1991. “Eblaite” in Semitic Studies in honor of Wolf Leslau, On the occasion of his eighty-fyfth birthday. Vol n°1, edited by Alan S. Kaye, Wiesbaden. pp. 550–557
C. Gordon 1997. "Amorite and Eblaite," The Semitic Languages. Ed. Robert Hetzron. New York: Routledge.
J. Huenergard, 2004. "Akkadian and Eblaite" in R. Woodard The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Cambridge.
E. Knudsen 1982. “An analysis of Amorite, A review article”, in Journal of Cuneiform Studies. Vol no 34 / 1-2, Philadelphia. p. 1–18
E. Knudsen 1991. “Amorite Grammar, A comparative statement” in Semitic Studies in honor of Wolf Leslau, On the occasion of his eighty-fyfth birthday. Vol no 1, edited by Alan S. Kaye, Wiesbaden. p. 866–885
Manfred Krebernik. 1996. "The Linguistic Classification of Eblaite: Methods, Problems, and Results." In The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-First Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference (eds. J.S. Cooper – G.M. Schwartz), pp. 233–249.
W. Lambert 1981. “The Language of Ebla and Akkadian” in La lingua di Ebla, Atti del convegno internazionale (Napoli, 21-23 Aprile 1980). Istituto universitario orientale, Series Minor XIV, Naples. p. 155–160
E. Lipinsky 1981. “Formes verbales dans les noms propres d’Ebla et le système verbal sémitique” in La lingua di Ebla, Atti del convegno internazionale (Napoli, 21-23 Aprile 1980). Istituto universitario orientale, Series Minor XIV, Naples. p. 191–210
M. Liverani 1965. Missione Archeologica Italiana in Siria 1964. Rome
H.-P. Müller 1984. “Neue Erwägungen zum eblaitischen verbalsystem” in Il Bilinguismo a Ebla, Atti del convegni internazionale (Napoli 19-22 aprile 1982) a cura di Luigi Cagni, Naples, p. 167–204.
R. Mugnaioni 2000. "À propos de la langue d’Ebla" in Travaux 16 – La sémitologie aujourd’hui, Cercle de Linguistique d’Aix-en-Provence, Centre des sciences du langage, p. 33-56.
G. Pettinato 1970. “L’inscription de Ibbit-Lim roi d’Ebla” in A.A.A.S. p. 19–22
G. Pettinato 1972. "L’Inscription de Ibbit-Lim roi d’Ebla” in Missione Archeologica Italiana in Siria 1967-1968. Rome.
G. Pettinato 1975. “Testi cuneiformi del 3° millenio in paleo-cananeo rinvenuti nelle campagna 1974 a Tell Mardikh-Ebla" in Orientalia n°44, pp. 361–374
G. Pettinato 1979. Catalogo dei testi cuneiformi di Tell Mardikh in M.E.E.
K. Petracek 1984. “Les catégories flexionnelles en éblaïtes” in Studies on the Language of Ebla. Quaderni di Semitistica n°13, édité par P. Fronzaroli. Florence, pp. 24–57
G. Rubio 2006. "Eblaite, Akkadian, and East Semitic." In The Akkadian Language in its Semitic Context (ed. N.J.C. Kouwenberg and G. Deutscher. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten), pp. 110–139.
W. von Soden 1995: Grundriß der akkadischen Grammatik, 3. ergänzte Auflage. Analecta Oientalia no 33, Rome.
External links
Eblaitica vol.2 at Google Books
Eblaitica vol.4 at Google Books
Ebla
East Semitic languages
Cuneiform
Languages attested from the 3rd millennium BC
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Radu D. Rosetti or Rossetti (December 13 or December 18, 1874 – 1964) was a Romanian poet, playwright, and short story writer, also distinguished as an attorney and activist. The son of playwright-aristocrat Dimitrie Rosetti-Max and nephew of Titu Maiorescu, he had a troubled and rebellious youth, but kept company with senior literary figures such as Ion Luca Caragiale. Graduating from the University of Bucharest at age 26, he was already a successful poet of neoromantic sensibilities, a published translator of plays and novels, and also famous for his unhappy marriage to the literary critic Elena Bacaloglu. He then switched to writing social-themed plays and stories of his professional life, earning a high profile as a defender of left-wing causes. From ca. 1913, Rosetti was also the public face of cremation activism, engaged in public polemics with the Romanian Orthodox Church.
Although an artillery officer stationed in Chitila, Rosetti was mostly active during World War I as a patriotic orator and propagandist, later returning to his work at the Ilfov County bar association. During the interwar, he maintained contact with both the socialists and the "cremationists", but grew more conservative and passéist. This attitude consolidated his success as the author of memoirs. Largely forgotten in his old age, he withdrew to a garret.
Biography
Early years
The future poet was born in Bucharest into the boyar Rosetti family. His grandfather was a Wallachian statesman, Aga Radu Rosetti, who headed the National Theater Bucharest under Prince Gheorghe Bibescu. In 1847, he was Prefect of Gorj County, noted for establishing obligatory medical examinations for the local prostitutes. Radu Sr was also Prefect of Bucharest police during the reign of Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei, who kept him as a Paharnic, but ultimately sacked in 1855 for his alleged mistreatment of foreigners. In 1864, with Pantazi Ghica and N. T. Orășanu, he was publishing a satirical newspaper, Nichipercea.
The Paharnics son was Dimitrie Rosetti-Max, the author of light comedies that appeared in Convorbiri Literare. He was also National Theater chairman, replacing the playwright Ion Luca Caragiale for a time. "Max" was a collaborator of poet-satirist Iacob Negruzzi, who married his sister Maria; another one of Radu's paternal aunts, Ana, was the second wife of culture critic Titu Maiorescu. Radu D. Rosetti, who described himself as Maiorescu's nephew "by marriage", was born to Dimitrie and to Natalia Gheorghiu when the couple was unmarried; however, they did marry during the child's infancy. The couple divorced some time after, and, as literary historian George Călinescu suggests, this event imposed a "rough life" on Radu, explaining why he, an aristocrat, maintained "quasi-proletarian" customs and sympathies.
As noted by Rosetti himself in a 1942 article, "I never made a fuss about my boyar's rank." He proudly listed himself as a "democrat" like C. A. Rosetti, founder of the left-liberal movement and "some kind of a cousin to my grandpapa". The same was noted by his younger friend Victor Eftimiu: "A boy of select birth, [Rosetti] did not linger in that scornful Olympus of his caste, but rather gave himself, spent himself, a troubadour and proletarian, wherever he found impetus, suffering, elation." The poet confessed that the only exception he ever made to his personal standards of "earning my few distinctions with the sweat of my brow" was when he visited a rich relative, Nicolae de Rosetti, and humored his genealogical pride in exchange for gifts of cash. Unusually, Rosetti was a contemporary of his homonymous relative, General Radu R. Rosetti (1877–1949). Since the latter was also engaged in writing, Radu D. joked to his readers: "If you liked my little work, know that I'm me [...], Radu D. Rosetti. If not, then I wasn't me, [...] but my homonym, General Radu Rosetti. Phone him at his house and call him names." Repeatedly confused with the general by reviewers such as George Panu, he adopted the initial "D." (signaling his patronymic) as a distinguishing mark.
Initially raised by his maternal grandmother, Rosetti was then sent to various schools, and in 1890 was studying at Andrei Șaguna High School in Brașov, then under Austro-Hungarian rule. He was passionate about the city, where he also learned to speak Hungarian "by necessity". It was here that he met poet Ștefan Octavian Iosif, together with whom he put out the hectographed magazine Păcăleandru. Stubborn and rebelling against the prison-like conditions in boarding schools, he was then placed under private tutors, but did not manage to complete his studies. Reputedly, it was during these years that he first met Caragiale, who (despite being formally uneducated) worked as a teacher of Romanian history at one of the schools attended by young Rosetti. Rosetti was saluted by Caragiale as Romania's second-greatest writer, after Caragiale himself. Later, he found out that this was a prank: Caragiale would pay that same compliment to other writers in his circle.
Leaving Matei Basarab High School, he worked for a while as a proofreader at Adevărul daily. His first verse appeared in Vieața with the support of Alexandru Vlahuță, through whom he came to know Nicolae Grigorescu and Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea, while also maintaining contacts with Caragiale. The latter also published his poetry in the review Vatra, which allowed Rosetti to preserve links with other Romanian magazines published in Austria-Hungary. Constantin Mille, his Adevărul employer, wrote the preface to his first short volume of verse, Foi de toamnă ("Autumn Leafs", 1892). His lifelong poetic work, described by Călinescu as "provincial and rustic" neoromanticism, comprised a large number of epigrams, madrigals and romanzas; some of the work showed the influence of Traian Demetrescu, and, through him, that of Heinrich Heine.
Rise to fame
In 1894, Rosetti also debuted as an epigrammatist in Graiul magazine, which was edited by Ilarie Chendi. A volume of such works came out that year, as Epigrame, and other volumes of verse followed in quick succession: Din inimă ("From the Heart", 1895), Sincere ("Sincere Ones", 1896), Duioase ("Soothing Ones", 1897). In his review of Sincere, Alexandru Antemireanu noted that Rosetti's "sweet melancholy" was highly popular with the public: "they love him as one loves a gentle child, a child who never hurts anyone". This gentleness was nevertheless interrupted by samples of social realism, including a translation from Jean Richepin. According to Antemireanu, this was a "stupid" selection, "glorifying barbarity and profanity".
For a while, with Ludovic Dauș, Rosetti put out the literary magazine Doina—named after the folk singing style. To 1898, Rosetti was one of the regulars at literary gatherings in Fialcovsky Coffeehouse (also attended by his father), where he met Alexandru Macedonski, Mircea Demetriade, and actor Ion Livescu. The latter recalled that Rosetti was "as gentle and soft as his poetry, as thin and as supple as a reed, with long blond hair and dreamy eyes". Macedonski also co-opted him to write for Literatorul. At that stage, Rosetti was involved in the project to erect a statue of Demetrescu at Craiova, arguing that this had been Demetrescu's explicit wish.
While not affiliated with the Symbolist movement, Rosetti had some ideological links with various of its exponents. In 1913, critic Gheorghe Savul included him in the overlapping "decadent movement", alongside Symbolists Ștefan Petică and Iuliu Cezar Săvescu. All three were also followers of a "disillusioned socialism", left isolated following the collapse of the Workers' Party; but were also attached to Romanian nationalism, and inspired by the poetry of Mihai Eminescu. Stylistically, Rosetti was an early and episodic influence on young Symbolists such as Eftimiu and Ion Minulescu. This did not refer just to his poetic standard, but also to his lifestyle: as Eftimiu recalls, they were envious of his physical beauty and sentimental adventures. Although Eftimiu believes that Rosetti was wholly indifferent to Baudelaire and Verlaine, he in fact revered the latter. In 1935 he recalled that he chanced upon aging and "stiff drunk" Verlaine while walking around Paris: "It seemed to me that even his inebriation was something grand and beautiful".
In order to enter the University of Bucharest, Rosetti obtained a high school degree from Brussels. He married a first time, to the novelist and literary critic Elena Bacaloglu, with whom he had a daughter. They were engaged on December 19, 1896, and had their religious wedding in January of the next year; politician Nicolae Filipescu was their godfather. However, within the year, dissatisfied with his material condition, he had moved out of the family home and sued for divorce. The despaired Bacaloglu shot herself, but survived. The event shocked Rosetti, but was recalled with some enthusiasm by Eftimiu, who noted that Rosetti had "avenged the tribe", showing that poets could be the seducers, not just the seduced. Rosetti and Bacaloglu were divorced by 1899, with Elena marrying the literary theorist Ovid Densusianu in 1902.
In 1900, Rosetti ultimately graduated from the Bucharest law faculty with a thesis on press infractions in Romanian law. He performed service in the Romanian Land Forces, reaching the rank of Lieutenant in an artillery regiment stationed at Chitila fort. After working in minor positions for the tribunals of Brăila and Constanța, by 1903 he had been advanced to prosecutor for the Prahova County court. Living in Ploiești, he married and divorced a Marioara Naumescu. This period also saw his debut as a dramatic author, with plays on social topics. In the 1898 O lecție ("A Lesson"), the wife of a plagiarist expresses her contempt by pursuing an adulterous affair and getting pregnant; Păcate ("Sins"), which appeared in 1901, unveils the love triangles that break apart a middle-class family. Both plays were taken up by the National Theater Bucharest, with Livescu in one of the title roles. In June 1900, O lecție was performed at the National Theater Budapest, as the first Romanian play to be performed by a Hungarian troupe.
Marginalization
With time, Rosetti also focused more fully on translation work, which he began with a version of Richepin's L'Étoile, taken up by the same National Theater in 1898. Livescu, who starred in it as Sir Richard, called the work "excellent". In 1901, he returned to poetry with the collection Cele din urmă ("The Very Last Ones"), comprising pieces by himself and translations from his favorite poets. The reviewer at Familia magazine described as "pessimistic, but always coquette". Rosetti also published versions of Robinson Crusoe (1900) and Gulliver's Travels (1905), followed in 1908 by selections from Guy de Maupassant and André Gill.
His former wife Marioara went on to marry another epigrammatist, Ion Ionescu-Quintus, who was also a provincial leader of the National Liberal Party; their son, Mircea Ionescu-Quintus, would also take up poetry in the genre, and eventually become party leader. Rosetti remained close friends with the family, and visited them in their home. He was at the time married to Lucreția Cristescu-Coroiu, who spent 20 of their 21 years together bedridden with illness. Rosetti himself traveled throughout Europe, putting out accounts of his visits which doubled as travel guides. Some of these were first collected, alongside sketch stories, in the volume Printre Picăturĭ ("Between Drops", 1903). As argued by Călinescu, they are entirely devoid of "acuteness of perception and artistic preparation." In autumn 1906, he traveled to Egypt—coincidentally at the same time as other Romanian intellectuals, including Timoleon Pisani and Constantin Istrati. Both Istrati and Rosetti left notes of their journeys, which are some of the earliest Romanian impressions of Egypt; Rosetti, who reached Luxor and Aswan, displayed his pity for the fellaheen he met along the way.
A 1904 volume of verse, Din toate ("Some of Everything") was panned by the Symbolist Emil Isac in Familia: Isac argued that they announced Rosetti's death as a poet. However, as noted by the same Familia, Rosetti remained "one of the most widely read authors" in the Romanian Old Kingdom, his style being "accessible". By 1908, he was a regular contributor to Convorbiri Critice, put out by the traditionalist Mihail Dragomirescu, and to the tourism magazine Printre Hotare. He was also recovered in the 1910s by the nationalist Nicolae Iorga, who viewed Rosetti's marginalization as unfair, and published his "lively" travelogues in Neamul Românesc review.
In April 1911, the Romanian Theatrical Society elected Rosetti on its first Steering Committee, alongside George Diamandy, A. de Herz, Paul Gusty and George Ranetti. With Diamandy, Rosetti also organized a Literary Circle at Comoedia Theater, and as such also a February 1912 festival honoring Caragiale. In March, as a delegate of the Society, he welcomed to Richepin to Bucharest and spoke at his banquet. His work appeared alongside that of Symbolist poets in the magazines Ilustrația and Noi Pagini Literare, but was shunned by the more radical Symbolists and socialists at Facla. Here, Rosetti was listed alongside Constantin Banu, Petre Locusteanu and Maica Smara as a "triumphant mediocrity", a literary "street organ".
Rosetti had a lengthy career as a defense lawyer, an experience that informed certain of his literary output, including memoirs such as Din sala pașilor pierduți ("From the Hall of Wasted Pacing", 1922). As both Călinescu and Eftimiu note, he was one of several Romanian orators inspired by the style and social-justice ideology of François Coppée. A dean of the Bar in Ilfov County, he was especially involved in pleading for left-wing activists prosecuted by the state. In 1909, he and Mille failed to obtain an acquittal for I. C. Frimu, Gheorghe Cristescu and Panait Istrati, who had been charged with sedition.
Another leading cause for Rosetti was the advocacy of cremation, on which he spoke at the Romanian Atheneum in March 1913. As a result, newspapers reported (probably exaggerating) that some 3,000 people had joined the "cremationist" movement. The speech fed satirical commentary by Tudor Arghezi and Ranetti, the latter in particular noting that Rosetti was planning to strip funeral artists, undertakers and florists of their business. He responded in Ranetti's Furnica with an ironic piece, in which he informed readers that they could still bury their ashes to maintain the funeral trade. A figure of importance in the "cremationist" trend, which openly challenged the funeral customs of the Romanian Orthodox Church, Rosetti would later shun moderates such as Constantin Dissescu—who, Rosetti claimed, had betrayed the cause.
World War I and 1920s scandals
Shortly after the outbreak of World War I, with Romania still neutral territory, the Francophile Rosetti campaigned for Romania to join the Entente Powers, and tackled the issue during debates at the Romanian Writers' Society. However, he earned recognition for his court defense of Hasan Tahsin, would-be assassin of the pro-Entente campaigners Noel and Charles Buxton. In the end, Romania joined the Entente, and Rosetti was called under arms. Unexpectedly, he was moved to a horse artillery unit, but was shielded from active service by General Alexandru Averescu, and only assigned to give patriotic speeches to his troops on the front line. During the subsequent siege of Bucharest, Rosetti was at Periș with the staff of Constantin Prezan—Ion G. Duca, who joined him there, recalled that he "made himself look important". His subordinates included Cristache Ciolac, famous in civilian life as a Lăutar performer, and honored by Rosetti with a sonnet.
The Army headquarters eventually withdrew to Iași, with Rosetti assigned to write for the military propaganda magazine, România. In January 1918, while the Moldavian Democratic Republic began its process of unification with Romania, Rosetti signed his name to a manifesto calling for the cultural unification of all Romanian-inhabited regions; other signers included Minulescu, Ion Agârbiceanu, Nichifor Crainic, Mihail Sadoveanu, and Mihail Sorbul. Rosetti eventually returned to Bucharest following the November 1918 Armistice. In 1919, he and Mille were part of a defense team that represented the leadership of the Socialist Party of Romania, tried for their role in a general strike of the previous December. He was an independent candidate for the Ilfov seat in the Assembly in the election of November 1919, but only took 5,234 votes.
In the early 1920s, Rosetti returned as a contributor to newspapers and magazines throughout Greater Romania, including Dimineața, Îndreptarea, Rampa, Universul, Viața Romînească, Ziarul Științelor și Călătoriilor, Cele Trei Crișuri, Di Granda, Foaia Tinerimii, Ilustrația, Izbânda, Lumea Copiilor, Lumea Ilustrată, Poetul, Sănătatea, Săptămâna Muncii Intelectuale și Artistice, and Viața Studențească. By 1930, his work was also featured in Omul Liber, Basarabia, Brazda, Ecoul, Propilee Literare, Revista Politică, and Revista Subofițerilor. He also published translations in Orizontul, as well as legal literature in Curierul Judiciar, Revista Penală, and later in Palatul de Justiție and Poliția Modernă. In 1923, he rallied with the left-leaning League of Human Rights, founded by Constantin Costa-Foru and Vasile Stroescu. In March, alongside the forensic scientist Mina Minovici and the politician Grigore Trancu-Iași, he founded Nirvana Society (later Cenușa, "The Ash"), which operated the Bucharest Crematorium. However, when his wife died in 1926, she was conventionally buried at Bellu cemetery.
In December 1923, he also returned at the Atheneum to advocate cremation, and boasted 6,000 new recruits, although his interest in the matter continued to fuel ridicule and provided subject matter to the epigrammatist N. Crevedia. It was also met with protests from Orthodox leaders such as Iuliu Scriban and Dumitru Popescu-Moșoaia, who noted, in public disputations with Rosetti, that Nirvana was channeling public funds; however, most clergymen were by then passively reconciled with the practice. A more serious challenge came from religious-right newspapers such as Curentul, Cuvântul, and Glasul Monahilor, who backed priest Marin C. Ionescu, sued for slander by Minovici. Rosetti was the latter's lawyer, himself accused by the Orthodox lobby of consciously lying to promote his client's interests.
The memoirist
Publishing volumes of his wartime memoirs—Remember (1921) and Obolul meu ("My Contribution", 1922)—, Rosetti joined Emil Cerbu in compiling an anthology of modern love verse, Cartea dragostei ("The Book of Love", 1922). He followed up with definitive collections of his scattered prose and poetry: Poezii ("Poems", 1926), Eri ("Yesterday", 1931), Vechituri ("Old Things", year unknown), Pagini alese ("Selected Pages", 1935), and Instantanee turistice ("A Tourist's Highlights", 1939). His work in travel writing was complemented by his 1935 introduction to Mihai Tican Rumano's account of life in the Ethiopian Empire. It underscored Rosetti's admiration for Tican Rumano, who had "braved unimaginable exhaustion", "unaided by any 'Officialdom' or private sponsor". In May of the same year, Rosetti was feted at the Atheneum upon the initiative of his friend, Trancu-Iași. Contributors to the ceremony included Ion Marin Sadoveanu, Ionel Perlea, and Ion Sân-Giorgiu.
His own memoirs, appearing in book form and in other formats, were treasured by the reading public, and were featured in Romanian Radio broadcasts. As noted by Eftimiu, they conserved the universe of the more senior readers, who bought the books to regain contact with the prewar world. Writing in 1931, Isac also saluted in them the return of the old 1890s poet, who, although "belated", offered "a compendium of civilization, affection, and true Romanianism." Rosetti himself was avowedly backward-looking and uninterested in modernist literature. In a 1935 interview with Mihail Sebastian of Rampa, Rosetti argued that Dada and Futurism were "here today, gone tomorrow", declaring that he only read works by his own generation colleagues. He continued to causes other than cremation. Prior to the election of 1931, he represented Averescu in a civil lawsuit against journalist Bazil Gruia, who had referred to the general as an "assassin of the peasants". Although, as he noted, he regarded himself as Averescu's political adversary, he agreed to defend the "great commander who had led our troops to victory". By 1936, Rosetti was also interested in the biography of four-wars veteran Peneș Curcanul, traveling to Vaslui in hopes of acquiring his unpublished letters.
During World War II, Rosetti was an occasional contributor to Universul, where, in 1940, he published a piece romanticizing the history of Moșilor quarter. Around that time, the fascist National Legionary State resumed the attacks on the "cremationist" movement: by 1941, Education Minister Traian Brăileanu was proposing to disestablish the Bucharest Crematorium, describing it as anti-Christian. In 1942, Editura Cugetarea issued a final volume of Rosetti's recollections, Odinioară ("Once"). It features chapters on the more picturesque figures who had crossed the author's path, for instance Macedonski, Claymoor, Nicolae Fleva, Alceu Urechia, and Alexandru Bogdan-Pitești. Much of the work was dedicated to deriding historical urban policies, and in particular to the memory of horsecars. At the time of its publishing, Odinioară was censured for its pessimism in the far-right Gândirea. Its literary reviewer Nicolae Roșu saw Rosetti as "despondent and washed-out, pining for a useless world", "superficial and gelatinous", his ink "drenched in mothballs". He also denounced the memoirist as a "Knight of Malta, that is to say a Freemason." The characters in the book, Roșu claimed, were tinged by "adultery and concubinage", their luxury made possible by "millions of peasant slaves, toiling in sorrow"; the work itself was "addressed to those few fossils to have survived the great social uplift." Some of these statements were formally retracted by the editor, Crainic—to whom Rosetti had sent a letter of protest. Clarifications included a note according to which Rosetti "is not a Freemason, his name absent from all lists that have ever been made public."
Following the establishment of a Romanian communist regime, Rosetti lived in isolation. Largely forgotten by the public, he inhabited a garret in Bucharest, where he kept an urn destined for his ashes, leaving only the date of his death to be completed by the engraver. In the 1950s, he was frequenting the literary parties held at Ion Larian Postolache's home, on Dobroteasa Street, alongside former rival Crevedia, Virgil Carianopol, Ion Buzdugan, and Crevedia's son Eugen Barbu. His daughter by Bacaloglu was also living in Bucharest, and had a government job before being sacked. Rosetti published another work of recollections, Spicuiri ("Gleanings"), in 1958. It included an overview of his various interviews with Ciolac. He finally died in 1964 and, according to his wish, was cremated. His urn was deposed in Lucreția's tomb at Bellu. Writing in 1968, critic Remus Zăstroiu referred to Rosetti as "all but forgotten". Though he viewed Rosetti as less relevant than other authors of his age, he pleaded for a contextual understanding, in terms of his "social and cultural framework".
Notes
References
George Baiculescu, Georgeta Răduică, Neonila Onofrei, Publicațiile periodice românești (ziare, gazete, reviste). Vol. II: Catalog alfabetic 1907–1918. Supliment 1790–1906. Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1969.
Lucian Boia, "Germanofilii". Elita intelectuală românească în anii Primului Război Mondial. Bucharest: Humanitas, 2010.
George Călinescu, Istoria literaturii române de la origini pînă în prezent. Bucharest: Editura Minerva, 1986.
Viorel Cosma, Figuri de lăutari. Bucharest: Editura Muzicală, 1960
Ileana-Stanca Desa, Dulciu Morărescu, Ioana Patriche, Adriana Raliade, Iliana Sulică, Publicațiile periodice românești (ziare, gazete, reviste). Vol. III: Catalog alfabetic 1919–1924. Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1987.
Ileana-Stanca Desa, Dulciu Morărescu, Ioana Patriche, Cornelia Luminița Radu, Adriana Raliade, Iliana Sulică, Publicațiile periodice românești (ziare, gazete, reviste). Vol. IV: Catalog alfabetic 1925-1930. Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 2003.
Ion G. Duca, Amintiri politice, II. Munich: Jon Dumitru-Verlag, 1981.
Victor Eftimiu, Portrete și amintiri. Bucharest: Editura pentru literatură, 1965.
Nicolae Iorga,
Mărturii istorice privitoare la viața și domnia lui Știrbeĭ-Vodă (Ca urmare la Corespondența lui Știrbeĭ-Vodă, I). Bucharest: Institutul de Arte Grafice și Editură Minerva, 1905.
Istoria literaturii românești contemporane. II: În căutarea fondului (1890–1934). Bucharest: Editura Adevĕrul, 1934.
Ion Livescu, Amintiri și scrieri despre teatru. Bucharest: Editura pentru literatură, 1967.
Ioan Massoff, Istoria Teatrului Național din București: 1877—1937. Bucharest, Alcaly, [n. y.].
Constantin Titel Petrescu, Socialismul în România. 1835 – 6 septembrie 1940. Bucharest: Dacia Traiana, [n. y.].
George Potra, Din Bucureștii de altădată. Bucharest: Editura științifică și enciclopedică, 1981.
Nicolae Roșu, "Cronica literară. Radu D. Rosetti: Odinioară", in Gândirea, Nr. 9/1942, pp. 527–529.
Marius Rotar, History of Modern Cremation in Romania. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013.
Ioana Ursu, Ioan Lăcustă, "În București, acum 50 ani", in Magazin Istoric, July 1992, pp. 78–82.
1874 births
1964 deaths
19th-century male writers
20th-century Romanian male writers
19th-century Romanian poets
20th-century Romanian poets
Romanian male poets
Romanian epigrammatists
19th-century Romanian dramatists and playwrights
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Romanian memoirists
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Decadent literature
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Etherscope (published by Goodman Games) is a steampunk role-playing game based on the d20 system. It uses the d20 Modern rules.
Setting
The setting is a Steampunk fantasy world in which the fifth Platonic element, Ether (cosmic energy), is discovered and tapped as an energy source. Using their cutting-edge knowledge of this force allows the British empire to flourish and the culture and values of the Victorian Age to be artificially prolonged.
Etherspace Technology
In the 1950s, American inventors created the Etherscope, a "difference engine" that could interact with Etherspace. Etherscopes are hand-crafted by technicians and are therefore prohibitively expensive items that are owned by the rich and powerful. Users vary from upper-class dilettantes to massive government bureaucracies and wealthy corporations.
Enginaughts were originally the trained technicians that created, maintained, programmed, and used "difference engines" (mechanical computers). The term was later extended to the clerks who programmed and used Etherscopes and the workers that fashioned Etherstuff into usable objects or structures.
Cybernaughts are human beings who utilize interface technologies. The simplest representation of the concept are the maimed people who have installed mechanical "limbs" or sensor "eyes" to replace the ones they have lost or sickly people who implant mechanical devices to replace failed or failing internal organs. The more complex concept extends to the interface technologies that allow a user to interact with a system indirectly (via keyboards, consoles, or Etheric gauntlets) or directly (via an Etherjack implant).
Etheric gauntlets allow a person to interact with Etherspace remotely. It is a common method of manipulating and fashioning Etherstuff.
The Etherjack is a cybernautic implant that allows users to interface directly with the Etheric plane (a process called Scope Immersion). Its purchase is unregulated in America but is highly controlled or banned elsewhere.
Etheric avatars are etheric constructs that are created by Etherscope users to represent them in Etherspace. The only limits are a user's skill and imagination - though off-the-rack or custom-made avatars are available from Enginauts.
Etheric Domains, Etherspace constructs resembling sprawling cities, have been created by Etherspace users to perform clerical tasks and consolidate centralized information libraries. They are bounded by security "walls" to keep out intruders. Usually the product of a powerful nation or a rich corporation, informal communities of users have begun to spring up. Haven - a hidden Domain created by Scope Riders - is home to such a community; Havenites often use detailed avatars and use a series of pseudonyms and cover identities when Immersed.
Scope Riders are a sub-culture of self-taught Etherscope users who use the Etherspace for a variety of purposes. Some explore the Domains or uncharted Etherspace for amusement or to sate their curiosity. Others use it to further criminal or political goals by stealing, altering, or even deleting stored information or forging hideouts or communication networks in the Etherscape to avoid the authorities.
System Agents, violent and bizarre etherspace beings, are a major mystery. Some think they are government or corporate Scope Riders hired to police their patron's Domains or hunt down subversives and thieves. Some think they are new programs or etheric constructs that either act on pre-programmed instructions or have even attained sentience. Some think the scope riders themselves subconsciously create them as materializations of their fears and worries or a product of their imaginations running away from them. Others posit that perhaps they were always there in the Etherspace and that the presence of other lifeforms has just drawn their interest.
Recreational use of Scope Tabs, a drug compound that grants the user access to the Etheric realm, have become a common form of escape for both bored workers and jaded aristocrats alike.
What is Etherspace?
The exact opinion varies, as nothing is known precisely about it. Scientists conjecture that Ether is the substance between the stars and that Etherspace is a realm of pure energy. Artists and writers say it is the realm of dreams, thoughts, and imagination. Dreamers say it is the magical "faerieland" from folktales, myths, and legends.
History
The world wars of the 20th Century were resolved differently, leaving the British Empire and the European powers largely intact.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a technology race between Britain and France made the British Empire more leery of French intentions than German saber-rattling. The United States was not involved in European affairs and wasn't considered a major power, which kept the powers of Europe from developing alliances (or even cordial relations) with it. These factors would shape the rest of the century.
The Pan-European War (1914–1922 in this timeline) is similar to World War One. The Alliance was composed of France, Italy and Russia and the Axis Powers were composed of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire. The British Empire and United States stayed neutral. In the West, the Axis Powers quickly defeated France in a matter of months and defeated Italy by the end of 1915. In the East the Germans and Austro-Hungarians invaded Russia and gradually captured a swath of territory from the Crimea to Moscow bounded by the Volga (recognized as Südrussland by the Treaty of Berlin in 1922).
Kaiser Wilhelm II opposed the ending of the war in Russia until it was completely conquered. Although still loyal, the military confronted the Kaiser and steadfastly refused to do so in what was later called the Herrenvolk Putche. He was forced to quietly abdicate in 1922 and his grandson Prince Wilhelm of Prussia became Kaiser Wilhelm III [reign 1924–1946].
Bulgaria was given Romania. Austria-Hungary was granted the other Balkan states of Transylvania, Serbia, Montenegro, and Albania. The Ottoman Empire kept Armenia, Greece and Cyprus and took possession of Italy's colonies in Africa (Libya, Eritrea and Somalia). Britain used its colonial forces and navy to confiscate France's African, North African, and Asian colonies to keep them out of Neu Reich's hands, making it very unpopular. Germany received Ukraine, Ruthenia (modern-day Belarus), Sudrussland (southwestern Russia), the Crimea, and Georgia. Japan, a German ally, was granted France's Chinese concessions along with a series of small islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Portugal, a neutral party in the war, grabbed Madagascar from the French in 1914 and was allowed to keep it.
The Scandinavian state of Finland; the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, Livonia, and Lithuania; and the Russian state of Ukraine were given independence from Russia and the boundaries of the nation of Poland were set by treaty. The German state of East Prussia was expanded through the Danzig Corridor (current-day northern Poland) from Königsberg (current-day Kaliningrad) in the east to the German border in the west, cutting Poland completely off from the Baltic Sea). They were later incorporated into what would become the Neu Reich.
Since the British navy never defeated the German navy at the Battle of Jutland, the German navy was intact at war's end. Also, because the disused navy didn't riot and march on Berlin, the Kaiser never fled and abdicated, meaning the Prussian monarchy stayed intact. A strong government and powerful military deterred the unrest of the 1920s and 1930s and therefore Socialism, Communism, and Fascism never got a strong toehold in Europe. However, reactionary conservatism is the norm throughout European culture.
The Irish Revolt of 1914 (1914–1926 in this timeline), similar to the Irish War of Independence, had a different outcome as well. In the 1900s in Ireland there were two major factions. The Republicans, made up mostly of Irish Catholics, wanted independence for Ireland. The Unionists, made up almost exclusively of Protestants, wanted Ireland to stay part of the United Kingdom of Britain, Scotland & Ireland. Although both sides had a long history of conflict, they tended to view the question as a political one and violence and armed struggle were only embraced by extreme elements. Those armed elements, however, were well-organized, well-funded and had access to modern weaponry. Without a war in Europe to distract them, the Republicans and Unionists began fighting all across Ireland. The British Empire intervened on the side of the Unionists in 1916 and used regular troops alongside Irish militia and paramilitary forces to crush the Republicans' main force conventional troops. The Republican irregular forces held out as long as they could, but a ruthless counterinsurgency program coupled with the use of cutting-edge Ethertech weapons and devices forced the Republicans to sue for peace and disarm.
The major motivation for the Republicans' surrender was not a lack of will but a loss of clandestine materiel support. The Neu Reich supplied Republican agents in Europe with aid to keep the British Empire out of the Pan-European War. Then the Russian Communist Party began picking up the slack to keep Great Britain from siding with the more conservative factions in the Russian Civil War. This was stopped once the Bolsheviks were firmly in power.
The Irish bitterly refer to the Revolt of 1914 as "The 'Fourteen". The violence discredited the legitimate efforts of the Irish to use political reform to ease relations with the Empire, rollback oppressive British laws, and gain self-governance.
The Republican movement, although factionalized along political lines, is more centralized and unified in this world than in ours but it has less public sympathy and little direct support outside of the Irish emigre communities abroad. Indirect support comes from the other power blocs, who use the movement to either support their espionage and subversion efforts in the Empire or as catspaws to achieve their goals obliquely.
The Russian Civil War (1922–1925 in this timeline) was similar in its outcome but had different effects. During The Pan-European War, the shorter lines of communication due to Germany's rapid invasion of Russia in 1914 initially made it easier for Russia to manage supply lines and maintain large reserves to counterattack Axis thrusts. The loss of the farmlands of the Ukraine and the Black Sea region, however, caused a famine that triggered unrest. When Russia collapsed in 1922, a series of political movements (Constitutionalists, Democrats, Anarchists, Socialists, etc.) fought for control, ending in the Communists under party secretary Joseph Stalin gaining nominal control by 1925.
Loss of its "breadbasket" and industrial heartlands in the Eurasian west forced the Soviet Union to set up factories and transport networks in their Asian eastern provinces. They developed a policy of trading finished goods and raw materials for food.
The Pacific War (1937–1943 in this timeline) is similar to World War Two. Japan was becoming a local power in the 1930s with a strong navy that was seen as a potential threat to Britain's control of the seas and an army that had made inroads in China and was threatening to invade the Soviet Union. It involved the European Powers (the British Empire, the Netherlands, and the Soviet Union) on one side and Japan on the other over control of China and the Pacific Rim. Neu Reich, technically neutral, fought a defensive war against the Soviet Union's attempts to take back their lost territories. The allied British and Dutch forces fought an island-hopping amphibious war against Japan in the Pacific. The Soviet Union, bolstered by allied support, fought a two-front land war with Neu Reich in the west and Japanese forces in the east. America used diplomatic pressure on the allies and then threatened military interference in the summer of 1943, allowing Japan to fight the Europeans to a stalemate.
The Treaty of Taiwan in June of 1943 granted China to the British; kept the Dutch in their East Indian holdings; gave Finland (Neu Reich), the Kamchatka Peninsula and Kuril Islands (Japan), and Alaska (US) to the Soviet Union as reparations; confirmed Neu Reich in the lands they held; and allowed Japan to keep Hokkaido, Okinawa, and Korea. America's interference began a Cold War between the US and the British Empire with Neu Reich acting as intermediary and playing them off on each other.
Geography
The Political Powerhouses
The British Empire has the world's most powerful navy and controls most of Africa and Asia. It absorbed France's colonial holdings in Africa and Southeast Asia following the Pan-European War and gained total control of China following the Pacific War. Its navy dominates the seas and its armies are found on every continent. Due to its extensive military commitments in its existing possessions, there are still areas of their Empire that were never fully explored or which have lapsed into wilderness and savagery.
The Neu Reich consists of Europe and most of Eurasia and it has the world's finest army. It is a unification of the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires that was arranged in 1926 following the marriage of Kaiser Wilhelm III [reign 1924–1946] to Princess Sophie of Austria, niece of Emperor Karl I of Austria [reign 1916–1929]. Karl I renounced participation in Austro-Hungarian government in 1923 and abdicated his throne in 1929, making the infant Prince Franz his heir. Wilhelm and Sophie acted as co-regents until their son's majority at 18 in 1946. The Austro-Hungarian royal family was then integrated into the Prussian imperial family through intermarriage and the granting of titles in the Prussian nobility. Emperor Franz Joseph II (born 1928 [reign 1946–present]) presides over the Triple Monarchy of Prussia, Austria and Hungary as a figurehead. The aristocrats control the Army and all major and senior government posts, while the upper and middle class commoners dominate the Navy and the bureaucracy. Catholicism was adopted as the official state religion but with tolerance for Protestants and Orthodox Christians. It politically and economically dominates Europe and has what is considered the most powerful army in the world. Protectorates established in Italy and France after the Pan-European War were later expanded to completely integrate the nations into the Reich. The Netherlands, Spain and Portugal are allowed to exist on the fringes and Switzerland is allowed its independence because of its neutrality. Minority languages and cultures are encouraged, but German is the official government language and the language used and taught in their public secondary schools and universities.
The United States of America is an upstart power that gradually worked its way onto the global scene. The boundaries between Canada and the USA were resolved diplomatically in 1842 and established the permanent border between the two nations. It then expanded westwards during the Indian Wars of the 19th Century until it spanned both coasts. By the dawning of the 20th century, it consisted of 45 states and 5 territories (Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, Hawaii, and Alaska). America then began expanding into the "Savage South" and used a combination of "soft power" (diplomacy, aid, and economic development) and "hard power" (military intervention and naval blockade) to dominate the New World. Chile, Brazil, Argentina, Columbia, Honduras, Panama, and Peru first became Territories (like the Philippines, Guam, Samoa, Puerto Rico and Cuba), then became the 50th through 56th states (with Hawaii becoming the 49th) when they requested statehood. Although more socially mobile and intellectually open-minded than Europe, its powerful industrial and mercantile interests dominate their political parties. Its government has preferred a strong centralized Federal government over weak subordinated State governments since its Civil War, but it favors a laissez-faire policy towards most economic matters.
The Lesser Powers
France and Italy are subordinate to Neu Reich. France's politics are dominated by the squabbling between the three monarchist factions (Legitimist, Orleanist, and Bonapartist) and the populist anti-clerical Republican faction. Italy has a constitutional monarchy. The real power is held in its parliament, which is split by regionalism and the economic divide between the rich industrial north, politically-dominant center, and poor agrarian south. Strong Nationalist rumblings and occasional saber-rattling are heard. However, they are countered with the reality that they would be cut out of the European market and its resources and would be the only countries in Europe without colonies.
The Dutch are hemmed-in in Europe but have huge overseas colonies in the Pacific. They act as middle-men for the other powers—especially the "triangle trade" between America, the Soviet Union, and Japan.
The marriage between Princess Beatrix and Britain's Prince Charles in 1971 was the beginning of closer ties between Britain and the Netherlands. (A proposed marriage in the mid-1960s between Princess Beatrix and a German princeling was cancelled after it triggered nationwide protests and riots). When Queen Juliana of the Netherlands recently abdicated in 1980 due to ill health, Princess Beatrix became the Queen-Regnant and Prince Charles became her Prince-Consort. ("Prins Carl", as he is known, is seen as a dull but good-hearted man who is well-known for his charity work and his support for youth programs). Tensions between the Neu Reich and the British Empire are increasing over whether Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom will favor Prince Charles or Prince Andrew as heir to the throne.
Spain and Portugal are mired in poverty and obscurity. Spain lost its overseas colonies in the New World and the Orient to America in the Spanish–American War (1899). It has a foothold in Africa in the Canary Islands, Spanish Morocco, and the Spanish Sahara, the home of the famed Spanish Foreign Legion. It has an arm's length relationship with the Neu Reich and is very aloof to the British Empire. Portugal barely holds on to its "empire" (Guinea, Angola, Mozambique, and Madagascar, the islands of the Azores, Madeira, Cape Verde, and São Tomé, and the city of Macau), such as it is. It has centuries-long ties to the British Empire.
The Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Iceland are independent. They comprise a neutral buffer zone between the British Empire, Neu Reich, and the Soviet Union and engage in brisk trade between them.
Bulgaria was allowed continued independence as a reward for their loyalty and support. It acts as a buffer zone between Neu Reich and the Ottoman Empire.
Japan is the only independent country in Asia. The military faction in government lost face when Japan lost its empire in Asia after the Pacific War. They were supplanted by those that favored economic development and appeasement of the major power blocs. Japan is very poor, relying on exporting cheap goods brokered for them by the Dutch East India Company. Workers spend long dreary hours working in factories and spend their meager pay in Scope Riding cafes or tab dens. An underground market in drug tabs and Ethertech gave tremendous power and wealth to the Yakuza gangs, who now control the slums in the port cities and the industrial sprawl of the Kanto Plain.
The Soviet Union was set up amongst the ruins of the Russian Empire starting in 1925. It is ruled by the Bolshevik Party (who are Communists, followers of the teachings of German economic theorist Karl Marx). It used technology to modernize Russia. Government programs sponsoring scientific research, technological specialization, and skilled labor manufacturing were used to create a prosperous economy with trade links outside the Union. Investments in agricultural reform and improved transport and distribution networks allowed rapid movements of food and supplies to where they were needed, curbing famine and disease. The salaries of management (koordinatori) and skilled labor (tekniki) are shared with that of manual laborers (robotniki), all of whom are seen as social equals. The military secures its borders from outside aggression while the Secret Police secures the state from traitors at home and counter-revolutionaries abroad. The other powers categorize the Soviet Union in their propaganda as militarily aggressive, dictatorial, and oppressive—with the Union making the same claims.
The Ottoman Empire controls Turkey, the Middle East, the Arabian Peninsula, and parts of North Africa. Because the Ottoman Empire was on the winning side in the Pan-European War, regional geography is different from in our timeline. Iraq is still a series of Ottoman territories because it wasn't unified by the British under the Mesopotamian Mandate. Persia (our current-day Iran) is still ruled by the Ottoman-supported Qajar dynasty, because Reza Khan never came into power. Jordan doesn't exist because the British never set it up as a buffer zone because the House of Saud never conquered Arabia. There is no Israel because the British Empire never controlled Palestine. The Empire is ruled by the Sultan through a ceremonial bureaucracy and a representative parliament rubber-stamps government decisions. The Young Turks movement revolutionized the military and liberalized society but has had limited effect on government corruption; Mehmed VI supported their reforms as long as they didn't interfere with his rule and his successors were backed by the Neu Reich. The Empire has recently become wealthy due to its creation of petrochemical-based plastics—little of the wealth trickles down to the lower classes.
The Great Metropolis
The Great Metropolis is an urban sprawl formed from the amalgamation of Liverpool and Manchester. It has a population of about 100 million people, most of whom are refugees from Europe or immigrants from the colonies or the Kingdom of Ireland. It is more culturally influential than London due to its size and economic power but is subject to their more politically powerful southern cousin.
Its residents live in squalor and work in unsafe conditions in factories that produce unfettered waste and pollution.
Runaway genespliced workers live in the sewers in communities called "Gammavilles" (after the Gamma-class workers who founded them).
The Metropolitan Riots of 1937 occurred when workers in Metropolis went on a city-wide strike to protest their living and working conditions. Methods ranged from peaceful sit-ins and marches to violent confrontations and sabotage. The real leverage that the workers had was withholding their labor, which kept the factories and public utilities running. The government met the rioters with troops wearing armored battlesuits and carrying advanced Ethertech weapons, causing massive casualties. The riots killed workers and their families, forced the survivors to flee to the countryside or emigrate overseas, and discouraged the arrival of new British workers to take their place - creating a labor shortage. It forced management to negotiate with labor representatives, leading to the creation of the Guilds, collective bargaining associations of semi-skilled and skilled workers. The lack of an unskilled labor pool encouraged the creation of a eugenically-designed and more subservient workforce spliced with animal DNA to replace them. Loyalty and obedience has been bred into them, allowing cruel exploitation by their creators.
Politics
The Eugenics League is a worldwide scientific society engaged in genetic engineering, as mere human breeding is seen as too random and imprecise. They divide human stock into "Alphas" (gene-spliced humans with superior or even non-human traits) and "Betas" (their term for ordinary "baseline" humans). "Gammas" (small, tough, disease-resistant workers with rodent DNA), "Deltas" (loyal workers with canine DNA), and "Epsilons" (large, hard-working, strong workers with equine DNA) are members of the purpose-built worker class. The League's views and methods are seen as controversial but their success has made their theories more accepted.
The relative stability of Europe in the 1920s and 1930s means that the National Socialist party, with its extremely racist views and crackpot pseudo-scientific theories, never rose to power. Therefore the Eugenics movement and its theories were never discredited.
The Northumbrian Republican Movement (NRM) is a political group that seeks independence for Northern England with the Metropolis as its capitol. Factions vary from the Conservative Republicans, who want recognition as a separate Dominion or Kingdom with its own parliament, to the Radical Republicans, who want to be declared a separate country (the Republic of Northumbria). Its militant Armed Wing (the Northumbrian Republican Army) commits acts of violence against the British government in pursuit of its goals. It is rumored to receive support from America.
The Labour Party in Britain became less popular following the Russian Revolt in 1922 and crested after the Metropolitan Riots of 1937 eliminated their working-class power base. The resurgent Liberals (or "Whigs") replaced them and draw their support from the middle classes and sympathetic members of the upper class and gentry. The Conservatives (or "Tories") tend to dominate politics due to backing from the powerful Eugenics League and draw support from an alliance of the land-owning noble and gentry families.
The nouveau-riche industrialists resent the crushing tax burden they bear, as they are not granted the exemption granted the titled nobility and are considered a "cash cow" by the London government. This makes them more socially and politically left-wing, favoring progressive parties like the Liberals and radicals like the NRM.
Nationalist movements across the globe are fierce but mostly non-violent. They are especially numerous in Neu Reich, which has a polyglot culture and several recently assimilated territories. Much like the Welsh and Scottish Nationalists in the United Kingdom of our world, Nationalists tend to use social organizations and political parties to promote their values and see to their interests. Members are seen as eccentric but harmless, as their cultures are well-to-do under their overlords and would fare poorly if they were independent. The few violent nationalist groups are seen as crackpots or lunatics.
Reviews
Pyramid
References
External links
Goodman Games The publishers of Etherscope.
The Black Orifice Etherscope Writer / Developer's site
Campaign settings
Goodman Games games
Steampunk role-playing games
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JOSS (acronym for JOHNNIAC Open Shop System) was one of the first interactive, time-sharing programming languages. It pioneered many features that would become common in languages from the 1960s into the 1980s, including use of line numbers as both editing instructions and targets for branches, statements predicated by boolean decisions, and a built-in source-code editor that can perform instructions in direct or immediate mode, what they termed a conversational user interface.
JOSS was initially implemented on the JOHNNIAC machine at RAND Corporation and put online in 1963. It proved very popular, and the users quickly bogged the machine down. By 1964, a replacement was sought with higher performance. JOHNNIAC was retired in 1966 and replaced by a PDP-6, which ultimately grew to support hundreds of computer terminals based on the IBM Selectric. The terminals used green ink for user input and black for the computer's response. Any command that was not understood elicited the response or .
The system was highly influential, spawning a variety of ports and offshoots. Some remained similar to the original, like TELCOMP and STRINGCOMP, CAL, CITRAN, ISIS, PIL/I, JEAN (ICT 1900 series), Algebraic Interpretive Dialogue (AID, on PDP-10); while others, such as FOCAL and MUMPS, developed in distinctive directions. It also bears a strong resemblance to the BASIC interpreters found on microcomputers in the 1980s, differing mainly in syntax details.
History
Initial idea
In 1959, Willis Ware wrote a RAND memo on the topic of computing in which he stated future computers would have "a multiplicity of personal input-output stations, so that many people can interact with the machine at the same time." The memo gained the interest of the US Air Force, Rand's primary sponsors, and in 1960, they formed the Information Processor Project to explore this concept, what would soon be known as time-sharing. The project was not specifically about time-sharing, but aimed to improve human-computer interaction overall. The idea at the time was that constant interaction between the user and the computer in a back-and-forth manner would make such interactions more natural. As JOSS director Keith Uncapher later put it:
A formal proposal to develop what became JOSS on the JOHNNIAC computer was accepted in March 1961.
JOSS-1
JOSS was implemented almost entirely by J. Clifford Shaw, a mathematician who worked in Rand's growing computing division. It was written in a symbolic assembly language called EasyFox (E and F in the US military's then phonetic alphabet), also developed by Shaw.
The JOSS system was brought up formally for the first time in May 1963, supporting five consoles, one in the machine room and another four in offices around the building. The early consoles were based in the IBM Model 868 Transmitting Typewriter, as the Selectric had not yet been introduced to market when development began. The first schedule was published on 17 June, with JOSS running for three hours from 9am to 12 every day. It was declared fully operational on eight terminals in January 1964. The final version was deployed in January 1965.
By this time the JOHNNIAC was already over a decade old, and its tube-based logic was never highly reliable to begin with. Even when it was working well, the system became so popular it quickly bogged down. Users were enthusiastic, one stated:
Another put it more succinctly:
JOSS-2 switchover
In May 1964, the decision was made to look for a new machine to replace the JONNIAC and dedicate it entirely to running an expanded version of JOSS. The machine would also have to support new terminals made to Rand's specifications, and be delivered by 31 October 1965.
A total of nine bids were received for the new machine. Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) won the contest with their new PDP-6 system, and Air Force funding was released for the purchase. DEC also agreed to build thirty terminals based on the IBM Selectric typewriter modified with a special mechanism to advance to the next page in a fan-fold paper feed. Several other portions of the overall system were delivered from other companies.
The PDP-6 arrived in late July 1965, and was initially tested using Teletype Model 33's as terminals. The new version of the code was developed by Charles L. Baker, Joseph W. Smith, Irwin D. Greenwald, and G. Edward Bryan. The system was first declared operational in October, although this included six hours of scheduled maintenance per week. The first prototype terminal arrived in November. In December, a terminal in Las Vegas was connected to the machine remotely for the first time. In February 1966, this was sent to McClellan Air Force Base, followed by one in August to the Air Force Academy and two in September to ARPA and an Air Force office in the Pentagon. The first permanent offsite teletype connection for a Teletype Model 35 was installed at the Langley Air Force Base in February 1967.
With the new machine up and running, JOHNNIAC was taken offline on 11 February 1966, and officially retired on 18 February. Its last running program was written in JOSS and counted down seconds until it would be turned off. The machine was sent to the Los Angeles County Museum, and eventually ended up at the Computer History Museum outside San Francisco. Having been replaced by the JOSS-2 system, the original was retroactively known as JOSS-1.
JOSS-2 use
By the end of 1966 the new JOSS-2 system was fully functional and turned over to JOSS use 24/7. The new machine offered about 30 times the computational speed, five times the storage space per user, and many new features in the language itself. The new platform could ultimately support up to 100 terminals in simultaneous use. The Air Force remained the owner of the system, with Rand and others operating as consultants. CPU time was billed out to external users at a rate of about $1 per minute, although that was only during the actual execution, time spent typing and printing was free.
By 1970, there were between 500 and 600 users at Rand and various Air Force sites across the country. Many of these were occasional users, precisely what the system had been intended for. To support them, the custom terminals were equipped with special "JOSS plugs" so they could be wheeled from office to office and plugged into custom outlets. Two-hundred of the plugs were installed around Rand, and the terminal chassis was designed to be narrow enough to fit through doors while still leaving room for a coffee on one side. Toggling the power switch on the terminal caused it to connect at the new location.
The custom terminals had been designed for JOSS as the engineers felt that the Model 33's "telecommunications functions are a mystery to the untrained person" and would be too confusing for the occasional users to bother learning. In practice, the Selectric-based mechanisms proved too fragile for the constant use they saw and were frequently being repaired in the field by IBM servicemen. In 1970, a full third of the terminals were completely rebuilt, and the output from the computer slowed to improve reliability. The Air Force, by this time, had decided to use the Model 35 instead, as it was both readily available and much less expensive.
Uses were enthusiastic and to serve them, Rand began publishing The JOSS Newsletter, edited by Shirley Marks. Ultimately 44 issues were published between November 1967 and June 1971.
JOSS-3
In the early 1970s, programmers at one of IBM's west coast facilities built a JOSS-3 for the IBM 370/158 running OS/360. Little information about this system exists, with the exception that it was on this machine that JOSS finally retired. According to a note in a historical overview, Rand was hesitant to allow IBM to use the JOSS name, and as a result "the IBM version was never widely used."
Implementation
JOSS-II on the PDP-6 was divided into two parts, matching the internal memory layout of the machine. The machine was equipped with two banks of core memory, with 16k 36-bit words in each bank. The JOSS system itself, which included the operating system, user and file management code, terminal handler and the interpreter, used up much of the first of these banks. The second bank was used for user programs. Although this was a relatively large amount of memory for the era, the system was so heavily used that the 16k word user store was not enough, and it was backed up with a magnetic drum for paging support. The drum was driven by external hardware and did not require attention from the main processor.
In order to support multiple user programs, the PDP-6 hardware was modified to examine bit-20 of any address reference. If this bit was set, the address was in "user space" and was modified so that address zero pointed to the base address of that user. In this way, user programs could be moved about in memory without causing problems for the system, and the operating system could switch from user to user simply by changing a single internal register.
Permanent storage was provided by a Storage Products hard drive with 5.7 million words of storage. Like the drum, the actual input/output to and from the drum was handled externally, although in this case the movement was triggered by user actions to load and store their programs. An IBM-compatible tape drive was used to move data to and from the drive as needed, an operation that was also independent of the CPU. Two DECtape units were also available and worked in the same fashion as the IBM drive.
Terminals were handled through a custom "concentrator" that consisted of a mechanical Strowger switch that could connect any of the 300 to 400 possible terminal plugs to any of 40 outputs. A further eight lines were dedicated to Teletype Model 33 inputs, as opposed to the JOSS-style Selectrics. Those 48 lines were then connected to an electronic multiplexer connected to the CPU. The multiplexer was interrupt driven, meaning idle terminals did not use up any cycles.
The custom JOSS terminals were built by DEC. These consisted of a Selectric mechanism built into a custom chassis containing the communications system, power supply, and other components. A custom font ball was used to provide basic mathematical symbols like ≠ so two-character combinations like <> did not have to be used. The communications system was based on a 6-bit character code in an 8-bit packet with start and stop bits. The lines were driven at 120 bit/s to match the maximum 15 character per second speed of the Selectric mechanism. Shift-in and shift-out codes were used to move the ribbon from green to black and back. These codes were also noticed by the communications system and changed lights on the front panel to indicate whether the computer or user had control of the terminal at that moment.
Language
Direct and indirect mode
JOSS introduced the idea of a single command line editor that worked both as an interactive language and a program editor. Commands that were typed without a line number were executed immediately, in what JOSS referred to as "direct mode". If the same line was prefixed with a line number, it was instead copied into the program code storage area, which JOSS called "indirect mode". New lines were added to the program if the line number was unique, replaced extant lines with the same number, or removed from the program if an extant line number was typed in with no code following it.
In contrast to most BASICs, JOSS saved the entire user input to files, not just the program code. When loaded, JOSS essentially typed the lines back in. This meant that program files could contain both program statements and direct mode instructions. For instance, it was common to see programs that listed the statement lines and then have the file end with to immediately run the program as soon as it completed loading. There were some features that could only be used in direct mode, like and , which were input without line numbers but still returned when the program was loaded.
Direct and indirect instructions could be mixed freely in a workspace. This allowed comments to be inserted in source code by adding direct-mode lines beginning with , or by placing one at the end of a line of code and then adding a comment after it. Blank lines were also ignored, allowing the program to be broken up for clarity.
Program statements
Every line in a JOSS program must start with a line number. Line numbers are fixed-point numbers consisting of two two-digit integers separated by a period. As in BASIC, line numbers are used both as labels to target from and statements, and to support editing. Entering a line of code with a new line number inserts it into a program, while entering one with an extant line number replaces the prior version or deletes it if it is empty.
The portion of the line number to the left of the period is termed the page or part, while the portion to the right is termed the line. Thus the line number refers to page 10, line 12. Branches can target either a page, or a line within a page. When the later format is used, the combined page and line is termed a step.
Pages are used to define subroutines, which return when the next line is on a different page. For instance, if a subroutine for calculating the square root of a number is in page 3, one might have three lines of code 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3, and it would be called using The code would return to the statement after the Do when it reaches the next line on a different page, for instance, 4.1. No need exists for the equivalent of a at the end, although if an early return is required, accomplishes this.
Every line must start with a command keyword following the line number. No concept of a default command exists as is the case in BASIC with its optional statement. Multiple statements can be placed on one line, separated by colons or semicolons. Every line must end with a period.
Loops and conditions
JOSS uses a suffix notation to indicate conditional evaluation, "do this if this is true", in contrast to most languages which place the condition in front in prefix notation, "if this is true, do this". Like BASIC, but unlike FORTRAN or FOCAL, any statement can be conditionally evaluated in this fashion. For example, to print a string only if a condition is met, one can combine the if with a :
1.1 Type "Hello, World!" if X=5.
JOSS supported six infix comparisons, , , , , , , and boolean operators , , and .
Loops were handled in a similar fashion, using the command and a somewhat obscure format for specifying the loop bounds and step value, . For instance, to step from 1 to 10 by 2, the format is . Like , could be applied to any other statement:
1.2 Type "Hello, Wikipedia!" for i=1(2)10.
Note that the for applies only to a single statement; if one wants to run multiple statements in a loop, they would be separated to another part and called using do:
1.3 Do part 5 for i=1(1)100.
5.1 Type "Hello, Wikipedia!".
5.2 Type "This is JOSS.".
As in BASIC, any of the inputs to the for loop could be constants, variables or other expressions.
Expressions and propositions
A unique feature of JOSS was its handling of logical expressions. Most computer languages offer some way to form a multi-part mathematical expression, for instance, which sets the variable x to the value 9. JOSS expanded on this concept by clearly defining the concept of the "proposition", an expression that returns a logical value, true or false, instead of a numeric one. They were mostly seen in statements, as in the examples above, but the boolean value could also be stored in a variable directly, or one could convert true to 1 and false to 0 using the (truth value) function.
In addition to propositions, JOSS also had the concept of "conditional expressions". These consisted of strings of propositions along with code that would run if that proposition was true. This allowed multi-step decision trees to be written in a single line. They serve a purpose similar to the ternary operator found in modern languages like C or Java, where they are used to return a value from a compact structure implementing if-then-else. JOSS' version has any number of conditionals, not just three, so it is more of a compact switch statement than a compact if-then.
This example recreates the function of the function:
Let s(x)=[x=0:0; x>0:1; x<0:-1].
This defines a function "s" which takes a single parameter, "x", and makes three consecutive tests against it. Whichever test succeeds first returns the corresponding value after the colon.
Ranges
Another advanced feature of JOSS was that it had the concept of a range as a built-in type that could be stored and manipulated. Ranges are normally found as the inputs to for loops, where they are part of the syntax of the loop itself. For instance, in BASIC one writes a for loop using this basic syntax:
This will perform a loop that assigns I the values 1, 3, 5 and then exits.
JOSS used a somewhat obscure format to define the limits of the loop. The equivalent code in JOSS would be:
I=1(2)5
Note that this code does not include a for. That is because in JOSS, ranges are first-class citizens of the language, not something that is part of a loop as in BASIC. Ranges can be defined and used in many contexts outside loops. For example, here is a conditional expression that evaluates the factorial of a parameter x:
Let f(x)=[x=0:1 ; fp(x)=0:prod(i=1(1)x:i)].
In this example, there are two main propositions, separated by the semicolon. The first, on the left, states that if the parameter x is 0, the condition should immediately return 1. If that proposition fails, it moves to the second test, on the right. This one checks if the fractional part of x is zero (i.e., it is an integer), and if so, it calls the function to multiply a range of values. The 's parameter is also a proposition, but in this case, the test is replaced by a loop iterator that runs from 1 to x stepping by 1. If that proposition is true, which is it for all values of the loop, it returns the index i. This causes a series of values to be sent into from 1 to x.
The combination of these features allows for complex functions to be written in a few commands. This sort of functionality has only become common in much more modern languages, which typically use iterators or a map function to provide the same outcomes. JOSS's capability to combine decisions and loops in a compact form is unknown in other languages of the era, including offshoots like FOCAL.
Commands
Set
The command assigns the results of an expression to the specified variable. Equivalent to BASIC's .
01.30 Set p=3.14156.
01.60 Set i=l*(r/100)*t.
was optional when used in direct mode, where one could type without the Set command. This was not allowed in indirect mode, in contrast to BASIC.
Let
was used to define user-defined functions. Equivalent to BASIC's .
Let t(x)=sin(x)/cos(x).
Set j=t(1.1).
Type j.
can also be used to set the value of a variable using a formula consisting of a constant:
Let x=5.
From that point, it can be used identically to one created using . There is a subtle difference, however, when this X is referenced in code, the value will be calculated by evaluating the right-hand side. A is only evaluated once, so it is much faster.
The system generally suggested using only in direct mode, saving them out for use in a program by inserting them at the top or bottom of the file. This avoided the being called multiple times during execution, as it would only be called once during the loading process.
Demand
The takes a list of variables and stores the user input in variables. The optional qualifier added a custom prompt. Equivalent to BASIC's .
01.01 Type "What is your age?".
01.02 Demand A.
01.03 Type "You are", A.
01.04 Demand H as "What is your height?".
01.05 Type H,"? That tall?".
Type
The command outputs one or more items separated by commas. In its basic form it is equivalent to BASIC's . However, includes a number of optional forms that make it highly overloaded, performing a range of unrelated output tasks.
When used to print values, the parameters can be variables, literal strings surrounded by double-quotes, and the special character that produces a line feed. also supports formatted output using format strings. See the section on below for details.
Type is also used as the equivalent to BASIC's statement, writing out the program. For instance, will print out a single line of code, while will print out the entire part, and prints out the entire program.
Further, it can also be used to print lists of internal values. produces a list of all variables and their values, while prints out the program size. Keywords include , and .
Page
triggers a page feed on the special JOSS terminals. JOSS would normally send a page feed when the terminal reached line 54 on the paper, so if one wanted to ensure a block of data would not be split in half, one could:
1.10 Page if $>44.
is a pseudo-variable that returns the current line number.
Line
triggers a line feed on the special JOSS terminals.
To
The command jumps program execution to the specified part or step number, using or respectively. It is the equivalent of BASIC's . Contrast with , an indirect command used from the command line that starts programs, the equivalent of BASIC's .
01.01 Demand A as "TYPE A NUMBER".
01.05 To step 1.01.
01.10 To part 1.
Do
is similar to , but branches to a subroutine. As with , you can or . If a step is provided, that single line is run and then returns to the statement after the . If a part is provided, execution starts at the first line of the block and continues until the end of the block is reached or a statement is encountered.
01.15 Do step 7.24.
01.16 Do part 8.
had one special short form for looking in keeping with it being very common in most programs. This used the modifier instead of a normal , in the case for simple loops. So the following lines are equivalent:
Do part 1 for i=1(1)5.
Do part 1, 5 times.
JOSS maintains a pointer to the currently executing line, which a would change. However, it included a special "parenthetic do" that could be used in direct mode to test certain sections of the code without changing the main pointer. For instance, if the program stopped due to an error and it was not clear which section caused the problem, one might test a particular subroutine with:
(Do part 2.)
Done
The command returns from a subroutine call. As subroutines return automatically when the end of the part is reached, is only required for returning early, and is often used with a conditional. Equivalent to BASIC's .
*Routine to ask the user for a positive value and repeat until it gets one
01.10 Demand X as "Enter a positive value greater than zero".
01.20 Done if X>0.
01.30 To step 1.1
Stop
The command terminates execution of the program and returns control to the editing environment. Equivalent to BASIC's or , although BASIC's is intended to allow to pick up execution at the same location, a feature that has no direct equivalent in JOSS's workspace-oriented system.
01.10 Type X.
01.20 Stop.
Go
Available in direct mode only, is the equivalent to BASIC's and , depending on whether a program is currently stopped due to an error or command being encountered.
Cancel
Another direct-mode-only command, is used when the program has stopped for an error and the user wants to reset the program, which it does by clearing the program counter. A would pick up at the last location, but issuing a makes start at the top again. If the current breakpoint was due to a parenthetical , one can issue a parenthetical cancel, , to stop just that sub-execution and allow a to continue at the last non-parenthetical line.
Math
JOSS stored all numbers as radix-10 floating point.
JOSS contained six mathematical operators:
for addition
for subtraction
for multiplication (the inpunct, not period)
for division
for exponents
for absolute value, with an expression in the middle
Mathematical expressions could use () and [] interchangeably in matched pairs to establish precedence. For instance:
1.30 Set A=|-10*[5+1]*(1+5)|.
Would produce 360.
Functions
The language contained the following built-in functions:
Math
- Sine of an angle given in radians
- Cosine
- Takes X and Y values of a point and returns the angle between that point and the x-axis
- Naperian log
- Natural base to the power of the argument
- Square root
- Sign of the argument, 0 returns 0, -ve values -1, +ve +1
- Integer part of the argument, returns 22026
- Fractional part, returns .4658
- Digit part, returns 2.20264658
- Exponent part, returns 4, the location of the decimal
Boolean
- Truth value, returns 1 if the expression is true, 0 otherwise
Looping functions
JOSS also defined a number of functions that performed looping internally, in order to avoid the programmer having to write a loop to perform simple tasks like summing a series of numbers. The parameters could be either a list of simple expressions separated by commas, or a range construct whose command could be any statement or function call.
- Maximum value of the provided expressions
- Minimum
- Sum
- Product
- First item in the list that matches a condition, returns that result
File management
The JOSS system used a hard disk to store user programs in an allocated space. Within that space were a number of files that were referred to using a multi-part filename consisting of an integer and a five-letter name in parentheses, for instance, . The integer part is the equivalent of a directory, and the name is the sub-file within it, maintained by JOSS itself.
Files are written with and loaded with . One could also read or save only certain parts of the workspace, for instance to save a single routine to a file. Additionally, one could set a default file to which all references were assumed with Files could be deleted with .
Sample program
1.1 Demand p,q.
1.2 Stop if q<0 or r(q,2)=0.
1.3 Set a=1.
1.4 Do part 2 while q>1 and a≠0.
1.5 Type a in form 3.
1.6 Stop.
2.1 Do part 20.
2.1 Do part 11 if p<0.
2.2 Do part 12 if p≥q.
2.3 Do part 13 if p=0.
2.4 Done if a=0.
2.5 Set p=p/4 while r(p,4)=0.
2.6 Do part 14 if r(p,2)=0.
2.7 Do part 20.
2.8 Set a=-a if r(p,4)=r(q,4)=3.
2.9 Set s=p, p=q, q=s.
2.95 Do part 20.
11.1 Set a=-a if r(q,4)=3.
11.2 Set p=|p|.
11.3 Do part 20.
12.1 Set p=r(p,q).
12.2 Do part 20.
13.1 Set a=0, p=1, q=1.
14.1 Set a=-a if r(q,8)=3 or r(q,8)=5.
14.2 Set p=p/2.
20.1 Type p, q in form 1 if a=1.
20.2 Type p, q in form 2 if a=-1.
Form 1: " L(%.0f,%.0f) ="
Form 2: " -L(%.0f,%.0f) ="
Form 3: " %.0f\n"
Note that this is not an original sample, but rather one from a modern simulator. There are some syntactic differences from the original JOSS language.
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
"JOSS Users' Reference Manual", R.L. Clark, Report R-1555/9, RAND Corp (Jan 1975)
Oral history interview with Keith W. Uncapher, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Review of projects at RAND Corporation when Keith Uncapher was hired in 1950 through the early 1970s, such as JOHNNIAC, JOSS, a survivable national network, and some work related to the ARPANET.
Programming languages created in 1963
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Social degeneration was a widely influential concept at the interface of the social and biological sciences in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 18th century, scientific thinkers including Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, and Immanuel Kant argued that humans shared a common origin but had degenerated over time due to differences in climate. This theory provided an explanation of where humans came from and why some people appeared differently from others. In contrast, degenerationists in the 19th century feared that civilization might be in decline and that the causes of decline lay in biological change. These ideas derived from pre-scientific concepts of heredity ("hereditary taint") with Lamarckian emphasis on biological development through purpose and habit. Degeneration concepts were often associated with authoritarian political attitudes, including militarism and scientific racism, and a preoccupation with eugenics. The theory originated in racial concepts of ethnicity, recorded in the writings of such medical scientists as Johann Blumenbach and Robert Knox. From the 1850s, it became influential in psychiatry through the writings of Bénédict Morel, and in criminology with Cesare Lombroso. By the 1890s, in the work of Max Nordau and others, degeneration became a more general concept in social criticism. It also fed into the ideology of ethnic nationalism, attracting, among others, Maurice Barrès, Charles Maurras and the . Alexis Carrel, a French Nobel Laureate in Medicine, cited national degeneration as a rationale for a eugenics programme in collaborationist Vichy France.
The meaning of degeneration was poorly defined, but can be described as an organism's change from a more complex to a simpler, less differentiated form, and is associated with 19th-century conceptions of biological devolution. In scientific usage, the term was reserved for changes occurring at a histological level – i.e. in body tissues. Although rejected by Charles Darwin, the theory's application to the social sciences was supported by some evolutionary biologists, most notably Ernst Haeckel and Ray Lankester. As the 19th century wore on, the increasing emphasis on degeneration reflected an anxious pessimism about the resilience of European civilization and its possible decline and collapse.
Theories of degeneration in the 18th century
In the second half of the eighteenth century, degeneration theory gained prominence as an explanation of the nature and origin of human difference. Among the most notable proponents of this theory was Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon. A gifted mathematician and eager naturalist, Buffon served as the curator of the Parisian Cabinet du Roi. The collections of the Cabinet du Roi served as the inspiration for Buffon's encyclopedic , of which he published thirty-six volumes between 1749 and his death in 1788. In the , Buffon asserted that differences in climate created variety within species. He believed that these changes occurred gradually and initially affected only a few individuals before becoming widespread. Buffon relied on an argument from analogy to contend that this process of degeneration occurred among humans. He claimed to have observed the transformation of certain animals by their climate and concluded that such changes must have also shaped humankind.
Buffon maintained that degeneration had particularly adverse consequences in the New World. He believed America to be both colder and wetter than Europe. This climate limited the number of species in the New World and prompted a decline in size and vigor among the animals which did survive. Buffon also applied these principles to the people of the New World. He wrote in the Histoire Naturelle that the indigenous people lacked the ability to feel strong emotion for others. For Buffon, these individuals were incapable of love as well as desire.
Buffon's theory of degeneration attracted the ire of many early American elites who feared that Buffon's depiction of the New World would negatively influence European perceptions of their nation. In particular, Thomas Jefferson mounted a vigorous defense of the American natural world. He attacked the premises of Buffon's argument in his 1785 Notes on the State of Virginia, writing that the animals of the New World felt the same sun and walked upon the same soil as their European counterparts. Jefferson believed that he could permanently alter Buffon's views of the New World by showing him firsthand the majesty of American wildlife. While serving as minister to France, Jefferson wrote repeatedly to his compatriots in the United States, pleading them to send a stuffed moose to Paris. After months of effort, General John Sullivan responded to Jefferson's request and shipped a moose to France. Buffon died only three months after the moose's arrival, and his theory of New World degeneration remained forever preserved in the pages of the .
In the years following Buffon's death, the theory of degeneration gained a number of new followers, many of whom were concentrated in German-speaking lands. The anatomist and naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach praised Buffon in his lectures at the University of Göttingen. He adopted Buffon's theory of degeneration in his dissertation De Generis Humani Varietate Nativa. The central premise of this work was that all of mankind belonged to the same species. Blumenbach believed that a multitude of factors, including climate, air, and the strength of the sun, promoted degeneration and resulted in external differences between human beings. However, he also asserted that these changes could easily be undone and, thus, did not constitute the basis for speciation. In the essay “Über Menschen-Rassen und Schweine-Rassen,” Blumenbach clarified his understanding of the relationship between different human races by calling upon the example of the pig. He contended that, if the domestic pig and the wild boar were seen as belonging to the same species, then different humans, regardless of skin color or height, must too belong to the same species. For Blumenbach, all people of the world existed as different gradations on a spectrum. Nevertheless, the third edition of De Generis Humani Varietate Nativa, published in 1795, is famed among scholars for its introduction of a system of racial classification which divided humans into members of the Caucasian, Ethiopian, Mongolian, Malayan, or American races.
Blumenbach's views on degeneration emerged in dialogue with the works of other thinkers concerned with race and origin in the late eighteenth century. In particular, Blumenbach participated in fruitful intellectual exchange with another prominent German scholar of his age, Immanuel Kant. Kant, a philosopher and professor at the University of Königsberg, taught a course on physical geography for some forty years, fostering an interest in biology and taxonomy. Like Blumenbach, Kant engaged closely with the writings of Buffon while developing his position on these subjects.
In his 1777 essay “Von der verschiedenen Racen der Menschen,” Kant expressed the belief that all humans shared a common origin. He called upon the ability of humans to interbreed as evidence for this assertion. Additionally, Kant introduced the term “degeneration,” which he defined as hereditary differences between groups with a shared root. Kant also arrived at a meaning of “race” from this definition of degeneration. He claimed that races developed when degenerations were preserved over a long period of time. A group could only constitute a race if breeding with a different degeneration resulted in “intermediate offspring." Although Kant advocated for a theory of shared human origin, he also contended that there was an innate hierarchy between existing races. In 1788, Kant wrote “Über den Gebrauch teleologischer Prinzipien.” He maintained in this work that a human's place in nature was determined by the amount of sweat the individual produced, which revealed an innate ability to survive. Sweat emerged from the skin. Therefore, skin color indicated important distinctions between humans.
History
The concept of degeneration arose during the European enlightenment and the industrial revolution – a period of profound social change and a rapidly shifting sense of personal identity. Several influences were involved.
The first related to the extreme demographic upheavals, including urbanization, in the early years of the 19th century. The disturbing experience of social change and urban crowds, largely unknown in the agrarian 18th century, was recorded in the journalism of William Cobbett, the novels of Charles Dickens and in the paintings of J M W Turner. These changes were also explored by early writers on social psychology, including Gustav Le Bon and Georg Simmel. The psychological impact of industrialisation is comprehensively described in Humphrey Jennings' masterly anthology Pandaemonium 1660 - 1886. Victorian social reformers including Edwin Chadwick, Henry Mayhew and Charles Booth voiced concerns about the "decline" of public health in the urban life of the British working class, arguing for improved housing and sanitation, access to parks and recreational facilities, an improved diet and a reduction in alcohol intake. These contributions from the public health perspective were discussed by the Scottish physician Sir James Cantlie in his influential 1885 lecture Degeneration Amongst Londoners. The novel experience of everyday contact with the urban working classes gave rise to a kind of horrified fascination with their perceived reproductive energies which appeared to threaten middle-class culture.
Secondly, the proto-evolutionary biology and transformatist speculations of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and other natural historians—taken together with the Baron von Cuvier's theory of extinctions—played an important part in establishing a sense of the unsettled aspects of the natural world. The polygenic theories of multiple human origins, supported by Robert Knox in his book The Races of Men, were firmly rejected by Charles Darwin who, following James Cowles Prichard, generally agreed on a single African origin for the entire human species.
Thirdly, the development of world trade and colonialism, the early European experience of globalization, resulted in an awareness of the varieties of cultural expression and the vulnerabilities of Western civilization.
Finally, the growth of historical scholarship in the 18th century, exemplified by Edward Gibbon's The History of the Decline and Fall of The Roman Empire (1776–1789), excited a renewed interest in the narratives of historical decline. This resonated uncomfortably with the difficulties of French political life in the post-revolutionary nineteenth century.
Degeneration theory achieved a detailed articulation in Bénédict Morel's Treatise on Degeneration of the Human Species (1857), a complicated work of clinical commentary from an asylum in Normandy (Saint Yon in Rouen) which, in the popular imagination at least, coalesced with de Gobineau's Essay on The Inequality of the Human Races (1855). Morel's concept of mental degeneration – in which he believed that intoxication and addiction in one generation of a family would lead to hysteria, epilepsy, sexual perversions, insanity, learning disability and sterility in subsequent generations – is an example of Lamarckian biological thinking, and Morel's medical discussions are reminiscent of the clinical literature surrounding syphilitic infection (syphilography). Morel's psychiatric theories were taken up and advocated by his friend Philippe Buchez, and through his political influence became an official doctrine in French legal and administrative medicine.
Arthur de Gobineau came from an impoverished family (with a domineering and adulterous mother) which claimed an aristocratic ancestry; he was a failed author of historical romances, and his wife was widely rumored to be a Créole from Martinique. De Gobineau nevertheless argued that the course of history and civilization was largely determined by ethnic factors, and that interracial marriage ("miscegenation") resulted in social chaos. De Gobineau built a successful career in the French diplomatic service, living for extended periods in Iran and Brazil, and spent his later years travelling through Europe, lamenting his mistreatment at the hands of his wife and daughters. He died of a heart attack in 1882 while boarding a train in Turin. His work was well received in German translation—not least by the composer Richard Wagner—and the leading German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin later wrote extensively on the dangers posed by degeneration to the German people. De Gobineau's writings exerted an enormous influence on the thinkers antecedent to the Third Reich – although they are curiously free of anti-Semitic prejudice. Quite different historical factors inspired the Italian Cesare Lombroso in his work on criminal anthropology with the notion of atavistic retrogression, probably shaped by his experiences as a young army doctor in Calabria during the risorgimento.
In Britain, degeneration received a scientific formulation from Ray Lankester whose detailed discussions of the biology of parasitism were hugely influential; the poor physical condition of many British Army recruits for the Second Boer War (1899–1902) led to alarm in government circles. Psychiatrist Henry Maudsley initially argued that degenerate family lines would die out with little social consequence, but later became more pessimistic about the effects of degeneration on the general population; Maudsley also warned against the use of the term "degeneration" in a vague and indiscriminate way. Anxieties in Britain about the perils of degeneration found legislative expression in the Mental Deficiency Act 1913 which gained strong support from Winston Churchill, then a senior member of the Liberal government.
In the fin-de-siècle period, Max Nordau scored an unexpected success with his bestselling Degeneration (1892). Sigmund Freud met Nordau in 1885 while he was studying in Paris and was notably unimpressed by him and hostile to the degeneration concept. Degeneration fell from popular and fashionable favor around the time of the First World War, although some of its preoccupations persisted in the writings of the eugenicists and social Darwinists (for example, R. Austin Freeman; Anthony Ludovici; Rolf Gardiner; and see also Dennis Wheatley's Letter to posterity). Oswald Spengler's The Decline of the West (1919) captured something of the degenerationist spirit in the aftermath of the war.
Psychology and Emil Kraepelin
Degeneration theory is, at its heart, a way of thinking, and something that is taught, not innate. A major influence on the theory was Emil Kraepelin, lining up degeneration theory with his psychiatry practice. The central idea of this concept was that in “degenerative” illness, there is a steady decline in mental functioning and social adaptation from one generation to the other. For example, there might be an intergenerational development from nervous character to major depressive disorder, to overt psychotic illness and, finally, to severe and chronic cognitive impairment, something akin to dementia. This theory was advanced decades before the rediscovery of Mendelian genetics and their application to medicine in general and to psychiatry in particular. Kraepelin and his colleagues mostly derived from degeneration theory broadly. He rarely made a specific references to the theory of degeneration, and his attitude towards degeneration theory was not straightforward. Positive, but more ambivalent. The concept of disease, especially chronic mental disease fit very well into this framework insofar these phenomena were regarded as signs of an evolution in the wrong direction, as a degenerative process which diverts from the usual path of nature.
However, he remained skeptical of over-simplistic versions of this concept: While commenting approvingly on the basic ideas of Cesare Lombroso's "criminal anthropology", he did not accept the popular idea of overt "stigmata of degeneration", by which individual persons could be identified as being "degenerated" simply by their physical appearance. While Kraepelin and his colleagues may not have focused on this, it did not stop others from advancing the converse idea.
An early application of this theory was the Mental Deficiency Act supported by Winston Churchill in 1913. This entailed placing those deemed “idiots” into separate colonies, and included those who showed sign of a “degeneration”. While this did apply to those with mental disorders of a psychiatric nature, the execution was not always in the same vein, as some of the language was used to the those “morally weak”, or deemed “idiots”. The belief in the existence of degeneration helped foster a sense that a sense of negative energy was inexplicable and was there to find sources of “rot” in society. This forwarded the notion the idea that society was structured in a way that produced regression, an outcome of the “darker side of progress”.
Those who had developed the label of "degenerate" as a means of qualifying difference in a negative manner could use the idea that this “darker side of progress” was inevitable by having the idea society could “rot". Considerations to the pervasiveness an allegedly superior condition were, during the nineteenth century, frighteningly reinforced the language and habits of destructive thinking.
The "dark side" of progress
The idea of progress was at once a social, political and scientific theory. The theory of evolution, as described in Darwin's The Origin of Species, provided for many social theorists the necessary scientific foundation for the idea of social and political progress. The terms evolution and progress were in fact often used interchangeably in the 19th century.
The rapid industrial, political and economic progress in 19th-century Europe and North America was, however, paralleled by a sustained discussion about increasing rates of crime, insanity, vagrancy, prostitution, and so forth. Confronted with this apparent paradox, evolutionary scientists, criminal anthropologists and psychiatrists postulated that civilization and scientific progress could be a cause of physical and social pathology as much as a defense against it. This led to the emergence of a general theory of degeneration, never reduced to a concrete, simple theory or axiom. Instead, the concept of degeneration was produced and refined within and between several discourses, including the human sciences, the natural sciences, fictional narratives and socio-political commentaries. A broad outline of the theory, however, can be formulated, and it runs as follows.
According to the theory of degeneration, a host of individual and social pathologies in a finite network of diseases, disorders and moral habits could be explained by a biologically based affliction. The primary symptoms of the affliction were thought to be a weakening of the vital forces and will power of its victim. In this way, a wide range of social and medical deviations, including crime, violence, alcoholism, prostitution, gambling, and pornography, could be explained by reference to a biological defect within the individual. The theory of degeneration was therefore predicated on evolutionary theory. The forces of degeneration opposed those of evolution, and those afflicted with degeneration were thought to represent a return to an earlier evolutionary stage. This can be seen socially when mixed race marriages started becoming more frequent as the 19th century progressed. Such mixed marriages, all but unthinkable in 1848 but now on the rise among Indo-European and even full-blood European women with native men, were attributed to the increasing impoverishment and declining welfare of these women on the one hand an "intellectual and social development" among certain classes of native the other. The issue, however, was rarely addressed since the gender hierarchy of the argument was contingent on assuming those who made such conjugal choices were neither well-bred nor deserved European standing. As more people began to mix with a race or people that was seen as lesser, degeneration theory became intertwined with development in a racial and colonial sense and more of these examples became common.
The poetics of degeneration was a poetics of social crisis. In the last decades of the century; Victorian social planners drew deeply on social Darwinism and the idea of degeneration to figure the social crises erupting relentlessly in the cities and colonies. Heightened debates converged with domestic and colonial social reform, cementing an offensive of a somewhat different order. It targeted the "dangerous" in paupered residuum and the growing population impoverished Indo-Europeans, the majority of whom were of mixed but legally classified as European. The world, being more globalized than ever before, continued to have more “crises” similar to these had by the leading classes, deterring the other as the enemy or downfall of society.
By the end of the 1870s, Britain was foundering in severe depression, and throughout the 1880s class tensions, the suffragette movement, a socialist revival, swelling poverty and the dearth of housing and jobs fed deepening middle class fears.
Selected quotes
Development of the degeneration concept
The earliest uses of the term degeneration can be found in the writings of Blumenbach and Buffon at the end of the 18th century, when these early writers on natural history considered scientific approaches to the human species. With the taxonomic mind-set of natural historians, they drew attention to the different ethnic groupings of mankind, and raised general enquiries about their relationships, with the idea that racial groupings could be explained by environmental effects on a common ancestral stock. This pre-Darwinian belief in the heritability of acquired characteristics does not accord with modern genetics. An alternative view of the multiple origins of different racial groups, called "polygenic theories", was also rejected by Charles Darwin, who favored explanations in terms of differential geographic migrations from a single, probably African, population.
The theory of degeneration found its first detailed presentation in the writings of Bénédict Morel (1809–1873), especially in his (Treatise on Degeneration of the Human Species) (1857). This book was published two years before Darwin's Origin of Species. Morel was a highly regarded psychiatrist, the very successful superintendent of the Rouen asylum for almost twenty years and a fastidious recorder of the family histories of his variously disabled patients. Through the details of these family histories, Morel discerned an hereditary line of defective parents infected by pollutants and stimulants; a second generation liable to epilepsy, neurasthenia, sexual deviations and hysteria; a third generation prone to insanity; and a final generation doomed to congenital idiocy and sterility. In 1857, Morel proposed a theory of hereditary degeneracy, bringing together environmental and hereditary elements in an uncompromisingly pre-Darwinian mix. Morel's contribution was further developed by Valentin Magnan (1835–1916), who stressed the role of alcohol—particularly absinthe—in the generation of psychiatric disorders.
Morel's ideas were greatly extended by the Italian medical scientist Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909) whose work was defended and translated into English by Havelock Ellis. In his L'uomo delinquente (1876), Lombroso outlined a comprehensive natural history of the socially deviant person and detailed the stigmata of the person who was born to be criminally insane. These included a low, sloping forehead, hard and shifty eyes, large, handle-shaped ears, a flattened or upturned nose, a forward projection of the jaw, irregular teeth, prehensile toes and feet, long simian arms and a scanty beard and baldness. Lombroso also listed the features of the degenerate mentality, supposedly released by the disinhibition of the primitive neurological centres. These included apathy, the loss of moral sense, a tendency to impulsiveness or self-doubt, an unevenness of mental qualities such as unusual memory or aesthetic abilities, a tendency to mutism or to verbosity, excessive originality, preoccupation with the self, mystical interpretations placed on simple facts or perceptions, the abuse of symbolic meanings and the magical use of words, or mantras. Lombroso, with his concept of atavistic retrogression, suggested an evolutionary reversion, complementing hereditary degeneracy, and his work in the medical examination of criminals in Turin resulted in his theory of criminal anthropology—a constitutional notion of abnormal personality that was not actually supported by his own scientific investigations. In his later life, Lombroso developed an obsession with spiritualism, engaging with the spirit of his long dead mother.
In 1892, Max Nordau, an expatriate Hungarian living in Paris, published his extraordinary bestseller Degeneration, which greatly extended the concepts of Bénédict Morel and Cesare Lombroso (to whom he dedicated the book) to the entire civilization of western Europe, and transformed the medical connotations of degeneration into a generalized cultural criticism. Adopting some of Charcot's neurological vocabulary, Nordau identified a number of weaknesses in contemporary Western culture which he characterized in terms of ego-mania, i.e., narcissism and hysteria. He also emphasized the importance of fatigue, enervation and ennui. Nordau, horrified by the anti-Semitism surrounding the Dreyfus affair, devoted his later years to Zionist politics. Degeneration theory fell from favour around the time of the First World War because of an improved understanding of the mechanisms of genetics as well as the increasing vogue for psychoanalytic thinking. However, some of its preoccupations lived on in the world of eugenics and social Darwinism. It is notable that the Nazi attack on western liberal society was largely couched in terms of degenerate art with its associations of racial miscegenation and fantasies of racial purity—and included as its target almost all modernist cultural experiment.
The role of women in furthering development of the concept of degeneration was reviewed by Anne McClintock, a professor of English at the University of Wisconsin, who found that women who were ambiguously placed on the so-called "imperial divide" (nurses, nannies, governesses, prostitutes and servants) happened to serve as boundary markers and mediators. These women were tasked with the purification and maintenance of boundaries and what was seen as "inferior" places in society they held at the time.
Degenerationist devices
Towards the close of the 19th century, in the fin-de-siècle period, something of an obsession with decline, descent and degeneration invaded the European creative imagination, partly fuelled by widespread misconceptions of Darwinian evolutionary theory. Among the main examples are the symbolist literary work of Charles Baudelaire, the Rougon-Macquart novels of Émile Zola, Robert Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde—published in the same year (1886) as Richard von Krafft-Ebing's Psychopathia Sexualis—and, subsequently, Oscar Wilde's only novel (containing his aesthetic manifesto) The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891). In Tess of the d'Urbervilles (1891), Thomas Hardy explores the destructive consequences of a family myth of noble ancestry. Norwegian dramatist Henrik Ibsen showed a sensitivity to degenerationist thinking in his theatrical presentations of Scandinavian domestic crises. Arthur Machen's The Great God Pan (1890/1894), with its emphasis on the horrors of psychosurgery, is frequently cited as an essay on degeneration. A scientific twist was added by H.G. Wells in The Time Machine (1895) in which Wells prophesied the splitting of the human race into variously degenerate forms, and again in his The Island of Doctor Moreau (1896) wherein forcibly mutated animal-human hybrids keep reverting to their earlier forms. Joseph Conrad alludes to degeneration theory in his treatment of political radicalism in the 1907 novel The Secret Agent.
In her influential study The Gothic Body, Kelly Hurley draws attention to the literary device of the abhuman as a representation of damaged personal identity, and to lesser-known authors in the field, including Richard Marsh (1857–1915), author of The Beetle (1897), and William Hope Hodgson (1877–1918), author of The Boats of the Glen Carrig, The House on the Borderland and The Night Land. In 1897, Bram Stoker published Dracula, an enormously influential Gothic novel featuring the parasitic vampire Count Dracula in an extended exercise of reversed imperialism. Unusually, Stoker makes explicit reference to the writings of Lombroso and Nordau in the course of the novel. Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories include a host of degenerationist tropes, perhaps best illustrated (drawing on the ideas of Serge Voronoff) in The Adventure of the Creeping Man.
See also
Behavioral sink
Decadence
Declinism
Devolution
Dysgenics
Human extinction
Idiocracy
Last man
"The Marching Morons"
Societal collapse
References
Further reading
Bioethics
History of psychiatry
History of psychology
History of mental health
Lamarckism
History of eugenics
Pseudo-scholarship
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Lacanianism or Lacanian psychoanalysis is a theoretical system that explains the mind, behaviour, and culture through a structuralist and post-structuralist extension of classical psychoanalysis, initiated by the work of Jacques Lacan from the 1950s to the 1980s. Lacanian perspectives contend that the world of language, the Symbolic, structures the human mind, and stress the importance of desire, which is conceived of as endless and impossible to satisfy. Contemporary Lacanianism is characterised by a broad range of thought and extensive debate between Lacanians.
Lacanianism has been particularly influential in post-structuralism, literary theory and feminist theory, as well as in various branches of critical theory, including queer theory. Equally, it has been criticised by the post-structuralists Deleuze and Guattari and by various feminist theorists. Its clinical relevance is limited and outside France it has had no influence on psychiatry. There is a Lacanian strand in left-wing politics, including Saul Newman's and Duane Rousselle's post-anarchism, Louis Althusser's structural Marxism, and the works of Slavoj Žižek and Alain Badiou. Influential figures in Lacanianism include Žižek, Julia Kristeva and Serge Leclaire.
Overview
Lacanians view the structure of the mind as defined by the individual's entry as an infant into the world of language, the Symbolic, through an Oedipal process. Like other post-structuralist approaches, Lacanianism regards the subject as an illusion created when an individual is signified (represented in language), but distinctively, this initial signification is incomplete, as there is always something about the subject which cannot be properly represented in language, which means that signification also divides the subject. The Symbolic is defined by the Other, those parts of the outside world with which the subject cannot identify, which is the place where signifiers are given meaning. Language is hence a discourse of the Other, outside conscious control.
The unconscious mind is constituted by a network of empty signifiers that resurface in language—particularly dreams and Freudian slips—and Lacanian clinical practice focuses closely on the precise words used by the analysand (patient), which Lacan characterised as a "return to Freud". Analysis focuses largely on desire. Lacanians contend that desire cannot be satisfied, as the object and cause of desire is an unobtainable object, the objet petit a, which the subject continually associates with different things that they wrongly believe will satisfy their desire. Objet a exists as a consequence of the division of the subject in signification, so desire is said to result from an unsolvable lack at the heart of the subject.
Lacanianism posits that all people belong to one of three "clinical structures" and either are psychotic, perverse, or, most commonly, neurotic. Neurotic subjects—that is to say, most people—are then always either hysterical or obsessional. The three clinical structures describe the subject's relationship to the Other and are each associated with a different defence mechanism: psychotics use foreclosure, a rejection of the father's authority in the Oedipus complex that results in a failure to form a Symbolic unconscious; perverts use disavowal, failing to accept that lack causes desire and nominating a specific object as its cause, their fetish; and neurotics use repression.
Psychical reality is constituted by the Symbolic, the Imaginary, the Real, and for Lacanians who follow Kristeva, the Semiotic.
Mirror stage
Lacan's first official contribution to psychoanalysis was the mirror stage, which he described as "formative of the function of the 'I' as revealed in psychoanalytic experience." By the early 1950s, he came to regard the mirror stage as more than a moment in the life of the infant; instead, it formed part of the permanent structure of subjectivity. In the "imaginary order", the subject's own image permanently catches and captivates the subject. Lacan explains that "the mirror stage is a phenomenon to which I assign a twofold value. In the first place, it has historical value as it marks a decisive turning-point in the mental development of the child. In the second place, it typifies an essential libidinal relationship with the body-image".
As this concept developed further, the stress fell less on its historical value and more on its structural value. In his fourth seminar, "La relation d'objet", Lacan states that "the mirror stage is far from a mere phenomenon which occurs in the development of the child. It illustrates the conflictual nature of the dual relationship. "
The mirror stage describes the formation of the ego via the process of objectification, the ego being the result of a conflict between one's perceived visual appearance and one's emotional experience. This identification is what Lacan called "alienation". At six months, the baby still lacks physical co-ordination. The child is able to recognize themselves in a mirror prior to the attainment of control over their bodily movements. The child sees their image as a whole and the synthesis of this image produces a sense of contrast with the lack of co-ordination of the body, which is perceived as a fragmented body. The child experiences this contrast initially as a rivalry with their image, because the wholeness of the image threatens the child with fragmentation—thus the mirror stage gives rise to an aggressive tension between the subject and the image. To resolve this aggressive tension, the child identifies with the image: this primary identification with the counterpart forms the ego. Lacan understood this moment of identification as a moment of jubilation, since it leads to an imaginary sense of mastery; yet when the child compares their own precarious sense of mastery with the omnipotence of the mother, a depressive reaction may accompany the jubilation.
Lacan calls the specular image "orthopaedic", since it leads the child to anticipate the overcoming of its "real specific prematurity of birth". The vision of the body as integrated and contained, in opposition to the child's actual experience of motor incapacity and the sense of his or her body as fragmented, induces a movement from "insufficiency to anticipation". In other words, the mirror image initiates and then aids, like a crutch, the process of the formation of an integrated sense of self.
In the mirror stage a "misunderstanding" (méconnaissance) constitutes the ego—the "me" (moi) becomes alienated from itself through the introduction of an imaginary dimension to the subject. The mirror stage also has a significant symbolic dimension, due to the presence of the figure of the adult who carries the infant. Having jubilantly assumed the image as their own, the child turns their head towards this adult, who represents the big other, as if to call on the adult to ratify this image.
Desire
Lacan's concept of desire is related to Hegel's Begierde, a term that implies a continuous force, and therefore somehow differs from Freud's concept of Wunsch. Lacan's desire refers always to unconscious desire because it is unconscious desire that forms the central concern of psychoanalysis.
The aim of psychoanalysis is to lead the analysand to recognize his/her desire and by doing so to uncover the truth about his/her desire. However this is possible only if desire is articulated in speech: "It is only once it is formulated, named in the presence of the other, that desire appears in the full sense of the term." And again in The Ego in Freud's Theory and in the Technique of Psychoanalysis: "what is important is to teach the subject to name, to articulate, to bring desire into existence. The subject should come to recognize and to name her/his desire. But it isn't a question of recognizing something that could be entirely given. In naming it, the subject creates, brings forth, a new presence in the world." The truth about desire is somehow present in discourse, although discourse is never able to articulate the entire truth about desire; whenever discourse attempts to articulate desire, there is always a leftover or surplus.
Lacan distinguishes desire from need and from demand. Need is a biological instinct where the subject depends on the Other to satisfy its own needs: in order to get the Other's help, "need" must be articulated in "demand". But the presence of the Other not only ensures the satisfaction of the "need", it also represents the Other's love. Consequently, "demand" acquires a double function: on the one hand, it articulates "need", and on the other, acts as a "demand for love". Even after the "need" articulated in demand is satisfied, the "demand for love" remains unsatisfied since the Other cannot provide the unconditional love that the subject seeks. "Desire is neither the appetite for satisfaction, nor the demand for love, but the difference that results from the subtraction of the first from the second." Desire is a surplus, a leftover, produced by the articulation of need in demand: "desire begins to take shape in the margin in which demand becomes separated from need". Unlike need, which can be satisfied, desire can never be satisfied: it is constant in its pressure and eternal. The attainment of desire does not consist in being fulfilled but in its reproduction as such. As Slavoj Žižek puts it, "desire's raison d'être is not to realize its goal, to find full satisfaction, but to reproduce itself as desire".
Lacan also distinguishes between desire and the drives: desire is one and drives are many. The drives are the partial manifestations of a single force called desire. Lacan's concept of "objet petit a" is the object of desire, although this object is not that towards which desire tends, but rather the cause of desire. Desire is not a relation to an object but a relation to a lack (manque).
In The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis Lacan argues that "man's desire is the desire of the Other." This entails the following:
Desire is the desire of the Other's desire, meaning that desire is the object of another's desire and that desire is also desire for recognition. Here Lacan follows Alexandre Kojève, who follows Hegel: for Kojève the subject must risk his own life if he wants to achieve the desired prestige. This desire to be the object of another's desire is best exemplified in the Oedipus complex, when the subject desires to be the phallus of the mother.
In "The Subversion of the Subject and the Dialectic of Desire in the Freudian Unconscious", Lacan contends that the subject desires from the point of view of another whereby the object of someone's desire is an object desired by another one: what makes the object desirable is that it is precisely desired by someone else. Again Lacan follows Kojève. who follows Hegel. This aspect of desire is present in hysteria, for the hysteric is someone who converts another's desire into his/her own (see Sigmund Freud's "Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria" in SE VII, where Dora desires Frau K because she identifies with Herr K). What matters then in the analysis of a hysteric is not to find out the object of her desire but to discover the subject with whom she identifies.
Désir de l'Autre, which is translated as "desire for the Other" (though it could also be "desire of the Other"). The fundamental desire is the incestuous desire for the mother, the primordial Other.
Desire is "the desire for something else", since it is impossible to desire what one already has. The object of desire is continually deferred, which is why desire is a metonymy.
Desire appears in the field of the Otherthat is, in the unconscious.
Last but not least for Lacan, the first person who occupies the place of the Other is the mother and at first the child is at her mercy. Only when the father articulates desire with the Law by castrating the mother is the subject liberated from desire for the mother.
History
Jacques Lacan's lifetime
Lacan considered the human psyche to be framed within the three orders of The Imaginary, The Symbolic and The Real (RSI). The three divisions in their varying emphases also correspond roughly to the development of Lacan's thought. As he himself put it in Seminar XXII, "I began with the Imaginary, I then had to chew on the story of the Symbolic...and I finished by putting out for you this famous Real".
Lacan's early psychoanalytic period spans the 1930s and 1940s. His contributions from this period centered on the questions of image, identification and unconscious fantasy. Developing Henri Wallon's concept of infant mirroring, he used the idea of the mirror stage to demonstrate the imaginary nature of the ego, in opposition to the views of ego psychology.
In the fifties, the focus of Lacan's interest shifted to the symbolic order of kinship, culture, social structure and roles—all mediated by the acquisition of language—into which each one of us is born and with which we all have to come to terms.
The focus of therapy became that of dealing with disruptions on the part of the Imaginary of the structuring role played by the signifier/Other/Symbolic Order.
Lacan's approach to psychoanalysis created a dialectic between Freud's thinking and that of both Structuralist thinkers such as Ferdinand de Saussure, as well as with Heidegger, Hegel and other continental philosophers.
The sixties saw Lacan's attention increasingly focused on what he termed the Real—not external consensual reality, but rather that unconscious element in the personality, linked to trauma, dream and the drive, which resists signification.
The Real was what was lacking or absent from every totalising structural theory; and in the form of jouissance, and the persistence of the symptom or synthome, marked Lacan's shifting of psychoanalysis from modernity to postmodernity.
Then Real, together with the Imaginary and the Symbolic came to form a triad of "elementary registers." Lacan believed these three concepts were inseparably intertwined, and by the 1970s they were an integral part of his thought.
Multiple "Lacanianisms"
Lacan's thinking was intimately geared not only to the work of Freud but to that of the most prominent of his psychoanalytic successors—Heinz Hartmann, Melanie Klein, Michael Balint, D. W. Winnicott and more. With Lacan's break with official psychoanalysis in 1963–1964, however, a tendency developed to look for a pure, self-contained Lacanianism, without psychoanalytic trappings. Jacques-Alain Miller's index to Ecrits had already written of "the Lacanian epistemology...the analytic experience (in its Lacanian definition...)"; and where the old guard of first-generation disciples like Serge Leclaire continued to stress the importance of the re-reading of Freud, the new recruits of the sixties and seventies favoured instead an ahistorical Lacan, systematised after the event into a rigorous if over-simplified theoretical whole.
Three main phases may be identified in Lacan's mature work: his Fifties exploration of the Imaginary and the Symbolic; his concern with the Real and the lost object of desire, the objet petit a, during the Sixties; and a final phase highlighting jouissance and the mathematical formulation of psychoanalytic teaching.
As the fifties Lacan developed a distinctive style of teaching based on a linguistic reading of Freud, so too he built up a substantial following within the Société Française de Psychanalyse [SFP], with Serge Leclaire only the first of many French "Lacanians". It was this phase of his teaching that was memorialised in Écrits, and which first found its way into the English-speaking world, where more Lacanians were thus to be found in English or Philosophy Departments than in clinical practice.
However the very extent of Lacan's following raised serious criticisms: he was accused both of abusing the positive transference to tie his analysands to himself, and of magnifying their numbers by the use of shortened analytic sessions. The questionable nature of his following was one of the reasons for his failure to gain recognition for his teaching from the International Psychoanalytical Association recognition for the French form of Freudianism that was "Lacanianism"—a failure that led to his founding the École Freudienne de Paris (EFP) in 1964. Many of his closest and most creative followers, such as Jean Laplanche, chose the IPA over Lacan at this point, in the first of many subsequent Lacanian schisms.
Lacan's 1973 Letter to the Italians, nominated Muriel Drazien, Giacomo Contri and Armando Verdiglione to carry his teaching in Italy.
As a body of thought, Lacanianism began to make its way into the English-speaking world from the sixties onwards, influencing film theory, feminist thought, queer theory, and psychoanalytic criticism,<ref>J. Childers/G. Hentzi, The Columbia Dictionary of Modern Literary and Cultural Criticism (1996) p. 270 and p. 246-8</ref> as well as politics and social sciences, primarily through the concepts of the Imaginary and the Symbolic. As the role of the real and of jouissance in opposing structure became more widely recognised, however, so too Lacanianism developed as a tool for the exploration of the divided subject of postmodernity.
Since Lacan's death, however, much of the public attention focused on his work began to decline. Lacan had always been criticised for an obscurantist writing style; and many of his disciples simply replicated the mystificatory elements in his work (in a sort of transferential identification) without his freshness.
Where interest in Lacanianism did revive in the 21st century, it was in large part the work of figures like Slavoj Žižek who have been able to use Lacan's thought for their own intellectual ends, without the sometimes stifling orthodoxy of many of the formal Lacanian traditions. The continued influence of Lacanianism is thus paradoxically strongest in those who seem to have embraced Malcolm Bowie's recommendation: "learn to unlearn the Lacanian idiom in the way Lacan unlearns the Freudian idiom".
During Lacan's lifetime
Élisabeth Roudinesco has suggested that, after the founding of the EFP "the history of psychoanalysis in France became subordinate to that of Lacanianism...the Lacanian movement occupied thereafter the motor position in relation to which the other movements were obliged to determine their course'". There was certainly a large expansion in the numbers of the school, if arguably at the expense of quantity over quality, as a flood of psychologists submerged the analysts who had come with him from the SFP. Protests against the new regime reached a head with the introduction of the self-certifying 'passe' to analytic status, and old comrades such as François Perrier broke away in the bitter schism of 1968 to found the Quatrieme Groupe.
However, major divisions remained within the EDF, which underwent another split over the question of analytic qualifications. There remained within the movement a broad division between the old guard of first generation Lacanians, focused on the symbolic—on the study of Freud through the structural linguistic tools of the fifties—and the younger group of mathematicians and philosophers centred on Jacques-Alain Miller, who favoured a self-contained Lacanianism, formalised and free of its Freudian roots.
As the seventies Lacan spoke of the mathematicisation of psychoanalysis and coined the term 'matheme' to describe its formulaic abstraction, so Leclaire brusquely dismissed the new formulas as “graffiti” Nevertheless, despite these and other tensions, the EDF held together under the charisma of their Master, until (despairing of his followers) Lacan himself dissolved the school in 1980 the year before his death.
Post-Lacan
The start of the eighties saw the Lacanian movement dissolve into a plethora of new organisations, of which the Millerite Ecole de la Cause freudienne (ECF, 273 members) and the Centre de formation et de recherches psychoanalytiques (CFRP, 390 members) are perhaps the most important. By 1993 another fourteen associations had grown out of the former EDF; nor did the process stop there. Early resignations and splits from the ECF were followed in the late 1990s by a massive exodus of analysts worldwide from Miller's organisation under allegations of misuse of authority.
Attempts were made to re-unite the various factions, Leclaire arguing that Lacanianism was "becoming ossifed, stiffening into a kind of war of religion, into theoretical debates that no longer contribute anything new". But with French Lacanianism (in particular) haunted by a past of betrayals and conflict—by faction after faction claiming their segment of Lacanian thought as the only genuine one—reunification of any kind has proven very problematic; and Roudinesco was perhaps correct to conclude that "'Lacanianism, born of subversion and a wish to transgress, is essentially doomed to fragility and dispersal".
Contemporary Lacanianism
Three main divisions can be made in contemporary Lacanianism.
In one form, the academic reading of a de-clinicalised Lacan has become a pursuit in itself.
The (self-styled) legitimatism of the ECF, developed into an international movement with strong Spanish support as well as Latin American roots, set itself up as a rival challenge to the IPA.
The third form is a plural Lacanianism, best epitomised in the moderate CFRP, with its abandonment of the passe and openness to traditional psychoanalysis, and (after the 1995 dissolution) in its two successors.
Attempts to rejoin the IPA remain problematic, however, not least due to the persistence of the 'short session' and of Lacan's rejection of countertransference as a therapeutic tool.
Schools of thought
Gender theory
Judith Butler, Bracha L. Ettinger and Jane Gallop have used Lacanian work, though in a critical way, to develop gender theory.
Criticism
Deleuzoguattarian
Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, the latter a trained Lacanian analyst, launched a major attack on Lacanian psychoanalysis from within post-structuralism in Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (1972). Frederick Crews writes that when they "indicted Lacanian psychoanalysis as a capitalist disorder" and "pilloried analysts as the most sinister priest-manipulators of a psychotic society" in Anti-Oedipus, their "demonstration was widely regarded as unanswerable" and "devastated the already shrinking Lacanian camp in Paris."
The Deleuzoguattarian critique of Lacanianism attacks its conception of desire as "negative", in that it results from a lack in the subject, and its belief that the unconscious mind is "structured like a language". Deleuze and Guattari argued that the unconscious mind was schizophrenic, characterised by rhizomes of libidinal investment, and that desire was a creative force that powered the essential building blocks of psychical structures, desiring-machines. The networks of signifiers to which so much weight is given in Lacanianism are structures created by desiring-machines, above the level of the unconscious. Hence Lacanian analysis works to solve neurosis, but it fails to see that neuroses are a second-order problem that reveal nothing about the unconscious—as does Freud's classical psychoanalysis.
Deleuze and Guattari proposed an alternative post-structuralist extension of classical psychoanalysis, schizoanalysis, which was defined in opposition to these apparent flaws in Lacanianism. Unlike Lacanianism, schizoanalysis openly repudiates parts of Freud, particularly his neurotic conception of the unconscious, and Deleuze and Guattari insisted that it was distinct from psychoanalysis. Schizoanalysis was further elaborated on in A Thousand Plateaus (1980) and Guattari's individual work in the 1980s and early 90s.
Feminist
Elizabeth Grosz accuses Lacan of maintaining a sexist tradition in psychoanalysis.
Luce Irigaray accuses Lacan of perpetuating phallocentric mastery in philosophical and psychoanalytic discourse. Others have echoed this accusation, seeing Lacan as trapped in the very phallocentric mastery his language ostensibly sought to undermine. The result—Cornelius Castoriadis would maintain—was to make all thought depend upon himself, and thus to stifle the capacity for independent thought among all those around him.
See also
Aphanisis
Four discourses
Freudo-Marxism
Male gaze
Name of the Father
Screen theory
World Association of Psychoanalysis
Notable Lacanians
References
Further reading
David Macey, Lacan in Contexts (1988)
Marini Marcelle, Jacques Lacan: The French Context (1992)
Élisabeth Roudinesco, Jacques Lacan & Co: A History of Psychoanalysis in France (1990)
Jean-Michel Rabate, Jacques Lacan: Psychoanalysis and the Subject of Literature'' (2001)
External links
Practice
École de la Cause freudienne
World Association of Psychoanalysis
CFAR – The Centre for Freudian Analysis and Research. London-based Lacanian psychoanalytic training agency
Homepage of the Lacanian School of Psychoanalysis and the San Francisco Society for Lacanian Studies
The London Society of the New Lacanian School. Site includes online library of clinical & theoretical texts
The Freudian School of Melbourne, School of Lacanian Psychoanalysis – Clinical and theoretical teaching and training of psychoanalysts
Theory
Lacan Dot Com
Links about Jacques Lacan at Lacan.com
"How to Read Lacan" by Slavoj Zizek – full version
Jacques Lacan at The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
LacanOnline.com
Structuralism
Post-structuralism
Psychoanalytic schools
Jacques Lacan
Freudian psychology
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The 2010 WTA Tour Championships was held in Doha, Qatar from October 26 to October 31. It was the third and final time that the Khalifa International Tennis Complex hosted the WTA Tour Year-End Singles and Doubles Championships. In 2011 the competition will move to Istanbul, Turkey.
Serena Williams was the defending singles champion. She qualified again but withdrew due to a continuing foot injury.
Nuria Llagostera Vives and María José Martínez Sánchez were the defending doubles champions, but they didn't qualify this year.
Elena Dementieva announced her retirement from tennis in the tournament after 13 years of playing and two Grand Slam finals, as well as an Olympic gold medal.
Finals
Singles
Kim Clijsters defeated Caroline Wozniacki, 6–3, 5–7, 6–3.
It was Clijsters' fifth title of the year and 40th of her career. It was her third win at the event, also winning in 2002 and 2003.
Doubles
Gisela Dulko / 'Flavia Pennetta defeated Květa Peschke / Katarina Srebotnik, 7–5, 6–4.
Qualified players
Singles
On September 29, Wozniacki was announced as the first qualifier after she won her second round match in Tokyo.
Caroline Wozniacki enjoyed her best season so far, winning six singles titles, the most on the 2010 Tour, and achieving the world no. 1 ranking after reaching the quarterfinals, and later winning, the China Open. She became the fifth player in the WTA Tour's history to not win a Grand Slam event before achieving the world no. 1 status. Wozniacki won her first title at the MPS Group Championships over Olga Govortsova, 6–2, 7–5. Her best period was after Wimbledon where she won 5 of 7 consecutive tournaments she played, beginning with the e-Boks Sony Ericsson Open where she defeated Klára Zakopalová 6–2, 7–6. After this she won back-to-back titles in Rogers Cup over Vera Zvonareva 6–3, 6–2 and defended the Pilot Pen Tennis title defeating Nadia Petrova 6–3, 3–6, 6–3. Later she again won two consecutive titles in Tokyo and the China Open defeating Elena Dementieva 1–6, 6–2, 6–3 and Vera Zvonareva 6–3, 3–6, 6–3, respectively. As well Wozniacki also reached the final of the BNP Paribas Open losing to Jelena Janković 6–2, 6–4. At the Grand Slams, Caroline reached the fourth round of the Australian Open losing to Li Na 6–4, 6–3. She reached her first French Open quarterfinal, but lost there to eventual champion Francesca Schiavone 6–2, 6–3. At Wimbledon she suffered a fourth round loss to Petra Kvitová 6–2, 6–0. In the US Open she had her first Grand Slam top seed while world no. 1 Serena Williams was injured, but lost in the semifinals 6–4, 6–3 to Vera Zvonareva. This was her second appearance at the tournament after making the semifinals in 2009.
On October 1, Zvonareva qualified after reaching the quarterfinals in Tokyo.
Vera Zvonareva enjoyed a successful second half of the season. She began the year by falling out of the top 20 after failing to defend her Australian Open semifinal points, when she fell to Victoria Azarenka in the fourth round and failed to defend her title at the BNP Paribas Open. She won her only title of the year in the PTT Pattaya Open in Thailand as the defending champion, defeating the local Tamarine Tanasugarn in the final 6–4, 6–4. She reached five other finals but lost in each of them. She lost to Samantha Stosur 6–0, 6–3 at the Family Circle Cup, to Wozniacki at both the Rogers Cup and the China Open 6–3, 6–2 and 6–3, 3–6, 6–3 respectively. Zvonareva's main success began when she reached her first Grand Slam final at the Wimbledon Championships after defeating Kim Clijsters for the first time in the quarterfinals, but she lost the final to defending champion Serena Williams 6–3, 6–2. She reached a consecutive Grand Slam final at the US Open after defeating top seed Caroline Wozniacki in the semifinals, but ended up losing again to the defending champion, this time Kim Clijsters. Zvonareva reached a career-high world no. 2 at the start of the Tour Championships. This was her fourth appearance there, reaching the semifinals in 2008.
On October 1, Serena Williams and Kim Clijsters were announced as qualifiers.
Serena Williams began the year by reaching the final of the Medibank International Sydney losing to Elena Dementieva 6–3, 6–2. She won 2 of the 6 events she played in the year. The first came at the Australian Open defeating rival Justine Henin 6–4, 3–6, 6–2, after beating Victoria Azarenka in the quarterfinals being a set and 4–0 down. By winning the title, she set a record of 5 Australian Open titles in the Open Era. She won her second title at the Wimbledon Championships over Vera Zvonareva 6–3, 6–2. In doing so she passed Billie Jean King as sixth in total number of Grand Slam women's singles titles. At the French Open she lost to Samantha Stosur 6–3, 6–7, 8–6 after failing to convert a match point at 5–4 in the final set. Injuries plagued her throughout the season, missing three months of action after the Australian Open due to a leg injury and another four months due to a cut/torn tendon in her right foot after Wimbledon, causing her to miss the US Open and eventually to lose the world number one status. She was the defending champion but announced that she reinjured her foot and was out for the rest of 2010.
Kim Clijsters began the year by winning the Brisbane International against the returning Justine Henin 6–3, 4–6, 7–6. She claimed her second title of the year at the Sony Ericsson Open, defeating Venus Williams 6–2, 6–1. She missed a large amount of the clay season including the French Open due to torn muscle in her left foot, which she sustained in Belgium's Fed Cup match against Estonia. At the Western & Southern Financial Group Women's Open she defeated Maria Sharapova in the final 2–6, 7–6, 6–2 after saving match points in a rain-delayed final. In the grand slams, at the Australian Open Clijsters lost in the third round to Nadia Petrova in the worst loss of her career, losing 6–0, 6–1. At the Wimbledon Championships, Clijsters lost to Vera Zvonareva in the quarterfinals for the first time 3–6, 6–4, 6–2. The Belgian then took her winning streak at the US Open to 21 match wins after defeating Vera Zvonareva 6–2, 6–1 in the final. She competed in her 7th Year-end Championships after winning it twice in 2002 and 2003.
On October 4, Venus Williams was announced as a qualifier for the year-end championship.
Venus Williams continued to struggle in the Grand Slams outside of Wimbledon as she lost to Li Na in the quarterfinals of the Australian Open 2–6, 7–6, 7–5 despite being two points away from the win. At the French Open Williams advanced through the first three rounds but lost to Nadia Petrova 6–4, 6–3. At the Wimbledon Championships after reaching the final for the past three years, Williams suffered a loss to a then-unknown Tsvetana Pironkova 6–2, 6–3 in the quarterfinals. Outside of the grand slams Williams had more success as she won back-to-back titles in Dubai Tennis Championships and the Abierto Mexico Telcel, defeating Victoria Azarenka 6–3, 7–5 and Polona Hercog from Slovenia 2–6, 6–2, 6–3, respectively. Venus then reached the final of the Sony Ericsson Open recording a 15 match winning streak but lost to Kim Clijsters 6–2, 6–1. At the Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open Williams reached the final but lost to Frenchwoman Aravane Rezaï 6–2, 7–5. Venus missed the US Open Series due to a left knee injury but competed in the US Open where she lost to Kim Clijsters 6–4, 6–7, 4–6 in the semifinals. She then withdrew from the Year-End Championships due to the same knee injury.
On October 6, French Open finalists Francesca Schiavone and Samantha Stosur both qualified.
Samantha Stosur had the best year of her career so far after deciding to concentrate solely on singles. Stosur reached her first Grand Slam singles final at the French Open. After defeating three former world number ones in Justine Henin, Serena Williams, and Jelena Janković, before being beaten by Francesca Schiavone 4–6, 6–7. In the other Slams, she lost to the eventual champion at both the Australian Open and US Open, losing to Serena Williams 6–4, 6–2 in Australia in the fourth round and to Kim Clijsters at the US Open in the quarterfinals. Her most disappointing loss came at Wimbledon, where she fell in the first round to Kaia Kanepi 4–6, 4–6, becoming the first French Open finalist to lose in the first round of Wimbledon. Despite the loss, she managed a career-high world number 5. She also reached two other finals, in the Family Circle Cup defeating Vera Zvonareva 6–0, 6–3 and in the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix, losing to Justine Henin 6–4, 2–6, 6–1. This was Stosur's debut in the singles of the Year-End Championships after twice winning in doubles.
Francesca Schiavone won her first Grand Slam title at the 2010 French Open beating Samantha Stosur 6–4, 7–6. This was the first time that Schiavone had gone past the quarterfinals. It also made her the first Italian to win a Grand Slam and the highest ranked Italian when she reached the height of world number 6. However, along with co-finalist Samantha Stosur she also fell in the first round of Wimbledon to Vera Dushevina 7–6, 5–7, 1–6. She won one other title at the 2010 Barcelona Ladies Open defeating compatriot Roberta Vinci 6–1, 6–1. She also reached the fourth round of the Australian Open and the quarterfinals of the US Open losing in both to Venus Williams 3–6, 6–2, 6–1 and 7–6, 6–4, respectively. Schiavone made her first appearance in the Year-End Championships.
On October 9, due to Venus Williams' withdrawal, both Elena Dementieva and Jelena Janković secured a spot in the Year-End Championships.
Jelena Janković continued to find the form that brought her to the number 1 ranking in 2008. She reached two finals in 2010, on the hard courts of the BNP Paribas Open where she defeated Caroline Wozniacki 6–2, 6–4 and on the clay courts of the Internazionali BNL d'Italia where she defeated both Venus Williams and Serena Williams in the quarterfinals and semifinals, respectively, before falling to María José Martínez Sánchez 6–7, 5–7. In the slams, Janković reached her first Grand Slam semifinal since reaching the final of the 2008 US Open at the French Open, losing to Samantha Stosur 6–1, 6–2. She also reached the third rounds of the Australian Open and the US Open losing to Alona Bondarenko 6–2, 6–3 and Kaia Kanepi 6–2, 7–6 respectively. At the Wimbledon Championships she was able to reach the fourth round before retiring to eventual finalist Vera Zvonareva while trailing 6–1, 3–0. She made her fourth consecutive appearance at the Tour Championships after reaching the semifinals in her previous two trips.
Elena Dementieva had a lopsided season for 2010 as she fell outside of the top ten for the first time since 2008. However, she was able to reach four finals in the year, winning two of them. Her first title came at the Medibank International Sydney where she defeated world number one, Serena Williams, in the final 6–3, 6–2. The second title came at the Open GDF Suez defeating Czech player Lucie Šafářová 6–7, 6–1, 6–4. She finished runner-up to compatriot Alisa Kleybanova at the Malaysian Open and to Caroline Wozniacki at the Toray Pan Pacific Open. In the Grand Slams, Elena drew an unseeded Justine Henin and lost to the eventual finalist, 5–7, 6–7 in the second round of the Australian Open. At the French Open Dementieva had to retire against Francesca Schiavone after the first set tie-break during their semifinal match. The injury also caused her to miss Wimbledon, ending her 46 consecutive main draw appearances at the Grand Slams. At the US Open she was able to reach the fourth round before losing to Samantha Stosur. This was her 10th appearance and she reached the semifinals twice in 2000 and 2008. She announced her retirement from tennis during the tournament.
On October 20, Victoria Azarenka replaced Serena Williams to book the final spot in the year-end championships
Victoria Azarenka showed good form in the beginning of the year by reaching the semifinals, quarterfinals, and final of Sydney, the Australian Open, and Dubai, respectively. After an injury Azarenka showed signs of a return to form at the Aegon International, where she was the runner up losing in the final to Ekaterina Makarova 7–6, 6–4. Despite the strong showing at the event, she suffered another upset in the third round of Wimbledon. Her good form from Eastbourne followed into the American hard-court season, winning the Bank of the West Classic by beating top seeded Samantha Stosur 6–2, 6–3 in the semifinals and Maria Sharapova 6–4, 6–1 in the final. Another semifinal showing at the Rogers Cup allowed Azarenka to finish in a three-way tie for third at the US Open Series. Despite her good form, a concussion forced Azarenka to retire in the second round of the US Open, after she fell over and hit her head during the warm up. A semifinal showing in Tokyo and reaching the quarterfinals in Moscow allowed Azarenka to take the eighth and final spot. Azarenka went on to claim the Moscow crown. This was her second consecutive appearance at the Tour Championships after she failed to advance from her group in 2009.
The first alternate for the Tour Championships was Li Na who produced her best season so far. She became the highest ranked Chinese player ever, reaching a career high of world no. 9 in August 2010. She reached the semifinals of the Australian Open, losing to Serena Williams 7–6, 7–6. She also reached the quarterfinals of Wimbledon for the first time, but ended up losing to Serena Williams 7–5, 6–3. Li also won the Aegon Classic beating Maria Sharapova 7–5, 6–1 in the final. This was her first title in a year and a half and her third career title. The second alternate was Shahar Pe'er who reached one final in the year, at the Moorilla Hobart International losing to Alona Bondarenko 6–2, 6–4. She was also able to reach the semifinals of the ASB Classic, Barclays Dubai Tennis Championships, Porsche Tennis Grand Prix, Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open, China Open and HP Open. Both alternates made their first trip to the year-end championships but neither of them got to play. Both 2009 alternates had played that year but there were no serious injuries among the starting players in 2010.
Doubles
On September 14, Gisela Dulko and Flavia Pennetta qualified for the first time for the year-end championships.
Gisela Dulko and Flavia Pennetta was the standout team of the year, winning 5 titles. This was the most any team managed to accumulate in 2010. Their first title came in the Sony Ericsson Open triumphing over Petrova and Stosur. Then the pair claimed back-to-back titles in the European clay season at the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix and Internazionali BNL d'Italia over the teams of Peschke & Srebotnik and reigning Tour Champions Llagostera Vives & Martínez Sánchez 6–4, 6–2. They also won the Swedish Open defeating Voráčová & Záhlavová-Strýcová and the Rogers Cup defeating Peschke & Srebotnik. They were the runners up in two other finals, first at the Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open losing to Venus Williams & Serena Williams and secondly at the China Open losing to Chuang & Govortsova. Dulko also won another doubles title in the Copa BBVA-Colsanitas whilst partnering Edina Gallovits. In the Grand Slams, they were able to reach the semifinals of the Wimbledon Championships and the quarterfinals of the Australian Open, French Open, and US Open.
On September 29, Květa Peschke and Katarina Srebotnik qualified for the event.
Květa Peschke and Katarina Srebotnik won two titles in the year both coming in the United States. The first title was at the BNP Paribas Open beating Stosur and Petrova in the final. The second title came at the Pilot Pen Tennis after beating the American team of Mattek-Sands & Shaughnessy. They also finished runner-up in four events, at the Barcleys Dubai Tennis Championships, the Aegon International, the Rogers Cup to Dulko & Pennetta and finally the Generali Ladies Linz losing to Czechs Voráčová & Záhlavová-Strýcová. Peschke won another title with Chuang in the Moorilla Hobart International. In the Grand Slams, they were able to reach the final of the French Open losing to Venus and Serena Williams 6–2, 6–3, the quarterfinals of the Wimbledon Championships and the third round of the US Open.
On October 7, as the Williams Sisters withdrew, the teams of Lisa Raymond & Rennae Stubbs and Vania King & Yaroslava Shvedova qualified.
Serena Williams and Venus Williams completed a non-calendar year Grand Slam. They won the Australian Open defeating top seeds Black and Huber in the final, and then the French Open, defeating Peschke and Srebotnik in the final. They won another title in the Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open over Dulko and Pennetta 6–2, 7–5. Their Grand Slam winning streak ended at 27 when they lost to Vesnina & Zvonareva in the quarterfinals of the Wimbledon Championships. They also became the World no. 1 in doubles for the first time when they won the French Open. The pair picked up injuries after Wimbledon and didn't play for the rest of the season, except for a singles appearance by Venus at the US Open. Venus called an end to her season with a left knee injury eliminating the pair whilst a few weeks later Serena also called an end to her season as a torn ligament in her foot continued to cause problems.
Lisa Raymond and Rennae Stubbs reunited again and won one title together at the Aegon International beating Peschke and Srebotnik. Raymond won another title in the Aegon Classic with Cara Black defeating the American team of Huber and Shaughnessy after the Americans retired. As a team they reached two other finals at the Mercury Insurance Open and the Western & Southern Financial Group Women's Open. On both occasions they lost to Kirilenko, teaming up with Zheng and Azarenka, respectively. They were able to reach the semifinals of the Australian Open, the quarterfinals of Wimbledon and US Open and the third round of the French Open.
Vania King and Yaroslava Shvedova began their partnership during the grass season. They had immediate success as they won Wimbledon beating Vesnina and Zvonareva and the US Open defeating Petrova and Huber, to claim their first grand slam titles. During the grass season King and Shvedova also finished runner-up to Kudryavtseva & Rodionova at the UNICEF Open. King also won two other titles with different partners, at the Cellular South Cup with Krajicek defeating Mattek-Sands and Shaughnessy and the Internationaux de Strasbourg with Cornet winning against Kudryavtseva & Rodionova. Additionally King reached two other finals in the Monterrey Open with Grönefeld losing to Benešová & Záhlavová-Strýcová and the Family Circle Cup with Krajicek losing to Huber & Petrova.
Groupings
The 2010 edition of the year-end championships featured three former World number ones, two Grand Slam champions, seven Grand Slam finalists. Two of them made their debut at the championships. As in the 2009 tournament, the competitors were divided into two groups representing the colors of the flag of Qatar. The Maroon group consisted of no. 1 seed Caroline Wozniacki, no. 4 seed Francesca Schiavone, no. 5 seed Samantha Stosur and no. 7 seed Elena Dementieva. The White Group was composed of no. 2 seed Vera Zvonareva, no, 3 seed Kim Clijsters, no. 6 seed Jelena Janković and no. 8 seed Victoria Azarenka. Li Na and Shahar Pe'er served as alternates but did not get to play.
In the White Group, all players had reached grand slam finals in their career, with Francesca Schiavone having won the 2010 French Open, beating Samantha Stosur in the final. In their head-to-heads with players within their group, Caroline Wozniacki was 7–7, Francesca Schiavone was 9–12, Samantha Stosur was 8–8 and Elena Dementieva was 14–11. Wozniacki leading the group, had a mixed record against opponents within her group. She had a winning record against Dementieva, leading the Russian 4–3, and winning both their encounters in 2010 - in the semifinals of Pilot Pen Tennis 1–6, 6–3, 7–6 and in the finals of the Toray Pan Pacific Open 1–6, 6–2, 6–3. Against Stosur, she had a 2–2 record, with their last match won by Stosur in the 2009 HP Open 6–0, 4–6, 6–4. However, against Schiavone, the top seed had a losing record of 1–2, with her only win coming in the 2010 Rogers Cup 6–3, 6–2, with Schiavone winning their other 2010 encounter, in the clay at the French Open 6–2, 6–3. Dementieva, on the other hand had a winning record against both Stosur and Schiavone. She was 4–2 against Stosur, winning their first three 2010 encounters, with Stosur winning their last encounter at the US Open in a tight match 6–3, 2–6, 7–6. Dementieva was 7–5 against Schiavone, with Dementieva winning 2 of their 3 encounters in 2010 - in the Toray Pan Pacific Open and Medibank International Sydney, and Schiavone winning their match in the French Open semifinals, when Dementieva retired after losing the first set. In the match-up between French Open finalists Stosur and Schiavone, Stosur leads 4–2 with Schiavone winning their last match at the finals of the 2010 French Open 6–4, 7–6. Stosur won the previous four matches before the French Open final.
The Maroon Group featured players with more experience in the championships, as all of them had competed before. In their respective records, the 2010 Wimbledon and US Open finalist Vera Zvonareva was 13–14, Kim Clijsters was 14–5, Jelena Janković was 10–14 and Victoria Azarenka was 5–10. Like Wozniacki, the leader of the Maroon group Zvonareva also had a mixed record within her group. Zvonerava had a winning record against Azarenka, 5–2. They met three times before in 2010, with Zvonerava winning their last encounter in the Rogers Cup, 7–6, 1–0 ret, while Azarenka's two wins came earlier in the year, at the Australian Open, 4–6, 6–4, 6–0 and Barclays Dubai Tennis Championships 6–1, 6–3. Against Janković, Zvonareva had an even record of 6–6, with Vera winning their last three encounters, including the Dubai Tennis Championships 6–3, 6–2 and Wimbledon 6–1, 3–0 ret. However, against Clijsters she had a losing record of 2–6. Zvonareva ended a streak of five straight Clijsters wins when she won at Wimbledon 3–6, 6–3, 6–2 and the Rogers Cup 2–6, 6–3, 6–2, but Clijsters won their last encounter in the US Open final 6–2, 6–1. Clijsters was the only one in the tournament that had a winning record against all in her group. She was 6–1 against Janković, with Janković's only win being their last match at the 2009 Rogers Cup 1–6, 6–3, 7–5. Against Azarenka, she was 2–1 splitting their 2010 meetings, with Clijsters winning the Sony Ericsson Open 6–4, 6–0 and Azarenka winning the Aegon International 7–6, 6–4. Azarenka had a losing record against all players in her group. She was 2–3 against Janković, however Azarenka won their last encounter at the WTA Tour Championships 6–2, 6–3 in 2009.
The four doubles teams started the semifinals without group play.
Player Head-to-Heads
Below are the head-to-head records as they approached the tournament.
Prize money & Points
The total prize money for the 2010 Sony Ericsson Championships was 4.5
million United States dollars.
1 Prize money for doubles is per team.
2 Prize money is for doubles semifinalists
3 for every match played in the round robin a player gets 70 points automatically, and for each round robin win they get 160 additional points
Day-by-day summaries
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Day 6
Race to the championships
Singles
Those with a gold background have enough points to qualify; with a brown background withdrew.
References
External links
Official website
2010 WTA Tour
2010
Tennis tournaments in Qatar
2010 in Qatari sport
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Marian Anderson (February 27, 1897April 8, 1993, aged 96) was an American contralto. She performed a wide range of music, from opera to spirituals. Anderson performed with renowned orchestras in major concert and recital venues throughout the United States and Europe between 1925 and 1965.
Anderson was an important figure in the struggle for African-American artists to overcome racial prejudice in the United States during the mid-twentieth century. In 1939 during the era of racial segregation, the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) refused to allow Anderson to sing to an integrated audience in Constitution Hall in Washington, D.C. The incident placed Anderson in the spotlight of the international community on a level unusual for a classical musician. With the aid of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt and her husband President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Anderson performed a critically acclaimed open-air concert on Easter Sunday, April 9, 1939, on the Lincoln Memorial steps in the capital. She sang before an integrated crowd of more than 75,000 people and a radio audience in the millions.
On January 7, 1955, Anderson became the first African-American singer to perform at the Metropolitan Opera. In addition, she worked as a delegate to the United Nations Human Rights Committee and as a Goodwill Ambassador for the United States Department of State, giving concerts all over the world. She participated in the civil rights movement in the 1960s, singing at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in 1963. The recipient of numerous awards and honors, Anderson was awarded the first Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, the Congressional Gold Medal in 1977, the Kennedy Center Honors in 1978, the National Medal of Arts in 1986, and a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1991.
Early life and education
Marian Anderson was born in Philadelphia on February 27, 1897, to John Berkley Anderson (c. 1872–1910) and Annie Delilah Rucker (1874–1964). Her father sold ice and coal at the Reading Terminal in downtown Philadelphia and eventually also sold liquor. Prior to her marriage, Anderson's mother was briefly a student at the Virginia Seminary and College in Lynchburg and had worked as a schoolteacher in Virginia. As she did not obtain a degree, Annie Anderson was unable to teach in Philadelphia under a law that was applied only to black teachers and not white ones. She therefore earned an income caring for small children. Marian was the eldest of the three Anderson children. Her two sisters, Alyse (1899–1965) and Ethel (1902–90), also became singers. Ethel married James DePreist and their son James Anderson DePreist was a noted conductor.
Anderson's parents were both devout Christians and the whole family was active in the Union Baptist Church, which, during her youth, stood in a building constructed by the congregation in 1889 at 709 S. 12th Street in South Philadelphia. Marian's aunt Mary, her father's sister, was particularly active in the church's musical life and convinced her niece to join the junior church choir at the age of six. In that role, she got to perform solos and duets, often with her aunt. Aunt Mary took Marian to concerts at local churches, the YMCA, benefit concerts, and other community music events throughout the city. Anderson credited her aunt's influence as the reason she pursued her singing career. Beginning as young as six, her aunt arranged for Marian to sing for local functions where she was often paid 25 or 50 cents for singing a few songs. As she got into her early teens, Marian began to make as much as four or five dollars for singing, a considerable sum for the early 20th century. At the age of 10, Marian joined the People's Chorus of Philadelphia under the direction of a singer Emma Azalia Hackley, where she was often a soloist.
When Anderson was 12, her father received a head injury while working at the Reading Terminal before Christmas 1909. Soon afterwards her father died, following heart failure. He was 37 years old. Marian and her family moved into the home of her father's parents, Benjamin and Isabella Anderson. Her grandfather had been born a slave and had been emancipated in the 1860s. He relocated to South Philadelphia, the first of his family to do so. When Anderson moved into his home, the two became very close, but he died just a year after the family moved in.
Anderson attended Stanton Grammar School, graduating in 1912. Her family could not pay for any music lessons or high school. Still, Anderson continued to perform wherever she could and learn from anyone who was willing to teach her. Throughout her teenage years, she remained active in her church's musical activities, now heavily involved in the adult choir. She became a member of the Baptists' Young People's Union and the Camp Fire Girls, which provided her with some limited musical opportunities. Eventually, the People's Chorus of Philadelphia and the pastor of her church, Reverend Wesley Parks, along with other leaders of the black community, raised the money she needed to get singing lessons with Mary Saunders Patterson and to attend South Philadelphia High School, from which she graduated in 1921.
After high school, Anderson applied to an all-white music school, the Philadelphia Music Academy (now University of the Arts), but was turned away because she was black. The woman working the admissions counter replied, "We don't take colored" when she tried to apply. Undaunted, Anderson pursued studies privately in her native city through the continued support of the Philadelphia black community, first with Agnes Reifsnyder, then Giuseppe Boghetti. She met Boghetti through the principal of her high school. Anderson auditioned for him by singing "Deep River"; he was immediately brought to tears. Boghetti scheduled a recital of English, Russian, Italian and German music at The Town Hall in New York City in April 1924; it took place in an almost empty hall and received poor reviews.
In 1923 she made two recordings, "Deep River" and "My Way's Cloudy" for the Victor company.
Early career
In 1925, Anderson got her first big break at a singing competition sponsored by the New York Philharmonic. As the winner, she got to perform in concert with the orchestra on August 26, 1925, a performance that scored immediate success with both the audience and music critics. Anderson continued her studies with Frank La Forge in New York. During this time, Arthur Judson became her manager. They met through the New York Philharmonic. Over the next several years, she made a number of concert appearances in the United States, but racial prejudice prevented her career from gaining momentum. Her first performance at Carnegie Hall was in 1928.
Rosenwald Fund
During her fall 1929 concert schedule, Anderson sang at Orchestra Hall in Chicago. The performance was greeted with measured praise. Critic Herman Devries from the Chicago Evening American wrote, "[Anderson] reached near perfection in every requirement of vocal art—the tone was of superb timbre, the phrasing of utmost refinement, the style pure, discreet, musicianly. But after this there was a letdown, and we took away the impression of a talent still unripe, but certainly a talent of potential growth." In the audience were two representatives from Julius Rosenwald's philanthropic organization, the Rosenwald Fund. The organization's representatives, Ray Field and George Arthur, encouraged Anderson to apply for a Rosenwald Fellowship, from which she received $1500 to study in Berlin.
European tours
Anderson went to Europe, where she spent a number of months studying with Sara Charles-Cahier, before launching a highly successful European singing tour. In the summer of 1930, she went to Scandinavia, where she met the Finnish pianist Kosti Vehanen, who became her regular accompanist and her vocal coach for many years. She also met Jean Sibelius through Vehanen after he had heard her in a concert in Helsinki. Moved by her performance, Sibelius invited them to his home and asked his wife to bring champagne in place of the traditional coffee. Sibelius complimented Anderson on her performance; he felt that she had been able to penetrate the Nordic soul. The two struck up an immediate friendship, which further blossomed into a professional partnership, and for many years Sibelius altered and composed songs for Anderson. He created a new arrangement of the song "Solitude" and dedicated it to Anderson in 1939. Originally The Jewish Girl's Song from his 1906 incidental music to Belshazzar's Feast, it later became the "Solitude" section of the orchestral suite derived from the incidental music.
In 1933, Anderson made her European debut in a concert at Wigmore Hall in London, where she was received enthusiastically. In the first years of the 1930s, she toured Europe, where she did not encounter the prejudices she had experienced in America. Anderson, accompanied by Vehanen, continued to tour throughout Europe during the mid-1930s. Before going back to Scandinavia, where fans had "Marian fever", she performed in Russia and the major cities of Eastern Europe. She quickly became a favorite of many conductors and composers of major European orchestras. During a 1935 tour in Salzburg, the conductor Arturo Toscanini told her she had a voice "heard once in a hundred years."
American tours
In 1934, impresario Sol Hurok offered Anderson a better contract than she previously had with Arthur Judson. He became her manager, and he persuaded her to come back and perform in America. In 1935, Anderson made her second recital appearance at The Town Hall, New York City, which received highly favorable reviews from music critics. She spent the next four years touring throughout the United States and Europe. She was offered opera roles by several European houses, but due to her lack of acting experience, Anderson declined all of them. She did, however, record a number of arias in the studio, which became bestsellers.
Anderson's accomplishments as a singer did not make her immune to the Jim Crow laws in the 1930s. Although she gave approximately seventy recitals a year in the United States, Anderson was still turned away by some American hotels and restaurants. Because of this discrimination, Albert Einstein, a champion of racial tolerance, hosted Anderson on many occasions, the first being in 1937 when she was denied a hotel room while performing at Princeton University. Einstein's first hosting of Anderson became the subject of a play, "My Lord, What a Night," in 2021. She last stayed with him months before he died in 1955.
1939 Lincoln Memorial concert
In 1939, the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) denied permission to Anderson for a concert on April 9 at Constitution Hall under a "white performers-only" policy in effect at the time. In addition to the policy on performers, Washington, D.C. was a segregated city, and black patrons were upset that they would have to sit at the back of Constitution Hall. Furthermore, Constitution Hall did not have the segregated public bathrooms required by DC law at the time for such events. Other DC venues were not an option; the District of Columbia Board of Education declined a request for the use of the auditorium of a white public high school.
The next day, Charles Edward Russell, a co-founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and chair of the DC citywide Inter-Racial Committee, held a meeting of the Marian Anderson Citizens Committee (MACC). This included the National Negro Congress, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the American Federation of Labor, and the Washington Industrial Council-CIO, plus church leaders and activists in the city and numerous other organizations. MACC elected Charles Hamilton Houston as its chairman and on February 20, the group picketed the Board of Education, collected signatures on petitions, and planned a mass protest at the next board meeting.
In the ensuing furor, thousands of DAR members, including First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, resigned from the organization. Roosevelt wrote to the DAR: "I am in complete disagreement with the attitude taken in refusing Constitution Hall to a great artist... You had an opportunity to lead in an enlightened way and it seems to me that your organization has failed." Author Zora Neale Hurston criticized Eleanor Roosevelt's public silence about the similar decision by the District of Columbia Board of Education.
As the controversy grew, the American press overwhelmingly supported Anderson's right to sing. The Philadelphia Tribune wrote, "A group of tottering old ladies, who don't know the difference between patriotism and putridism, have compelled the gracious First Lady to apologize for their national rudeness." The Richmond Times-Dispatch wrote, "In these days of racial intolerance so crudely expressed in the Third Reich, an action such as the D.A.R.’s ban... seems all the more deplorable."
At Eleanor Roosevelt's instigation, President Roosevelt and Walter White, then-executive secretary of the NAACP, and Anderson's manager, Sol Hurok, persuaded Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes to arrange an open-air concert on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. The concert was performed on Easter Sunday, April 9. Anderson was accompanied, as usual, by Vehanen. They began the performance with a dignified and stirring rendition of "My Country, 'Tis of Thee." The event attracted a crowd of more than 75,000 in addition to a national radio audience of millions.
Two months later, in conjunction with the 30th NAACP conference in Richmond, Virginia, Eleanor Roosevelt gave a speech on national radio (NBC and CBS) and presented Anderson with the 1939 Spingarn Medal for distinguished achievement. In 2001, a documentary film of the concert was chosen for the National Film Registry, and in 2008, NBC radio coverage of the event was selected for the National Recording Registry.
Mid-career
During World War II and the Korean War, Anderson entertained troops in hospitals and at bases. In 1943, she sang at the Constitution Hall, having been invited by the DAR to perform before an integrated audience as part of a benefit for the American Red Cross. She said of the event, "When I finally walked onto the stage of Constitution Hall, I felt no different than I had in other halls. There was no sense of triumph. I felt that it was a beautiful concert hall and I was very happy to sing there." In contrast, the District of Columbia Board of Education continued to bar her from using the high school auditorium in the District of Columbia.
Ford 50th Anniversary Show
On June 15, 1953, Anderson headlined The Ford 50th Anniversary Show, which was broadcast live from New York City on both NBC and CBS. Midway through the program, she sang "He's Got the Whole World in His Hands." She returned to close the program with her rendition of the "Battle Hymn of the Republic." The program attracted an audience of 60 million viewers. Forty years after the broadcast, television critic Tom Shales recalled the broadcast as both "a landmark in television" and "a milestone in the cultural life of the '50s".
The Metropolitan Opera
On January 7, 1955, Anderson became the first African-American to sing with the Metropolitan Opera in New York. At the invitation of director Rudolf Bing, she sang the part of Ulrica in Giuseppe Verdi's Un ballo in maschera (opposite Zinka Milanov, then Herva Nelli, as Amelia). Anderson later said about the evening, "The curtain rose on the second scene and I was there on stage, mixing the witch's brew. I trembled, and when the audience applauded and applauded before I could sing a note, I felt myself tightening into a knot." Although she never appeared with the company again, Anderson was named a permanent member of the Metropolitan Opera company. The following year, her autobiography, My Lord, What a Morning, was published, and became a bestseller.
Presidential inaugurations and goodwill ambassador tours
In 1957, she sang for President Dwight D. Eisenhower's inauguration, and toured India and the Far East as a goodwill ambassador through the U.S. State Department and the American National Theater and Academy. She traveled in 12 weeks, giving 24 concerts. After that, President Eisenhower appointed her a delegate to the United Nations Human Rights Committee. The same year, she was elected Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1958, she was officially designated a delegate to the United Nations, a formalization of her role as "goodwill ambassadress" of the U.S.
On January 20, 1961, she sang for President John F. Kennedy's inauguration, and in 1962 she performed for President Kennedy and other dignitaries in the East Room of the White House and toured Australia. She was active in supporting the civil rights movement during the 1960s. She performed benefit concerts in aid of the America-Israel Cultural Foundation, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the Congress of Racial Equality. In 1963, she sang at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. That same year, she received one of the newly reinstituted Presidential Medal of Freedom, which is awarded for "especially meritorious contributions to the security or national interest of the United States, World Peace or cultural or other significant public or private endeavors." She also released an album, Snoopycat: The Adventures of Marian Anderson's Cat Snoopy, which included short stories and songs about her beloved black cat. That same year, Anderson concluded her farewell tour, after which she retired from public performance. The international tour began at Constitution Hall on Saturday October 24, 1964, and ended on April 18, 1965, at Carnegie Hall. In 1965, she christened the nuclear-powered ballistic-missile submarine .
Later life
Although Anderson retired from singing in 1965, she continued to appear publicly. She often narrated Aaron Copland's Lincoln Portrait, with her nephew James DePriest conducting. In 1976, Copland conducted a performance with the Philadelphia Orchestra at Saratoga. Her achievements were recognized with many honors, including the University of Pennsylvania Glee Club Award of Merit in 1973; the United Nations Peace Prize, New York City's Handel Medallion, and the Congressional Gold Medal, all in 1977; Kennedy Center Honors in 1978; the George Peabody Medal in 1981; the National Medal of Arts in 1986; and a Grammy Award for Lifetime Achievement in 1991. A half-ounce gold commemorative medal was embossed with her portrait by the United States Treasury Department in 1980. Four years later, she was the first person to be honored with the Eleanor Roosevelt Human Rights Award of the City of New York. She was awarded 24 honorary doctoral degrees, by Howard University, Temple University, Smith College and many other colleges and universities.
Personal life
On July 17, 1943, Anderson became the second wife of architect Orpheus H. "King" Fisher (1900–1986) in Bethel, Connecticut. Fisher had asked her to marry him when they were teenagers, but she declined at that time because she feared it would have forestalled her music career. The wedding was a private ceremony performed by United Methodist pastor Rev. Jack Grenfell and was the subject of a short story titled "The 'Inside' Story," written by Rev. Grenfell's wife, Dr. Clarine Coffin Grenfell, in her book Women My Husband Married, including Marian Anderson. According to Dr. Grenfell, the wedding was originally supposed to take place in the parsonage, but because of a bake sale on the lawn of the Bethel United Methodist Church, the ceremony was moved at the last minute to the Elmwood Chapel, on the site of the Elmwood Cemetery in Bethel, in order to keep the event private.
By this marriage she gained a stepson, James Fisher, from her husband's previous marriage to Ida Gould, a white woman.
In 1940, seeking a retreat away from the public eye, Anderson and Fisher purchased a three-story Victorian farmhouse on a farm in Danbury, Connecticut, after an exhaustive search throughout New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut. Through the years, he built many structures on the property, including an acoustic rehearsal studio he designed for his wife. The property remained Anderson's home for almost 50 years.
From 1943, she resided at the farm that Orpheus had named Marianna Farm. The farm was on Joe's Hill Road, in the Mill Plain section of western Danbury. She constructed a three-bedroom ranch house as a residence, and she used a separate one-room structure as her studio. In 1996, the farm was named one of 60 sites on the Connecticut Freedom Trail. The studio was moved to downtown Danbury as the Marian Anderson studio.
As a town resident, Anderson wished to live as normally as possible, declining offers to be treated in restaurants and stores as a celebrity. She was known to visit the Danbury State Fair. She sang at the city hall on the occasion of the lighting of Christmas ornaments. She gave a concert at the Danbury High School. She served on the board of the Danbury Music Center and supported the Charles Ives Center for the Arts and the Danbury Chapter of the NAACP.
In 1986, Orpheus Fisher died after 43 years of marriage. Anderson remained in residence at Marianna Farm until 1992, one year before her death. Although the property was sold to developers, various preservationists as well as the City of Danbury fought to protect Anderson's studio. Their efforts proved successful, and the Danbury Museum and Historical Society received a grant from the state of Connecticut, relocated and restored the structure, and opened it to the public in 2004. In addition to seeing the studio, visitors can see photographs and memorabilia from milestones in Anderson's career.
In 1992, Anderson relocated to the home of her nephew, conductor James DePreist, in Portland, Oregon. She died there on April 8, 1993, of congestive heart failure, at the age of 96. She is interred at Eden Cemetery, in Collingdale, Pennsylvania.
Awards and honors
1939: NAACP Spingarn Medal
1963: Presidential Medal of Freedom
1973: University of Pennsylvania Glee Club Award of Merit
1973: National Women's Hall of Fame
1977: United Nations Peace Prize
1977: New York City – Handel Medallion
1977: Congressional Gold Medal
1978: Kennedy Center Honors
1980: United States Treasury Department gold commemorative medal
1984: Eleanor Roosevelt Human Rights Award of the City of New York
1986: National Medal of Arts
1991: Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award
Honorary doctorate from Howard University, Temple University, Smith College
Legacy
The life and art of Anderson has been commemorated by writers, artists, and city, state, and national organizations. The following is a selected list:
She was an example and an inspiration to both Leontyne Price and Jessye Norman.
1976: Among the historical figures featured in the artwork Our Nation's 200th Birthday, The Telephone's 100th Birthday by Stanley Meltzoff for Bell System.
1999: A one-act musical play entitled My Lord, What a Morning: The Marian Anderson Story was produced by the Kennedy Center. The musical took its title from Anderson's memoir, published by Viking in 1956.
2001: The 1939 documentary film, Marian Anderson: The Lincoln Memorial Concert was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant."
2002: Molefi Kete Asante included Anderson in his book,100 Greatest African Americans.
2005: U.S. postage stamp honored Anderson as part of the Black Heritage series. Anderson is also pictured on the US$5,000 Series I United States Savings Bond.
2011: The Marian Anderson House, in Philadelphia, was added to the National Register of Historic Places.
2016: The Union Baptist Church (Built 1915–16), 1910 Fitzwater Street, Philadelphia, PA was added to the Philadelphia Register of Historic Places, under Criteria A and J, the former being for its association with Marian Anderson, providing regulatory protection to the building from alteration and demolition.
2016: Jack Lew announced that Anderson would appear along with Eleanor Roosevelt and Martin Luther King Jr. on the back of the redesigned US$5 bill scheduled to be unveiled in the year 2020, the 100th anniversary of 19th Amendment of the Constitution which granted women in America the right to vote.
2021: Anderson's life and the 1939 Constitution Hall controversy and her subsequent concert at the Lincoln Memorial were the subject of a documentary "Voice of Freedom" that aired as an episode of American Experience on PBS.
Marian Anderson Award
The Marian Anderson Award was established in 1943 by Anderson after she was awarded the $25,000 from The Philadelphia Award in 1940 by the city of Philadelphia. Anderson used the award money to establish a singing competition to help support young singers. The prize fund was exhausted in due course and disbanded in 1976. In 1990, the award was re-established and has dispensed $25,000 annually. In 1998, the Marian Anderson Award prize money was restructured to be given to an established artist, not necessarily a singer, who exhibits leadership in a humanitarian area.
See also
List of African-American firsts
List of rallies and protest marches in Washington, D.C.
Marian Anderson House
References
Sources
Bibliography
Arsenault, Raymond, The Sound of Freedom: Marian Anderson, the Lincoln Memorial, and the concert that awakened America. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2009).
Freedman, Russell, The Voice that Challenged a Nation: Marian Anderson and the Struggle For Equal Rights. New York: Clarion Books, 2004.
Sims-Wood, Janet L, Marian Anderson, An Annotated Bibliography and Discography. Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1981.
Forgotten Books, 2018, .
Biographical entries
Hamilton, David. (1987). The Metropolitan Opera Encyclopedia: A Comprehensive Guide to the World of Opera. New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo: Simon and Schuster, p. 22. .
Hamilton, Mary. (1990). A–Z of Opera. New York, Oxford, Sydney: Facts On File, p. 17. .
Rosenthal, Harold and John Warrack (1979, 2nd ed.). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Opera. London, New York and Melbourne: Oxford University Press, p. 11. .
Sadie, Stanley and Christina Bashford. (1992). The New Grove Dictionary of Opera. London: Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Vol. 1, p. 123. .
Sadie, Stanley and John Tyrrell. (2001).The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Vol. 1, p. 615. .
Warrack, John and Ewan West (1996 3rd ed.). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Opera. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 13. .
Kennedy Center, "Biography of Marian Anderson"
Virtual Museum of History, "Marian Anderson"
FemBio, "Marian Anderson"
Carlton Higginbotham, "Biography of Marian Anderson"
Selected discography
Marian Anderson on Discography of American Historical Recordings
Marian Anderson: Biography and Bach Cantatas Recordings on Bach Cantatas
External links
Marian Anderson Historical Society
The singer's former practice studio, now the Marian Anderson Studio, relocated to the Danbury Museum and Historical Society
Metropolitan Opera performances (MetOpera database)
PBS American Masters "Marian Anderson: The Whole World in Her Hands"
Marian Anderson Papers in the Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College Special Collection
University of Pennsylvania exhibitions and collections:
Online exhibition at the University of Pennsylvania Library, largest online collection of images, includes Anderson's papers, audio and film archives.
Marian Anderson papers, supplementary records, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Pennsylvania
Diaries and Notebooks of Marian Anderson, From the Page, University of Pennsylvania
Marian Anderson, FBI file
Voice of America segment on Marian Anderson
20th-century African-American women singers
20th-century American women opera singers
African-American women opera singers
American contraltos
1897 births
1993 deaths
Burials at Eden Cemetery (Collingdale, Pennsylvania)
Congressional Gold Medal recipients
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners
Kennedy Center honorees
Litteris et Artibus recipients
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
George Peabody Medal winners
Spingarn Medal winners
Musicians from Philadelphia
Singers from Pennsylvania
Classical musicians from Pennsylvania
RCA Records artists
EMI Classics and Virgin Classics artists
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Hungarians, also known as Magyars ( ; ), are a nation and ethnic group native to Hungary (Hungarian: Magyarország) and historical Hungarian lands who share a common culture, history, ancestry and language. The Hungarian language belongs to the Uralic language family. There are an estimated 14.2–14.5 million ethnic Hungarians and their descendants worldwide, of whom 9.6 million live in today's Hungary (as of 2016). About 2.2 million Hungarians live in areas that were part of the Kingdom of Hungary before the Treaty of Trianon in 1920 and are now parts of Hungary's seven neighbouring countries, Slovakia, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, and Austria. Significant groups of people with Hungarian ancestry live in various other parts of the world, most of them in the United States, Canada, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Chile, Brazil, Australia and Argentina.
Hungarians can be divided into several subgroups according to local linguistic and cultural characteristics; subgroups with distinct identities include the Székelys, the Csángós, the Palóc and the Matyó. The Jász people are considered to be an originally Iranic ethnic group more closely related to the Ossetians than to other Hungarians.
Name
The Hungarians' own ethnonym to denote themselves in the Early Middle Ages is uncertain. The exonym "Hungarian" is thought to be derived from Oghur-Turkic On-Ogur (literally "Ten Arrows" or "Ten Tribes"). Another possible explanation comes from the Old Russian "Yugra" ("Югра"). It may refer to the Hungarians during a time when they dwelt east of the Ural Mountains along the natural borders of Europe and Asia before their conquest of the Carpathian Basin.
Prior to the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin in 895/6 and while they lived on the steppes of Eastern Europe east of the Carpathian Mountains, written sources called the Magyars "Hungarians", specifically: "Ungri" by Georgius Monachus in 837, "Ungri" by Annales Bertiniani in 862, and "Ungari" by the Annales ex Annalibus Iuvavensibus in 881. The Magyars/Hungarians probably belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance, and it is possible that they became its ethnic majority. In the Early Middle Ages, the Hungarians had many names, including "Węgrzy" (Polish), "Ungherese" (Italian), "Ungar" (German), and "Hungarus". The "H-" prefix is a later addition of Medieval Latin.
The Hungarian people refer to themselves by the demonym "Magyar" rather than "Hungarian". "Magyar" possibly derived from the name of the most prominent Hungarian tribe, the "Megyer". The tribal name "Megyer" became "Magyar" in reference to the Hungarian people as a whole.
The Greek cognate of "Tourkia" () was used by the scholar and Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII "Porphyrogenitus" in his De Administrando Imperio of c. AD 950, though in his use, "Turks" always referred to Magyars. This was a misnomer, as while the Magyars do have some Turkic genetic and cultural influence, including their historical social structure being of Turkic origin, they still are not widely considered as part of the Turkic people.
The obscure name kerel or keral, found in the 13th-century work the Secret History of the Mongols, possibly referred to Hungarians and derived from the Hungarian title király 'king'.
The historical Latin phrase "Natio Hungarica" ("Hungarian nation") had a wider and political meaning because it once referred to all nobles of the Kingdom of Hungary, regardless of their ethnicity or mother tongue.
History
Origin
The origin of Hungarians, the place and time of their ethnogenesis, has been a matter of debate. Hungarian is classified as an Ugric language, and Hungarians are commonly considered an Ugric people that originated from the Ural Mountains, Western Siberia or the Middle Volga region. The relatedness of Hungarians with other the Ugric peoples is confirmed by linguistic and genetic data, but modern Hungarians have substantial admixture from local European populations. The consensus among linguists is that the Hungarian language is a member of the Uralic family and that it diverged from its Ugric relatives in the first half of the 1st millennium BC, in western Siberia, east of the southern Urals, and arrived into Central Europe by the historical Magyar or Hungarian "conquerors". The historical Magyars were found to show significant affinity to modern Mansi and Khanty people, and stood also in contact with Turkic peoples (presumably Oghuric-speakers) and Slavs. The historical Magyars created an alliance of Steppe tribes, consisting of an Ugric/Magyar ruling class, Turkic/Oghuric tribes, and Slavic tribes, which conquered the Pannonian Steppe and surrounding regions, giving rise to modern Hungarians and Hungarian culture.
"Hungarian pre-history", i.e. the history of the "ancient Hungarians" before their arrival in the Carpathian basin at the end of the 9th century, is thus a "tenuous construct", based on linguistics, analogies in folklore, archaeology and subsequent written evidence. In the 21st century, historians have argued that "Hungarians" did not exist as a discrete ethnic group or people for centuries before their settlement in the Carpathian basin. Instead, the formation of the people with its distinct identity was a process. According to this view, Hungarians as a people emerged by the 9th century, subsequently incorporating other, ethnically and linguistically divergent, peoples.
Pre-4th century AD
During the 4th millennium BC, the Uralic-speaking peoples who were living in the central and southern regions of the Urals split up. Some dispersed towards the west and northwest and came into contact with Turkic and Iranian speakers who were spreading northwards. From at least 2000 BC onwards, the Ugric-speakers became distinguished from the rest of the Uralic community, of which the ancestors of the Magyars, being located farther south, were the most numerous. Judging by evidence from burial mounds and settlement sites, they interacted with the Indo-Iranian Andronovo culture and Baikal-Altai Asian cultures.
4th century to c. 830
In the 4th and 5th centuries AD, the Hungarians moved from the west of the Ural Mountains to the area between the southern Ural Mountains and the Volga River known as Bashkiria (Bashkortostan) and Perm Krai. In the early 8th century, some of the Hungarians moved to the Don River to an area between the Volga, Don and the Seversky Donets rivers. Meanwhile, the descendants of those Hungarians who stayed in Bashkiria remained there as late as 1241.
The Hungarians around the Don River were subordinates of the Khazar khaganate. Their neighbours were the archaeological Saltov culture, i.e. Bulgars (Proto-Bulgarians, Onogurs) and the Alans, from whom they learned gardening, elements of cattle breeding and of agriculture. Tradition holds that the Hungarians were organized in a confederacy of seven tribes. The names of the seven tribes were: Jenő, Kér, Keszi, Kürt-Gyarmat, Megyer, Nyék, and Tarján.
c. 830 to c. 895
Around 830, a rebellion broke out in the Khazar khaganate. As a result, three Kabar tribes of the Khazars joined the Hungarians and moved to what the Hungarians call the Etelköz, the territory between the Carpathians and the Dnieper River. The Hungarians faced their first attack by the Pechenegs around 854, though other sources state that an attack by Pechenegs was the reason for their departure to Etelköz. The new neighbours of the Hungarians were the Varangians and the eastern Slavs. From 862 onwards, the Hungarians (already referred to as the Ungri) along with their allies, the Kabars, started a series of looting raids from the Etelköz into the Carpathian Basin, mostly against the Eastern Frankish Empire (Germany) and Great Moravia, but also against the Balaton principality and Bulgaria.
Entering the Carpathian Basin (c. 895)
In 895/896, under the leadership of Árpád, some Hungarians crossed the Carpathians and entered the Carpathian Basin. The tribe called Megyer was the leading tribe of the Hungarian alliance that conquered the centre of the basin. At the same time (c. 895), due to their involvement in the 894–896 Bulgaro-Byzantine war, Hungarians in Etelköz were attacked by Bulgaria and then by their old enemies the Pechenegs. The Bulgarians won the decisive battle of Southern Buh. It is uncertain whether or not those conflicts were the cause of the Hungarian departure from Etelköz.
From the upper Tisza region of the Carpathian Basin, the Hungarians intensified their looting raids across continental Europe. In 900, they moved from the upper Tisza river to Transdanubia (Pannonia), which later became the core of the arising Hungarian state. At the time of the Hungarian migration, the land was inhabited only by a sparse population of Slavs, numbering about 200,000, who were either assimilated or enslaved by the Hungarians.
Archaeological findings (e.g. in the Polish city of Przemyśl) suggest that many Hungarians remained to the north of the Carpathians after 895/896. There is also a consistent Hungarian population in Transylvania, the Székelys, who comprise 40% of the Hungarians in Romania. The Székely people's origin, and in particular the time of their settlement in Transylvania, is a matter of historical controversy.
After 900
In 907, the Hungarians destroyed a Bavarian army in the Battle of Pressburg and laid the territories of present-day Germany, France, and Italy open to Hungarian raids, which were fast and devastating. The Hungarians defeated the Imperial Army of Louis the Child, son of Arnulf of Carinthia and last legitimate descendant of the German branch of the house of Charlemagne, near Augsburg in 910. From 917 to 925, Hungarians raided through Basle, Alsace, Burgundy, Saxony, and Provence. Hungarian expansion was checked at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955, ending their raids against Western Europe, but raids on the Balkan Peninsula continued until 970.
The Pope approved Hungarian settlement in the area when their leaders converted to Christianity, and Stephen I (Szent István, or Saint Stephen) was crowned King of Hungary in 1001. The century between the arrival of the Hungarians from the eastern European plains and the consolidation of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1001 was dominated by pillaging campaigns across Europe, from Dania (Denmark) to the Iberian Peninsula (contemporary Spain and Portugal). After the acceptance of the nation into Christian Europe under Stephen I, Hungary served as a bulwark against further invasions from the east and south, especially by the Turks.
At this time, the Hungarian nation numbered around 400,000 people.
Early modern period
The first accurate measurements of the population of the Kingdom of Hungary including ethnic composition were carried out in 1850–51. There is a debate among Hungarian and non-Hungarian (especially Slovak and Romanian) historians about the possible changes in the ethnic structure of the region throughout history. Some historians support the theory that the proportion of Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin was at an almost constant 80% during the Middle Ages. Non-Hungarians numbered hardly more than 20% to 25% of the total population. The Hungarian population began to decrease only at the time of the Ottoman conquest, reaching as low as around 39% by the end of the 18th century. The decline of the Hungarians was due to the constant wars, Ottoman raids, famines, and plagues during the 150 years of Ottoman rule. The main zones of war were the territories inhabited by the Hungarians, so the death toll depleted them at a much higher rate than among other nationalities. In the 18th century, their proportion declined further because of the influx of new settlers from Europe, especially Slovaks, Serbs and Germans. In 1715 (after the Ottoman occupation), the Southern Great Plain was nearly uninhabited but now has 1.3 million inhabitants, nearly all of them Hungarians. As a consequence, having also the Habsburg colonization policies, the country underwent a great change in ethnic composition as its population more than tripled to 8 million between 1720 and 1787, while only 39% of its people were Hungarians, who lived primarily in the centre of the country.
Other historians, particularly Slovaks and Romanians, argue that the drastic change in the ethnic structure hypothesized by Hungarian historians in fact did not occur. They argue that the Hungarians accounted for only about 30–40% of the Kingdom's population from its establishment. In particular, there is a fierce debate among Hungarians and Romanian historians about the ethnic composition of Transylvania through these times. For instance, Ioan-Aurel Pop argues that the Hungarian army of IX-X centuries, while it was eminently suitable for raids, was not at all fit to occupy territories already densely inhabited, especially in the hilly and mountainous areas. He adds that Hungarians, outside of Alföld, region where they were seminomadic during this time, were not able to become colonizers, and that for this reason the regions of Transylvania, Upper Hungary and Croatia were integrated in the Hungarian Kingdom in a later stage, after the year 1000, after the sedentarization, Christianization and partial feudalization of the Hungarians.
19th century to present
In the 19th century, the proportion of Hungarians in the Kingdom of Hungary rose gradually, reaching over 50% by 1900 due to higher natural growth and Magyarization. Between 1787 and 1910 the number of ethnic Hungarians rose from 2.3 million to 10.2 million, accompanied by the resettlement of the Great Hungarian Plain and Délvidék by mainly Roman Catholic Hungarian settlers from the northern and western counties of the Kingdom of Hungary.
Spontaneous assimilation was an important factor, especially among the German and Jewish minorities and the citizens of the bigger towns. On the other hand, about 1.5 million people (about two-thirds non-Hungarian) left the Kingdom of Hungary between 1890–1910 to escape from poverty.
The years 1918 to 1920 were a turning point in the Hungarians' history. By the Treaty of Trianon, the Kingdom had been cut into several parts, leaving only a quarter of its original size. One-third of the Hungarians became minorities in the neighbouring countries. During the remainder of the 20th century, the Hungarians population of Hungary grew from 7.1 million (1920) to around 10.4 million (1980), despite losses during the Second World War and the wave of emigration after the attempted revolution in 1956. The number of Hungarians in the neighbouring countries tended to remain the same or slightly decreased, mostly due to assimilation (sometimes forced; see Slovakization and Romanianization) and to emigration to Hungary (in the 1990s, especially from Transylvania and Vojvodina).
After the "baby boom" of the 1950s (Ratkó era), a serious demographic crisis began to develop in Hungary and its neighbours. The Hungarian population reached its maximum in 1980, then began to decline.
For historical reasons (see Treaty of Trianon), significant Hungarian minority populations can be found in the surrounding countries, most of them in Romania (in Transylvania), Slovakia, and Serbia (in Vojvodina). Sizable minorities live also in Ukraine (in Transcarpathia), Croatia (primarily Slavonia), and Austria (in Burgenland). Slovenia is also host to a number of ethnic Hungarians, and Hungarian language has an official status in parts of the Prekmurje region. Today more than two million ethnic Hungarians live in nearby countries.
There was a referendum in Hungary in December 2004 on whether to grant Hungarian citizenship to Hungarians living outside Hungary's borders (i.e. without requiring a permanent residence in Hungary). The referendum failed due to insufficient voter turnout. On 26 May 2010, Hungary's Parliament passed a bill granting dual citizenship to ethnic Hungarians living outside of Hungary. Some neighboring countries with sizable Hungarian minorities expressed concerns over the legislation.
Ethnic affiliations and genetic origins
The Hungarian language belongs to the Uralic language family. Modern Hungarians are however genetically rather distant from their closest linguistic relatives (Mansi and Khanty), and despite the eastern root of the Hungarian language, the Hungarians are today mostly similar to the neighbouring non-Uralic, Indo-European peoples. A small portion up to 6% of the haplogroup N can still be found among the Hungarians, which is associated with the spread of the Uralic languages and could be a paternal genetic link between the Hungarians and Mansi. The historical Hungarian conqueror YDNA has a higher eastern affinity at ~37,5% to up to 50% haplogroup N, as well as lower frequency of haplogroup C2 at 6,25%, while their mtDNA has strong links to the populations of the Baraba region, Inner Asia, Eastern Europe, Northern Europe and Central Asia.
Archeological mtDNA haplogroups show a similarity between Hungarians and Bashkirs, while another study found a link between the Khanty and Bashkirs, suggesting that the Bashkirs are mixture of Turkic, Ugric and Indo-European contributions. The homeland of ancient Hungarians is around the Ural Mountains, and the Hungarian affinities with the Karayakupovo culture is widely accepted among researchers.
However, Neparáczki argues, based on archeogenetic results, that the Conqueror Hungarians were mostly a mixture of Hunnic, Slavic, and Germanic tribes having comparable proportion of European and Asian origin and this composite people evolved in the steppes of Eastern Europe between 400 and 1000 AD. According to Neparáczki: "From all recent and archaic populations tested the Volga Tatars show the smallest genetic distance to the entire Conqueror population" and "a direct genetic relation of the Conquerors to Onogur-Bulgar ancestors of these groups is very feasible."
Paternal haplogroups
According to a study by Pamjav, the area of Bodrogköz suggested to be a population isolate found an elevated frequency of Haplogroup N: R1a-M458 (20.4%), I2a1-P37 (19%), R1a-Z280 (14.3%), and E1b-M78 (10.2%). Various R1b-M343 subgroups accounted for 15% of the Bodrogköz population. Haplogroup N1c-Tat covered 6.2% of the lineages, but most of it belonged to the N1c-VL29 subgroup, which is more frequent among Balto-Slavic speaking than Finno-Ugric speaking peoples. Other haplogroups had frequencies of less than 5%.
Among 100 Hungarian men, 90 of whom from the Great Hungarian Plain, the following haplogroups and frequencies are obtained: 30% R1a, 15% R1b, 13% I2a1, 13% J2, 9% E1b1b1a, 8% I1, 3% G2, 3% J1, 3% I*, 1% E*, 1% F*, 1% K*. The 97 Székelys belong to the following haplogroups: 20% R1b, 19% R1a, 17% I1, 11% J2, 10% J1, 8% E1b1b1a, 5% I2a1, 5% G2, 3% P*, 1% E*, 1% N. It can be inferred that Szekelys have more significant German admixture. A study sampling 45 Palóc from Budapest and northern Hungary, found 60% R1a, 13% R1b, 11% I, 9% E, 2% G, 2% J2. A study estimating possible Inner Asian admixture among nearly 500 Hungarians based on paternal lineages only, estimated it at 5.1% in Hungary, at 7.4 in Székelys and at 6.3% at Csángós.
Autosomal DNA
Modern Hungarians show relative close affinity to surrounding populations, but harbour a small East Asian-derived component, associated with the historical Magyars, but also earlier Pannonian Avars, which are suggested to have arrived from a region corresponding to modern day Mongolia. Modern Hungarians formed from several historical population groupings, including the historical Magyars, assimilated Slavic and Germanic groups, as well as previous Pannonian Avars. Genetic evidence shows that the historical Magyar conquerors were an nearly equal admixture (50/50) between European-related and East Asian-related components, while the previous Pannonian Avars were of nearly exclusively East Asian origin. Analyses of historical graves associated with Magyars show an steadily decrease of East Asian-related ancestry, suggesting ongoing admixture with surrounding local Europeans, which resulted in the rise and ethnogenesis of modern Hungarians. The genetic evidence shows that the historical Magyars were successful in transmitting their language and culture from Siberia into the heart of Europe, a cultural shift not observed among the earlier Pannonian Avars, which were completely assimilated into the local European populations, without leaving much cultural or linguistic traces.
Historical Magyar genome corresponds largely with the modern Bashkirs, and can be modeled as ~50% Mansi-like, ~35% Sarmatian-like, and ~15% Hun/Xiongnu-like. The admixture event is suggested to have take place in the Southern Ural region at 643-431 BCE. Modern Hungarians are admixed descendants of the Magyar conquerors and local Europeans, as 31 Hungarian samples could be modelled as two-way admixtures of "Conq_Asia_Core" and "EU_Core" in varying degrees. The historical Magyar component among modern Hungarians is estimated at an average frequency of 13%, which can be explained by the relative smaller population size of Magyar conquerors compared to local European groups.
A 2021 genome analysis about the Hungarian royal lineage (a sample of Béla III of Hungary) found that their paternal ancestors were of Central Asian origin, and belongs to an East-Eurasian lineage. However, the autosomal DNA profile of Bela III falls within the variation observed among Eastern Europeans, in line with his maternal ancestry. The authors suggest a higher East-Eurasian affinity for the paternal ancestors of Bela III, leading back to Árpád dynasty, but repeated marriage with royal families of European descent diluted the East-Eurasian affinity during the 18 generations between Bela III and his ancestor Arpad.
Other influences
Besides the various peoples mentioned above, the Magyars later were influenced by other populations in the Carpathian Basin. Among these are the Cumans, Pechenegs, Jazones, West Slavs, Germans, and Vlachs (Romanians). Ottomans, who occupied the central part of Hungary from 1526 until 1699, inevitably exerted an influence, as did the various nations (Germans, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, and others) that resettled the depopulated central and southern territories of the kingdom (roughly present-day South Hungary, Vojvodina in Serbia and Banat in Romania) after their departure. Similar to other European countries, Jewish, Armenian, and Roma (Gypsy) ethnic minorities have been living in Hungary since the Middle Ages.
Hungarian diaspora
Hungarian diaspora (Magyar diaspora) is a term that encompasses the total ethnic Hungarian population located outside of current-day Hungary.
Maps
Culture
The culture of Hungary shows distinctive elements, incorporating local European elements and minor Central Asian/Steppe derived traditions, such as Horse culture and Shamanistic remnants in Hungarian folklore.
Traditional costumes (18th and 19th century)
Folklore and communities
See also
Notes
References
Sources
Korai Magyar Történeti Lexicon (9–14. század) (Encyclopedia of the Early Hungarian History (9th–14th Centuries)) Budapest, Akadémiai Kiadó; 753. .
Károly Kocsis (DSc, University of Miskolc) – Zsolt Bottlik (PhD, Budapest University) – Patrik Tátrai: Etnikai térfolyamatok a Kárpát-medence határon túli régióiban + CD (for detailed data), Magyar Tudományos Akadémia (Hungarian Academy of Sciences) – Földrajtudományi Kutatóintézet (Academy of Geographical Studies); Budapest; 2006.;
External links
Origins of the Hungarians from the Enciklopédia Humana (with many maps and pictures)
Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin
Hungary and the Council of Europe
Facts about Hungary
Hungarians outside Hungary – Map
Genetic studies
MtDNA and Y chromosome polymorphisms in Hungary: inferences from the Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Uralic influences on the modern Hungarian gene pool
Human Chromosomal Polymorphism in a Hungarian Sample
Hungarian genetics researches 2008–2009
Ethnic groups in Hungary
Ethnic groups in Romania
Ethnic groups in Serbia
Ethnic groups in Slovenia
Ethnic groups in Ukraine
Ethnic groups in Vojvodina
Ugric peoples
History of Ural
Ethnic groups divided by international borders
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Charles Church is the second most ancient parish church in Plymouth, Devon in England. The senior church is St Andrew's Church, the mother church of Plymouth.
The church was an important centre of spiritual life for the city for 300 years; boasted a number of important clergy; and was the mother of many existing churches. During the nights of 21 and 22 March 1941, the church was entirely burned out by incendiary bombs during the Plymouth Blitz. Although now a monument, the tradition of ministry at "Charles" is not lost and is carried on by the Parish of Charles with St Matthias, one of its daughter churches a quarter of a mile away to the north. It is an important landmark for the city of Plymouth.
There have been several histories made of the church including two written in the early 20th century. Most focus on the fabric of the building rather than the spiritual life of the church and ministers, of whom Robert Hawker was a notable figure. There are several short accounts of his life and some much longer works.
Founding (1634–1665)
That day the mayor and thirty others of the council assembled and passed a resolution to petition the king, Charles I, for permission to divide the old Parish of Plymouth into two and build a second church.
The reason for a second church was not that the existing Church of St Andrew was too small (it could comfortably seat 1,200 and the population was around 8,000 at the time), but rather one of religious controversy. Plymouth had grown into a Puritan town. This is hinted at by the Pilgrim fathers who felt at home here, "kindly entertained and courteously used by divers friends there dwelling". Being a Puritan town it meant that the High Anglican king did not see eye to eye with the townsfolk on religious matters.
Increasing tensions grew between the king and town over St Andrew's. In addition to the minister the town regularly appointed a "lecturer" to supplement the minister in his ministry. This lecturer might refute the morning sermon or the minister in an evening sermon. Battles were fought over the choice of ministers for the church and at times the king ordered the town's choice to be refused admission or tried to appoint his own lecturer. With increasing friction; disappointment with the Royalist tendencies of the St Andrew's incumbents; and a desire for Puritan preaching, the solution of creating a second church was mooted.
That King Charles understood this may account for his seven-year delay in responding. In the end Robert Trelawny who had become Member of Parliament for Plymouth (and despite his royalist sympathy) most likely persuaded a king who was running out of friends in the West Country to act. On 21 April 1641 the letters patent were signed and sealed. An Act of Parliament was passed on 6 July 1641 and given royal assent on 7 August. It cost the town £150 and was one of the few pieces of legislation in that limited Parliament.
The act followed the terms of the letter closely but it was more generous than expected and the new parish was larger than requested. The old parish was split in two on a north–south line and the new parish of Charles was to the east. It stretched much further than the town boundaries first envisioned for the new parish, north to Eggbuckland and further east: the Act also stipulated that no clergyman could hold both livings.
The King insisted the church be named after himself. Given the climate before the English Civil War it is perhaps not surprising that Plymouth sided with Oliver Cromwell and the Parliamentarians. St Andrew's came to be known as "the Old church" and Charles Church "the New church", titles that stuck for a long time.
The plot of land first sited close to Sutton Pool was unsuitable as the extended parish boundaries would make it less accessible, so a second plot of was found and given to the church by a William Warren who received both a burial plot inside the church and a seat inside. It was well located for the houses of the parish and fairly close to the ruins of a 12th-century Carmelite monastery. Building commenced immediately in 1641 but was halted by the Civil War in 1642 just as the builders were ready to complete the roof and men were needed for the defence of the town. The church remained in that state until 1645 when the town was relieved; staunchly Protestant, it held out against the King's men throughout the Civil War, almost alone in a Royalist West Country.
There is evidence that the incomplete church was used for stabling horses during the siege. However, it seems that some parts were used for worship. A wedding is recorded on 10 May 1644, baptisms from January 1645 and burials from 4 August 1646 (some pages have been lost so there may have been earlier ones). The oldest communion plate is hallmarked 1646 suggesting its early use. Although the church was not consecrated until 2 September 1665, Francis Porter the first minister was in place as the preaching minister at Charles from 1643 as allowed for by the Act. Iron spikes were said to have been driven into the chancel wall and a canvas pulled across part of the church making it useful for worship during the siege. Traces of the spikes have been found in renovation work since. A glance at the map of the besieged city in 1643 reveals that the church is marked but without a roof on the plan.
After the war, work began again, albeit slowly. Money was raised: £100 per annum in 1646 to pay the minister and £500 in 1656 to complete the church. Money problems seem to have continued because the tower was only half finished in 1652. Eventually the church was finished in 1657 although a spire was not added until 1708 and the tower covered in a cap of wood instead. Once complete the church stood out from the city. No house overshadowed it and the building was said to be of very fine quality. It was one of the leading examples of a post-Reformation Gothic style church in the country. The architect was thought to be a degenerate disciple of William of Wykeham. The church at this time possessed no galleries or organ.
The conveyancing happened very shortly before the consecration twenty-four years after the church was started. Francis Porter, who was Presbyterian, conformed and kept his living and the church was consecrated by Bishop Seth Ward of Exeter on 2 September 1665 (after the restoration of the monarchy). In 1670 the churchyard was consecrated. The consecration caused a little controversy as the bishop wanted to dedicate the church to "Charles, King and Martyr". However, Puritan Plymouth was not to be messed with and insisted the church be named according to the letters Patent of 1641 signed in Charles's own hand. (The bishop succeeded in dedicating the Church of King Charles the Martyr in nearby Falmouth.)
Development and ministry (1665–1941)
Francis Porter died in 1675. There followed four ministers until Thomas Martin. Martin completed the tower with a wooden spire coated with lead (replaced in 1767 with a stone spire).
In 1708 the West gallery was erected. Six bells were added to the church in 1709 and a chiming clock was given in 1719. In the latter half of the 18th-century many more alterations were made by Dr Robert Hawker. Hawker, an Evangelical, was extremely popular as a preacher and the church must have grown in numbers as in 1815 the North and South galleries were erected.
It is hard to estimate the sittings the church provided. It was clear that there were not enough. Thousands are said to have flocked to hear Hawker preach. Charles Chapel, the first daughter church, was built from the need to provide more space. Certainly, the galleries helped.
The 1851 church census may give us some idea of what a normal attendance would have been like although it is by no means accurate. On 30 March 1851 the attendances were:
Plymouth combined returns
Population: 52,221
Percentage sittings per person: 45.6%
Number of sittings: 23,805
Additional sitting required to seat 58% population: 6,483
From the figures it is clear that the Charles Chapel and St Andrew's figures are estimated and little care was taken over them (if they were returned at all and not estimated by the census makers). The Charles figures have a ring of authenticity about them and this may indicate that they are accurate.
The question of how many sittings Charles had is difficult to arrive at. The church had three galleries in addition to its pews. The church is approximately half the size of St Andrew's. A figure of 900 sittings is given by the one author in 1977 although this is not clear whether or not all the galleries were taken into account. Charles Church was popular and may have been full that morning. Nationally there were a large number of absences on that day so we must presume that the church could seat over 1,000 perhaps 1,200.
On the day of the census there was a total of 2,480 attendances. This is probably made up of a large number of "twicers". In 1827 it was estimated that the parishioners numbered 10,000 and it was clear that there was a need for more churches.
The Victorian period was a boom time for the church building. The 1851 census discovered a need for more sitting (the 58% population noted above). Nationally the population grew from 19 million in 1861 to 30.5 million in 1901. This population growth was in the towns and not in the country. The need became apparent for more churches to meet the spiritual needs of increasing numbers parishioners. People started moving out from the centre of the towns to the suburbs and Plymouth was no exception as the population increased steadily from the early 18th century to 1814. As Charles parish extended a great distance anyway there was a large increase in population.
Charles Church went on to spawn eight daughter churches from 1829 through to 1910. The first came about following the death of Hawker. His curate Septimus Courtney was expected by the congregation to become priest. James Carne succeeded him in fact. A protest meeting resulted that led to the building of the first daughter church of Charles in 1827 called Charles Chapel (later it became a parish and was renamed St Luke's). It is only a few hundred yards to the north of Charles.
The church under the influence of the evangelicals was extremely active, and many new church buildings and alternations were made in this time. Charles is no exception and a large number of developments and restorations were made to the building during that period.
Charles Church was a Gothic styled church. It consisted of a west tower, with spire; nave with north and south aisles; north and south porches and chancel with north vestry. The tower was completed in 1708 and was originally surmounted by a wooden lead covered spire. This was later to be blown off in strong winds and replaced by the stone spire in 1766. It was said at the time that witches had knocked the wooded spire off with their broomsticks! The porches were added to the church in 1864. The south porch, located in the centre of the south aisle had a 17th-century pointed outer doorway – this is still visible today in the ruins of the church. The fire caused by the blitz revealed a doorway in the north wall of the church.
Missions interest was growing. In 1896 the "Charles Own Missionary" Fund was started and the first "Own Missionary", Miss Emily Bazerley, went out to the Bihar and Orissa province of India. In January 1901 Miss Ada Pitts sailed for China as the second missionary. The earliest interest before this was a collection taken and given on 17 October 1661 to John de Kavino Kavainsley of the Dukedom of Lithuania, for the printing of the Bible in Lithuanian. In 1961 a third "Own Missionary", Dr Alison Dow went out with CMS to the Bihls in India from St Matthias.
Education was important to Charles Church and its Evangelical ministers. The "Household of Faith" Sunday school started in May 1784 with twenty children. This was the first school of its type in Plymouth. In four years it had grown and a school of industry added. The first permanent place for the school was opened on 7 March 1798 possibly the first purpose built Sunday school building anywhere.
1837 saw the building of Charles National school in Tavistock Place. This was for many the only National school in the town and set an example by opening for government inspectors in 1849. This was to be a mixed school but became a Junior mixed and senior girls when Charles Shaftesbury school was opened in 1855 serving Senior boys.
Clergy
There have been over 25 incumbent clergy of Charles Church. Some of the more notable were:
Abednego Seller (1686–1690). It was a troubled time when Seller entered the work. Following the revolution in 1688 Archbishop Sancroft was the first to refuse to take the oath of allegiance to William III. Of the seven other bishops and four hundred clergy who become "Non-Jurors" Abednego was one of them and similarly lost his living. He was a conscientious man who found no release from his oath of allegiance to James II and chose to suffer loss than to break his oath.
Thomas Martin (1690–1711) was an Irishman who fled Ireland for safety "from ye bloody rage of ye Irish Papists". Little is known of his spiritual activities in the church, but he was instrumental in the development of the church erecting the west gallery, finishing the tower and raising the spire.
Walter Hewgoe (1711–1712) was controversial. "A very good man in every way" he was regarded as the best man for the appointment. However, there was some delay in the appointment and the Mayor took matters into his own hands. Whilst the majority of the council was out of town the Mayor and eight others chose Hewgoe. The rest of the council was not pleased and the matter went to trial before the bishop's court with the result that he was instituted as vicar. The Mayor, the Bishop and Hewgoe were sued and in the end Hewgoe resigned the living.
Robert Hawker (1784–1827) was the most famous minister of Charles Church. He was sometimes called the "Star of the West", due to his superlative preaching that drew thousands to hear him speak for over an hour at a time. He was a bold Evangelical, caring father, active in education, compassionate for the poor and needy of the parish, a scholar and author of many books, and deeply beloved of his parishioners. At the time of his death in 1827, Hawker had been curate for six years and 43 years its incumbent.
James Carne (1827–1832) was given the almost impossible job of following Hawker. He was a man of strong business ability and tact and he undertook extensive repairs to the church. He was said to "combine the meekness of wisdom and the watchfulness of the Christian pastor". He and his wife died within four days of each other whilst ministering to the poor and deprived families who contracted cholera in the epidemic of 1832.
Septimus Courtney (1832–1843). Had not Carne gained the living, Courtney would no doubt have been at Charles since he was the popular choice. When Hawker died he was the curate and widely tipped to be the next pastor. The nearby Charles chapel (later St Luke's) was built for him instead. Most likely an Evangelical like Hawker, it was said of him that "he made the glory of Christ known and His redemption great subjects of his ministry, and while he laboured diligently in the public preaching of the Gospel, he exemplified his life the doctrines which he taught". It is not surprising that Charles chapel had an external stone pulpit for outdoor preaching (although this was not erected until 1913) and that this protégé of Hawker should exhibit similar qualities to the man himself.
Cecil Augustus Bisshopp (1845–1846) exercised his right as patron of the living and was instituted at the age of twenty-four. The previous minister Charles Greenal Davies was a stopgap minister until Bisshopp was old enough to take the living. Bisshopp was remembered as a charming young man who led a blameless life. He resigned early as his wife was not strong and his own health frail. He moved to Malta where he died aged just twenty-eight.
Henry Addington Greaves (1846–1878) was a great improver and renovator. He restored the spire and tower and conducted much other work on the building. He is remembered as a keen educationalist and in his time a mixed school was erected in the parish. Greaves set an example by placing the school under Government Inspection: as demand grew another school was built in response to their report. He was also the builder of the daughter churches of Charles: St John's, Emmanuel, and St Jude's started to grow their congregations; Charles Chapel built for Courtney now became St Luke's Church with its own parish.
Destruction and recent history 1941–2002
After the Battle of Britain phase of World War II, the air raids on Plymouth were rapidly intensified. During the night of 20–21 March 1941 Charles Church was destroyed by fire. The congregation joined St Luke's for a month and then joined the daughter church St Matthias (as did the daughter church St Augustine for the same reason). Charles Church was encircled by the construction of a roundabout ten years later.
When peace came it was decided not to rebuild Charles. Plymouth had expanded and the population was in the new suburbs not the centre any more. It was decided to turn Charles into a living memorial of the 1,200 civilian deaths in the air raids. On Saturday 1958 at a service conducted by the vicar of the parish, J Allen James, the church was dedicated as a memorial. The commemorative plaque on the north wall reads:
The church is occasionally used for services of remembrance or of special importance and the current Vicar of Charles with St Matthias is responsible for them. Modern use has been for the university carol concerts and a special service of reconciliation between Germany and Plymouth was held there in 2001 with the German ambassador present.
The parish became known as the Charles with St Luke on 11 August 1954 and then when St Luke's was considered for demolition the congregation united with St Matthias becoming "the Church of Charles with St Matthias" on 22 April 1962.
One of the parishioners, Miss Leigh, had mixed feelings about the church remaining a memorial. "It grieves my heart to see it as it is, given that I remember its former glories. I'm sorry, too, that the historic purpose-built Household of Faith Sunday School, the first in Plymouth, was torn down. I just don't know what to think about the church remaining as it is a memorial to the Blitz victims". Miss Leigh was clear about what she felt for the church itself having attended from birth in 1903 "To me the church was particularly wonderful because there I got to know God… When it was blitzed in 1941 it was one of the few things that made me cry. My life seemed to be completely broken on that day."
During the mid-1990s the church again become the subject of renewed debate, partly because it is felt that its setting would be at least overpowered and possibly desecrated by the erection of the controversial Drake Circus Shopping Centre to the North West and because there was a growing campaign to partially restore the church to incorporate some modern glazed roofing to enclose a blitz museum.
Markings and inscriptions
Following the destruction of the church, a Mr G. W. Copeland visited it and recorded many of the historical monumental inscriptions and other ecclesiastical inscriptions. He presented his findings to the Devonshire Association in 1949. Much of what follows is his work:
Within a few weeks of the great raid that destroyed the building, the writer, in company with Mr Cyril Palmer, had the opportunity of paying more than one visit to the ruins, for the purpose of making photographic and other records. As may be expected, every scrap of woodwork, old and new, had been consumed; even the tower had been burned out; and the only part to escape destruction was the modern vestry on the north side of the chancel. All the bells, with one exception, and that was cracked, were broken; and not one mural monument escaped damage. The font was smashed to small fragments, which were collected later to form a small cairn.
The west tower of Charles Church, like St Andrew's, is built of limestone and granite. It is of three stages, divided by moulded strings and at each angle are double buttresses. The spire is octagonal and is surmounted by a ball and vane. The tower bears two date stones; 1657 on the north side and 1708 on the south side.
The East Window of the church was very elaborate and was of a remarkable design for a church built in the 17th century. There was originally a doorway underneath the east window, this had been walled up in 1665: its location became apparent by the damage caused in the blitz.
The following transcriptions come from the work of Mr Copeland, shortly after the blitz on Plymouth:
On the bells
A framed card which hung in the vestry recorded the following:
When the bells lay broken or cracked after falling through the tower the following inscriptions were recorded:
On other monuments
Many monuments in the ruins of Charles Church were destroyed beyond identification. The following are those that remained.
A brass rectangular tablet recording the erection in the north aisle of a window in memory of Admiral Blake, though badly bent, stained and partly fused, bore the following decipherable inscription:
To the Glory of God and in Affectionate Remembrance of Admiral Robert Blake who first established the Naval Supremacy of Great Britain which has ever since been maintained. This window is placed by several English and American Family descendants for the purpose of recording his daring bravery, his splendid achievements and his pure noble blameless character, August 1889. The Memory of the Just is Blessed. Prov. 0. 7.
In the north aisle:
Marble memorial, inscribed:
To the Memory of Mr William Rowe of this towne, Merchant, a great benefactor the poor, who died ye 27 day of December 1690. Also Frances his wife, who died the 18 of December 1688.
Black and white marble tablet, inscribed:
To the Memory of John Nicolls Esq, who died the 16th of May 1790 aged 59 years and of Elizabeth Nicolls his widow who died the 12th day of June 1794 aged 60 years.
The epitaph reads:
When sorrow weeps o'er virtue's sacred dust, Our tears become us and our grief is just. Such were the tears she shed who grateful pays, This last sad tribute of her love and praise, Who mourns the best of friends and parents kind, Where female softness met a manly mind. Mourns but not murmurs, sighs but not despairs, Feels as a mortal – as a Christian bears.
Small black and white marble tablet, inscribed:
To the Memory of Francis Hawker, Daughter of John and Mary Frances Hawker, who died the 16th of May 1818: Aged 24 years
Small rectangular black and white marble tablet, inscribed:
To the Memory of Mary Frances Winne, Daughter of Sir Edmund Keynton Williams and Catherine his Wife. Nov. 29 1820.
A lower tablet records:
Also her sisters, Caroline Winne, who died Feb 20th 1822 aged 5 months. Caroline Gwyneth Williams died May 10, 1828 aged 9 months. Maud Lewellyn Seys Williams died May 11, 1828 aged 2 years.
Rectangular black and white marble tablet, inscribed:
To the Memory of James Hawker Esq, A Post-Captain in His Majesty's Navy who died the 23rd March 1786 aged 58 years. And of Dorothea Hawker, his widow who died the 25th January 1816 agd 78 years.
Monument of black marble, inscription in Latin (translated):
To Moses George Vincent de Batens in Northill, died August 23, 1663 and Matthias, his Brother, died Feb 11, 1683.
White marble tablet, inscribed:
Here lie the bodies of Samuel Brent Esqr and Henrietta his Wife. Samuel died December 26, 1788 aged 77, Henrietta died February 21, 1784 aged 63. Gratefull affection for the best of Parents has caused this Monument to be erected to their Memory.
Damaged black and white marble tablet, inscribed:
To Vice-Admiral Richard Arthur, Companion of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath, Second Son of the Late John Arthur Esq of Plymouth. Died Oct. 26, 1854, aged 75. Also Elizabeth Fortescue, his Wife, and the Eldest Daughter of the Late Rev William Wells, Rector of East Allington, Devon. Died Aug. 16, 1853, aged 69. Also Catherine Elizabeth Caroline Henn Gennys, Daughter of the Above, and Wife of Commander J.N. Gennys, R.N. Died Apr. 30, 1861, aged 39. Also Richard William Arthur, Eldest Son, who died on board H.M.S. Iris off the Island of Mauritius, July 20 [no year], aged 19. The monument erected by Edward Fortescue and Oswald Cornish Arthur as a Tribute of Affection to their Beloved Parents, Sister and Brother.
In the west tower – north side:
Rectangular stone tablet, inscribed:
William Spark of Fryery in Plymouth Esqr, died the 8th day of June in the year 1714. Being the last of his Name and Family in that place. Resurgam.
An upright rectangular stone tablet, inscribed:
Mrs Anna Harris Rains, Wife of Capt. Stephen Rains of the Royal Navy. Died October 26, 1793 aged 61. Also Captain Rains. Died January 26, 1795. His remains are in the same vault as those of his wife.
In the south aisle:
White marble tablet, inscribed:
Andrew Tracey Esq. of Gascoyne Place, Master in the Royal Navy for nearly half a century. Died March 9, 1826, aged 81. Also Sarah Tracey, Relict of the above, Died June 9, 1838, aged 79.
Upright rectangular tablet, inscribed:
Elizabeth, Wife of Sir I. H. Seymour, Bart, Rector of Northchurch, Herts., Eldest Daughter of Robert Culme of Tothill, Rector of North Lewe and Parochial Curate of Plympton St Mary. Died March 6, 1841. Blessed are the pure in Heart for they shall see God. This tablet is erected by her husband.
Bibliography
Pevsner, Nikolaus (1952) South Devon. Penguin Books; pp. 231–32
Fleming, Guy (1987) Plymouth in War & Peace. St Teath: Bossiney Books; p. 40
References
External links
1889 Photograph of the Charles Church, Plymouth and Its Churchyard
3D reconstruction of Charles Church in Plymouth (UK) (YouTube)
for GENUKI page for Charles the Martyr Church, Plymouth, Devon
Charles' Church (Oldplymouth.uk website)
Rare picture shows what Charles Church looked like before it was bombed
Ruins of Charles Church, Plymouth (July 2017 photographs)
British churches bombed by the Luftwaffe
Church of England church buildings in Devon
Grade I listed churches in Devon
Charles Church
Ruins of churches destroyed during World War II
Buildings and structures in the United Kingdom destroyed during World War II
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CitySpire (also known as CitySpire Center) is a mixed-use skyscraper at 150 West 56th Street in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. Completed in 1990 and designed by Murphy/Jahn Architects, the building measures tall with 75 stories. CitySpire was developed by Ian Bruce Eichner on a site adjacent to the New York City Center theater. When completed, CitySpire was the second-tallest concrete tower in the United States after the Sears Tower.
The skyscraper has an octagonal plan with a dome inspired by that of the New York City Center. The facade is made of stone with glass windows, and it contains setbacks at the 46th and 62nd floors. The building has entrances at 56th and 55th Streets, connected by a passageway that forms part of 6½ Avenue. The lowest 22 floors of the tower are for commercial use. Above are luxury apartments, which are larger on higher floors.
Eichner proposed CitySpire in 1984, acquiring unused air rights above City Center and making improvements to the theater to almost double the tower's area. After several agencies approved the project, City Center began construction in 1985 and was topped out by June 1987. A controversy ensued when the building exceeded its approved height by ; Eichner agreed to add dance-studio space to compensate for the height overrun, but he ultimately never built the space. Soon after CitySpire's opening in 1989, the building went into foreclosure, and there were complaints of a whistling noise from the roof for two years.
Site
CitySpire is at 150 West 56th Street, between Sixth Avenue and Seventh Avenue three blocks south of Central Park, in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. The building's land lot covers and has a frontage of along 56th Street. While the site is deep, extending south to 55th Street, only a small section of the lot has frontage on 55th Street.
The building is directly west of the New York City Center and 125 West 55th Street; the former is a New York City designated landmark at 135 West 55th Street. Immediately to the north are Carnegie Hall, Carnegie Hall Tower, Russian Tea Room, and Metropolitan Tower from west to east. Other nearby buildings include 140 West 57th Street, 130 West 57th Street, and the Parker New York hotel to the northeast, as well as the 55th Street Playhouse to the southwest and 1345 Avenue of the Americas to the southeast.
The neighborhood was historically part of an artistic hub that developed around the two blocks of West 57th Street from Sixth Avenue west to Broadway during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, following the opening of Carnegie Hall. Several buildings in the area were constructed as residences for artists and musicians, such as 130 and 140 West 57th Street, the Rodin Studios, and the Osborne Apartments, as well as the demolished Sherwood Studios and Rembrandt. In addition, the area contained the headquarters of organizations such as the American Fine Arts Society, the Lotos Club, and the American Society of Civil Engineers. Just prior to CitySpire's construction, the site was occupied by six vacant lots at 132–158 West 56th Street and one on 137 West 55th Street. These lots were acquired in the 1970s by Richard M. Chapman, who razed the buildings there.
Design
CitySpire (also known as CitySpire Center) was designed by Murphy/Jahn and developed by Ian Bruce Eichner. It was constructed by Tishman Realty & Construction, with Robert Rosenwasser Associates as structural engineer. CitySpire is tall and is 75 stories high, with two basement stories. When completed, CitySpire was the second-tallest concrete tower in the United States after the Sears Tower in Chicago.
Form and facade
CitySpire was designed from the beginning as an octagonal tower with wings on the east and west. CitySpire rises with three setbacks on the east and west at the 23rd, 46th, and 62nd floors.
As proposed, the main shaft of the tower was to be clad in stone, while the wings were to be made of glass. The facade is made of Sardinian "luna pearl" that is cut into slabs, measuring about . Each slab is attached to the aluminum curtain wall frame on all sides, supported only by the curtain wall. The stone panels are entirely prefabricated and are insulated with fiberglass panels measuring thick, along with neoprene gaskets and silicone caulk. The setbacks at the 46th and 62nd floors were designed with parapets of steel and concrete, which were reduced in size as part of a 1988 lawsuit settlement concerning the building's height. Eichner disliked the parapets; he suggested that residents on the 46th floor "can look out at it and know they're looking at a wall instead of Central Park so that Helmut Jahn can rest easy knowing that his 'artistic integrity' is intact."
The roof has a dome which, as originally proposed, was supposed to be tall. When it was ultimately installed in 1988, the dome contained eight steel ribs, each measuring long and weighing . Each rib consisted of three sections. The dome itself contains louvers and was designed with a green surface. When the dome was constructed, wind created a loud whistling sound when passing through the louvers; this was remedied in 1992 with the removal of alternating panels. Paul Sachner of Architectural Record initially likened the dome to that of the Nebraska State Capitol, while Paul Goldberger of The New York Times said the dome was meant to relate to City Center.
Structural features
The superstructure is made of concrete. Because of CitySpire's mixed-use spaces, it contains nine different structural systems, since a unified grid of columns was infeasible for apartment layouts. Further, because Eichner wanted to maximize views of the surrounding city, the wind-resisting sections of the superstructure had to be placed in the interior. While the lower stories are largely composed of grids of columns, there are also sections of rectangular concrete panels, which are staggered across several levels to create a diagonal wind brace. The upper stories are designed as a "shear wall/open tube" structural system, in which shear walls extend from the elevator core at the center of the tower, connecting to the outer columns.
Interior
CitySpire has a floor area of around , and ten elevators rise the height of the building. Before CitySpire was developed, the site was zoned to only allow a building of around 34 stories without any modifications. Given the size of the lot, this would have provided up to of space. Eichner obtained unused air rights above City Center, which only occupied a small amount of the maximum space allowed for its lot; this allowed a 60-story tower. On top of this, Eichner was allowed to increase the building's floor area ratio by 20 percent in exchange for renovating City Center. This amounted to of extra space. These bonuses allowed CitySpire to be more than twice as large as it ordinarily would have been.
The interior floor-numbering system skips floors 13 and 25, so there are physically only 73 stories, though the top story is numbered 75. The lowest 22 or 23 floors of the building are for commercial use. There are luxury apartments on the next 49 floors, and there is another floor for mechanical use. The building was designed with elaborate details. The attention to detail extended to the elevator buttons, which Jahn redesigned with three buttons to a row when Eichner found two buttons per row to be unpleasing.
Base
A pedestrian arcade between 56th and 55th Streets is included in CitySpire's base as part of its construction. The arcade is one of nine passageways that form 6½ Avenue, a set of full-block passageways from 51st to 57th Street between Sixth and Seventh Avenues. It was built as a "through-block connection" under the Special Midtown District, created in 1982. The connection itself was not opened until 1997, several years after the building opened; the delay was largely due to the building's foreclosure and other disputes in the early 1990s. The arcade, designed by Brennan Beer Gorman, consists of marble and granite walls as well as a ceiling. The passageway is decorated in an Art Deco-inspired style, with theater posters on the walls. The space has recessed lights on the ceiling and lights on the walls, but there is no seating since the passageway was designed merely for pedestrian movement.
The office and residential lobbies are separate from each other. The residential lobby at 150 West 56th Street has a domed ceiling as well as wooden paneling. The office portion of CitySpire has the address 156 West 56th Street. There is also a bar called Carnegie Club (originally Carnegie Bar and Books). The bar, on the ground floor, has a ceiling high with an overhanging mezzanine. A garage and cafe was also included in the base. The building was planned with of office space. Each of the office stories typically measures , with polygonal cutouts at each corner.
Tower
The building was proposed with 355 luxury residential condominiums, but it was completed with 340 condos. According to the New York City Department of City Planning, there are 340 condominiums in the entire building, of which 337 are residential units. About 100 of the apartments were built with one bedroom, with the rest having multiple bedrooms. Many of the residential units are separated from each other by the building's shear walls. Due to the setbacks on the exterior, floors 47 through 61 typically measure , while floors 63 through 69 are an octagon measuring 80 feet across.
The apartments at CitySpire vary in size and arrangement, though many of the units contain terraces. For instance, one studio apartment has a living room, kitchen, and terrace. Some of the one-bedroom units also have living and dining rooms with angled walls. In some of the two-bedroom units, there is a foyer with a living/dining room, kitchens, and bedrooms leading off it. There are also duplex units with kitchens, living rooms, and dining rooms on the lower tier, as well as bedrooms on the upper tiers. One of the larger duplexes, on floors 65/66, has four bedrooms; a living/dining area with a library and breakfast area; a family room; and a terrace measuring .
Eichner originally intended to occupy a penthouse apartment atop CitySpire, but he ended up never living in the unit. The penthouse was instead purchased in 1993 by real estate developer Steven Klar for about $4.5 million as a "raw space"; it covers floors 72 through 75, though floor 72 is a guest suite. Klar had hired Juan Pablo Molyneux to redesign the penthouse over two and a half years. The penthouse, covering , has six bedrooms and nine bathrooms, as well as three terraces. The master bedroom takes up an entire story, while the master bathroom has green marble cladding as well as bronze and mahogany fixtures. The penthouse also has a classical-columned foyer, a large dining room with a chandelier, a wine closet with space for 1,000 bottles, and a private elevator. Molyneux personally disliked the design, calling it a "horror", though this was apparently because Molyneux actually never saw the design in person, having been dismissed before the design was completed.
When CitySpire was built, it was advertised with amenities such as the SpireCard, a charge account to which each resident could request a luxury service for a fee. It was also advertised with a media room containing a large-screen TV; a lounge with bar; and a business center with stock quote and telex machines. The modern amenities include a party and conference rooms, play area, and fitness center with pool.
History
The neighboring New York City Center had opened in 1924 as the Mecca Temple, a house of worship for the Shriners. The Mecca Temple was acquired by the New York City government in 1943 and became a theater. In 1982, City Center completed a minor renovation to the lobby and orchestra. City Center planned another set of improvements to enlarge stage, storage, and balcony areas. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) designated City Center as a city landmark in 1983; as a result, the commission was required to approve any major alterations to the theater. Concurrently, Bruce Eichner bought Chapman's neighboring site for $18 million. He also bought a parking garage, whose owner agreed to sell it on the condition a replacement parking garage was built.
Development
Planning
In May 1984, Eichner announced that he would build a 72-story skyscraper on the site, designed by Murphy/Jahn. The building would contain 22 stories of offices and 49 stories of condominiums. It would be shaped like an octagon with setbacks and a domed roof. A key part of Eichner's development was his proposal to purchase unused air rights above City Center. Eichner would also make improvements to City Center to obtain additional space. The sale was expected to raise $10 to 14 million for the New York City Opera, New York City Ballet, and City Center's sublessee 55th Street Dance Theater. The proposed air-rights sale received criticism both for its relatively low price and for the fact that it would allow an excessively large building. City Center Tower was one of several high-rise developments planned for the area at the time; Metropolitan Tower and Carnegie Hall Tower were being proposed as well.
The air-rights transfers needed the approval of several agencies. In August 1984, the New York City Board of Estimate voted to allow the sale of air rights. The LPC was scheduled to hold a hearing for the proposed sale in November 1984, but an unrelated controversy over another landmark candidate took up all the time allotted for discussing the air-rights sale. The LPC granted the project a "certificate of appropriateness" in January 1985, which allowed the LPC to apply for a special zoning permit from the New York City Planning Commission (CPC) for the air-rights transfer. Several agencies then needed to approve the tower itself. Following objections from members of the Board of Estimate and CPC, some elements of City Center Tower were downsized. The CPC approved the tower in June 1985, followed by the Board of Estimate that August.
The building had been approved to a height of about . Though the City Center Tower was to be New York City's tallest residential tower upon its construction, Eichner cited a study that "proved" the top of the tower would not cast shadows on the street. He described the tower as a "quintessential New York skyscraper", compared to the "undistinguished" glass-clad office buildings on Madison and Park Avenues. Eichner received $157.5 million in construction financing. Both Eichner and his lawyer Howard Horenstein donated several thousand dollars to Mayor Ed Koch, who had voted in favor of the tower. The donations were investigated in an ethics probe in 1987.
Construction
By the time the Board of Estimate had approved City Center Tower, pouring of the concrete slabs was underway. The project was being referred to as CitySpire by mid-1986, when European American Bank leased eight of the office stories. The construction of CitySpire involved controversies over safety. Susan Guszynski of the Joffrey Ballet, a tenant in City Center, wrote a letter to the New York City Department of Buildings (DOB) in late 1986, alleging that three Joffrey staff had been hit by falling concrete during one week that October. The Buildings Department subsequently received four additional complaints of falling objects, including one instance in which a portion of the facade fell from the roof. Neighbors also filed lawsuits claiming that CitySpire's construction had led to debris pileups and various incidents. One neighbor claimed that he received death threats after complaining to the police about cracked windows, while another neighbor was allegedly raped after an attacker climbed into her apartment through CitySpire's scaffolding.
Marketing for the residential units started in March 1987, with TV advertisements that featured celebrities such as Dick Cavett, Carol Channing, Lauren Hutton, Robert Joffrey, Lynn Redgrave, and Tommy Tune. Despite this, only 60 of the 340 condos were in contract by that August. The slow sales were attributed to the shortage of small apartments, as well as the tower's location in a traditionally non-residential neighborhood. The advertisements also received complaints for including only white people; the director of the building's marketing team claimed they were just targeting the demographic who was most likely to buy apartments there. Horenstein denied the advertisements were intended to discourage minorities.
Completion and height controversy
The building had topped out by mid-1987. The building, as constructed, exceeded its approved height by either or . The difference of was a calculation error from two different methods of measuring height, but the extra 11 feet came from Eichner's decision to add of cement to all the floor slabs to stiffen them. The topped-out structure had to undergo a second public review from the Board of Estimate, Manhattan Community Board 5, and the CPC. Eichner voluntarily agreed to halt CitySpire's structural work, though he saw the height overruns as being "of no consequence to anyone". By November 1987, Eichner and city officials were discussing a compromise in which Eichner would give more arts funding but keep the extra height. By the end of 1987, Eichner had sold 164 of the apartments, and some of the commercial space was already occupied. Residential prices at CitySpire had remained relatively low in the wake of Black Monday two months earlier.
Community Board 5 officials voted against allowing the extra height in protest of the zoning law. The CPC rejected the additional height that December, saying Eichner could have pursued other options, including lowering ceiling heights, to stay within the 800-foot height limit. CPC chairwoman Sylvia Deutsch rejected Eichner's offer to add unrelated amenities and pay the city extra cash, and she also dismissed complaints from neighbors who opposed the project for unrelated reasons. In April 1988, the city and Eichner tentatively reached a settlement in which Eichner agreed to build of dance studios above the pedestrian arcade and reduce some facade details. The agreement, contingent on the dome not being completed, had not been ratified by the CPC or Board of Estimate. Deutsch called the agreement "reasonable"; however, community groups thought it would set a precedent for developers who built past their height limits, and some LPC members specifically opposed the design.
Residents of the lower floors were allowed to move into the building by mid-1988, even though the upper stories did not have their occupancy certificate. CitySpire's dome was completed in August 1988, apparently in violation of the settlement. While Community Board 5 had notified the DOB about the illegal work earlier, the dome had been completed by the time the DOB issued a stop-work order. Koch ordered the dome dismantled that November. The ribs were partially removed so CitySpire would only exceed the permitted height by . City Center filed a lawsuit that month, alleging that Eichner had not renovated the theater as promised. City Center sought an injunction to forbid the DOB from issuing CitySpire a certificate of occupancy for the top twenty stories until the renovations were performed. A New York Supreme Court justice declined to issue the injunction, and the city allowed Eichner to open the 51st through 63rd floors. Community Board 5 "demanded" the city deny CitySpire a special zoning permit for the extra height.
The removal of the dome was temporary pending the approval of a zoning variance through the Uniform Land Use Review Procedure, which was granted in January 1989. Soon after, the CPC voted to permit the completion of CitySpire's dome in exchange for the dance studios in the base. The Board of Estimate continued to debate over whether the dance studios were an appropriate penalty for Eichner. In March 1989, the Board of Estimate voted 6–5 to allow the dance studios as an appropriate penalty. The height agreement received opposition from city comptroller Harrison J. Goldin, who charged that Eichner was violating the law, and from critics who believed the dance studios, at , were too small. The dome was subsequently damaged in a fire in May 1989, which investigators determined was an arson. Eichner had still not completed renovations at City Center like he had promised, and the building's pedestrian arcade was not open to the public.
Usage
Eichner had sold 280 of the apartments and three-quarters of the office space by early 1989, and the building was completed by 1990. CitySpire's dance studios were supposed to be completed in September 1989, but it was not until mid-1990 that Eichner applied for a permit. Construction on the studios had not even started because, according to Hornstein, the plans had to be approved by several agencies. Eichner still had yet to sell the 50 remaining apartments and the remaining 20 percent of commercial space. Ten of these apartments were in the top stories that could not be completed until the studios were finished.
Noise pollution and bankruptcy
Shortly after CitySpire's completion, Eichner was concurrently negotiating construction loans with his lenders, which included Citibank and European American Bank. He was also delinquent on $3.7 million of tax payments, which the city sued that July to recover. In October 1990, European American Bank challenged the collateral behind $50 million worth of construction loans on the building. The next month, the bank foreclosed on the loans. That December, the New York City Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) fined CitySpire for noise violations, making CitySpire the first building to be individually cited by the DEP for noise pollution. The DEP had received hundreds of complaints about a loud whistling noise that was audible several blocks away; the noise was caused by wind blowing through louvers on the dome. Neighbors reported being kept awake by the noise. Monroe Price opined that "the community should attempt to understand what the building is trying to say", while Progressive Architecture said: "In a less restrictive era, we might look forward to developers' plans for 'The Wind Chime Centre' or 'One Kazoo Plaza'."
At a hearing in February 1991, Judge Gerald Denaro of New York City's Environmental Control Board ordered a study on the noise coming from the dome. The building faced a fine of up to $880 if it was found guilty of whistling. West 56th Street Association, the building's legal owner, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection at the end of that month. The association, a limited partnership where Eichner was the general partner, faced lawsuits from both European American Bank and Bank of Nova Scotia. The association had also faced a receivership proceeding, as it had also failed to pay the condominium apartments' common charges. The bankruptcy proceeding absolved Eichner from paying $11 million in unpaid taxes, but the building's residential sales office had to shut down that year.
In April 1991, Denaro ruled that CitySpire was guilty of violating the noise ordinance and fined the managing agent $220. A federal judge ruled that September that the city's noise code was too vague to be enforced, leading the New York City Council to draft a law to more strictly define noise. By May 1992, the building's board of managers said the whistling would be fixed within several weeks. Bankruptcy proceedings, meanwhile, had been stalled over an unpaid $324,000 capital gains tax. A reorganization plan for the tower was finally approved in September 1992, eighteen months after the building's owner had filed for bankruptcy. The roof noise was stopped that October, and the receivers paid the city $2.1 million instead of renovating City Center's studios as a penalty. The receivers also sought to be exempted from their obligation to build studios above the pedestrian arcade, which was still unfinished.
Late 1990s to present
Euram, a subsidiary of European American Bank's parent ABN AMRO, took over the residential section and renovated 75 vacant units. The Bank of Nova Scotia rebranded the commercial section as Midland Tower. Euram started marketing the vacant apartments in May 1993; ten of the units had been sold within a month, and all the condos were sold by the following year. Eichner continued to maintain offices at CitySpire. Although the financial issues and noise complaints had been resolved, the studios and arcade, which had been a compromise for CitySpire's height, had still not been completed by 1995. The arcade was strewn with litter and blocked off with razor wire and wooden panels, and CitySpire's owners planned to renovate it for use. The owners planned to scrap the studios above the arcade, instead creating additional rehearsal space in City Center itself.
Around 1996, Joseph Neumann and Credit Suisse First Boston acquired CitySpire for $38 million. The building had been offered for $50 million, but Neumann and First Boston were able to buy the building for less after beating a competing bid from Henry Elghanayan. At the time, the building owed $1.9 million in taxes to the city government. The office owners (composed of First Boston and external investors), along with the residential condo owners, bore the cost of the pedestrian arcade's $1 million renovation. CitySpire's pedestrian arcade was finally completed in late 1997. Upon the arcade's completion, David W. Dunlap wrote for The New York Times that it had taken seven years between the authorization of the first transcontinental railroad and the laying of its golden spike, but it had taken twelve years between the arcade's approval and its opening. The arcade's opening completed the set of walkways from 51st to 57th Street. In addition, some of the office space was converted into "prebuilt" offices.
The office stories were owned by Singapore government investment fund GIC by 2001. GIC leased space to Windels Marx, GE Capital, and The Recording Academy. That year, Lehman Brothers and Morgan Stanley provided a $900 million mortgage to GIC for CitySpire's office stories and some of GIC's other properties. The office section of CitySpire was acquired in 2004 by Tishman Speyer, who bought a 51 percent majority stake. GIC continued to hold a 49 percent stake.
In 2012, Tishman Speyer and an unidentified pension fund acquired CitySpire and several other buildings as part of a portfolio valued at $1.6 billion. The same year, Douglas Elliman marketed the penthouse apartment for $100 million, which would have made it the most expensive residence in New York City had it been sold at that price. After receiving few offers, the penthouse's owner withdrew the unit from the market and offered it for sale himself, only to withdraw it again in 2015. At that point, the majority of CitySpire's residences, over sixty percent, were being used as pieds-a-terre rather than as primary residences. , CitySpire's commercial occupants include New York Road Runners, Windels Marx, and Brown Shoe Company.
Critical reception
When CitySpire was being planned, Paul Goldberger praised Jahn for including design elements inspired by both City Center and earlier New York City skyscrapers. However, he said the design was "only partially successful in terms of its relationship to the City Center building itself", especially as both buildings' domes were rarely visible simultaneously. Harry Berkowitz of Newsday described the project as one of several designed by architects who "want little to do with the idea of adjusting to a neighborhood". Paul M. Sachner wrote for Architectural Record that the plans "exemplify the 'high-tech historicist' quality" of Murphy/Jahn's work, but he said "many question the appropriateness of a 70-story building" on such a narrow site. By the time CitySpire was completed, Goldberger believed it looked weaker than the neighboring Carnegie Hall and Metropolitan towers, even though CitySpire had looked better in conceptual depictions.
CitySpire's construction also prompted discussion on the appropriateness of transferring air rights from city landmarks, such as City Center, to raise money for landmarks' upkeep. New York Landmarks Conservancy executive director Laurie Beckelman said that "we save [city landmarks] by putting them out of context" in allowing the transfers, and Community Board 5 district manager Joan E. Ramer said that "selling off a precious city resource without understanding the ramifications is simply irresponsible". Former city planning commissioner Martin Gallent said the zoning exceptions allowed midtown Manhattan to be more "overly dense" than it already was. After the height compromise in 1988, Goldberger said, "What is to prevent another developer from adding 22 feet to his building and offering to build two dance studios?" Goldberger also referred to CitySpire as a "case of the city selling its birthright for a mess of pottage".
See also
List of tallest buildings in New York City
List of tallest buildings in the United States
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
1980s architecture in the United States
1987 establishments in New York City
Helmut Jahn buildings
Midtown Manhattan
Residential buildings completed in 1987
Residential condominiums in New York City
Residential skyscrapers in Manhattan
Postmodern architecture in New York City
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Andrés Eligio Quintana Roo (30 November 1787 – 15 April 1851) was a Mexican liberal politician, lawyer, and author. He was the husband of fellow freedom fighter Leona Vicario.
Quintana Roo was one of the most influential men in the Mexican War of Independence and served as a member of the Congress of Chilpancingo where he presided over the National Constituent Congress, which drafted the Mexican Declaration of Independence in 1813. He served multiple terms in the Chamber of Deputies, serving as its president twice. Quintana Roo also served as a member of the Mexican Supreme Court. He edited and founded many newspapers including El Ilustrador Americano (The American Illustrator) El Semanario Patriótico Americano (The American Patriot Weekly), and El Federalista Mexicano (The Mexican Federalist). The Mexican state of Quintana Roo was named in his honor.
Early life
Quintana Roo was born to Don José Matías Quintana and Doña María Ana Roo de Quintana, descendants of Canarian settlers who permanently lived in the Yucatán Peninsula. They were married June 20, 1786 in their house in Mérida. His paternal grandparents were D. Gregorio Quintana from Galicia and Doña Martina Tomasa de Campo from Campeche. On his mother's side his grandparents were D. Antonio Roo y Font from Tenerife and Doña Leonarda Rodríguez de la Gala, also from Campeche.
Sanjuanistas
In 1805, the elder Quintana became part of a group known as the Sanjuanistas. The group met to discuss social and political issues, in particular the slavery of the indigenous population. The group took their name from their meeting place, the Ermita de San Juan Bautista (Hermitage of Saint John the Baptist) where the group leader, José María Velázquez, was a priest.
In 1808, the Napoleonic Army invaded Spain and overthrew the Bourbon dynasty. In 1810 in Cádiz, Spain — one of the last cities free from the French armies — an assembly (cortes) of the Spanish provinces and colonies met to discuss the future of the Spanish Empire without a monarch. This was the political climate the Sanjuanistas found themselves in.
In March 1812, the Cortes of Cádiz issued a new Spanish constitution. In July, Miguel González Lastiri, Yucatán's representative at the Cortes, arrived with seven copies of the new constitution, one of which fell into the hands of the Sanjuanistas. Having read the document, they quickly became its promoters and opened their group any who wanted to join. By October, the Sanjuanistas had pressured the hesitant governor of Yucatán, Manuel Artanza y Barrial, to enforce the new constitution.
Still, many were opposed to the changes in the new Spanish constitution. The primary group that formed to oppose the changes and the Sanjuanistas were the Rutineros. Where the Sanjuanistas wanted social change and liberty from the Spanish crown, the Rutineros sought to maintain the social and political order. When the first printing press came to Yucatán in 1813, the two groups confronted each other through newspapers and pamphlets.
In 1814, King Fernando VII was restored to his throne and disavowed the constitution put forth by the Cortes of Cádiz and ruled as an absolute monarch. With the triumph of the conservative forces, the environment quickly turned hostile for the Sanjuanistas and Quintana was arrested and jailed in the fort of San Juan de Ulúa in Veracruz, along with fellow Sanjuanistas Lorenzo de Zavala and José Francisco Bates.
Education
Andres Quintana Roo studied in the Seminario de San Ildefonso de Mérida where he proved his great capacity as a writer. In 1802, at the age of 15, he finished his Latin studies at San Ildefonso. He continued his studies receiving certifications in Arts in 1805 and Theology and Doctrine in 1808. His instructor of the arts, D. Pablo Moreno, said of him that "he had always manifested a judgement and maturity superior to his age."
In December 1808, (only two months after the overthrow of Viceroy José de Iturrigaray by ultra-conservative elements) he arrived in Mexico City to continue his studies at the Real y Pontificia Universidad de Nueva España ("Royal and Pontifical University of New Spain"). With him he took a letter of recommendation from the Bishop of Yucatán and Tabasco, Pedro Agustín Esteves y Ugarte, that said he "always had a singular application and talent, performing his literary functions with all brilliance and contributing with modesty, Christianity and good bearing in his behavior."
In early February 1809 he had earned his Bachelor of Arts and by the end of the month he had earned his Bachelor of Doctrine. The latter degree was awarded by Dr. D. Agustín Pomposo Fernández. Following his graduation Quintana Roo interned at the law firm of D. Fernández practicing jurisprudence for two years.
Leona Vicario
During his time working for D. Agustín Fernández, Quintana Roo met María de la Soledad Leona Martín y Vicario, the niece of D. Fernández. Her father, Gaspar Martín Vicario, had worked for D. Fernández before his death. Her mother, D. Fernández's sister, was Camila Fernández whose death in 1807 left Vicario in the care of her uncle.
When Quintana Roo and Vicario met, she was engaged to marry Octaviano Obregón (though not of her own choice), the son of a colonel of high birth. After the Crisis of 1808, the younger Obregón left for Spain and the following year she met Quintana Roo. The two were an excellent match, both being interested in writing, the arts, politics, and liberation. They fell in love, and around 1811, Quintana Roo asked Fernández for permission to marry Vicario. Fernández refused and Quintana Roo left his law practice.
Independence
In 1812, after leaving the employment of D. Agustín Fernández, and the side of his beloved Leona Vicario, Andrés Quintana Roo threw himself into his ideals. Along with José Ignacio Aguado and Manuel Fernández, the son of his former employer, Quintana Roo traveled to Tlalpujahua, Valladolid (in present-day Michoacán) west of Mexico City to join the army of Ignacio López Rayón. López Rayón had been the private secretary of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, the priest who had begun the fight for independence in Guanajuato just two years earlier. After the defeat of Hidalgo's army at the Battle of Calderon Bridge, López Rayón escaped and rejoined the rebel army in Zacatecas, while Hidalgo and his top generals were captured and executed in late July 1811.
Much like his father, Andrés Quintana Roo would use the pen as his chosen weapon. He wrote for the insurgent newspaper El Ilustrador Americano (American Illustrator) created by José María Cos, and in July 1812 founded the more ideological El Semanario Patriótico Americano (The American Patriot Weekly) which he edited with Cos. In September 1812 he wrote his most famous poem "Dieciséis de septiembre" (Sixteenth of September), a patriotic poem that decries tyranny.
Los Guadalupes
As a lawyer, one of Ignacio López Rayón's great gifts was organization. After the defeat of Hidalgo, he gave structure to the army under the auspices of the Junta de Zitácuaro, one of the first governing bodies in Mexico not to recognize the authority of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. In addition to military and administrative organization, López Rayón organized a group of spies and propagandists which came to be known as Los Guadalupes. They took their name from the Virgin of Guadalupe to juxtapose themselves from the Spaniards who venerated the Virgin of the Remedies. In order to protect their identities, Los Guadalupes would use various pseudonyms in their communications.
Very few people are known for certain to have been in this group but it is likely they centered their operations in Mexico City and most of them were lawyers. Still, they were a diverse group that included women, priests, and nobles as well. They maintained regular communication with López Rayón, sent him current newspapers and publications from Spain and the U.S., and weapons, money, and men. Perhaps most importantly, they set up a line of communication between López Rayón and José María Morelos y Pavón.
Leona Vicario was deeply involved in the work of Los Guadalupes but in February 1813 one of her letters was intercepted by then royalist, and future President of Mexico, Captain Anastasio Bustamante. Being warned that her arrest was imminent, Vicario fled Mexico City on foot. Her uncle discovered her whereabouts and convinced her to return to Mexico City where she was brought to the Colegio de San Miguel de Belén as a prisoner.
Quintana Roo heard of her imprisonment, and being unable to go himself, sent Francisco Arroyave, Antonio Vázquez Aldana, and Luis Alconedo to liberate her. The arrived at the Colegio de Belén on the night of April 23, 1813. They were disguised as viceregal officers and demanded to interrogate Vicario privately. Instead they sneaked her out of the Colegio and smuggled her out of Mexico City disguised as mule drivers, carrying with them supplies for the insurgents.
Andrés Quintana Roo and Leona Vicario were married soon after in Tlalpujahua.
Congress of Chilpancingo
With the power of the Junta de Zitácuaro waning after multiple military defeats, José María Morelos took the initiative in reorganizing the scattered insurgent armies and called for a congress to unite the opposition to Spanish rule. This congress met in September 1813 in the city of Chilpancingo in the Tecpan Province (present day Guerrero).
Initially, Quintana Roo was elected to Vice President of the congress, but when José María Murguía y Galardi couldn't fulfill his duties, Quintana Roo assumed the presidency in his stead. The primary end of the congress was the drafting of a constitution. On the first day, Morelos read the Sentimientos de la Nación (Feelings of the Nation), an outline of his ideas on how an independent Mexico should be governed. Then, on November 6 the congress signed the Acta Solemne de la Declaración de la Independencia de la América Septentrional (Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of North America) which was written in part by Quintana Roo.
After the Declaration, Morelos moved to retake the city of Valladolid as a permanent seat for the Congress. The attack was a disaster. Morelos' army was defeated by future Mexican Emperor Agustín de Iturbide, and his general, Mariano Matamoros, was captured and executed. Morelos attempted to ransom Matamoros in exchange for 300 Spanish prisoners, a negotiation that failed. Morelos was ordered by the Congress to Acapulco to carry out the execution of the Spanish soldiers and then stripped of his command.
Following these defeats, Quintana Roo and the Congress were forced to relocate frequently. On October 22, 1814, in the city of Apatzingán, the Congress issued the Decreto Constitucional para la Libertad de la America Mexicana (Constitutional Decree for the Liberty of Mexican America), better known as the Constitution of Apatzingán, drafted by Quintana Roo, Carlos María de Bustamonte, and José Manuel de Herrera.
In May 1814, Fernando VII had regained his throne and abolished the liberal Constitution of Cádiz. With the defeat of the French forces in Spain, Fernando was free to send more soldiers to Mexico, and so Iturbide redoubled his efforts against Morelos and the Congress. Much of the territory that had been won by Morelos was lost and the Congress was kept always on the move. In July 1815 Oaxaca and Acapulco fell to José Gabriel de Armijo. In late September, the Congress agreed to move to Tehuacán, Puebla, guarded by the armies of Morelos and Nicolás Bravo.
En route to Tehuacán, on November 5, the caravan was intercepted by royal soldiers commanded by Manuel de la Concha. Morelos covered the retreat of the Congress and was captured, taken to Mexico City, and executed on December 22. Though the Congress reached Tehuacán, it was dissolved shortly after.
Amnesty
While the bulk of the deputies of the Congress of Chilpancingo fled to Tehuacán, Andrés Quintana Roo and Leona Vicario remained in Michoacán. They had been offered amnesties by different parties during the collapse of the Congress but they had steadfastly refused. They spent most of 1816 on the run. They were aided in their flight by a transition of Viceroys. Félix María Calleja del Rey had been judged too harsh and dictatorial in his rule and the much more temperate Juan Ruiz de Apodaca was sent to replace him. Apodaca ended the practice of summary executions and showed leniency to insurgent leaders who surrendered themselves. Still, Quintana Roo would not accept a pardon.
On January 3, 1817, hidden in a cave in Achipixtla, Quintana Roo's wife gave birth to their first child, Genoveva. Now with a child, their flight became more difficult, but they persisted for another year until in March 1818 they were found by two former soldiers of the insurgency. Vicario acquiesced to be taken and Quintana Roo negotiated his surrender shortly after, fearing for his wife's safety.
Both Quintana Roo and Vicario had standing offers of pardon which they begrudgingly accepted, after which the couple settled in Toluca, where Vicario had been raised. After arranging their affairs and securing the confiscated property of his wife, Quintana Roo began the process of gaining admittance to the Ilustre y Real Colegio de Abogados (Royal Bar Association). In August 1820 he was admitted and the family relocated to Mexico City.
Plan of Iguala
In April 1820, the news reached Mexico of a revolution in Spain which had forced King Fernando VII to recognize the liberal Constitution of Cádiz. Almost immediately provinces began to declare for the reinstated constitution and hold elections for city councils. The Constitution also allowed for freedom of the press, and in June, shortly after Apodaca affirmed the Constitution, Quintana Roo published La Libertad y la Tirania (Liberty and Tyranny) a short allegorical piece celebrating the recognition of the new Constitution in Mexico.
While the insurgents celebrated this change in circumstances, just as they had done in 1812, the conservative forces that had been putting down the insurgencies viewed the changes as a threat to their power. The aristocracy and the clergy met in secret, before the news of the Constitution became public, to discuss how to prevent knowledge of the revolution in Spain from spreading. They met in the Iglesia de la Profesa (Church of the Professed) and their plan became known as the Conspiracy of the Professed. Their hopes to keep the news secret were dashed when word reached Veracruz and the intendant, José Dávila, swore to comply with the new law.
The new plan of the Conspiracy was to declare the independence of New Spain and establish an absolute monarchy. To achieve their ends, in November 1820 they convinced Apodaca to put Agustín de Iturbide in charge of the royal armies. According to the plan, Iturbide would then take over the country, declare independence from Spain, and invite Fernando VII or another European noble to rule over Mexico. All this to prevent the installation of a parliament which would limit the power of the church and the elites.
The day after Apodaca gave him his command, Iturbide set out for the south to put down the remaining insurgent armies. The task proved too much for him and his forces were defeated multiple times by the army of Vicente Guerrero which grew stronger with every victory. Iturbide changed his tactics and sent Guerrero a letter outlining his plan for an independent Mexico. Guerrero reluctantly agreed to meet on February 10, 1821 in Acatempan where the two generals agreed to join forces for the cause of independence. This meeting is known today as the Abrazo de Acatempan (Embrace of Acatempan).
Following the union of the two armies, Iturbide's plan, now endorsed by Guerrero was published to the public as the Plan of Iguala and it established three guarantees for the people:
the exclusivity of the Catholic religion
independence from Spain
political equality among all Mexicans
Because of this, Iturbide's army came to be known as the Ejército Trigarante (Army of the Three Guarantees).
Throughout the spring and summer of 1821, the Army of the Three Guarantees liberated the provinces of Mexico, suffering few defeats. In May, Apodaca (no longer viceroy after the revolution but Jefe Political Superior [Superior Political Boss]) was replaced with Juan O'Donojú who arrived in Mexico in early August. He met with Iturbide on August 24, 1821 and signed the Treaty of Córdoba establishing the independence of Mexico.
After Independence
Mexican Empire
Quintana Roo briefly served as Undersecretary of Foreign and Domestic Affairs under newly crowned Emperor Agustín de Iturbide, beginning in August 1822. Although Iturbide was appointed emperor by near-universal popular support, a series of missteps saw that good will evaporate. In October, Iturbide dissolved the congress that had appointed him emperor and replaced it with the Junta Instituyente which he appointed himself. Antonio López de Santa Anna started an uprising in Veracruz in December which gained popularity after Iturbide imposed a 40% property tax on Mexicans. Despite sending out his most loyal generals to put down Santa Anna's uprising, every one of them joined Santa Anna in his Plan de la Casa Mata which called for the reinstitution of the congress dissolved the previous October.
As the Junta Instituyente was debating the reestablishment of the congress, in February 1823 Quintana Roo submitted an opinion to Francisco de Paula Alvarez (Iturbide's personal secretary) that the reconstituted congress should not have any restrictions placed upon them or the laws they could execute, including the existence of the monarchy. The letter was published publicly and Quintana Roo was fired two days later. Iturbide would abdicate his crown before the end of March.
Mexican Republic
In 1826 the Instituto de Ciencias, Literatura y Artes (Institute of Sciences, Literature, and Art) was founded with Quintana Roo named as vice president. In his inaugural speech Quintana Roo praised the wisdom of President Guadalupe Victoria for establishing the institute. From 1827 until 1830 he served as a Deputy in the second and third congress representing the State of Mexico. In 1830, he also served as President of the Chamber of Deputies.
Bustamante Presidency
In January 1830 the presidency of Vicente Guerrero (who had been appointed president extra-legally) was usurped by Anastasio Bustamante, the same who had intercepted the letters of Leona Vicario in 1813. Soon, senators loyal to Bustamante proposed laws that would remove the legal and moral authority of Guerrero to govern. The senate refused to act on these propositions and so it was passed to the Chamber of Deputies which formed a four-man commission, which included Quintana Roo, to resolve the issue. The Chamber's commission agreed that Guerrero lacked the legal and moral authority to govern, but Quintana Roo made a point to say that "if his election was not constitutional, neither, and by logical consequence, was that of Bustamante," since neither man had won an election.
Quintana Roo did not serve in the fourth congress which began on January 1, 1831. On January 3, Quintana Roo founded the newspaper El Federalista Mexicano (The Mexican Federalist) to criticize and challenge Bustamante's legitimacy. Bustamante ordered Quintana Roo's printing presses shut down and seized though El Federalista Mexicano continued to be printed through April.
Bustamante's popularity began to wane after he captured and executed Guerrero (despite having already orchestrated the Camera of Deputies to declare him morally unfit to govern). A revolt began in January 1832 to remove Bustamante from power and replace him with Manuel Gómez Pedraza who had been the legitimate winner of the election against which Guerrero revolted. The rebels offered command of their army to Santa Anna which he accepted. The revolt was short and successful; by December Bustamante had resigned and Gómez Pedraza had assumed power. Gómez Pedraza was a polarizing figure. When he called congress into session in 1833, too few representatives showed up and he formed a private council, of which Quintana Roo was a secretary, to conduct the business of congress until elections could be held in March.
Santa Anna Presidency
Three months later, elections were held in which Santa Anna won the presidency, although he would frequently hand executive duties to his vice president, Valentín Gómez Farías. After the election and the exile of Bustamante, Quintana Roo rejoined the Camera of Deputies. In the fall of 1833 he was named Minister of Justice where he worked to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church on politics. In October of that year he said, "Political discussions...must be entirely alien to the chair of the Holy Spirit and the character of a religion such as Christianity, whose fundamental basis is to dispense with governments."
Religious authorities wasted no time in combating these laws. They came to Santa Anna, who was on a leave of absence from his office, to protest their change in status. Santa Anna took the side of the church and returned to Mexico City in April 1834 and asked the congress to repeal their anti-clerical laws. Congress responded by asking whether or not they had the freedom to legislate. Santa Anna answered them "they have, but to do what is right and no more, because I make the Constitution with one hand and in the other hold the sword to ensure it is observed." In the face of Santa Anna's growing despotism, the congress suspended its activities.
Quintana Roo resigned his post as Minister of Justice in June 1834. Two days later, Santa Anna replaced him with the Bishop of Michoacán, Juan Cayetano Portugal. But not all of the government bent to the whims of Santa Anna. In late 1834 Quintana Roo was chosen to replace a magistrate of the Supreme Court, a position he would retain for the rest of his life.
Later life
In 1836 the Academía de Letrán was founded by José María Lacunza, Juan Nepomuceno Lacunza, Manuel Tossiat Ferrer, and Guillermo Prieto. Quintana Roo (significantly older than the founding members) was named president for life and brought a legitimacy to the group. The literary group sought to create and inspire a uniquely Mexican literature unbounded by Spanish influence. Though the group would fade away by 1840, the influence of its members would be felt for the rest of the century.
In 1838, in the midst of the Pastry War with France, Quintana Roo entrusted a letter to former Academía de Letrán member and current Minister of the Exterior Joaquín Pesado, to be delivered to his former enemy and current president (returned from exile) Anastasio Bustamante to offer a monthly stipend of 500 pesos to support the war effort. Though Bustamante refused the money, he published the letter sent by Quintana Roo in a newspaper as an example of patriotism.
On March 30, 1841, José Matías Quintana died in Mexico City. That same month the state of Yucatán published its constitution after having declared its independence from Mexico the year before. After losing Texas in 1836 and capitulating to the French in 1839, Mexico could not risk losing another state to secession. In November Quintana Roo was sent to Mérida to negotiate with Yucatán to remain in Mexico. Quintana Roo successfully negotiated the return of Yucatán before the new year. On his return voyage he was briefly a prisoner of a Texas warship but was quickly released. Although the Mexican government did not agree to the terms Quintana Roo had negotiated, an agreement was reached by 1843.
On August 21, 1842, Doña Leona Vicario, his wife died. Though crushed by her loss, he consoled himself in his daughters, his writing, and his work. Nine years later, on April 15, 1851, Andrés Quintana Roo died of pneumonia in Mexico City. His remains lie next to those of his wife, Leona, in the mausoleum of the Column of Independence in Mexico City.
Legacy
Quintana Roo's name lives on in Mexican geography with the state of Quintana Roo in the Yucatán peninsula. The name of Cancún's soccer stadium bears his name.
Statues and busts of Quintana Roo can be found around the country. There are statues in Mérida, Yucatán; Chetumal, Quintana Roo; Solidaridad, Quintana Roo; Paseo de la Reforma, Mexico City; and busts on Isla Mujeres and Cozumel, Quintana Roo.
His name was given to a public library in Mexico City. Numerous roads and schools have been named for him throughout Mexico. He was featured on the MXP$20,000 and MXN$20 bills.
See also
Constitutions of Mexico
References
Bibliography
Hernández González, Manuel. La emigración canaria América. Page 44. Primera edición, enero de 2007.
RUBIO MAÑÉ, Jorge Ignacio (1987) Andrés Quintana Roo, ilustre insurgente yucateco (1787–1851). México, Fondo de Cultura Económica.
Mexican independence activists
1787 births
1851 deaths
Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)
Politicians from Yucatán (state)
Writers from Yucatán (state)
People from Mérida, Yucatán
Mexican people of Canarian descent
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The supernatural encompasses supposed phenomena or entities that are not subject to the laws of nature. It is derived from Medieval Latin supernaturalis, from Latin super- (above, beyond, or outside of) + natura (nature) Though the corollary term "nature", has had multiple meanings since the ancient world, the term "supernatural" emerged in the medieval period and did not exist in the ancient world.
The supernatural is featured in folklore and religious contexts, but can also feature as an explanation in more secular contexts, as in the cases of superstitions or belief in the paranormal. The term is attributed to non-physical entities, such as angels, demons, gods, and spirits. It also includes claimed abilities embodied in or provided by such beings, including magic, telekinesis, levitation, precognition, and extrasensory perception.
The philosophy of naturalism contends that nothing exists beyond the natural world, and as such approaches supernatural claims with skepticism.
Etymology and history of the concept
Occurring as both an adjective and a noun, descendants of the modern English compound supernatural enter the language from two sources: via Middle French (supernaturel) and directly from the Middle French's term's ancestor, post-Classical Latin (supernaturalis). Post-classical Latin supernaturalis first occurs in the 6th century, composed of the Latin prefix super- and nātūrālis (see nature). The earliest known appearance of the word in the English language occurs in a Middle English translation of Catherine of Siena's Dialogue (orcherd of Syon, around 1425; Þei haue not þanne þe supernaturel lyȝt ne þe liȝt of kunnynge, bycause þei vndirstoden it not).
The semantic value of the term has shifted over the history of its use. Originally the term referred exclusively to Christian understandings of the world. For example, as an adjective, the term can mean "belonging to a realm or system that transcends nature, as that of divine, magical, or ghostly beings; attributed to or thought to reveal some force beyond scientific understanding or the laws of nature; occult, paranormal" or "more than what is natural or ordinary; unnaturally or extraordinarily great; abnormal, extraordinary". Obsolete uses include "of, relating to, or dealing with metaphysics". As a noun, the term can mean "a supernatural being", with a particularly strong history of employment in relation to entities from the mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.
History of the concept
The ancient world had no word that resembled "supernatural". Dialogues from Neoplatonic philosophy in the third century AD contributed the development of the concept the supernatural via Christian theology in later centuries. The term nature had existed since antiquity with Latin authors like Augustine using the word and its cognates at least 600 times in City of God. In the medieval period, "nature" had ten different meanings and "natural" had eleven different meanings. Peter Lombard, a medieval scholastic in the 12th century, asked about causes that are beyond nature, in that how there could be causes that were God's alone. He used the term praeter naturam in his writings. In the scholastic period, Thomas Aquinas classified miracles into three categories: "above nature", "beyond nature", and "against nature". In doing so, he sharpened the distinction between nature and miracles more than the early Church Fathers had done. As a result, he had created a dichotomy of sorts of the natural and supernatural. Though the phrase "supra naturam" was used since the 4th century AD, it was in the 1200s that Thomas Aquinas used the term "supernaturalis" and despite this, the term had to wait until the end of the medieval period before it became more popularly used. The discussions on "nature" from the scholastic period were diverse and unsettled with some postulating that even miracles are natural and that natural magic was a natural part of the world.
Epistemology and metaphysics
The metaphysical considerations of the existence of the supernatural can be difficult to approach as an exercise in philosophy or theology because any dependencies on its antithesis, the natural, will ultimately have to be inverted or rejected. One complicating factor is that there is disagreement about the definition of "natural" and the limits of naturalism. Concepts in the supernatural domain are closely related to concepts in religious spirituality and occultism or spiritualism.
Nomological possibility is possibility under the actual laws of nature. Most philosophers since David Hume have held that the laws of nature are metaphysically contingent—that there could have been different natural laws than the ones that actually obtain. If so, then it would not be logically or metaphysically impossible, for example, for you to travel to Alpha Centauri in one day; it would just have to be the case that you could travel faster than the speed of light. But of course there is an important sense in which this is not nomologically possible; given that the laws of nature are what they are. In the philosophy of natural science, impossibility assertions come to be widely accepted as overwhelmingly probable rather than considered proved to the point of being unchallengeable. The basis for this strong acceptance is a combination of extensive evidence of something not occurring, combined with an underlying scientific theory, very successful in making predictions, whose assumptions lead logically to the conclusion that something is impossible. While an impossibility assertion in natural science can never be absolutely proved, it could be refuted by the observation of a single counterexample. Such a counterexample would require that the assumptions underlying the theory that implied the impossibility be re-examined. Some philosophers, such as Sydney Shoemaker, have argued that the laws of nature are in fact necessary, not contingent; if so, then nomological possibility is equivalent to metaphysical possibility.
The term supernatural is often used interchangeably with paranormal or preternatural—the latter typically limited to an adjective for describing abilities which appear to exceed what is possible within the boundaries of the laws of physics. Epistemologically, the relationship between the supernatural and the natural is indistinct in terms of natural phenomena that, ex hypothesi, violate the laws of nature, in so far as such laws are realistically accountable.
Views on the "supernatural" vary, for example it may be seen as:
indistinct from nature. From this perspective, some events occur according to the laws of nature, and others occur according to a separate set of principles external to known nature. For example, in Scholasticism, it was believed that God was capable of performing any miracle so long as it didn't lead to a logical contradiction. Some religions posit immanent deities, however, and do not have a tradition analogous to the supernatural; some believe that everything anyone experiences occurs by the will (occasionalism), in the mind (neoplatonism), or as a part (nondualism) of a more fundamental divine reality (platonism).
incorrect human attribution. In this view all events have natural and only natural causes. They believe that human beings ascribe supernatural attributes to purely natural events, such as lightning, rainbows, floods, and the origin of life.
Anthropological studies
Anthropological studies across cultures indicate that people do not hold or use natural and supernatural explanations in a mutually exclusive or dichotomous fashion. Instead, the reconciliation of natural and supernatural explanations is normal and pervasive across cultures. Cross cultural studies indicate that there is coexistence of natural and supernatural explanations in both adults and children for explaining numerous things about the world such as illness, death, and origins. Context and cultural input play a large role in determining when and how individuals incorporate natural and supernatural explanations. The coexistence of natural and supernatural explanations in individuals may be the outcomes two distinct cognitive domains: one concerned with the physical-mechanical relations and another with social relations. Studies on indigenous groups have allowed for insights on how such coexistence of explanations may function.
Supernatural concepts
Deity
A deity ( or ) is a supernatural being considered divine or sacred. The Oxford Dictionary of English defines deity as "a god or goddess (in a polytheistic religion)", or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greater than those of ordinary humans, but who interacts with humans, positively or negatively, in ways that carry humans to new levels of consciousness, beyond the grounded preoccupations of ordinary life." A male deity is a god, while a female deity is a goddess.
Religions can be categorized by how many deities they worship. Monotheistic religions accept only one deity (predominantly referred to as God), polytheistic religions accept multiple deities. Henotheistic religions accept one supreme deity without denying other deities, considering them as equivalent aspects of the same divine principle; and nontheistic religions deny any supreme eternal creator deity but accept a pantheon of deities which live, die, and are reborn just like any other being.
Various cultures have conceptualized a deity differently than a monotheistic God. A deity need not be omnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient, omnibenevolent or eternal, The monotheistic God, however, does have these attributes. Monotheistic religions typically refer to God in masculine terms, while other religions refer to their deities in a variety of ways – masculine, feminine, androgynous and gender neutral.
Historically, many ancient cultures – such as Ancient India Ancient Egyptian, Ancient Greek, Ancient Roman, Nordic and Asian culture – personified natural phenomena, variously as either their conscious causes or simply their effects, respectively. Some Avestan and Vedic deities were viewed as ethical concepts. In Indian religions, deities have been envisioned as manifesting within the temple of every living being's body, as sensory organs and mind. Deities have also been envisioned as a form of existence (Saṃsāra) after rebirth, for human beings who gain merit through an ethical life, where they become guardian deities and live blissfully in heaven, but are also subject to death when their merit runs out.
Angel
An angel is generally a supernatural being found in various religions and mythologies. In Abrahamic religions and Zoroastrianism, angels are often depicted as benevolent celestial beings who act as intermediaries between God or Heaven and Earth. Other roles of angels include protecting and guiding human beings, and carrying out God's tasks. Within Abrahamic religions, angels are often organized into hierarchies, although such rankings may vary between sects in each religion, and are given specific names or titles, such as Gabriel or "Destroying angel". The term "angel" has also been expanded to various notions of spirits or figures found in other religious traditions. The theological study of angels is known as "angelology".
In fine art, angels are usually depicted as having the shape of human beings of extraordinary beauty; they are often identified using the symbols of bird wings, halos, and light.
Prophecy
Prophecy involves a process in which messages are communicated by a god to a prophet. Such messages typically involve inspiration, interpretation, or revelation of divine will concerning the prophet's social world and events to come (compare divine knowledge). Prophecy is not limited to any one culture. It is a common property to all known ancient societies around the world, some more than others. Many systems and rules about prophecy have been proposed over several millennia.
Revelation
In religion and theology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing of some form of truth or knowledge through communication with a deity or other supernatural entity or entities.
Some religions have religious texts which they view as divinely or supernaturally revealed or inspired. For instance, Orthodox Jews, Christians and Muslims believe that the Torah was received from Yahweh on biblical Mount Sinai. Most Christians believe that both the Old Testament and the New Testament were inspired by God. Muslims believe the Quran was revealed by God to Muhammad word by word through the angel Gabriel (Jibril). In Hinduism, some Vedas are considered , "not human compositions", and are supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called śruti, "what is heard". The 15,000 handwritten pages produced by the mystic Maria Valtorta were represented as direct dictations from Jesus, while she attributed The Book of Azariah to her guardian angel. Aleister Crowley stated that The Book of the Law had been revealed to him through a higher being that called itself Aiwass.
A revelation communicated by a supernatural entity reported as being present during the event is called a vision. Direct conversations between the recipient and the supernatural entity, or physical marks such as stigmata, have been reported. In rare cases, such as that of Saint Juan Diego, physical artifacts accompany the revelation. The Roman Catholic concept of interior locution includes just an inner voice heard by the recipient.
In the Abrahamic religions, the term is used to refer to the process by which God reveals knowledge of himself, his will, and his divine providence to the world of human beings. In secondary usage, revelation refers to the resulting human knowledge about God, prophecy, and other divine things. Revelation from a supernatural source plays a less important role in some other religious traditions such as Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism.
Reincarnation
Reincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each biological death. It is also called rebirth or transmigration, and is a part of the Saṃsāra doctrine of cyclic existence. It is a central tenet of all major Indian religions, namely Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. The idea of reincarnation is found in many ancient cultures, and a belief in rebirth/metempsychosis was held by Greek historic figures, such as Pythagoras, Socrates, and Plato. It is also a common belief of various ancient and modern religions such as Spiritism, Theosophy, and Eckankar, and as an esoteric belief in many streams of Orthodox Judaism. It is found as well in many tribal societies around the world, in places such as Australia, East Asia, Siberia, and South America.
Although the majority of denominations within Christianity and Islam do not believe that individuals reincarnate, particular groups within these religions do refer to reincarnation; these groups include the mainstream historical and contemporary followers of Cathars, Alawites, the Druze, and the Rosicrucians. The historical relations between these sects and the beliefs about reincarnation that were characteristic of Neoplatonism, Orphism, Hermeticism, Manicheanism, and Gnosticism of the Roman era as well as the Indian religions have been the subject of recent scholarly research. Unity Church and its founder Charles Fillmore teaches reincarnation.
In recent decades, many Europeans and North Americans have developed an interest in reincarnation, and many contemporary works mention it.
Karma
Karma (; , ; ) means action, work or deed; it also refers to the spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions of an individual (cause) influence the future of that individual (effect). Good intent and good deeds contribute to good karma and future happiness, while bad intent and bad deeds contribute to bad karma and future suffering.
With origins in ancient India's Vedic civilization, the philosophy of karma is closely associated with the idea of rebirth in many schools of Indian religions (particularly Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism) as well as Taoism. In these schools, karma in the present affects one's future in the current life, as well as the nature and quality of future lives – one's saṃsāra.
Christian theology
In Catholic theology, the supernatural order is, according to New Advent, defined as "the ensemble of effects exceeding the powers of the created universe and gratuitously produced by God for the purpose of raising the rational creature above its native sphere to a God-like life and destiny." The Modern Catholic Dictionary defines it as "the sum total of heavenly destiny and all the divinely established means of reaching that destiny, which surpass the mere powers and capacities of human nature."
Process theology
Process theology is a school of thought influenced by the metaphysical process philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) and further developed by Charles Hartshorne (1897–2000).
Heaven
Heaven, or the heavens, is a common religious, cosmological, or transcendent place where beings such as gods, angels, spirits, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or live. According to the beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to Earth or incarnate, and earthly beings can ascend to heaven in the afterlife, or in exceptional cases enter heaven alive.
Heaven is often described as a "higher place", the holiest place, a Paradise, in contrast to hell or the Underworld or the "low places", and universally or conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of divinity, goodness, piety, faith, or other virtues or right beliefs or simply the will of God. Some believe in the possibility of a heaven on Earth in a world to come.
Another belief is in an axis mundi or world tree which connects the heavens, the terrestrial world, and the underworld. In Indian religions, heaven is considered as Svarga loka, and the soul is again subjected to rebirth in different living forms according to its karma. This cycle can be broken after a soul achieves Moksha or Nirvana. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (Heaven, Hell, or other) is referred to as otherworld.
Underworld
The underworld is the supernatural world of the dead in various religious traditions, located below the world of the living. Chthonic is the technical adjective for things of the underworld.
The concept of an underworld is found in almost every civilization and "may be as old as humanity itself". Common features of underworld myths are accounts of living people making journeys to the underworld, often for some heroic purpose. Other myths reinforce traditions that entrance of souls to the underworld requires a proper observation of ceremony, such as the ancient Greek story of the recently dead Patroclus haunting Achilles until his body could be properly buried for this purpose. Persons having social status were dressed and equipped in order to better navigate the underworld.
A number of mythologies incorporate the concept of the soul of the deceased making its own journey to the underworld, with the dead needing to be taken across a defining obstacle such as a lake or a river to reach this destination. Imagery of such journeys can be found in both ancient and modern art. The descent to the underworld has been described as "the single most important myth for Modernist authors".
Spirit
A spirit is a supernatural being, often but not exclusively a non-physical entity; such as a ghost, fairy, or angel. The concepts of a person's spirit and soul, often also overlap, as both are either contrasted with or given ontological priority over the body and both are believed to survive bodily death in some religions, and "spirit" can also have the sense of "ghost", i.e. a manifestation of the spirit of a deceased person. In English Bibles, "the Spirit" (with a capital "S"), specifically denotes the Holy Spirit.
Spirit is often used metaphysically to refer to the consciousness or personality.
Historically, it was also used to refer to a "subtle" as opposed to "gross" material substance, as in the famous last paragraph of Sir Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica.
Demon
A demon (from Koine Greek daimónion) is a supernatural and often malevolent being prevalent in religion, occultism, literature, fiction, mythology and folklore.
In Ancient Near Eastern religions as well as in the Abrahamic traditions, including ancient and medieval Christian demonology, a demon is considered a harmful spiritual entity, below the heavenly planes which may cause demonic possession, calling for an exorcism. In Western occultism and Renaissance magic, which grew out of an amalgamation of Greco-Roman magic, Jewish Aggadah and Christian demonology, a demon is believed to be a spiritual entity that may be conjured and controlled.
Magic
Magic or sorcery is the use of rituals, symbols, actions, gestures, or language with the aim of utilizing supernatural forces. Belief in and practice of magic has been present since the earliest human cultures and continues to have an important spiritual, religious, and medicinal role in many cultures today. The term magic has a variety of meanings, and there is no widely agreed upon definition of what it is.
Scholars of religion have defined magic in different ways. One approach, associated with the anthropologists Edward Tylor and James G. Frazer, suggests that magic and science are opposites. An alternative approach, associated with the sociologists Marcel Mauss and Emile Durkheim, argues that magic takes place in private, while religion is a communal and organised activity. Many scholars of religion have rejected the utility of the term magic and it has become increasingly unpopular within scholarship since the 1990s.
The term magic comes from the Old Persian magu, a word that applied to a form of religious functionary about which little is known. During the late sixth and early fifth centuries BCE, this term was adopted into Ancient Greek, where it was used with negative connotations, to apply to religious rites that were regarded as fraudulent, unconventional, and dangerous. This meaning of the term was then adopted by Latin in the first century BCE. The concept was then incorporated into Christian theology during the first century CE, where magic was associated with demons and thus defined against religion. This concept was pervasive throughout the Middle Ages, although in the early modern period Italian humanists reinterpreted the term in a positive sense to establish the idea of natural magic. Both negative and positive understandings of the term were retained in Western culture over the following centuries, with the former largely influencing early academic usages of the word.
Throughout history, there have been examples of individuals who practiced magic and referred to themselves as magicians. This trend has proliferated in the modern period, with a growing number of magicians appearing within the esoteric milieu. British esotericist Aleister Crowley described magic as the art of effecting change in accordance with will.
Divination
Divination (from Latin divinare "to foresee, to be inspired by a god", related to divinus, divine) is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic, standardized process or ritual. Used in various forms throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a querent should proceed by reading signs, events, or omens, or through alleged contact with a supernatural agency.
Divination can be seen as a systematic method with which to organize what appear to be disjointed, random facets of existence such that they provide insight into a problem at hand. If a distinction is to be made between divination and fortune-telling, divination has a more formal or ritualistic element and often contains a more social character, usually in a religious context, as seen in traditional African medicine. Fortune-telling, on the other hand, is a more everyday practice for personal purposes. Particular divination methods vary by culture and religion.
Divination is dismissed by the scientific community and skeptics as being superstition. In the 2nd century, Lucian devoted a witty essay to the career of a charlatan, "Alexander the false prophet", trained by "one of those who advertise enchantments, miraculous incantations, charms for your love-affairs, visitations for your enemies, disclosures of buried treasure, and successions to estates".
Witchcraft
Witchcraft or witchery broadly means the practice of and belief in magical skills and abilities exercised by solitary practitioners and groups. Witchcraft is a broad term that varies culturally and societally, and thus can be difficult to define with precision, and cross-cultural assumptions about the meaning or significance of the term should be applied with caution. Witchcraft often occupies a religious divinatory or medicinal role, and is often present within societies and groups whose cultural framework includes a magical world view.
Miracle
A miracle is an event not explicable by natural or scientific laws. Such an event may be attributed to a supernatural being (a deity), a miracle worker, a saint or a religious leader.
Informally, the word "miracle" is often used to characterise any beneficial event that is statistically unlikely but not contrary to the laws of nature, such as surviving a natural disaster, or simply a "wonderful" occurrence, regardless of likelihood, such as a birth. Other such miracles might be: survival of an illness diagnosed as terminal, escaping a life-threatening situation or 'beating the odds'. Some coincidences may be seen as miracles.
A true miracle would, by definition, be a non-natural phenomenon, leading many rational and scientific thinkers to dismiss them as physically impossible (that is, requiring violation of established laws of physics within their domain of validity) or impossible to confirm by their nature (because all possible physical mechanisms can never be ruled out). The former position is expressed for instance by Thomas Jefferson and the latter by David Hume. Theologians typically say that, with divine providence, God regularly works through nature yet, as a creator, is free to work without, above, or against it as well. The possibility and probability of miracles are then equal to the possibility and probability of the existence of God.
Skepticism
Skepticism (American English) or scepticism (British English; see spelling differences) is generally any questioning attitude or doubt towards one or more items of putative knowledge or belief. It is often directed at domains such as the supernatural, morality (moral skepticism), religion (skepticism about the existence of God), or knowledge (skepticism about the possibility of knowledge, or of certainty). Formally, skepticism as a topic occurs in the context of philosophy, particularly epistemology, although it can be applied to any topic such as politics, religion, and pseudoscience.
One reason why skeptics assert that the supernatural cannot exist is that anything "supernatural" is not a part of the natural world simply by definition. Although some believers in the supernatural insist that it simply cannot be demonstrated using the existing scientific methods, skeptics assert that such methods is the best tool humans have devised for knowing what is and isn't knowable.
In fiction and popular culture
Supernatural entities and powers are common in various works of fantasy. Examples include the television shows Supernatural and The X-Files, the magic of the Harry Potter series, The Lord of the Rings series, The Wheel of Time series, A Song of Ice and Fire series and the Force of Star Wars.
See also
Journal of Parapsychology
Liberal naturalism
Magical thinking
Parapsychology
Religious naturalism
Romanticism
Spirit photography
References
Further reading
Economic Production and the Spread of Supernatural Beliefs ~ Daniel Araújo January 7, 2022
Metaphysics
Mysticism
Nature
Religion
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The Bern tramway network () is a network of tramways forming part of the public transport system in Bern, the capital city of Switzerland. In operation since 1890, it presently has five lines, one of which incorporates the .
The trams on the network run on track. Initially, they were powered by compressed air, but from 1894, the air trams were supplemented by steam trams. Since 1901, the trams have been powered by electricity, at 600 V DC.
The network is operated by a public transport corporation, the Städtische Verkehrsbetriebe Bern (SVB), which, since 2000, has marketed itself mainly under the trading name Bernmobil. The SVB also operates most of Bern's motor buses, and the Bern trolleybus system. Like the other public transport services in the region, the tramway network is part of the , which is equivalent to a passenger transport executive or transit district.
History
Pneumatic trams
On 18 July 1889, the Eidgenössische Amt für Verkehr (Confederate Office of Transport) (EAV) granted the (Bernese Tramway Company) (BTG) an 80-year concession for the operation of tramways in Bern.
Construction of a tramway began immediately, and the first line was opened on 1 October 1890.
Services were operated by compressed air-powered vehicles, known colloquially as Lufttrams (air trams), according to the system developed by the Parisian engineer Louis Mékarski.
The first line, designated as line I, ran from the Bärengraben (bear pits), which was also the location of the depot, to the Bremgartenfriedhof, via Bern railway station. At each terminus, there was a turntable to turn the vehicles.
During the winter months, the compressed air pipes often froze, and this would lead to several days of service interruptions.
Steam tramway
In light of the problems the BTG was experiencing with operating the pneumatic trams, and also Bern's challenging topography, the residents of the city voted in favour of using steam trams to operate line II. This line, opened in 1894, ran from Länggasse to Wabern, via the railway station, the Mattenhofquartier (Eigerplatz) and Weissenbühl.
The depot for the steam trams was in the Mattenhofquartier. Bern's main tram depot is still located there.
The new steam tram line ousted Bern's horse buses from the city centre; from then onwards, the horse buses operated a new connection from Wabern to Belp-Steinbach. Meanwhile, plans were developed to extend the steam tramway to Kehrsatz and Belp.
A coalition of political and economic interests in various neighbouring communities then vehemently campaigned for the construction of a steam-driven interurban tramway from Bern to Worb. Such a tramway would allow connections at Gümligen with the standard gauge railways to Bern, Thun and Emmental. The BTG assisted with planning and cost calculations, and applied on behalf of the coalition for the required concession, which was issued by the EAV on 23 December 1896.
The opening of the long Bern to Worb tramway took place on 21 October 1898. From then until 31 March 1904, the Bern-Worb-Bahn (BWB) was operated by the BTG.
Electrification
The development of urban tramway networks in Switzerland and abroad at around the turn of the 20th century did not go unnoticed in Bern. A third line was planned for the Bern tramway network at that time, and it was intended to operate that line by electricity from the outset. Electrification of the two existing lines was planned to follow. There was opposition to the construction of overhead catenary, mainly from the residents of on the other side of the Aare. But at the ballot box, the electrification plans received the go ahead. Equally as unsuccessful as the opposition to electrification was a simultaneous popular initiative for the retention of the Lufttrams on line I.
On 1 July 1901, services commenced on line III. This led from Breitenrain to Burgernziel via the Zytglogge. For four and a half months, Bern had three types of tram traction at the same time. The opening of the enabled the replacement of the city's horse bus services. On the other hand, plans for the extension of line II were abandoned. The last day of operation of the pneumatic trams was 15 November 1901. None of the pneumatically powered vehicles has been preserved, but the old Depot and a bus shelter at the Bärengraben continue to remind Bernese residents today of the Lufttram era. The Bärengraben depot was abandoned and sold three years later.
In time for the winter of 1901-1902, the Burgernziel depot, which also still exists today, was able to be completed. Electric operations on line II were taken up on 29 January 1902. For that purpose, 24 two-axle and seven Maximum-bogied motor tramcars, as well as the twelve former steam tram trailers, were available. The SSB remained the only Swiss tram company that bought the Maximum-bogied tramcars. In the course of 1902, the SSB also retrained the horse tram drivers from the city of Biel/Bienne as electric tram drivers, so that in the new year of 1903 a smooth transition could be made to the new form of traction.
In the summer of 1904, eight short open tram trailer cars were added to the fleet. They rapidly came to enjoy great popularity. Unexpectedly, damage to the chassis frame occurred on two of the motor tramcars used to haul the open trailers, which operated mostly on line I. The damage was obviously caused by the Demerbe rails used on that line, and the SSB was forced to replace the two tramcars much earlier than planned. At the end of 1905 came the first six axle enclosed tram trailer. Between 1906 and 1914, 29 two-axle motor tramcars were commissioned in a number of separate deliveries. These new tramcars were stronger than their predecessors and were also no longer asymmetrical.
Bern's fourth tramway, line IV, was the first radial route in the Bern tramway network. It ran from the railway station to Brückfeld. Scheduled services on line IV commenced on 27 June 1908. To cater for the Eidgenössische Schützenfest 1910, line III had been extended during the preceding winter months to Papiermühlestrasse. In addition, four new two-axle tram trailers had been purchased. In 1909, more than ten million passengers travelled on Bern's trams for the first time.
In 1911, the SSB changed the routing of lines II, III and IV. The station was now the central interchange point. The line II trams ran from Weissenbühl to Papiermühlestrasse, those of line III from Länggasse to Burgernziel, and the trams on line IV from Wabern to Länggasse. With the opening of the to Friedheim section through the Quartier in 1912, the line IV trams could now run directly to Wabern without going through the Mattenhofquartier and Weissenbühl. Since then, the Weissenbühl Friedheim section has been a non-revenue track. At the same time, a new network came into operation. The lines were now given Arabic designators:
Line 1 (opposite direction: line 2): Bärengraben – Bahnhof – Friedhof (former line I)
Line 3 (opposite direction: line 4): Weissenbühl – Bahnhof – Papiermühlestrasse (former line II)
Line 5 (opposite direction: line 6): Länggasse – Bahnhof – Burgernziel (former line III)
Line 8 (opposite direction: line 9): Wabern – Friedheim – Bahnhof – Brückfeld (former line IV)
Trams that reversed at Friedheim, and therefore did not continue to Wabern, operated as line 7. The fleet of two-axle trailers was expanded by another seven units.
In 1913, the tramway sections in the Länggasse and to Brückfeld were converted into double track lines, in preparation for the that was to be held in Bern the following year. During the Exposition, the SSB was responsible for the operation of the Rundbahn (circle of track) running through the exhibition grounds. To cope with the task of carrying Exposition visitors to and from the Exposition, the SSB also procured more two-axle trailers. These were the last two-axle vehicles to be acquired by the SSB, and for nearly two decades were also the SSB's newest trailers. Upon their entry into service, the size of the SSB's fleet was increased to a total of 60 motor cars and 54 trailer cars.
World War I
In the summer of 1914, tram traffic in Bern came to be affected by global politics, when the Federal Council ordered the general mobilization of the army effective from 2 August 1914. As a result, a total of 125 employees of the SSB went missing from all areas of its operations. This loss of available staff represented about 40 percent of a workforce of 319 people. To alleviate the personnel shortage, the company needed 144 Hilfskondukteure (assisting conductors). At that time, women were not allowed to be hired.
Meanwhile, to facilitate the extension of the Worblentalbahn (WT) from Papiermühlestrasse to the Kornhausplatz with effect from 19 July 1915, the spacing between the tracks had to be increased, initially in the curves, to avoid crossing prohibitions due to the greater width of the WT's vehicles. As World War I continued, the SSB was forced by inflationary increases in the price of coal imports to restrict its activities to the absolute minimum. The six Rundbahn motor cars, which, due to their low powered motors, had been used only as summer trailers, were converted to closed vehicles that could be used all year round. Three vehicles became trailers, and the tramcars that had actually been procured as summer trailers were sold to the Städtische Strassenbahn Zürich.
In the summer of 1918, the SSB helped out the Bern-Worb-Bahn on a number of Sundays, by lending tramcar combinations that were able to carry many day trippers despite the BWB's shortage of vehicles.
Interwar period
In 1919, the Bernese Gemeinderat debated the merits of two projects for the extension of the tram network. While the extension of line 1/2 from Bärengraben to Ostermundigen (with inclines at Aargauerstalden, Laubeggstrasse and Ostermundigenstrasse) was rejected for cost reasons, the Gemeinderat agreed to a line to Bümpliz. This line was compensation for the incorporation of Bümpliz into Bern.
After the war, the economic situation did not improve much at first. The SSB remained limited to only the most essential maintenance work. Nineteen twenty was the first year in the company's operating history to end in a deficit. In 1920 and 1921, a total of 65 people had to be laid off. The sale of surplus spare parts to the brought in revenue of 700 Swiss francs.
Between 1921 and 1932, the summer tramcars were rebuilt in the SSB's own workshop into closed all-year-round trailers. Some vehicles were used as testbeds for various modifications until, with one exception, they were all fitted with the large round platforms that were typical for Bern.
In 1923, the network was extended once again for the first time in 15 years. With the commissioning of the branch line from the Effingerstrasse into Fischermätteli on 18 November 1923, the Bern tramway network reached a length of . The branch line was the last new SSB line to be built for nearly a quarter of a century. The new line's introduction led to a slight change in the network's operations: trams now ran from Brückfeld into Fischermätteli (line 11; in the opposite direction, line 12). The line to Wabern became a radial route.
An application by the Bern–Worb-Bahn for permission to relocate its terminus from to (Hotelgasse) at the other (Bern) end of the was met with a negative response from the City of Bern: it feared that such a relocation would lead to a substantial deterioration of the traffic conditions on the edge of the inner city. Instead, the proposal started a political debate that extended over the following eight decades, until it was finally implemented in the late 1990s.
From 1924, trams made up of three tramcars were operated during rush hours for reasons of cost. In subsequent years, the SSB continued to incur no significant outgoings. Apart from the two extensions to Brückfeld and Wankdorf stadium, which operated only on special occasions, the main work the company performed on its tracks was maintenance work. As a search for cheap second hand tramcars in Germany, where the hyperinflation of 1923 had driven a number of tram operators into bankruptcy, did not produce the desired result, the company had to keep the 1901/02 vintage two axle motor tramcars in service by replacing the car bodies that had become rotten. Additionally, the Maximum motor tramcars were fitted with more powerful engines; the SSB thus hoped to extend their service life by 15 to 20 years. However, it was not possible to install track brakes in these cars, which is why they continued to operate mostly on line 3/4. From 1928, pantographs replaced the bow collectors with which the SSB tramcars had previously been fitted.
Major renovation work carried out in 1930 in the Bahnhofplatz/Bubenbergplatz area changed not only the image of that part of the city, but also the line routes of the SSB. On the Bubenbergplatz, a large stabling area for trams (the "Blasermätteli") came into being. The station was robbed of its large entrance hall, and its front was moved to the back. The SSB took the opportunity to reorganise the network and introduced the coloured route panels still used in part today:
Line 1/2 (blue): Friedhof – Bahnhof – Brückfeld
Line 3/4 (white): Weissenbühl – Bahnhof – Papiermühlestrasse
Line 5/6 (red): Länggasse – Bahnhof – Burgernziel
Line 8/9 (yellow): Bärengraben – Bahnhof – Schönegg – Wabern (trams operating only as far as Schönegg ran as line 7)
Line 11/12 (green): Bahnhof – Fischermätteli
In August of the same year, the SSB received its first new vehicles for 16 years. These were two four-axle motor tramcars of type Be 4/4.
In 1931, the SSB applied for a concession to extend line 5/6 by along the Muristrasse to Egghölzli. The cantonal authorities rejected this application, on the grounds that it could not accept responsibility for a double track section in the Muristrasse, with its heavy motor vehicle traffic. In 1932/1933, the "Landibahn trains" were permanently joined together in pairs with a gangway connection. From then onwards, they operated almost exclusively on line 11/12. In 1933, three new trailers were put into operation: two four-axle trams and one three-axle vehicle, each with an SLM-pony truck.
The first signs of the Great Depression were already being felt in Switzerland in 1932. Incomes declined more and more. In 1936, unemployment finally reached its peak. However, the SSB continued to carry out major work on its track system. At the same time, the SSB began to scrap the two-axle trailers from 1905 and 1910 and re-use parts of their chassis in the construction of new vehicles in its own workshop. The former steam tram trailers were gradually given new car bodies and boarded platforms. In December 1935, deliveries of seven four-axle motor tramcars began. This meant the end for the old Maximum motor cars. One survived until 1975 as a welding carriage.
The blackest day in the history of the network was 19 September 1936. At the Henkerbrünnli stop on line 1, fallen leaves lay on the wet rails. On the way back from a football match, a three tramcar combination operating a supplementary service skidded on the leaves, and then collided heavily with a stationary tram on a regularly scheduled service. A total of 28 passengers were injured, some seriously.
World War II
At the beginning of 1939, there was a flu epidemic that at times afflicted one fifth of the SSB's workforce. When the Federal Council finally proclaimed a general war mobilization in late summer that year, a large portion of the SSB's employees had to report for army duty, which caused numerous restrictions in the SSB's operations. Nevertheless, and for the first time ever, more than 20 million passengers travelled on the network tram in 1939.
As a result of the war, there was no celebration in 1940 of the 50th anniversary of trams in Bern. From 1941, the tramway network was fully double-tracked. In the next few years, restrictions of all kinds affected public transport in the federal city. As the war continued, shortages of materials made themselves felt. Passenger numbers rose sharply.
In 1944, the last vehicles with longitudinal bench seats entered service. These five four-axle motor tramcars and six four-axle trailer cars were also the last vehicles to be procured by the SSB. The motor tramcars were unusual, in that on one side there were modern air-operated folding doors, but on the other side only basic sliding doors were provided.
Postwar period
On 1 October 1944, the blackout was lifted after three years. Shortly after the war ended in 1945, SSB reintroduced the operation of trams at five-minute intervals. Voters approved the extension of line 5/6 from Burgernziel to Freudenbergerplatz (Ostring). This extension was ready to be opened on 1 December 1946.
As a result of the merger of the SSB with the bus company Stadt-Omnibus Bern (SOB) to form the Städtische Verkehrsbetriebe Bern (SVB) on 1 September 1947, there were changes in the routing of the tram lines, and a new uniform tariff for all urban transport. At the same time, separate numbering of routes according to the direction of tram travel was abandoned, in favour of the following line numbering scheme:
Line 1: Güterbahnhof (formerly Friedhof) – Bahnhof – Brückfeld
Line 3: Weissenbühl – Bahnhof
Line 5: Länggasse – Bahnhof – Ostring
Line 9: Wabern – Bahnhof – Militärplatz (formerly Papiermühlestrasse)
Line 11: Fischermätteli – Bahnhof
In autumn, the first ten Standard motor tramcars arrived. Five more joined the fleet the following spring. These were the first Bernese tramcars with ; the ticket inspector was allocated a reserved seat at the third door. Meanwhile, the renewal program for the older rolling stock renewal was continued. A planned takeover of trailers nos. 41 to 46 from the Biel/Bienne tramway network, which was closed in 1948, did not materialize, however, because agreement on price could not be reached. The new Bernese numbers 215-220 that had been intended for these cars were never allocated.
The incipient boom in the late 1940s brought an increase in motorized traffic. At the same time, the number of public transport passenger journeys declined steadily. The following year, the Lorraine and the Wyler lines were merged. In 1951/1952, the SVB received ten four-axle trailers. These were based on the () proposed by the Association of Swiss Transport Institutions (VST) in 1945. Along with motor tramcars supplied four years earlier, these trailers could now be formed into trains of tramcars, and a large amount of older rolling stock therefore became surplus to requirements. At the Weissenbühl terminus, a car barn for 20 to 24 two-axle vehicle was constructed. The trams stored there formed the reserve for major events.
From 1952, the route of the Bümpliz line ran along the Effingerstrasse and no longer via the Laupenstrasse. This new route was introduced in view of the construction of a high-rise hospital building for the Inselspital. In the early summer of 1954, a traffic report by a Zürich consulting firm suggested the conversion of the entire Bernese tramway network to bus operation. The model for this was the then modern concept of the car-friendly city. This met with opposition from the Bernese population, including demonstrations in favour of retaining the trams. In 1955, work began on the reconstruction of the railway tracks in front of the Eigerplatz depot. Meanwhile, during renovations of the track on the Kirchenfeld Bridge, buses were used frequently to operate a rail replacement bus service to the Ostring.
In 1958, all of Bern's motor tramcars had to be fitted with blinkers. In November of the same year the SVB introduced new express routes from Hauptbahnhof to Militärplatz and from Hauptbahnhof to Ostring. Also in 1958, work began on the renovation of the railway station. As a direct result of the construction of the new Schanzen bridge, the Länggasse – Hauptbahnhof section was converted to motor bus operation. From then onwards, line 5 (formerly line 11) was operated as a Fischermätteli – Hauptbahnhof – Ostring cross-city line. Consequently, the "Landibahn" trains from 1914 lost its area of operation and could be withdrawn from service along with the last steam tram trailers. Additionally, the introduction of the second series of Standard trams (ten motor tramcars and ten trailers) led to the withdrawal of a large portion of the remaining two-axle vehicles. Ridership increased by up to six percent annually.
In 1964, Bern voters approved a general ban on smoking in buses and trams. This approval overrode earlier rules, such as the one stating that smoking is only allowed in the standing areas. With the conversion of Line 1 to motor bus operation on 11 October 1965, the track length of the tram network was reduced to . This was also the last closure of a tramway in Bern. In the same year, the conversion of a Standard tram to driver-only operation marked the commencement of self-service ticket control, which was otherwise phased in gradually between 1967 and 1973. In August 1966, in view of the replacement of the old four-axle trams equipped with longitudinal benches, the SVB took delivery of a bi-articulated vehicle with four single axle bogies from SWS Schlieren on a trial basis. However, the trial of this vehicle did not lead to a series production order, as the SVB decided to acquire conventional eight-axle bi-articulated vehicles with Jacobs bogies instead.
Late twentieth century
From the winter of 1972/1973, the new bi-articulated vehicles were in service, mostly on line 9. This development enabled the withdrawal of the last two axled trams. The Maximum tramcar from 1902, which had been converted into a work car, was scrapped and replaced by another tramcar thirty years younger. By this means, the last representative of its type disappeared. On 28 October 1973, the long extension of line 3 from Burgernziel to the new suburb of Wittigkofen (Saali) went into operation.
With the opening on 26 May 1974 of the underground station on the Zollikofen–Bern railway, a station that also served trains and , an important revenue source for the city of Bern dried up. Previously, the (SZB) and the (VBW) had paid track access charges for the use of the infrastructure within the city limits. On 4 September 1976, as part of the big "Bernfest" marking the completion of a total of 17 years of rebuilding work at the station, the newly designed Bubenbergplatz was inaugurated. At the same time, the SVB presented to the public Switzerland's first dining car tram, developed from a motor tramcar with longitudinal seating and an accompanying trailer. Also in 1976, a section of line 9 in the Seftigenstrasse approximately long was moved to a reserved track section. This change made faster progress possible, especially during peak periods.
Due to the unexpectedly high passenger volume caused by the introduction of the "Bäreabi" in 1984, the mid-1980s was marred by an acute shortage of vehicles. The SVB therefore tried to find well-preserved used vehicles. Amongst the options considered were the acquisition of five Standard motor car/trailer combinations from Zürich, or the same number of DUEWAG trams from the Bielefeld Stadtbahn. Finally, five 40-year-old trailers were taken over in 1986 from Verkehrsbetriebe Zürich; these replaced the last six trailers with longitudinal seating. In 1987, with a view to the possibility of orders for new vehicles, there were guest appearances in Bern by a Geneva low-floor articulated tram and a high-floor Zürich tram of type Tram 2000. The Geneva low-floor tram was well received by the population, and this led to the procurement of twelve eight-axle vehicles in 1990.
In the summer of 1988, the closure of the Kirchenfeld Bridge to traffic for renovations led to a division of the tramway network. To allow operation on the eastern part, a provisional balloon loop was created at Helvetiaplatz and ran from there to Ostring and Saali. To connect the two sub-networks, two specially equipped bus lines 31 and 32 were operated. In 1990 twelve low-floor articulated tram trains entered service, and this made it possible to withdraw the old Zürich tramcars. Just three years later, and despite the withdrawal of these vehicles, the SVB bought other used trailers in Basel, and these were later onsold to Baselland Transport. Due to the bus replacement operations during the renovation of the additional buses from Baden-Wettingen and Lucerne also helped out.
At the end of the 1990s, a network optimization study suggested that the existing motorbus and trolleybus to Bümpliz, Bethlehem, Ostermundigen and Wyler be converted to tram operation by 2020.
Twenty-first century
On 17 June 2007, the voters of the canton of Bern approved the investment credit required for the suggested conversion. On 1 April 2008, construction work began on the new line, which is long. The new line begins at a junction at Kaufmännischer Verband, and proceeds to Bümpliz underpass, where it divides into line 7 to Bümpliz and line 8 to Brunnen. At the end of September 2010, the construction work was completed.
The new line was commissioned to coincide with the timetable change on 12 December 2010. Simultaneously, line G to Worb was renamed as line 6, and extended to Fischermätteli. Immediately before its renaming, line G had been the last of the lines in the Bernese transport network to be designated by a letter. The concession for this line was transferred to Bernmobil on 30 November 2010, a couple of weeks before the various network changes occurred.
Lines
, the lines of Bern's tramway network were as follows:
Fleet
Current articulated trams
Withdrawn trams
Former trailer cars
Heritage vehicles
Network Map
See also
List of town tramway systems in Switzerland
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Bernmobil – official site
Bernmobil historic foundation – official site
Track plan of the Bern tram system
Compressed Air Trams – includes Bern
Bern
Transport in Bern
Tourist attractions in Bern
Bern, Trams in
600 V DC railway electrification
Bern
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Ramil Sahib oglu Safarov (, , born August 25, 1977), is an officer of the Azerbaijani Army who was convicted of the 2004 murder of Armenian Army Lieutenant Gurgen Margaryan. During a NATO-sponsored training seminar in Budapest, Safarov broke into Margaryan's dormitory room at night and axed Margaryan to death while he was asleep.
In 2006, Safarov was convicted of first-degree murder and sentenced to life imprisonment in Hungary with a minimum incarceration period of 30 years. After his request under the Strasbourg Convention, he was extradited on August 31, 2012 to Azerbaijan, where he was greeted as a hero, pardoned by Azerbaijani president Ilham Aliyev despite contrary assurances made to Hungary, promoted to the rank of major and given an apartment and over eight years of back pay. According to Azerbaijani authorities, Safarov was pardoned in compliance with Article 12 of the convention. Following Safarov's pardon, Armenia severed diplomatic relations with Hungary and immediate protests broke out in Yerevan. The extradition was widely condemned by international organizations and governments of many countries, including the US, Russia and France.
Early life
Ramil Safarov was born on August 25, 1977 in the Şükürbəyli village of Jabrayil District, former Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic of the Soviet Union (now Azerbaijan), where he finished middle school. He is one of four brothers. Jabrayil was occupied by Armenian forces on August 26, 1993, and remained under the control of the self-proclaimed Armenian Republic of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh) as part of the unresolved Nagorno-Karabakh conflict until October 4, 2020. Safarov's family fled to Baku in 1991. During a court hearing, Safarov recounted memories from the years of war, during which he had lost family members. This, however, contradicted another version he told the court, where he stated that he was studying in Azerbaijan's capital of Baku and in Turkey from 1992 to 1996. He continued his studies at Maltepe Military High School in İzmir, Turkey, and then at the Turkish Military Academy, graduating in 2000, after which he returned to Azerbaijan.
Budapest murder
In January 2004, the 26-year-old Ramil Safarov, along with another officer from Azerbaijan, went to Budapest, Hungary, to participate in the three-month English language courses, organized by NATO's Partnership for Peace program for military personnel from different countries. Two Armenian officers, a 25-year-old Gurgen Margaryan and Hayk Makuchyan, also participated in this program.
On the evening of February 18, Safarov bought an axe and a honing stone at Tesco, near Ferenc Puskás Stadium. He took them in the bag to his dormitory room at the Zrínyi Miklós National Defence University, where all the course participants were staying. Safarov's roommate had returned to his native Ukraine to attend the funerals of his relatives and so nobody interrupted Safarov as he sharpened the axe in his room. At around 5:00 am on February 19, Safarov took the axe and went to Margaryan's room, which he was sharing with his Hungarian roommate, Balázs Kuti. The door of their room was not locked. Safarov attacked the sleeping Margaryan with the axe and delivered 16 blows to his body, which almost severed Margaryan’s head. The noises woke up Kuti, who was shocked seeing the Azerbaijani officer standing by Gurgen’s bed with a long axe in his hands. As Kuti later testified, “By that time I understood that something terrible had happened for there was blood all around. I started to shout at the Azerbaijani urging him to stop it. He said that he had no problems with me and would not touch me, stabbed Gurgen a couple of more times and left. The expression of his face was as if he was glad he had finished something important. Greatly shocked, I ran out of the room to find help, and Ramil went in another direction”.
Afterwards, Safarov headed for the room of Makuchyan, the other Armenian student, with the intention of attacking him also, but found his door locked. He shouted out Makuchyan’s name in a threatening voice. The half-sleeping Makuchyan wanted to open the door, but his Lithuanian roommate stopped him and called his compatriot next door to check what was going on. Meanwhile, Safarov went to look for Makuchyan in the room of the Serbian and the Ukrainian roommates, showing them the blood-stained axe and stating that he thirsted for nobody's blood but Armenian.
Safarov then attempted to break the door with the axe, but, by this time, the students in the neighboring rooms already woke up, went out to the corridor and tried to persuade him to stop. Later the eyewitnesses confessed that they were afraid to approach Ramil with a blood-stained axe closer than at three meters.
Soon after, the Hungarian police, which was summoned by Balázs Kuti, arrived and arrested Safarov at the scene. A Hungarian court later found that it was an attempt on Makuchyan’s life and recognized the latter also as a victim. While announcing the verdict the judge particularly emphasized that if Safarov had not been restrained by his fellow officers he would have killed the second Armenian officer as well.
Interrogation and trial
During his initial interrogation Safarov confessed to killing Margaryan and his intention to kill Makuchyan. Questioned about his motives during the interrogation, Safarov stated:
According to Balázs Kuti, at the very beginning of the language courses, when the students got acquainted, there was a conversation about different international issues, but nobody spoke of it afterwards. Kuti also said that he had not noticed any strain in the relationship between Margaryan and the Azerbaijani officers. Makuchyan's neighbor, officer Saulius Paulius also said that he observed nothing strange in the relationship between the Armenian and the Azerbaijani guys.
The police afterwards interrogated all the students and all testified that there was no conflict between the Armenian and the Azerbaijani officers and that they did not even interact with each other.
Later in an interview to the Armenian newspaper Iravunk, Makuchyan confirmed that neither Gurgen nor him had had any contacts with any of the Azerbaijani officers. “They were not of a communicative type. Usually, after classes, they went straight to their rooms”, said Makuchyan. To the question as to why he chose to attack Margaryan first Safarov answered it was because he was big, muscular and of sportive type.
When the case went to trial Safarov's defense asserted that the murder was committed because Margaryan had insulted the Azerbaijani flag. This explanation later underwent several variations in the press in Azerbaijan and among his defenders. It was claimed that Margaryan and/or Makuchyan had urinated on the Azerbaijani flag; used it to clean and wipe their shoes; and had played an audio recording of "voices of suffering Azerbaijani women and girls." Safarov did not mention any of this in either his interrogation or his court trial and made it very clear he killed Margaryan just because he was an Armenian. No witnesses were ever called during the trial to corroborate these allegations of harassment in court and prosecution lawyers strongly disputed that they had taken place. Despite the lack of evidence the Azerbaijani media, including state-owned media outlets, have circulated the version of the flag for making Safarov a national hero.
The defense also alleged that Safarov was mentally sick when committing the murder, however the forensic medical examination, which was upheld by the judge, showed that "Safarov was sane and aware of the consequences of his act".
On April 13, 2006, a Hungarian court sentenced Safarov to life imprisonment without right of appeal for 30 years. The judge, András Vaskuti, cited the premeditated nature and brutality of the crime and the fact that Safarov showed no remorse for his deeds as the reasons for the sentence. Handing down a life sentence, the judge particularly emphasised that “the murder of a sleeping man in peace time is always a crime and cannot be an act of heroism”. On February 22, 2007, a Hungarian appeal court upheld the ruling following an appeal filed by Safarov's lawyer.
While serving his sentence, Safarov translated several novels by Hungarian authors into Azeri, including Magda Szabó's The Door () and The Paul Street Boys () (youth novel by the Hungarian writer Ferenc Molnár).
Reaction to the murder and the sentence
A lawyer representing the victim's family welcomed the sentence as a "good decision for the Hungarian court and for Armenian society."
Many officials in Azerbaijan publicly praised Safarov's actions, while there were also those who condemned them. Elmira Süleymanova, the human rights commissioner (ombudsman) of Azerbaijan, declared that Safarov's punishment was far too harsh and that "Safarov must become an example of patriotism for the Azerbaijani youth". The banned radical Azerbaijan National Democrat Party awarded Safarov with the title of "Man of the Year 2005" for killing an Armenian.
Fuad Agayev, a prominent Azeri lawyer, said that Azeris "...have to urgently stop this current campaign to raise Safarov to the rank of national hero. He is no hero.”
The United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs condemned Azerbaijan's reaction to the brutal murder of the Armenian officer in a hearing. A report which was published by the Committee on Foreign Affairs contained a statement by Bryan Ardouny, Executive Director of the Armenian Assembly of America, who stated that "The Azerbaijani government has also consistently failed to condemn Safarov, an Azeri military officer who in 2003 [sic] brutally murdered an Armenian participant at a NATO Partnership for Peace military training exercise in Budapest, Hungary. Instead, it has encouraged domestic media and various organizations to treat the murderer as a celebrity. That individual has since been awarded the title of 'Man of the Year' by Azerbaijan’s National-Democratic Party."
Extradition and pardon
Safarov's welcome in Azerbaijan
After serving eight years of the life sentence, Safarov was extradited under the framework guidelines of the 1983 Strasbourg Convention on the Transfer of Sentenced Persons and transferred to Azerbaijan on August 31, 2012. Although the Hungarian government stated that it had received assurances from the Azerbaijan government that the remainder of the sentence would be enforced, President Ilham Aliyev issued a pardon immediately upon Safarov's arrival in Baku and ordered that he be "freed from the term of his punishment."
Azerbaijani Defense Minister Safar Abiyev promoted Safarov to the rank of major and the Defense Ministry of Azerbaijan provided him with an apartment and over eight years of back pay. On September 1, Azerbaijani Foreign Ministry spokesman Elman Abdullayev said that the return of Safarov to Azerbaijan is a matter of relations between Azerbaijan and Hungary, which was resolved in the "framework of the law and is not contrary to norms and principles of the international law." He described Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan's statements as "hysterical" and accused him of being one of the leaders of the group that committed the Khojaly Massacre.
After arriving in Baku, Safarov stated: "This is restoration of justice. It was a bit of surprise for me." He then visited Martyrs' Lane to lay flowers at the tomb of Azerbaijan's former president Heydar Aliyev. He also laid flowers at the Eternal Flame monument and visited a monument to Turkish soldiers.
Novruz Mammadov, the head of the presidential foreign relations department, said that secret talks had been going on for a year between Azerbaijan and Hungary, and that agreement had been reached on the visit of Hungarian prime minister Viktor Orbán.
A week before Safarov's release there came reports that the two countries were in talks over a loan from Azerbaijan to Hungary of 2-3bn euros ($2.5-3.8bn; £1.6-2.4bn) which gave way to speculations in Hungary that Orbán extradited Safarov in return for a promise that Azerbaijan would buy Hungarian bonds.
Azerbaijani high-ranking officials have praised Safarov's extradition and pardon giving him a hero's welcome. Presidential Administration of Azerbaijan Novruz Mammadov stated in the interview:
Yes, he is in Azerbaijan. This is a great news for all of us. It is very touching to see this son of the homeland, which was thrown in jail after he defended his country's honor and dignity of the people.Euobserver. Axe murder complicates EU-Azerbaijan love affair
Elnur Aslanov, Chief of the Political Analysis and Information Department of the Presidential Administration of Azerbaijan said that "...heroes as Mubariz Ibrahimov and Ramil Safarov with their bravery brought the second breath to the Azerbaijani society and people”.
Ali Ahmedov, Deputy Chairman and Executive Secretary of the ruling New Azerbaijan Party stated that the "Order of President Ilham Aliyev to pardon Ramil Safarov is a triumph of determination, courage and justice".
Prominent public figures in Azerbaijan have made similar statements endorsing Safarov's image as a hero. Famous Azerbaijani singer and a deputy of Azerbaijani Parliament Zeynab Khanlarova made the following statement:
Safarov is not just a hero of Azerbaijan, he is an international hero! A monument should be set up to him. Not every man could do this. There are two heroes − Mr. Ilham Aliyev and Ramil Safarov. I would have done exactly as Ramil did. He did the right thing to take the life of an Armenian.
Commenting on the hero's welcome received by Safarov in Azerbaijan, Geydar Dzhemal, political scientist, the Chairman of the Islamic Committee of Russia, said,
“I am absolutely convinced that the welcoming of Ramil Safarov as a hero in Azerbaijan is quite natural”.
On September 19, 2013 during the opening ceremony of the "Genocide Memorial Complex built in the town of Guba to honor victims of massacres committed in the area by Armenian and Bolshevik forces in 1918", President Aliyev stated that they "restored the justice" by returning Safarov to Azerbaijan.
Аzeri leader has more than once called Armenians number one enemy, while Safarov’s attorney stated at Budapest trial that "killing an Armenian is not a crime in Azerbaijan."
International reaction
Armenia
President Serzh Sargsyan announced Armenia's suspension of diplomatic relations and all official communications with Hungary on the day of Safarov's release. "This is not a simple murder. It is murder on ethnic grounds," he said.
Sargsyan suggested the possibility that Azerbaijani president Ilham Aliyev and Hungarian prime minister Viktor Orbán had entered into a secret agreement during the latter's visit to Baku on June 30, 2012. A number of sources in the media have also speculated that Hungary's deepening economic ties with Azerbaijan may have had something to do with Safarov's release. Sargsyan concluded his statements by saying, "with their joint actions the authorities of Hungary and Azerbaijan have opened the door for the recurrence of such crimes."
Demonstrations took place in front of the Hungarian consulate in Yerevan, during which the building was pelted with tomatoes. Demonstrators also burned a Hungarian flag. A photo of Safarov was also burned by the activists. National Assembly Speaker Hovik Abrahamyan cancelled his visit to Hungary planned for late September.
Hayk Makuchyan, whom Safarov unsuccessfully planned to kill on the same night as Margaryan, stated that he will petition to all judicial instances and possibly The Hague, since the murder was committed on ethnic grounds, adding: "I had no doubt that Ramil Safarov would not have served his sentence in the case of an extradition. But the Azerbaijani leadership’s cynicism surpassed everything."
Hungary
On September 2 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Hungary announced the country "refuses to accept and condemns the action of Azerbaijan, which contradicts the relevant rules of international law and sharply contrasts the undertaking of the Azerbaijani side in this matter, confirmed by the Deputy Minister of Justice of the Republic of Azerbaijan in his letter <...> of 15 August 2012." The Ministry of Foreign Affairs condemned the action of Azerbaijan in a diplomatic note. The press release also states that "Hungary regards the decision of Azerbaijan inconsistent with the spirit of cooperation based on mutual trust that has been achieved during the past years between our respective countries."
The opposition parties strongly criticized Viktor Orbán and his cabinet for the move.
Despite government denials, opposition parties said Orbán let Safarov return to Azerbaijan in the hope of economic favors in return from the energy producer Azerbaijan.
Representatives of MSZP, the then largest opposition party, called for various subcommittees of the parliament to examine who exactly made the decision and why the procedure was kept secret. MSZP had been in power until 2010, and had refused to release Safarov. The Socialists have also called on Orbán to resign over the decision.
Other countries
: Both the United States National Security Council and the State Department expressed "deep concern" over the matter. The press statement from Washington said: "We are expressing our deep concern to Azerbaijan regarding this action and seeking an explanation. We are also seeking further details from Hungary regarding the decision to transfer Mr. Safarov to Azerbaijan." National Security Council Spokesman Tommy Vietor also stated: "President Obama is deeply concerned by today’s announcement that the President of Azerbaijan has pardoned Ramil Safarov following his return from Hungary... We are communicating to Azerbaijani authorities our disappointment about the decision to pardon Safarov. This action is contrary to ongoing efforts to reduce regional tensions and promote reconciliation." "We were appalled by the glorification that we heard in some quarters of somebody who was convicted of murder," Philip Gordon, the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs said. He called the case "a real provocation in the region." The Azerbaijani foreign ministry responded, "it is perplexing that the U.S. government interferes in the relations of two independent states - Azerbaijan and Hungary" and suggested that the U.S. response was connected to the elections in U.S.
: On September 3, the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued the following statement: "In Russia, which is the co-chairman of the OSCE Minsk Group on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict settlement, received reports with deep concern regarding the clemency of Baku Azeri serviceman Ramil Safarov, who was sentenced to life imprisonment for the commission of the murder of an Armenian officer with an extreme atrocity in Hungary in the 2004, as well as regarding the preceded decision of the Hungarian authorities to extradite him to Azerbaijan. We believe that these actions of Azerbaijan, as well as the Hungarian authorities to run counter to the efforts agreed at international level, particularly through the OSCE Minsk Group, directed to reduce tension in the region."
: Foreign Ministry said that "France expresses her concern following the announcement of the pardon granted to M. Safarov by the Azerbaijani authorities". As one of the OSCE Minsk Group countries, France is "strongly committed to a peaceful solution to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, [and] believes that this decision risks seriously damaging the negotiation efforts and the establishment of a climate of trust between the parties."
: Swedish Foreign Minister Carl Bildt tweeted "Strange decision in Azerbaijan to pardon man having murdered an Armenian in Hungary. Rule of law must apply."
: Foreign Affairs Minister Erato Kozakou-Marcoullis's statement said "we deeply regret and deplore this Presidential pardon and the damage inflicted by the actions that followed the release, aimed at glorifying this hideous crime, to the reconciliation efforts with Azerbaijan and we are also very concerned of its effects on regional stability."
European Court of Human Rights
A court case, Makuchyan and Minasyan v. Azerbaijan and Hungary, was brought in front of the European Court of Human Rights and decided upon in 2020, the final judgement placing blame on Azerbaijan for its decisions in the treatment of Safarov (mala fide acts), but largely acquitting Hungary for its part in transferring the convicted murderer to his home country (due diligence).
Organizations
UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon has expressed his concern over Safarov's extradition and subsequent pardon. The U.N.'s top human rights official also strongly criticized Safarov's pardon. U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay's spokesman, Rupert Colville, told reporters Friday in Geneva that "ethnically motivated hate crimes of this gravity should be deplored and properly punished – not publicly glorified by leaders and politicians... We are also in full agreement with the Co-Chairs of the OSCE Minsk Group who earlier this week expressed deep concern about “the damage the pardon and any attempts to glorify the crime have done to the [Nagorno-Karabakh] peace process and trust between the two sides.""
: EU Foreign Affairs Representative Catherine Ashton and European Commissioner for Enlargement and European Neighbourhood Policy Štefan Füle announced that they are "concerned by the news that the President of Azerbaijan has pardoned Azerbaijani army officer Ramil Safarov". They called on Azerbaijan and Armenia "to exercise restraint, on the ground as well as in public statements, in order to prevent an escalation of the situation in the interest of regional stability and on-going efforts towards reconciliation". The EU foreign relations spokeswoman, Maja Kocjanic, told press in Brussels: "We are particularly concerned with the impact the developments might have on the wider region."
European Parliament passed a resolution on the Ramil Safarov case, stating that it “deplores the decision by the President of Azerbaijan to pardon Ramil Safarov”, "the hero’s welcome accorded to Mr Safarov in Azerbaijan and the decision to promote him to the rank of major…” as well as expresses a “concern about the example this sets for future generations and about the promotion and recognition he has received from the Azerbaijani state”. As for the legitimacy of Aliyev’s pardon the European Parliament "Considers that, while the presidential pardon granted to Mr Safarov complies with the letter of the Convention on the Transfer of Sentenced Persons, it runs contrary to the spirit of that international agreement, which was negotiated to allow the transfer of a person convicted on the territory of one state to serve the remainder of his or her sentence on the territory of another state”.
Collective Security Treaty Organisation: Secretary-General Nikolay Bordyuzha stated that Azerbaijan's decision to pardon Safarov is against international law. He then continued, "this move was obviously done for the sake of short-term political goals and can not be justified by anything".
OSCE Minsk Group: The OSCE Minsk Group (composed of negotiators from the US, Russia and France to encourage a peaceful, negotiated resolution to the conflict between Azerbaijan and Armenia over Nagorno-Karabakh) stated that Azerbaijan's pardoning of a military officer who murdered an Armenian officer has harmed attempts to establish peace between the countries.
: NATO likewise condemned Safarov's pardon. NATO Secretary General Fogh Rasmussen expressed his "deep concern" and stated that "The act [Safarov] committed in 2004 was a terrible crime that should not be glorified. The pardon damages trust and does not contribute to the peace process."
Council of Europe: "Honouring a convicted murderer and transforming him into a hero is unacceptable", Secretary General Thorbjørn Jagland has declared. Human rights commissioner Nils Muižnieks and Jean-Claude Mignon, President of the Parliamentary Assembly, also expressed their outrage at the pardon.
Non-governmental organizations
Amnesty International human rights organization issued a public statement on the occasion of Safarov's release, which stated, "By pardoning and then promoting Ramil Safarov, President Aliyev has signalled to Azerbaijanis that violence against Armenians is not only acceptable, but rewarded. The Azerbaijani government should rescind any privileges awarded to Safarov and publicly condemn ethnic violence."
British expert on Caucasus Thomas de Waal called President Aliyev's move to pardon Safarov "deeply provocative." In De Waal's view, "This is now a full-blown state-to-state row, with as yet unknowable consequences."
Azerbaijan
Mixed thoughts came from Azerbaijani organizations and figures in Azerbaijani society. Zardusht Alizadeh, chair of the Open Society Institute in Azerbaijan, condemned the act of pardon, saying it would not contribute positively to the peaceful solution of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. According to Alizadeh, the act was not based on any political will, respect of law or interest in conflict resolution, but instead had only "cheap fame" to it. The noted journalist Khadija Ismayilova, Radio Liberty's lead correspondent in Azerbaijan, commented that what Safarov had done was "awful" and the reaction of seeing him as a hero "happens when society is not allowed to do anything. They are angry. People of Azerbaijan lost the war, lost the territory to occupants, became refugees, lost their siblings including civilians and they were stopped and banned from restoring justice on the battle field." on her Facebook account.
Former deputy of the Azerbaijan National Assembly and writer Akram Aylisli refused to comment on the "campaign," but did note that he had his "own ideas of and approach to heroism." Azerbaijani media have criticized the United States' concern for Safarov's pardon and added that it should have reacted the same way when Varoujan Garabedian, a member of ASALA who was imprisoned in France, was expelled to Armenia after his pardon by France in 2001. Meanwhile, the organization Azerbaijani Americans for Democracy sent an open letter to Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, urging the United States to devote more of its attention to the human rights abuses of President Aliyev, instead of Safarov's pardon.
The leading Azerbaijani Russian-language news website Day.az called on its readers to edit the Russian Wikipedia article on Safarov to prevent it from the possible "revenge of Armenian nationalists."
Hungary
Péter Erdő, the Archbishop of Esztergom-Budapest and the Hungarian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, in a letter to Catholicos of All Armenians Karekin II, issued a statement expressing "full solidarity with the Armenian Christians and with the Armenian people that has so much suffered in the past."
In October 2012 four Hungarian intellectuals - historian, political analyst Zoltán Bíró, rector of the John Wesley Theological College Gábor Iványi, journalist/publicist Gábor Deák and writer Rudolf Ungváry, arrived in Armenia to apologize for the extradition of Ramil Safarov. During the press conference in Yerevan they stated: “We organized the journey to inform of most of Hungarian people’s disagreement, and our discontent with the authorities’ decision to transfer a sleeping officer’s assassin back to his homeland." Mr. Iványi said, “We have come to express our regret and shame. Hungary didn’t even officially recognize the Armenian genocide as the country was in need of Turkish support then. As for the prime minister having allowed for the extradition, he would have resigned his post”.
Hungarian scientist and expert in Armenian studies Benedek Zsigmond joined in the protest organized by many NGOs in Hungary against the decision of Safarov's extradition and made a public statement of apology for the Hungarian government's action. On his Facebook page he wrote "Today I feel ashamed that I am Hungarian. I apologize to all Armenians... Today is the black day in the recent history of Hungary." He also personally apologized during his visit to Armenia calling the extradition an "unacceptable, amoral act".
A Facebook page was created on September 1, apologizing for Hungarian PM's actions. The group is called "Hey Armenia, sorry about our Prime Minister" (a poster with similar title was used in fall 2011, asking EU for forgiveness for Orbán) and has more than 12,400 likes as of 27 March 2013.
On September 4, 2012, a demonstration took place in front of the Hungarian Parliament Building in Kossuth Square. It was reported that about two thousand Hungarians protested against their government's actions.
In September, the Kispest district of Budapest had a new square named after Kemal Atatürk and a statue of him was revealed among protests from local Armenians and Greeks who considered it a provocation. In the months preceding the ceremony the local government was pondering the matter, being caught between the resentment of minority groups and the will to preserve good relations with its sister city Pendik, whose representatives have already been invited to the ceremony. Only two days after its unveiling, the statue was vandalized by red paint being poured over it. The statue has been restored since.
Armenian diaspora
In many cities around the world where Armenian diaspora is present demonstrations took place against Hungarian and Azerbaijani government actions, including New York City, Ottawa, Tbilisi, Rostov-on-Don. and Nicosia.
A year after Safarov had been extradited, the Armenian community in Hungary claimed that they did not feel safe and that their relationship with the Hungarian government was getting worse every day, as the authorities were making their lives there "more difficult".
See also
Anti-Armenian sentiment in Azerbaijan
Armenia–Azerbaijan relations
Armenia–Hungary relations
Nagorno-Karabakh conflict
References
External links
English transcripts of the investigation:
Interrogation of Safarov
Interrogation of Margaryan's roommate
1977 births
Living people
21st-century criminals
Anti-Armenianism
Azerbaijani people convicted of murder
Azerbaijani prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
People convicted of murder by Hungary
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Hungary
Armenia–Azerbaijan relations
Armenia–Hungary relations
People extradited from Hungary
People extradited to Azerbaijan
Recipients of Azerbaijani presidential pardons
Translators to Azerbaijani
Axe murder
First Nagorno-Karabakh War
Azerbaijani people imprisoned abroad
2004 crimes in Hungary
2000s murders in Hungary
2004 murders in Europe
20th-century translators
European Court of Human Rights cases involving Azerbaijan
European Court of Human Rights cases involving Hungary
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Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe (née Clemm; August 15, 1822 – January 30, 1847) was the wife of American writer Edgar Allan Poe. The couple were first cousins and publicly married when Virginia Clemm was 13 and Poe was 27. Biographers disagree as to the nature of the couple's relationship. Though their marriage was loving, some biographers suggest they viewed one another more like a brother and sister. In January 1842, she contracted tuberculosis, growing worse for five years until she died of the disease at the age of 24 in the family's cottage, at that time outside New York City.
Along with other family members, Virginia Clemm and Edgar Allan Poe lived together off and on for several years before their marriage. The couple often moved to accommodate Poe's employment, living intermittently in Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. A few years after their wedding, Poe was involved in a substantial scandal involving Frances Sargent Osgood and Elizabeth F. Ellet. Rumors about amorous improprieties on her husband's part affected Virginia Poe so much that on her deathbed she claimed that Ellet had murdered her. After her death, her body was eventually placed under the same memorial marker as her husband's in Westminster Hall and Burying Ground in Baltimore, Maryland. Only one image of Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe has been authenticated: a watercolor portrait painted several hours after her death.
The disease and eventual death of his wife had a substantial effect on Edgar Allan Poe, who became despondent and turned to alcohol to cope. Her struggles with illness and death are believed to have affected his poetry and prose, where dying young women appear as a frequent motif, as in "Annabel Lee", "The Raven", and "Ligeia".
Biography
Early life
Virginia Eliza Clemm was born in 1822 and named after an older sister who had died at age two only ten days earlier. Her father William Clemm, Jr. was a hardware merchant in Baltimore. He had married Maria Poe, Virginia's mother, on July 12, 1817, after the death of his first wife, Maria's first cousin Harriet. Clemm had five children from his previous marriage and went on to have three more with Maria. After his death in 1826, he left very little to the family and relatives offered no financial support because they had opposed the marriage. Maria supported the family by sewing and taking in boarders, aided with an annual $240 pension granted to her mother Elizabeth Cairnes, who was paralyzed and bedridden. Elizabeth received this pension on behalf of her late husband, "General" David Poe, a former quartermaster in Maryland who had loaned money to the state.
Edgar Poe first met his cousin Virginia in August 1829, four months after his discharge from the Army. She was seven at the time. In 1832, the family—made up of Elizabeth, Maria, Virginia, and Virginia's brother Henry—was able to use Elizabeth's pension to rent a home at what was then 3 North Amity Street in Baltimore. Poe's older brother William Henry Leonard Poe, who had been living with the family, had recently died on August 1, 1831. Poe joined the household in 1833 and was soon smitten by a neighbor named Mary Devereaux. The young Virginia served as a messenger between the two, at one point retrieving a lock of Devereaux's hair to give to Poe. Elizabeth Cairnes Poe died on July 7, 1835, effectively ending the family's income and making their financial situation even more difficult. Henry died around this time, sometime before 1836, leaving Virginia as Maria Clemm's only surviving child.
In August 1835, Poe left the destitute family behind and moved to Richmond, Virginia to take a job at the Southern Literary Messenger. While Poe was away from Baltimore, another cousin, Neilson Poe, the husband of Virginia's half-sister Josephine Clemm, heard that Edgar was considering marrying Virginia. Neilson offered to take her in and have her educated in an attempt to prevent the girl's marriage to Edgar at such a young age, though suggesting that the option could be reconsidered later. Edgar called Neilson, the owner of a newspaper in Baltimore, Maryland, his "bitterest enemy" and interpreted his cousin's actions as an attempt at breaking his connection with Virginia. On August 29, 1835, Edgar wrote an emotional letter to Maria, declaring that he was "blinded with tears while writing", and pleading that she allow Virginia to make her own decision. Encouraged by his employment at the Southern Literary Messenger, Poe offered to provide financially for Maria, Virginia, and Henry if they moved to Richmond.
Marriage
Marriage plans were confirmed and Poe returned to Baltimore to file for a marriage license on September 22, 1835. The couple might have been quietly married as well, though accounts are unclear. Their only public ceremony was in Richmond on May 16, 1836, when they were married by a Presbyterian minister named Rev. Amasa Converse. Poe was 27 and Virginia was 13, though her age was listed as 21. This marriage bond was filed in Richmond and included an affidavit from Thomas W. Cleland confirming the bride's alleged age. The ceremony was held in the evening at the home of a Mrs. James Yarrington, the owner of the boarding house in which Poe, Virginia, and Virginia's mother Maria Clemm were staying. Yarrington helped Maria Clemm bake the wedding cake and prepared a wedding meal. The couple then had a short honeymoon in Petersburg, Virginia.
Debate has raged regarding how unusual this pairing was based on the couple's age and blood relationship. Noted Poe biographer Arthur Hobson Quinn argues it was not particularly unusual, nor was Poe's nicknaming his wife "Sissy" or "Sis". Another Poe biographer, Kenneth Silverman, contends that though their first-cousin marriage was not unusual, her young age was. It has been suggested that Clemm and Poe had a relationship more like that between brother and sister than between husband and wife. Biographer Arthur Hobson Quinn disagreed with this view, citing a fervent love letter to argue that Poe "loved his little cousin not only with the affection of a brother, but also with the passionate devotion of a lover and prospective husband." Some scholars, including Marie Bonaparte, have read many of Poe's works as autobiographical and have concluded that Virginia died a virgin. It has been speculated that she and her husband never consummated their marriage, although no evidence is given. This interpretation often assumes that Virginia is represented by the title character in the poem "Annabel Lee": a "maiden... by the name of Annabel Lee". Poe biographer Joseph Wood Krutch suggests that Poe did not need women "in the way that normal men need them", but only as a source of inspiration and care, and that Poe was never interested in women sexually. Friends of Poe suggested that the couple did not share a bed for at least the first two years of their marriage but that, from the time she turned 16, they had a "normal" married life until the onset of her illness.
Virginia and Poe were by all accounts a happy and devoted couple. Poe's one-time employer George Rex Graham wrote of their relationship: "His love for his wife was a sort of rapturous worship of the spirit of beauty." Poe once wrote to a friend, "I see no one among the living as beautiful as my little wife." She, in turn, by many contemporary accounts, nearly idolized her husband. She often sat close to him while he wrote, kept his pens in order, and folded and addressed his manuscripts. She showed her love for Poe in an acrostic poem she composed when she was 23, dated February 14, 1846:
Osgood/Ellet scandal
The "tattling of many tongues" in Virginia's Valentine poem was a reference to actual incidents. In 1845, Poe had begun a flirtation with Frances Sargent Osgood, a married 34-year-old poet. Virginia was aware of the friendship and might even have encouraged it. She often invited Osgood to visit them at home, believing that the older woman had a "restraining" effect on Poe, who had made a promise to "give up the use of stimulants" and was never drunk in Osgood's presence.
At the same time, another poet, Elizabeth F. Ellet, became enamored of Poe and jealous of Osgood. Though, in a letter to Sarah Helen Whitman, Poe called her love for him "loathsome" and wrote that he "could do nothing but repel [it] with scorn", he printed many of her poems to him in the Broadway Journal while he was its editor. Ellet was known for being meddlesome and vindictive, and, while visiting the Poe household in late January 1846, she saw one of Osgood's personal letters to Poe. According to Ellet, Virginia pointed out "fearful paragraphs" in Osgood's letter. Ellet contacted Osgood and suggested she should beware of her indiscretions and asked Poe to return her letters, motivated either by jealousy or by a desire to cause scandal. Osgood then sent Margaret Fuller and Anne Lynch Botta to ask Poe on her behalf to return the letters. Angered by their interference, Poe called them "Busy-bodies" and said that Ellet had better "look after her own letters", suggesting indiscretion on her part. He then gathered up these letters from Ellet and left them at her house.
Though these letters had already been returned to her, Ellet asked her brother "to demand of me the letters". Her brother, Colonel William Lummis, did not believe that Poe had already returned them and threatened to kill him. In order to defend himself, Poe requested a pistol from Thomas Dunn English. English, Poe's friend and a minor writer who was also a trained doctor and lawyer, likewise did not believe that Poe had already returned the letters and even questioned their existence. The easiest way out of the predicament, he said, "was a retraction of unfounded charges". Angered at being called a liar, Poe pushed English into a fistfight. Poe later claimed he was triumphant in the fight, though English claimed otherwise, and Poe's face was badly cut by one of English's rings. In Poe's version, he said, "I gave E. a flogging which he will remember to the day of his death." Either way, the fight further sparked gossip over the Osgood affair.
Osgood's husband stepped in and threatened to sue Ellet unless she formally apologized for her insinuations. She retracted her statements in a letter to Osgood saying, "The letter shown me by Mrs Poe must have been a forgery" created by Poe himself. She put all the blame on Poe, suggesting the incident was because Poe was "intemperate and subject to acts of lunacy". Ellet spread the rumor of Poe's insanity, which was taken up by other enemies of Poe and reported in newspapers. The St. Louis Reveille reported: "A rumor is in circulation in New York, to the effect that Mr. Edgar A. Poe, the poet and author, has been deranged, and his friends are about to place him under the charge of Dr. Brigham of the Insane Retreat at Utica." The scandal eventually died down only when Osgood reunited with her husband. Virginia, however, had been very affected by the whole affair. She had received anonymous letters about her husband's alleged indiscretions as early as July 1845. It is presumed that Ellet was involved with these letters, and they so disturbed Virginia that she allegedly declared on her deathbed that "Mrs. E. had been her murderer."
Illness
By this time, Virginia had developed tuberculosis, first seen sometime in the middle of January 1842. While singing and playing the piano, Virginia began to bleed from the mouth, though Poe said that she merely "ruptured a blood-vessel". Her health declined and she became an invalid, which drove Poe into a deep depression, especially as she occasionally showed signs of improvement. In a letter to a friend, Poe described his resulting mental state: "Each time I felt all the agonies of her death—and at each accession of the disorder I loved her more dearly & clung to her life with more desperate pertinacity. But I am constitutionally sensitive—nervous in a very unusual degree. I became insane, with long intervals of horrible sanity."
Virginia's condition might have been what prompted the Poe family to move, in the hopes of finding a healthier environment for her. They moved several times within Philadelphia in the early 1840s and their last home in that city is now preserved as the Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site in Spring Garden. In this home, Virginia was well enough to tend the flower garden and entertain visitors by playing the harp or the piano and singing. The family then moved to New York sometime in early April 1844, traveling by train and steamboat. Virginia waited onboard the ship while her husband secured space at a boarding house on Greenwich Street. By early 1846, family friend Elizabeth Oakes Smith said that Virginia admitted, "I know I shall die soon; I know I can't get well; but I want to be as happy as possible, and make Edgar happy." She promised her husband that after her death she would be his guardian angel.
Move to Fordham
In May 1846, the family (Poe, Virginia, and her mother, Maria) moved to a small cottage in Fordham, about fourteen miles outside the city, a home which is still standing today. In what is the only surviving letter from Poe to Virginia, dated June 12, 1846, he urged her to remain optimistic: "Keep up your heart in all hopelessness, and trust yet a little longer." Of his recent loss of the Broadway Journal, the only magazine Poe ever owned, he said, "I should have lost my courage but for you—my darling little wife you are my greatest and only stimulus now to battle with this uncongenial, unsatisfactory and ungrateful life." But by November of that year, Virginia's condition was hopeless. Her symptoms included irregular appetite, flushed cheeks, unstable pulse, night sweats, high fever, sudden chills, shortness of breath, chest pains, coughing and spitting up blood.
Nathaniel Parker Willis, a friend of Poe's and an influential editor, published an announcement on December 30, 1846, requesting help for the family, though his facts were not entirely correct:
Willis, who had not corresponded with Poe for two years and had since lost his own wife, was one of his greatest supporters in this period. He sent Poe and his wife an inspirational Christmas book, The Marriage Ring; or How to Make a Home Happy.
The announcement was similar to one made for Poe's mother, Eliza Poe, during her last stages of tuberculosis. Other newspapers picked up on the story: "Great God!", said one, "is it possible, that the literary people of the Union, will let poor Poe perish by starvation and lean faced beggary in New York? For so we are led to believe, from frequent notices in the papers, stating that Poe and his wife are both down upon a bed of misery, death, and disease, with not a ducat in the world." The Saturday Evening Post asserted that Virginia was in a hopeless condition and that Poe was bereft: "It is said that Edgar A. Poe is lying dangerously with brain fever, and that his wife is in the last stages of consumption—they are without money and without friends." Even editor Hiram Fuller, whom Poe had previously sued for libel, attempted in the New York Mirror to garner support for Poe and his wife: "We, whom he has quarrelled with, will take the lead", he wrote.
Virginia was described as having dark hair and violet eyes, with skin so pale it was called "pure white", causing a "bad complexion that spoiled her looks". One visitor to the Poe family noted that "the rose-tint upon her cheek was too bright", possibly a symptom of her illness. Another visitor in Fordham wrote, "Mrs. Poe looked very young; she had large black eyes, and a pearly whiteness of complexion, which was a perfect pallor. Her pale face, her brilliant eyes, and her raven hair gave her an unearthly look." That unearthly look was mentioned by others who suggested it made her look not quite human. William Gowans, who once lodged with the family, described Virginia as a woman of "matchless beauty and loveliness, her eye could match that of any houri, and her face defy the genius of a Canova to imitate". She might have been a little plump. Many contemporary accounts as well as modern biographers remark on her childlike appearance even in the last years of her life.
While dying, Virginia asked her mother: "Darling... will you console and take care of my poor Eddy—you will never never leave him?" Her mother stayed with Poe until his own death in 1849. As Virginia was dying, the family received many visitors, including an old friend named Mary Starr. At one point Virginia put Starr's hand in Poe's and asked her to "be a friend to Eddy, and don't forsake him". Virginia was tended to by 25-year-old Marie Louise Shew. Shew, who served as a nurse, knew medical care from her father and her husband, both doctors. She provided Virginia with a comforter as her only other cover was Poe's old military cloak, as well as bottles of wine, which the invalid drank "smiling, even when difficult to get it down". Virginia also showed Poe a letter from Louisa Patterson, second wife of Poe's foster-father John Allan, which she had kept for years and which suggested that Patterson had purposely caused the break between Allan and Poe.
Death
On January 29, 1847, Poe wrote to Marie Louise Shew: "My poor Virginia still lives, although failing fast and now suffering much pain."
Virginia died the following day, January 30, after five years of illness. Shew helped in organizing her funeral, even purchasing the coffin. Death notices appeared in several newspapers. On February 1, The New York Daily Tribune and the Herald carried the simple obituary: "On Saturday, the 30th ult., of pulmonary consumption, in the 25th year of her age, VIRGINIA ELIZA, wife of EDGAR A. POE." The funeral was February 2, 1847. Attendees included Nathaniel Parker Willis, Ann S. Stephens, and publisher George Pope Morris. Poe refused to look at his dead wife's face, saying he preferred to remember her living. Though now buried at Westminster Hall and Burying Ground, Virginia was originally buried in a vault owned by the Valentine family, from whom the Poes rented their Fordham cottage.
Only one image of Virginia is known to exist, for which the painter had to take her corpse as model. A few hours after her death, Poe realized he had no image of Virginia and so commissioned a portrait in watercolor. She is shown wearing "beautiful linen" that Shew said she had dressed her in; Shew might have been the portrait's artist, though this is uncertain. The image depicts her with a slight double chin and with hazel eyes. The image was passed down to the family of Virginia's half-sister Josephine, wife of Neilson Poe.
In 1875, the same year in which her husband's body was reburied, the cemetery in which she lay was destroyed and her remains were almost forgotten. An early Poe biographer, William Gill, gathered the bones and stored them in a box he hid under his bed. Gill's story was reported in the Boston Herald twenty-seven years after the event: he says that he had visited the Fordham cemetery in 1883 at exactly the moment that the sexton Dennis Valentine held Virginia's bones in his shovel, ready to throw them away as unclaimed. Poe himself had died in 1849, and so Gill took Virginia's remains and, after corresponding with Neilson Poe and John Prentiss Poe in Baltimore, arranged to bring the box down to be laid on Poe's left side in a small bronze casket. Virginia's remains were finally buried with her husband's on January 19, 1885—the seventy-sixth anniversary of her husband's birth and nearly ten years after his current monument was erected. The same man who served as sexton during Poe's original burial and his exhumations and reburials was also present at the rites which brought his body to rest with Virginia and Virginia's mother Maria Clemm.
Effect and influence on Poe
Virginia's death had a significant effect on Poe. After her death, Poe was deeply saddened for several months. A friend said of him, "the loss of his wife was a sad blow to him. He did not seem to care, after she was gone, whether he lived an hour, a day, a week or a year; she was his all." A year after her death, he wrote to a friend that he had experienced the greatest evil a man can suffer when, he said, "a wife, whom I loved as no man ever loved before", had fallen ill. While Virginia was still struggling to recover, Poe turned to alcohol after abstaining for quite some time. How often and how much he drank is a controversial issue, debated in Poe's lifetime and also by modern biographers. Poe referred to his emotional response to his wife's sickness as his own illness, and that he found the cure to it "in the death of my wife. This I can & do endure as becomes a man—it was the horrible never-ending oscillation between hope & despair which I could not longer have endured without the total loss of reason".
Poe regularly visited Virginia's grave. As his friend Charles Chauncey Burr wrote, "Many times, after the death of his beloved wife, was he found at the dead hour of a winter night, sitting beside her tomb almost frozen in the snow". Shortly after Virginia's death, Poe courted several other women, including Nancy Richmond of Lowell, Massachusetts, Sarah Helen Whitman of Providence, Rhode Island, and childhood sweetheart Sarah Elmira Royster in Richmond. Even so, Frances Sargent Osgood, whom Poe also attempted to woo, believed "that [Virginia] was the only woman whom he ever loved".
References in literature
Many of Poe's works are interpreted autobiographically, with much of his work believed to reflect Virginia's long struggle with tuberculosis and her eventual death. The most discussed example is "Annabel Lee". This poem, which depicts a dead young bride and her mourning lover, is often assumed to have been inspired by Virginia, though other women in Poe's life are potential candidates including Frances Sargent Osgood and Sarah Helen Whitman. A similar poem, "Ulalume", is also believed to be a memorial tribute to Virginia, as is "Lenore", whose title character is described as "the most lovely dead that ever died so young!" After Poe's death, George Gilfillan of the London-based Critic said Poe was responsible for his wife's death, "hurrying her to a premature grave, that he might write 'Annabel Lee' and 'The Raven'". However, "The Raven" was written and published two years before Virginia's death.
Virginia is also seen in Poe's prose. The short story "Eleonora" (1842)—which features a narrator preparing to marry his cousin, with whom he lives alongside her mother—may also refer to Virginia's illness. When Poe wrote it, his wife had just begun to show signs of her illness. It was shortly thereafter that the couple moved to New York City by boat and Poe published "The Oblong Box" (1844). This story, which shows a man mourning his young wife while transporting her corpse by boat, seems to suggest Poe's feelings about Virginia's impending death. As the ship sinks, the husband would rather die than be separated from his wife's corpse. The short story "Ligeia", whose title character suffers a slow and lingering death, may also be inspired by Virginia. After his wife's death, Poe edited his first published story, "Metzengerstein", to remove the narrator's line, "I would wish all I love to perish of that gentle disease", a reference to tuberculosis.
References in music
In track 9 of their 2008 debut album Le Pop, Norwegian band Katzenjammer performed a song entitled "Virginia Clemm". Set to the tune of a musical clock, the song's lyrics refer to Virginia's early marriage at 13 years of age ("He was a child I was a child / Sentimental and wild"), to her husband's alleged affairs ("The other woman to explain / Her letters I deplore"), to her untimely death ("For twelve short years / We lived out of health"), to the band's perceived obsessions of Poe's subsequent obsession with his wife's death ("Heir of my illness / Writer of all the stories and the words / That I'm haunting / That I'm haunting") as well as alluding, in the last verse ("And I'll leave you nevermore"), to the poem "The Raven".
Notes
References
Hoffman, Daniel. Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1972. .
Krutch, Joseph Wood. Edgar Allan Poe: A Study in Genius. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1926.
Moss, Sidney P. Poe's Literary Battles: The Critic in the Context of His Literary Milieu. Southern Illinois University Press, 1969.
Meyers, Jeffrey. Edgar Allan Poe: His Life and Legacy. Cooper Square Press, 1992. .
Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. The Literary History of Philadelphia. Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs & Co., 1906. .
Phillips, Mary E. Edgar Allan Poe: The Man. Chicago: The John C. Winston Company, 1926.
Quinn, Arthur Hobson. Edgar Allan Poe: A Critical Biography. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.
Silverman, Kenneth. Edgar A. Poe: Mournful and Never-ending Remembrance. New York: Harper Perennial, 1991. .
Sova, Dawn B. Edgar Allan Poe A to Z: The Essential Reference to His Life and Work. New York: Checkmark Books, 2001. .
External links
Poe Family Tree at the Edgar Allan Poe Society online
Virginia Clemm Poe from the Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site online, National Park Service
1822 births
1847 deaths
19th-century American women
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Burials at Westminster Hall and Burying Ground
Poe family (United States)
Tuberculosis deaths in New York (state)
People from Baltimore
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This is a list of notable events in music that took place in the year 2004.
Specific locations
2004 in British music
2004 in Irish music
2004 in Norwegian music
2004 in South Korean Music
Specific genres
2004 in classical music
2004 in country music
2004 in heavy metal music
2004 in hip hop music
2004 in Latin music
2004 in jazz
Events
January–February
January 1
The Vienna New Year's Concert is conducted by Riccardo Muti.
Kurt Nilsen wins World Idol.
January 3 – Britney Spears marries Jason Allen Alexander, a childhood friend, in Las Vegas. The marriage is annulled 55 hours later.
January 15 – Rapper Mystikal is sentenced to six years in prison for sexual battery.
January 16–February 1 – The Big Day Out festival takes place in Australia and New Zealand, headlined by Metallica. A Perfect Circle is originally named in the lineup but later withdraw, with Fear Factory appearing as a mystery artist in place of all of A Perfect Circle's scheduled slots.
February 1
Janet Jackson and Justin Timberlake perform onstage at Super Bowl XXXVIII. The performance concludes with Jackson's right breast being exposed to the audience. The phrase "wardrobe malfunction" is coined during the ensuing controversy.
Daron Hagen is appointed President of the Lotte Lehmann Foundation in New York City.
February 8 – The 46th Annual Grammy Awards are held at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, California. Outkast's Speakerboxxx/The Love Below becomes the first rap album to win Album of the Year. Beyoncé wins five awards. Coldplay's "Clocks" wins Record of the Year, while Luther Vandross' "Dance with My Father" wins Song of the Year. Evanescence win Best New Artist.
February 9 – Blink-182 release single "I Miss You" from the album Blink-182. The song will reach number one on the Billboard Modern Rock chart.
February 10 – Paulina Rubio releases her seventh studio "Pau-Latina" under Universal Music Mexico. The album charted at #1 on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums and at #105 on the Billboard 200. The album also got certified 2× Platinum (Latin) by the RIAA.
February 13 – Elton John begins The Red Piano concert residency at The Colosseum at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas. Originally scheduled for 75 performances, it would run for 248 shows over five years, including twenty-four tour dates in Europe.
February 17
BRIT Awards are held in London. The Darkness, Dido, Busted, Justin Timberlake and KRS-One are among the winners.
Smashing Pumpkins frontman Billy Corgan posts a bitter message on his personal blog calling D'arcy Wretzky a "mean spirited drug addict" and blaming James Iha for the breakup of the band.
March–April
March 2 – Britney Spears embarks on The Onyx Hotel Tour, her first tour in 2 years to support her fourth studio album, In The Zone.
March 9 – Westlife member Brian McFadden leaves the band.
March 10 – George Michael announces that Patience will be his last commercially released record. Future releases will be available from his web site in return for donations to his favourite charities.
March 13 – Luciano Pavarotti gives his last performance in an opera, in Tosca at the New York Metropolitan Opera.
March 23 – Usher releases his Confessions album selling 1.1 million copies its first week, making him the first R&B artist to ever accomplish that. The album would be the top seller of the year with four number one singles.
April 6
A previously unreleased Johnny Cash album called My Mother's Hymn Book is released less than a year after his death on September 12, 2003.
Modest Mouse, an American indie rock band releases Good News for People Who Love Bad News.
April 20 – Fear Factory returns after their 2002 breakup with the new album Archetype.
April 26
Deborah Voigt, sacked by Covent Garden for being too fat for an opera role, makes her recital debut to a rapturous reception at Carnegie Hall.
Dream Theater performs at the Nippon Budokan Hall in Tokyo, Japan.
May–June
May 1-2 – The annual Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival takes place in California. Headlined by Radiohead and The Cure, the lineup also features Pixies, The Flaming Lips, Belle and Sebastian, Muse, MF Doom, Basement Jaxx, Death Cab for Cutie, Black Rebel Motorcycle Club, Kraftwerk and Kool Keith.
May 10
Blender magazine's May issue includes a "50 Worst Songs Ever!" list. "We Built This City," by Starship, is rated worst.
Peter Tägtgren replaces Mikael Åkerfeldt In Bloodbath.
Keane release Hopes and Fears which becomes the 16th best selling album of the millennium in the UK. It went 8x platinum and was nominated for the Mercury Prize and the BRIT award for best album.
May 12–15 – The 49th Eurovision Song Contest, held at Abdi İpekçi Arena in Istanbul, Turkey, is won by Ukrainian singer Ruslana with the song "Wild Dances". It is the first contest to take place as a multi-date event.
May 18-23 – The European Festival of Youth Choirs (EJCF) is held in Basel.
May 24 – Madonna starts The Re-Invention Tour in 20 cities with a total of 56 shows and making it the most successful concert tour of the year with a gross of $124.5 million.
May 25
Phish announces that after 21 years they will break up following the Summer 2004 Tour.
Skinny Puppy releases their first studio album since disbanding in 1996, called The Greater Wrong of the Right.
May 26 – Fantasia Barrino wins the third season of American Idol, defeating Diana DeGarmo.
May 28 – June 6 – The Rock in Rio concert festival is staged in Lisbon, Portugal under the name Rock in Rio Lisboa. Paul McCartney, Peter Gabriel, Foo Fighters, Metallica, Britney Spears and Sting headline each of the six days.
June 4
Karl Jenkins signs a 10-year recording deal with EMI.
Creed dissolved. Guitarist Mark Tremonti, Drummer Scott Phillips and Brian Marshall (ex Bassist of Creed) were working on side project Alter Bridge along with Myles Kennedy of The Mayfield Four Their first album is One Day Remains, which was scheduled to be released on August 10.
June 5-6 – The annual Download Festival takes place at Donington Park in Leicestershire, England, with Linkin Park and Metallica headlining the main stage. Pennywise and HIM headline the Snickers "Game On" stage, while the Barfly stage is headlined by Peaches and SuicideGirls.
June 7 – The Killers released their first album Hot Fuss.
June 8 – Velvet Revolver released their first album Contraband.
June 10 – Ray Charles dies at the age of 73 from acute liver disease.
June 11 – The Van Halen Summer Tour 2004 kicks off in Greensboro, North Carolina, marking the return of Sammy Hagar on vocals for the first time since his acrimonious departure from the band in 1996.
June 12 – The Los Angeles, California radio station KROQ-FM airs the 12th Annual KROQ Weenie Roast show with Bad Religion, Beastie Boys, Cypress Hill, The Hives, Hoobastank, The Killers, Modest Mouse, New Found Glory, Story of the Year, The Strokes, Velvet Revolver, Yeah Yeah Yeahs and Yellowcard.
June 22 – 14th annual Lollapalooza festival, scheduled for July 17, is cancelled. Organizers cite "poor ticket sales". (See: Lollapalooza 2004 lineup.)
June 23 – UK DJ Tony Blackburn is suspended by radio station Classic Gold Digital for playing songs by Cliff Richard, against station policy.
June 25
Eric Clapton sells his famous guitar "Blackie" at a Christie's auction, raising $959,000 to benefit the Crossroads drug rehabilitation center that he founded in 1998.
While in Scheeßel, Germany for his A Reality tour, David Bowie suffers a heart attack onstage and is subsequently rushed to the emergency room for an angioplasty. The incident brings an abrupt end to the tour and prompts Bowie to move away from both musicianship and public life in the following years, with his next album coming out nearly nine years later.
July–August
July 10 – Ex-S Club star Rachel Stevens sets a world record for completing the fastest promotional circuit in just 24 hours- including a run for the charity Sport Relief. American Idol winner Fantasia becomes the first artist in history to debut at number-one on the Hot 100 with a first record.
July 11 – McFly debut at #1 on the UK album charts with Room On The 3rd Floor. They break the record set by The Beatles as the youngest group ever to debut at #1 on the album charts.
July 20 – Van Halen releases The Best of Both Worlds, a 36-song compilation album featuring three new recordings with Sammy Hagar on vocals.
July 24 – The Robert Smith organized Curiosa Festival kicks off with a concert in West Palm Beach, Florida. Performing along with The Cure are Interpol, The Rapture, Mogwai, Cursive, Muse, Head Automatica, Thursday, Scarling., The Cooper Temple Clause, and Melissa Auf der Maur.
July 24–25 – The Splendour in the Grass music festival is held in Byron Bay, Australia, headlined by PJ Harvey & Jurassic 5.
July 25 – The Doobie Brothers record and perform Live at Wolf Trap at Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts in Vienna, Virginia. The live album was released two months later, on October 26.
July 31
Simon & Garfunkel perform a free concert in front of the Colosseum in Rome for an audience of 600,000 people.
Dispatch performs their last live show at the DCR Hatchshell in Boston, Massachusetts.
August 8 – Dave Matthews Band's tour bus dumps 800 lb (360 kg) of human feces from a Chicago bridge, intending to unload it in the river, but it lands on an architecture tour boat. The bus driver and the band are sued by the state of Illinois.
August 15 – Phish performs their final concert at a two-day festival in Coventry, Vermont.
August 23 – The Prodigy release their much anticipated and postponed first full-length album Always Outnumbered Never Outgunned, 7 years after 1997's The Fat Of The Land.
September–October
September 7 - Senses Fail release their debut studio album Let It Enfold You
September 18 – Britney Spears marries Kevin Federline.
September 20 – Green Day release their seventh studio album American Idiot, making a comeback for the band, following disappointing sales of their 2000 album Warning. American Idiot eventually receives the award for Best Rock Album at the 47th Grammy Awards on February 13, 2005.
September 26 – Avril Lavigne begins her Bonez Tour.
September 28
Brian Wilson releases Brian Wilson Presents Smile, the first official interpretation of the Smile sessions since their shelving in 1967.
On the same day, young Filipino singer Christian Bautista unveiled his first self-titled debut album.
October – Jazz at Lincoln Center performance venue opens in New York City.
October 2 – Billy Joel marries for the third time, to the food critic and chef Katie Lee.
October 11
The original lineup of Duran Duran release their new album Astronaut, which is preceded by the single "(Reach Up For The) Sunrise".
Melissa Etheridge undergoes surgery for breast cancer.
October 23 – Ashlee Simpson is accused of lip synching after an abortive live performance on the television show Saturday Night Live.
October 25 – Indian singer Hariharan is awarded the Swaralaya Kairali Yesudas Award for his outstanding contribution to Indian film music.
November–December
November 4 – Three members of the band RAM, who all lived in a neighborhood known for its support of the recently deposed former President Jean-Bertrand Aristide, are detained by Haitian police during a concert performance in Port-au-Prince; no charges are ever filed or official explanation for the detentions given.
November 9 – Britney Spears releases her first compilation album titled Greatest Hits: My Prerogative.
November 11 – Eric Clapton receives a CBE at Buckingham Palace.
November 12 – Eminem's fourth major studio album, Encore is released four days before schedule to combat Internet bootleggers. The album sells 710,000 copies in only three days and becomes Eminem's third consecutive album to debut at #1 on the Billboard charts.
November 16 – Destiny's Child released their fourth and final studio album Destiny Fulfilled by Columbia Records in North America.
November 17 – Within Temptation release the single "Stand My Ground".
November 21 – Casey Donovan is crowned winner of the second season of Australian Idol. Anthony Callea was named runner-up.
November 24 – Brian & Eric Hoffman leave Deicide after a royalties dispute.
November 30 – Jay-Z and Linkin Park's album "Collision Course" debuts at number #01 in the Billboard 200, later becoming the best-selling CD/DVD of that year.
December 7 – Lindsay Lohan releases her début album, Speak.
December 8 – Dimebag Darrell is murdered on stage while performing in Columbus, Ohio, by a deranged fan, who shoots the guitarist three times in the head with a 9mm Beretta handgun. The gunman kills three other people and wounds a further three before being shot dead by police.
December 11 – Steve Brookstein is crowned winner of the first series of The X Factor. G4 are named the runner-ups, while Tabby Callaghan and Rowetta Satchell finish in third and fourth place respectively.
December 11–12 – The Los Angeles, California radio station KROQ-FM airs the 15th Annual of the Acoustic Christmas with Chevelle, Franz Ferdinand, Good Charlotte, Green Day, Hoobastank, Incubus, Interpol, Jimmy Eat World, Keane, The Killers, Modest Mouse, Muse, The Music, My Chemical Romance, Papa Roach, Snow Patrol, Social Distortion, Sum 41, Taking Back Sunday, The Shins, The Used, and Velvet Revolver.
December 14 – Clint Lowery leaves Sevendust due to fights with band about gaining control of the band and doubts of the band's future after being released from their label TVT Records.
Bands formedSee Musical groups established in 2004Bands on hiatus
Spineshank (reformed in 2008)
Timo Rautiainen & Trio Niskalaukaus (disbanded in 2006)
Matchbox Twenty (reformed in 2007)
Bands disbandedSee Musical groups disestablished in 2004Bands re-formed
Megadeth
Restless Heart
Destiny's Child
Vaya Con Dios
The Shadows (till 2015)
New York Dolls
Albums released
January–March
April–June
July–September
October–December
Unknown release dates3rd Strike – 3 Feet Smaller5 Stories EP – Manchester Orchestra9Live – Angie AparoBombs Below – Living ThingsCrwth – Cass Meurig (first CD release of crwth music)Field Rexx – Blitzen TrapperForThemAsses – OPM Gathering Speed – Big Big TrainGet Saved – Pilot to Gunner Golden (compilation) – FailureGuerilla Disco – QuarashiLeaving Town Tonight (EP) – Hit the LightsLife Story (compilation) – The ShadowsNegatives 2 – Phantom PlanetOceanic Remixes/Reinterpretations – Isis The Pink Spiders Are Taking Over! – The Pink SpidersPoint of Origin – There for TomorrowThe Red Jumpsuit Apparatus – The Red Jumpsuit ApparatusSafely From the City – LocksleySet Your Goals (Demo EP) – Set Your GoalsSherwood (EP) – SherwoodSmoking Weed in the President's Face – HockeyTripped Into Divine – Dexter FreebishWatching the Snow – Michael Franks (United States release)We (Don't) Care – The Management (MGMT)Welcome to Woody Creek - Nitty Gritty Dirt Band
Popular songs
Top 10 selling albums of the year in the US
Confessions – Usher ~ 7,979,000
Feels like Home – Norah Jones ~ 3,843,000
Encore – Eminem ~ 3,517,000
When the Sun Goes Down – Kenny Chesney ~ 3,072,000
Under My Skin – Avril Lavigne ~ 2,970,000
Live Like You Were Dying – Tim McGraw ~ 2,787,000
Songs About Jane – Maroon 5 ~ 2,708,000
Fallen – Evanescence ~ 2,614,000
Autobiography – Ashlee Simpson ~ 2,577,000
Now That's What I Call Music! 16 – Various ~ 2,560,000
Top 15 selling albums of the year globally
Confessions – Usher
Feels Like Home – Norah Jones
Encore – Eminem
How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb – U2
Under My Skin – Avril Lavigne
Love. Angel. Music. Baby. – Gwen Stefani
Greatest Hits – Robbie Williams
Greatest Hits – Shania Twain
Destiny Fulfilled – Destiny's Child
Greatest Hits – Guns N' Roses
Songs About Jane – Maroon 5
American Idiot – Green Day
Elephunk – The Black Eyed Peas
Greatest Hits: My Prerogative – Britney Spears
Anastacia – Anastacia
Classical music
Michel van der Aa – Second selfLouis Andriessen – Racconto dall'InfernoCornelis de Bondt – Madame DaufineElliott Carter – RéflexionsGeorge Crumb – Winds of Destiny for soprano, percussion quartet and piano
Mario Davidovsky – Sefarad: Four Spanish-Ladino Folkscenes, baritone voice, flute (piccolo, alto flute), clarinet (bass clarinet), percussion, violin and cello
Joël-François Durand – Ombre/Miroir for flute and 14 instruments
Ross Edwards – Concerto for Guitar and Strings
Ivan Fedele – OdosLorenzo Ferrero – Guarini, the Master for violin and strings
Philip Glass – Symphony No. 7 ToltecGeorg Friedrich Haas – HaikuHans Werner Henze – Sebastian im TraumAlun Hoddinott – Trombone Concerto
York Höller – Ex TemporeGuus JanssenMemory Protect ExtendedWankelingKarl Jenkins – In These Stones Horizons SingJan Klusák – Axis TemporumRolands Kronlaks – PaionHanna Kulenty – RunTheo Loevendie – De 5 DriftenFrederik Magle – Souffle le vent, 1st symphonic poem from the suite Cantabile.
Roderik de Man – Mensa SaPeter Maxwell Davies
Naxos Quartet No. 4 Children's GamesNaxos Quartet No. 5
Marijn Simons
Symphony No 1, Opus 26
String Quartet No. 3, Opus 27
Dobrinka Tabakova
Concerto for Viola and Strings Schubert Arpeggione, arrangement for string orchestraSuite in Old Style for viola, strings and harpsichordWhispered Lullaby for viola and piano
Opera
Thomas Adès – The TempestHarrison Birtwistle – The Io PassionWilliam Bolcom – A WeddingJazz
Musical theaterAssassins – Broadway production opened at Studio 54 and ran for 101 performancesBombay Dreams – Broadway production opened at The Broadway Theatre and ran for 284 performancesFiddler On The Roof – Broadway revivalThe Woman in White, music by Andrew Lloyd Webber, lyrics by David Zippel and book by Charlotte Jones, freely adapted from the novel by Wilkie Collins – London production opened on September 15 at the Palace Theatre, London.People Are Wrong! – Off-Broadway production
Musical filmsAlt for Egil, starring Kristoffer JonerBeyond the Sea, starring Kevin Spacey as Bobby DarinBride and Prejudice, starring Aishwarya RaiDe-Lovely released June 13, starring Kevin Kline as Cole Porter and Ashley JuddHome on the Range, a Disney animated featureRay, starring Jamie Foxx as Ray Charles
Red Riding HoodPixel Perfect, a Disney Channel Original Movie that is also a musical.The Phantom of the Opera, starring Emmy Rossum as Christine and Gerard Butler as the PhantomMetallica: Some Kind of MonsterWhere's Firuze?, starring Haluk Bilginer and Demet Akbağ
Births
January 4 – Alexa Curtis, Australian singer, Winner of The Voice Kids Australia, Coach was Delta Goodrem
January 10 – Kaitlyn Maher, American child singer and actress
January 15 – Grace VanderWaal, American musician, singer/songwriter, ukulele player
June 4 – Mackenzie Ziegler, American dancer, singer, actress and model
August 31 – Jang Won-young, South Korean singer
Deaths
January–February
January 3 – Ronald Smith, 82, British pianist
January 6 – Jimmy Hassell, 62, Guitarist/co-lead singer in The First Edition from 1972 to 1976
January 12 – Randy VanWarmer, 48, songwriter and guitarist
January 15 – Terje Bakken, 25, also known as Valfar, lead singer and founder of Norwegian black/folk metal band Windir (died of hypothermia in a blizzard)
January 16 – John Siomos, 56, drummer
January 17
Czeslaw Niemen, 65, Polish rock singer
Tom Rowe, 53, musician
January 22
Billy May, 87, US big band & pop music arranger
Ann Miller, 80, actress, singer and dancer
January 30 – Julius Dixson, 90, songwriter and record company executive
February 3 – Cornelius Bumpus, 58, musician (The Doobie Brothers, Steely Dan)
February 6 – Jørgen Jersild, 90, Danish composer and music educator
February 8 – Cem Karaca, 58, Turkish singer and composer
February 16 – Doris Troy, 67, R&B singer
February 21
Les Gray, 57, English singer (Mud)
Bart Howard, 88, composer and pianist
February 23
Don Cornell, 84, US singer
Alvino Rey, 95, US bandleader and guitarist
February 24 – A.C. Reed, 77, blues saxophonist
March–April
March 4 – John McGeoch, 48, British guitarist with Magazine, Siouxsie and the Banshees and PiLMarch 6 – Peggy DeCastro, 82, US singer born in the Dominican Republic, eldest of the DeCastro Sisters
March 9 – Rust Epique, 36, guitarist (Crazy Town)
March 10 – Dave Schulthise, 47, punk bassist (The Dead Milkmen)
March 11 – Edmund Sylvers, 47, lead singer of The Sylvers
March 13 – Vilayat Khan, 75, sitar player
March 15 – Eva Likova, 84, operatic soprano
March 16 – Vilém Tauský, 93, Czech conductor and composer
March 18
Vytas Brenner, 57, musician, keyboardist and composer
Erna Spoorenberg, 78, Dutch operatic soprano
March 21 – Johnny Bristol, 65, singer, songwriter and record producer
March 26 – Jan Berry, 62, US singer of Jan and Dean
March 30 – Timi Yuro, 63, soul and R&B singer and songwriter
April 1 – Paul Atkinson, 58, guitarist for The Zombies
April 3 – Gabriella Ferri, 62, Italian singer
April 6 – Niki Sullivan, 66, guitarist for The Crickets
April 9 – Harry Babbitt, 90, US singer with Kay Kyser & his Orchestra
April 10 – Jacek Kaczmarski, 47, Polish poet and singer, the bard of Solidarity
April 15
Ray Condo, 53, Canadian rockabilly musician
Hans Gmür, 77, Swiss theatre author, director, composer and producer
May–June
May 1 – Felix Haug, 52, Swiss pop musician (Double)
May 5
Coxsone Dodd, 72, Jamaican record producer
Ritsuko Okazaki, 44, Japanese songwriter
May 6 – Barney Kessel, 80, jazz guitarist
May 11 – John Whitehead, 55, R&B artist (shot dead)
May 12 – John LaPorta, 84, Jazz clarinetist, composer and educator
May 17
Gunnar Graps, 52, Estonian singer (Magnetic Band and Gunnar Graps Group)
Elvin Jones, 76, Jazz Drummer, notably with the John Coltrane Quartet of the 1960s
May 19 – Arnold Moore, 90, blues artist
May 23 – Gundars Mauševics, 29, Latvian guitarist of Brainstorm
May 31 – Robert Quine, 61, guitarist
June 2 – Billboard, 25, rapper, The Game's best friend
June 4 – Irene Manning, 91, US actress, singer and dancer
June 6 – Iona Brown, 63, conductor and violinist
June 7 – Quorthon, 38, Swedish multi-instrumentalist, founder and songwriter of Bathory
June 10 – Ray Charles, 73, US singer and pianist
June 15 – James F. Arnold, 72, first tenor with the Four Lads
June 17 – Jackie Paris, 77, US jazz singer
June 27 – Sis Cunningham, 95, folk musician
July–August
July 6 – Syreeta Wright, 57, singer (congestive heart failure, a side effect of cancer treatment)
July 13
Arthur Kane, 55, bassist (New York Dolls)
Carlos Kleiber, 74, conductor
July 21 – Jerry Goldsmith, 75, US composer, Academy Award winner
July 22
Illinois Jacquet, 81, US jazz saxophonist
Sacha Distel, 71, French singer
August 2 – Don Tosti, 81, American composer
August 6
Rick James, 56, US funk singer
Argentino Ledesma, 75, Argentinian singer
Tony Mottola, 86, US Guitarist
August 9 – David Raksin, 92, US composer
August 15 – William Herbert York, 85, bassist for Drifting Cowboys
August 17 – Bernard Odum, 72, bass player for James Brown
August 18 – Elmer Bernstein, 82, US composer
August 20 – María Antonieta Pons, 82, Cuban Rumbera
August 26 – Laura Branigan, 47, US singer (brain aneurysm)
August 31 – Carl Wayne, 61, vocalist (The Move)
September–October
September 2
Michael Connor, 54, American country rock keyboardist (Pure Prairie League)
Billy Davis
September 11 – Juraj Beneš, 64, Slovak composer
September 12
John Buller, 77, British composer
Kenny Buttrey, 59, Nashville session drummer
Fred Ebb, 72, US lyricist
September 15 – Johnny Ramone, 55, US guitarist and founding member of The Ramones'' (prostate cancer)
September 16 – Izora Armstead, 62, member of The Weather Girls
September 29 – Heinz Wallberg, 81, German conductor
September 30 – Jacques Levy, 69, songwriter and theatre director
October 1 – Bruce Palmer, 58, bassist of Buffalo Springfield
October 7 – Miki Matsubara, 44, Japanese composer and singer
October 19 – Greg Shaw, 55, music historian and record label owner
October 25 – John Peel, 65, British DJ and broadcaster (heart attack)
October 28 – Gil Melle, 72, film and television music composer
November–December
November 1
Mac Dre, 34, Bay Area rapper (highway shooting)
Terry Knight, 61, lead singer of Terry Knight and the Pack and manager-producer of Grand Funk Railroad(stabbed in domestic dispute)
November 12 – Usko Meriläinen, 74, Finnish composer
November 13
John Balance, 42, British musician from Coil
Ol' Dirty Bastard, 35, African American rapper (drug overdose)
Carlo Rustichelli, 87, Italian film composer
November 14 – Michel Colombier, 65, composer
November 18 – Cy Coleman, 75, US composer
November 19 – Terry Melcher, 62, musician and producer
December 2 – Kevin Coyne, 60, singer, composer and guitarist
December 8 – Dimebag Darrell, 38, former Pantera guitarist (shot to death in Ohio)
December 13 – Alex Soria, 39, guitarist for The Nils (suicide)
December 14 – Sidonie Goossens, 105, harpist
December 16 -Freddie Perren, 61, songwriter, producer, arranger and conductor
December 19 – Renata Tebaldi, 82, operatic soprano
December 20 – Son Seals, 62, blues musician
December 26 – Sigurd Køhn, 45, Norwegian jazz saxophonist (tsunami)
December 27 – Hank Garland, 74, Nashville session guitarist
December 30 – Artie Shaw, 94, Swing Era Clarinetist and Bandleader
Awards
The following artists were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame: Jackson Browne, The Dells, George Harrison, Prince, Bob Seger, Traffic, Z Z Top
ARIA Music Awards
ARIA Music Awards of 2004
BRIT Awards
2004 BRIT Awards
Country Music Association Awards
Eurovision Song Contest
Eurovision Song Contest 2004
Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2004
Grammy Awards
Grammy Awards of 2004
Juno Awards
Juno Awards of 2004
MTV Video Music Awards
2004 MTV Video Music Awards
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The Sum of All Fears is a political thriller novel, written by Tom Clancy and released on August 14, 1991. Serving as the sequel to Clear and Present Danger (1989), main character Jack Ryan, who is now the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, tries to stop a crisis concerning the Middle East peace process where Palestinian and former East German terrorists conspire to bring the United States and Soviet Union into nuclear war. It debuted at number one on the New York Times bestseller list. A film adaptation, which is a reboot of the Jack Ryan film series and starring Ben Affleck as the younger iteration of the CIA analyst, was released on May 31, 2002.
Plot
During the first day of the Yom Kippur War in 1973, the Israeli Defense Force (I.D.F.) prepares to conduct a tactical nuclear strike to stave off defeat. The necessity for the strike is averted, but an Israeli Mark 12 nuclear bomb is accidentally left on an A-4 Skyhawk attack aircraft flown by Captain Mutti Zadin; which is subsequently shot down over Syria, near Kafr Shams. The nuclear weapon is lost, buried in the field of a Druze farmer. Eighteen years later, an Israeli police captain (coincidentally the brother of the downed pilot) converts to a fundamentalist sect of Hasidic Judaism after discovering his wife had an extramarital affair and attempts to instigate a violent demonstration of Palestinians at the Temple Mount. When the demonstrators unexpectedly conduct a peaceful protest, Zadin orders the police to fire tear gas and Rubber bullets at the protesters anyway. Captain Zadin then kills the leader of the demonstration by shooting him point-blank. The United States finds it hard to diplomatically defend Israel, yet knows it cannot withdraw its support without risk of destabilizing the Middle East.
Following the advice of Deputy Director of Central Intelligence (DDCI) Jack Ryan, National Security Advisor Dr. Charles Alden enacts a plan to accelerate the peace process by converting Jerusalem into a Vatican-like independent city-state to be administered by a tribunal of Jewish, Muslim, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox religious leaders, and secured by an independent contingent of the Swiss Guards. As a nod to Israel, the U.S. Army supplies the I.D.F. with more sophisticated equipment and agrees to construct a training base in the Negev Desert run by the U.S. Army's tank warfare specialists and the revived 10th Cavalry Regiment. To everyone's surprise, Ryan's plan seems to work, in large part due to Ryan's meetings with officials in Israel and Saudi Arabia and the acquiescence of the reformist President Andrey Narmonov in the democratized Soviet Union. With their religious contentions appeased, the factions in the Middle East find it much easier to negotiate their disputes.
White House Foreign Affairs Advisor Elizabeth Elliot holds a grudge against Ryan and Alden and maneuvers against them. She first takes Alden's job as National Security Advisor by taking advantage of a sex scandal involving a child fathered by Alden out of wedlock, with the stress contributing to Alden's death in a severe stroke that causes a blowout fracture. She concurrently begins a sexual relationship with widowed President J. Robert Fowler and manipulates him to publicly omit Ryan's role in the peace settlement, taking credit for himself. After Ryan accuses her of wishing to silence an American opponent of the deal, Elliot engineers a smear campaign accusing Ryan of engaging in an extramarital affair and fathering a child with a young widow. Jack's friends, CIA operatives John Clark and Domingo Chavez, convince Ryan's wife Cathy that the allegations are false. Jack's alleged mistress is Carol Zimmer, widow of Buck Zimmer, who was killed during Ryan and Clark's earlier mission to rescue Chavez and his Army teammates from Colombia. Ryan later decides to retire from the CIA, but not before he puts together a covert operation to uncover corrupt dealings between Japanese and Mexican government officials.
Meanwhile, a small group of Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) terrorists, enraged at the looming failure of their jihad against Israel, come across the lost Israeli bomb and use it to construct their own weapon by using the bomb's plutonium pit as fissile material for a new bomb. The terrorists enlist the help of disaffected East German nuclear physicist Manfred Fromm who agrees to the plot, wishing exact his own revenge against his former communist country's reunification as a capitalist democratic state. With Fromm's expertise, the terrorists enhance the weapon by turning it into a modern style boosted fission weapon. The terrorists' plan is to detonate the weapon at the Super Bowl in Denver while simultaneously staging a false flag attack on U.S. military forces in stationed in Berlin by East Germans disguised as Soviet soldiers. The terrorists are trying to begin a nuclear war between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. The East Germans hope that the war will eliminate both superpowers and punish the Soviets for betraying World Socialism, while the Palestinians hope the attack will destroy the Israeli-Palestinian peace agreement and end U.S. aid to Israel.
Thinking that his work on the bomb is complete, the Palestinians kill Fromm. However, Fromm had not yet told them that the tritium for the booster still needed to be filtered before use, to eliminate accumulated helium-3. The Palestinians assemble the bomb for use, but when detonated, the impure booster material causes only a low yield fizzle to occur. Even with low yield, the bomb still destroys the Super Bowl venue, killing nearly everyone there including the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of State, and the commander of NORAD. With the corresponding attacks in Berlin, the United States briefly assumes DEFCON-1 status as Fowler and Elliott prepare for a nuclear war. The crisis is averted by Ryan, who learns the domestic origin of the bomb's plutonium, gains access to the hotline, and convinces the Soviet President to stand down his country's military.
When the terrorists are captured and interrogated by Clark in Mexico City, they implicate the Iranian ayatollah in the attack. President Fowler orders the Ayatollah's residence in the holy city of Qom to be destroyed by a nuclear strike. Ryan averts the attack by enforcing the two-man rule. The terrorists are delivered to the FBI field office in Buzzard Point, where Ryan questions them. During questioning, Ryan falsely asserts that Qom was destroyed, tricking Qati into revealing that Iran was not involved, and that their deceit was meant to discredit the United States; thus destroying the peace process and allowing the campaign against Israel to continue. Elliot is hospitalized after suffering a nervous breakdown, while Fowler leaves office and is succeeded by his Vice President, Roger Durling (it is implied that Fowler was removed from office through the Twenty-Fifth Amendment to the Constitution, but a later novel clarifies that Fowler resigned in disgrace, while Elliott was forcibly removed).
The terrorists are executed by beheading in Riyadh by the commander of the Saudi Arabian special forces using an ancient sword owned by the Saudi royal family. Later, the sword is presented to Ryan as a gift. In the sequels, the gift (combined with his origins as a Marine) inspires Ryan's Secret Service codename of "Swordsman."
Characters
The United States government
Jack Ryan: Deputy Director of Central Intelligence. He develops the Vatican Treaty providing a final settlement on the Arab-Israeli conflict, but is overworked and unappreciated by President Fowler, who is unable to replace Ryan due to the latter's popularity in Congress. He also has a deep rivalry with Dr. Elliot. As a result, he begins to develop alcoholism and increasingly poor health. He later decides to retire from the agency in order to overcome his drinking problem and spend more time with his family. During the events of the novel, Ryan becomes increasingly concerned about the growing economic dominance of Japan, which becomes a theme in the following novel Debt of Honor.
J. Robert Fowler: President of the United States. Fowler was introduced in Clear and Present Danger as the Governor of Ohio and a presidential candidate, and won against the incumbent President after he deliberately threw the election. Fowler is depicted as a former prosecutor opposed to capital punishment and in favor of broad social programs, although he angers Dr. Elliot and many of his supporters by refusing to commute the death sentences of the Ulster Liberation Army members depicted in Patriot Games. He is nicknamed "Hawk" by the U.S. Secret Service. He was widowed after his wife died from multiple sclerosis, and begins a romantic relationship with Dr. Elizabeth Elliot. He is motivated by his public image and desire to secure a legacy, and as a result takes credit for Ryan's program. After the crisis on the Denver bombing, during which his decision-making deteriorates rapidly, he was removed from office and succeeded by his Vice President, Roger Durling. According to an audio commentary in the DVD release of the film adaptation, Clancy has said that he based Fowler on 1988 Democratic presidential candidate Michael Dukakis, further claiming that left-wing politicians are more likely to use nuclear weapons than right-wing ones.
Elizabeth Elliot: Key advisor to President Fowler, and his lover. A former professor of political science at Bennington College, she was promised the position of National Security Advisor but later denied on the insistence of Fowler's running mate Durling. At the beginning of the book, she finally achieves the position using a sex scandal against Dr. Charles Alden, and nearly derails Ryan's plan by withholding a new radar system from Israel to coerce them to accept the deal. Holding a grudge on Ryan from their first encounter (depicted in previous novel Clear and Present Danger), she denies him credit for the Middle East peace plan and later falsely outs him as having a mistress, nearly breaking up his marriage. During the crisis, her advice worsens the situation and she is later placed under sedation. She is nicknamed "Harpy" by the U.S. Secret Service.
Arnold "Arnie" van Damm: Chief of Staff to President Fowler. Van Damm is known for his informal dress style and his alertness to intrigue. Although he is personally areligious, he works with Ryan to consult the Vatican over his peace deal.
Brent Talbot: Secretary of State. Talbot is a former Northwestern University professor of political science.
Scott Adler: Deputy Secretary of State.
G. Dennis Bunker: Secretary of Defense. Bunker is a decorated former U.S. Air Force captain from the Vietnam War, flying a hundred F-105 combat missions and earning three Distinguished Flying Crosses during the bombing of Hanoi. He later gained fame by constructing a large business conglomerate in southern California and gaining ownership of the San Diego Chargers, and he bonds with the President over their mutual love of football. He is killed in the Denver bombing.
John Clark: Ryan's personal driver and bodyguard, former CIA operative.
Domingo “Ding” Chavez: Clark's partner, CIA field operative. Works as Ryan's bodyguard while studying for a degree at George Mason University.
Dan Murray: Deputy Assistant Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation
Marcus Cabot: Director of Central Intelligence. Although he is initially inexperienced and adversarial towards Ryan, he grows to respect him after the Vatican Treaty.
Ben Goodley: Ryan's assistant and protégé. A postdoctoral fellow at Harvard University's Kennedy School of Government, he became noticed by the White House and the CIA for his analysis of the Cuban Missile Crisis, and is researching a thesis on the Vietnam War. Initially manipulated by Elliot into providing classified information on Ryan, which she would later use to discredit him, Ryan's successful handling of the crisis makes Goodley rethink his opinion on his boss.
Inspector Sean Patrick "Pat" O’Day: FBI agent who is Murray's second-in-command.
Dr. Charles Alden: A Yale professor of history who becomes the first National Security Advisor to President Fowler. Alden is a brilliant tactician who has a good relationship with Ryan despite their differing political views. However, his tendency to have affairs allows him to be undercut by Elliot, and he dies of a stroke after his affair with a student is discovered.
Alan Trent: "Japan-bashing" Chairman of the U.S. House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence. Oversees Operation NIITAKA.
The United States military
Bart Mancuso: Full captain (selected for Rear Admiral) commanding a squadron of ballistic missile submarines for the United States Pacific Fleet.
Captain James "Jim" Rosselli: Duty officer at the National Military Command Center at the Pentagon and former commanding officer of the Gold Crew of , an , although the real-life Maine was launched in 1994, three years ahead of the novel's timeline.
Captain Harrison Sharpe "Harry" Ricks: Commanding officer of the Gold Crew of Maine, succeeding Rosselli. Later dies after an explosion from a torpedo launched by the Soviet nuclear-powered attack submarine Admiral Lunin in self-defense collides with his ship, causing serious damage.
Robby Jackson: Commander of the air group assigned to , an American aircraft carrier.
The Soviet Union
Andrey Illich Narmonov: President of the Soviet Union, first introduced in The Hunt for Red October. He attempts to carry out democratization reforms in the Soviet Union during the events of the novel but is hindered by an unstable political system. His assistance helps to bring the Eastern Orthodox Church to support the Vatican Treaty. President Narmonov dislikes Fowler, finding him to be arrogant and overly controlling.
Sergey Golovko: First Deputy Chairman of the Committee for State Security (KGB).
Oleg Kirilovich Kadishev: Leader of the opposition party in the Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union and CIA agent (codename SPINNAKER). He unfortunately reinforces a narrative that Narmonov has no control of the Soviet military, which later convinces Fowler and Elliot that the Soviet president may have been a victim of a coup d'etat, progressively worsening their judgment of the crisis surrounding the Denver bombing until Ryan steps in.
Oleg Yurevich Lyalin: A KGB illegal based in Japan who has a well-developed network of agents codenamed THISTLE. He uncovers the Japanese Prime Minister's corrupt dealings with Mexico over trade agreements and offers his services to the CIA, which accepts him (codename MUSHASHI). Based on his intelligence, Ryan launches Operation NIITAKA, which later becomes instrumental in blackmailing the President of Mexico into allowing the arrest of Qati and Ghosn in Mexico City after the Denver bombing. Unfortunately, he was caught by the Soviets and charged with treason, but Ryan pleads with Golovko to free Lyalin since he did not reveal Soviet state secrets.
Valentin Borissovich Dubinin: Captain First Rank of the Soviet Navy and commanding officer of the Akula-class submarine Admiral Lunin.
The terrorists
Ismael Qati: Palestinian terrorist and mastermind of the bomb plot. An experienced field commander for the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), he is suffering from terminal cancer, which drives him to carry out his mission. After being captured by Clark in Mexico City, he was later executed in Saudi Arabia.
Ibrahim Ghosn: Palestinian terrorist and one of PFLP's experts on explosives and electronics. It is stated that he nearly received a degree in engineering from the American University of Beirut but was prevented from formally completing his studies due to the 1982 Lebanon War. Allied with Qati, he is also executed along with him in Saudi Arabia.
Günther Bock: German terrorist and ally of Qati and Ghosn. A former Red Army Faction member, the collapse of Marxism, coupled with the arrest of his wife and fellow terrorist Petra Hassler-Bock as well as the loss of their children, forces him to go into hiding. After learning about the Soviet Union's cooperation with the United States in combating terrorism and Petra's suicide, he is motivated to trigger a nuclear war with the U.S. and Russia by arranging a false-flag attack on American and Soviet forces in Berlin. Later killed during the battle and was identified by the German police.
Marvin Russell: Professional criminal, drug dealer, and activist for the American Indian Movement as a Sioux Indian living in the Badlands. Along with his brother John Russell, he had a history of juvenile delinquency while living with their impoverished family at a reservation in Minnesota and spent a year in prison. He developed a resentment towards the United States. After his brother is killed in a botched FBI operation, he travels to Europe to connect with international terrorists, gaining the trust of the PFLP by killing an undercover Hellenic Police officer in Athens and by comparing the Indian Wars to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. He helps Qati and Ghosn enter the United States with the bomb. Deemed as a security risk, he was murdered by the two Palestinian terrorists in a Denver motel on the day of the nuclear detonation, but their sloppy work allows the FBI to ascertain the circumstances behind the bomb.
Dr. Manfred Fromm: German engineer and terrorist who is recruited by Bock to assist in rebuilding and improving the captured Israeli nuclear weapon. Later executed by Bock's men after his services were complete, unaware that Dr. Fromm was not yet finished with the bomb.
Israel
General Abraham "Avi" Ben Jakob: Assistant director of the Mossad, Israel's foreign intelligence agency. Depicted as a friend of Ryan, he helps convince the Israeli Cabinet to accept the Fowler Plan after meeting with him despite his distrust of the U.S. government.
Rafi Mandel: The Defense Minister of Israel. Mandel initially opposes the treaty but accepts it after admitting that Israel's security status has improved from it and after Prime Minister Askenazi promises to support his planned bid for Prime Minister
David Askenazi: The Prime Minister of Israel.
Captain Benjamin "Benny" Zadin: An Israeli National Police officer in command in a demonstration at the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. Embittered by his personal problems, he kills an unarmed demonstrator there. Coincidentally the younger brother of Lieutenant Mordecai "Mutti" Zadin, an Israeli Air Force pilot who was shot down by Syrian surface-to-air missiles during the Yom Kippur War, unaware that he was carrying a nuclear weapon. The younger Zadin is ultimately committed to a mental institution.
The Muslim world
Prince Ali bin-Sheik: Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia
Ayatollah Mahmoud Haji Daryaei: The Supreme Leader of Iran. Opposes the Vatican Treaty, and is falsely implicated by the terrorists in the Denver bombing.
Hashimi Moussa: A 20-year-old Arab sociology student in Jerusalem and the leader of the demonstrations. Hashimi, who bears physical scars from police beatings, convinces the demonstrators not to enter the Temple Mount and adopt nonviolent protest, resulting in Israel losing international sympathy. Hashimi is killed by Captain Zadin.
Others
Bob Holtzman: Senior White House correspondent for The Washington Post who is being used by Elliot to discreetly out Ryan as being suspected of financial and marital improprieties. After being confronted by Clark, he works to expose Elliot's part in the whole affair.
Cathy Ryan: Ophthalmic surgeon at the Wilmer Eye Institute, which is part of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine; Jack Ryan's wife who desperately wants a third child but was blindsided by her husband's alcoholism and work. Later becomes troubled with reports of her husband having a mistress, but is talked down by Clark and Chavez. She then proceeds to publicly embarrass Elliot, who is her former professor at Bennington College, at a White House dinner. She becomes pregnant with Katie by the end of the novel.
Carol Zimmer: Hmong American widow of Sergeant Buck Zimmer (detailed in Clear and Present Danger). Ryan helps her and her family through an educational trust fund as well as setting up a 7-Eleven convenience store to supplement her family income. This was misinterpreted by Elliot as indication that Zimmer is Ryan's mistress.
Solomon Mendelev: An Orthodox Jewish rabbi from New York City who accuses the U.S. government of trying to subjugate Israel through the Treaty. Although he has never set foot in Israel himself due to his religious beliefs, he sparks widespread opposition to the Treaty among the Israeli public, and Dr. Eliot's attitude towards him worsens Ryan's relations with her.
Themes
Written under the working title The Field of Camlan, which was based on King Arthur's final battle, The Sum of All Fears explores nuclear fears that humans endured during the Cold War, with Clancy warning that complacency regarding such threats is dangerous. Published months after the first Gulf War, Clancy also envisioned a fictional “next great step” toward lasting peace in the Middle East. The book was said to be inspired by the 1977 thriller film Black Sunday, which depicts a blimp being used as a weapon to blow up a football stadium during the Super Bowl; the movie was referenced three times.
The novel also explores the danger of "electing someone who covets power for all the wrong reasons and who is totally inept at managing it", according to Marc Cerasini's essay on the book. President Fowler and Elliot were compared to Bill and Hillary Clinton.
Etymology
The title is a reference to nuclear war and to the plot by the novel's antagonists to reconstruct a lost nuclear weapon. It comes from a Winston Churchill quote serving as the first of the novel's two epigraphs:
Jerusalem background
The Vatican-like solution for Jerusalem, which was implemented in the book, is ultimately derived from the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, which indeed provided for making Jerusalem such a "Corpus separatum" (Latin for "separated body"). The course which the 1948 Palestine war took prevented implementation of this plan. In later years, various peace plans and diplomatic initiatives sought to revive the idea, but in reality it has never come close to implementation. The plan is known for being popular outside the Middle East, but unpopular among the actual residents of Jerusalem, who would prefer that their "side" should rule entirely rather than submit to a neutral administration.
Rainbow Six reference
A database file with certain limited details about John Clark is included as background information within the first Rainbow Six game, and moreover, the same database entry is also found in many of the sequels. That entry mentions in passing that “the Denver, Colorado atomic detonation [occurred] in 1989”. That information might not be canonical, since the book is set after both the fall of the Berlin Wall (November 9, 1989) and possibly the First Persian Gulf War (January–February 1991). If it is canonical, though, this means that the book is not set in the same year it was published. A second inference is that 1989 was likely the year in which President Fowler's administration ended.
Development
Clancy started working on the novel in 1979, setting the first chapter during the Yom Kippur War. Then he abandoned his idea for other novels until he wrote The Cardinal of the Kremlin (1988), where Ryan first meets Russian premier Narmonov. After figuring out the resolution to The Sum of All Fears, Clancy then used his next novel Clear and Present Danger (1989) as a way to introduce future President Fowler. Speaking of the consistency, Clancy said: "The whole series really is a logical and connected network of plot lines which would continue to diverge and converge throughout the body of the work." The novel was notable for detailing the process in making a bomb; however, certain technical details were altered, and Clancy made clear in the novel's afterword that a lot of information in his book can be found in the public domain.
Whilst the Israelis used both the A-4 single-seat single-engine subsonic light attack jet and F-4 two-seat twin-engined all-weather supersonic fighter-bomber during the Yom Kippur War, use of the A-4's nuclear capability was never envisaged. Nuclear warheads were assembled at the Tel Nof Airbase, but for deployment on F-4 rather than A-4 as told in the novel. This was done on October 8 in such a way that the U.S. got to know of it by the next morning, prompting President Nixon to initiate the same day an immediate air-lifted re-supply to Israel of conventional arms, including tanks and planes to replace losses, in Operation Nickel Grass. Whether any of these nuclear bombs were actually carried during a sortie has never been documented.
At least one real-world buried nuclear warhead has actually been documented however, but American and in the U.S., rather than Israeli in Syria. The plutonium pit of a Mark 39 nuclear bomb warhead remains buried 33m deep in a North Carolina field, now fenced-off, following the fatal 1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash. Many B-52 Stratofortresses crashed while carrying live nuclear warheads on training flights, mostly inside the U.S., between 1961 and 1968, but many have been recovered.
Reception
The book received positive reviews. Publishers Weekly praised the novel as "a nonstop roller-coaster ride to a nail-biting finish", adding: "Fundamentally, Clancy is writing about a vital and elusive quality: grace under pressure. Whether terrorists or statesmen, Clancy's characters face a common challenge--situations that break down pretensions of rank, power and ideology. Their responses, carefully and empathetically constructed, make this book compelling instead of merely ingenious." Kirkus Reviews hailed it as "hair-raising" and "quite a rouser".
Film adaptation
The book was adapted as a feature film, which was released on May 31, 2002. Jack Ryan was played by Ben Affleck while John Clark was played by Liev Schreiber; additionally, CIA director Marcus Cabot, whose first name was changed into William, was played by Morgan Freeman. The film is a reboot that departs from all previous Ryan films, and as a result, there were significant changes from the book, such as the antagonists being neo-Nazis instead of Palestinian terrorists, Ryan becoming a low-level CIA analyst, and the time period changed to 2002. Clancy served as executive producer on the film, and regarding the changes from his book, jokingly introduced himself in the commentary track on the DVD release as “the author of the book that he [director Phil Alden Robinson, who is present with Clancy] ignored”. Nevertheless, he complained about technical inaccuracies throughout the film in the commentary.
The Sum of All Fears was a major financial success, grossing a total of $193 million in box office. However, it received mixed reviews from critics; Rotten Tomatoes reported that 59% of critics gave the film positive reviews and that the average rating was 6/10 based on a total of 171 reviews counted.
In turn, the film had its video game adaptation, which is a tactical first-person shooter game that is similar to the Rainbow Six series of games. It was developed by Red Storm Entertainment and released by Ubisoft in 2002.
References
1991 American novels
American novels adapted into films
American thriller novels
G. P. Putnam's Sons books
Novels about terrorism
Novels by Tom Clancy
Novels set in Israel
Ryanverse
Soviet Union war fiction
Super Bowl in fiction
Techno-thriller novels
Novels set in Syria
Novels set in Russia
Novels set in Washington, D.C.
Novels set in Mexico City
Novels set in Denver
Novels set in Athens
Novels set in Germany
Novels set in Saudi Arabia
Novels set in Rome
Novels set in the Soviet Union
Novels about nuclear war and weapons
Novels set during the Israeli–Palestinian conflict
Novels set in Vatican City
Novels set in Maryland
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Love Actually is a 2003 Christmas-themed romantic comedy film written and directed by Richard Curtis. It features an ensemble cast, composed predominantly of British actors, many of whom had worked with Curtis in previous film and television projects. Mostly filmed on location in London, the screenplay delves into different aspects of love as shown through ten separate stories involving a wide variety of individuals, many of whom are shown to be interlinked as the tales progress. The story begins five weeks before Christmas and is played out in a weekly countdown until the holiday, followed by an epilogue that takes place one month later.
An international co-production between the United Kingdom, the United States and France, the film was released in the United States on 14 November 2003 and a week later in the United Kingdom, to generally mixed reviews. Love Actually was a box-office success, grossing $246 million worldwide on a budget of $40–45 million. It received a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy. Frequently shown during the Christmas season, the film has proved more popular with audiences than critics, and it has been discussed as being arguably a modern-day Christmas staple.
A made-for-television short film sequel, Red Nose Day Actually, aired in two different versions on BBC One and NBC in 2017.
Plot
A voiceover (Hugh Grant) opens the film, commenting that whenever he gets gloomy about the state of the world he thinks of the arrivals gate at Heathrow Airport, about the pure uncomplicated love of friends and families welcoming their loved ones. He also points out that the messages from the 9/11 victims were messages of love and not hate. We then see the 'love stories' of many people evolve:
Billy Mack and Joe
With his long-time manager Joe (Gregor Fisher), rock and roll legend Billy Mack (Bill Nighy) records a Christmas version of The Troggs' 1967 song "Love Is All Around", titling it "Christmas Is All Around". Although believing the record is terrible, Mack promotes the release in the hope it will become the Christmas number one single, which it does. He foregoes a victory party hosted by Elton John to celebrate Christmas with Joe, getting drunk and watching porn.
Juliet, Peter and Mark
Juliet (Keira Knightley) and Peter's (Chiwetel Ejiofor) wedding is videotaped by the best man, Mark (Andrew Lincoln), where a surprise band plays the Beatles' "All You Need Is Love" as they walk out of the church. Although the couple believe Mark dislikes Juliet, he is actually in love with her. When he evades her requests to see the video he shot at the wedding, she shows up at his flat. Juliet insists she wants them to be friends, but when she views the wedding video Mark recorded, she sees many extreme close-ups of herself and few of Peter's face. She realises Mark's true feelings towards her. After an uncomfortable silence, Mark blurts out that he acts cold out of "self-preservation".
On Christmas Eve, Juliet answers the doorbell to find Mark carrying a boombox playing a Christmas carol and large cue cards. While Peter is inside watching television, Mark tells a message of his love to Juliet through the cue cards. As he walks away down the street, Juliet runs after him, gives him a quick kiss and returns inside.
Jamie and Aurélia
Writer Jamie (Colin Firth) is pushed by his girlfriend (Sienna Guillory) to attend Juliet and Peter's wedding alone, as she is 'ill'. He returns before the reception to check on her, discovering she is having sex with his brother. Crushed, Jamie withdraws to his French cottage, where he meets Portuguese housekeeper Aurélia (Lúcia Moniz), who does not speak English. Despite not sharing a common language, they share a mutual attraction.
Jamie returns to England, realises he is in love with Aurélia and begins learning Portuguese. He returns to France to find her and ends up walking through town with her father and sister, gathering additional people as they walk to her waitressing job. In basic, and often grammatically incorrect Portuguese, he declares his love for her and proposes. She says yes in broken English, as the crowd erupts in applause.
Harry, Karen and Mia
Harry (Alan Rickman) is the managing director of a design agency; Mia (Heike Makatsch) is his secretary. He is happily married to Karen (Emma Thompson), a stay-at-home mother, with two children, Bernard and Daisy. Mia behaves overtly sexually with him at the office, asking him for a Christmas present. At the company Christmas party held at Mark's gallery, they dance closely.
While Christmas shopping, Harry calls Mia asking what she wants for Christmas and is almost caught by his wife purchasing an expensive necklace in the shape of a love heart from the jewellery department because of the meticulous gift-wrapping of the salesman Rufus (Rowan Atkinson). Later on, Karen finds the necklace in Harry's coat pocket, assuming it is for her. Opening a similarly shaped box for her under the tree on Christmas Eve, she is heartbroken to find it is a Joni Mitchell CD, realising he bought the necklace for someone else. Confronting Harry, she asks what he would do if he were her. She feels he has made a mockery of their marriage and of her.
David and Natalie
David (Hugh Grant), who is Karen's brother, is also the recently elected Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Natalie (Martine McCutcheon) is a new junior member of the household staff at 10 Downing Street. During a meeting with the U.S. President (Billy Bob Thornton), they come across Natalie and the president makes some inappropriate comments to David about her. Later, David walks in on Natalie serving tea and biscuits to the President, and it appears that something untoward is happening. Natalie seems embarrassed, and the president has a sly grin on his face. At the following joint press conference, David is uncharacteristically assertive while taking a stand against the president's intimidation techniques.
Feeling uncomfortable around Natalie, David has her moved to another position. However, he is spurred to action on Christmas Eve when he finds a Christmas card from her in his red box, declaring that she is his and only his. He finds her after a door-to-door search of her street. Her entire family is on their way to a multi-school Christmas play and he offers to drive them so he can talk to her. As Natalie sneaks him in to the school, he runs into his heartbroken sister, Karen, who believes he is there for his niece and nephew. As David and Natalie try to keep from being seen and watch from backstage, they finally kiss. Everyone sees them kissing as the curtain rises.
Daniel, Sam, Joanna and Carol
Daniel (Liam Neeson), Karen's close friend, mourns the recent death of his wife, Joanna, as he tries to care for his stepson Sam (Thomas Sangster). Sam has fallen for an American classmate, also named Joanna (Olivia Olson), and after talking with his stepfather, decides to learn the drums to accompany her in the big finale for their school's Christmas pageant; also at Karen and Harry's children's school. As Sam feels he has missed his chance to impress her, Daniel convinces him to try to tell Joanna how he feels at the airport, before she returns to the US. Sam slips through airport security and catches up with her, who acknowledges him by name and kisses him on the cheek, revealing she likes him too. Meanwhile, Daniel meets Carol (Claudia Schiffer), the mother of Sam's schoolmate, and there is a mutual spark.
Sarah, Karl and Michael
Sarah (Laura Linney) first appears at Juliet and Peter's wedding, sitting next to her friend Jamie. An American working at Harry's graphic design company, she has been in love with the creative director, Karl (Rodrigo Santoro) for years. Prompted by Harry, they finally connect at the Christmas party and he drives her home. Michael, her mentally ill brother, phones from his mental care facility, causing their evening tryst to be aborted. On Christmas Eve they are both working late, but Karl just wishes her a merry Christmas and leaves. Sarah calls, and goes to see Michael, gifting him a Christmas scarf.
Colin, Tony and the American girls
Unsuccessfully attempting to woo various English women, including Mia and Nancy (Julia Davis), Juliet and Peter's wedding caterer, Colin Frissell (Kris Marshall) informs his friend Tony (Abdul Salis) that he plans to go to America, convinced that his Britishness will be an asset. Landing in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Colin meets Stacey (Ivana Miličević), Jeannie (January Jones) and Carol-Anne (Elisha Cuthbert), three stunningly attractive women who instantly fall for his Estuary English accent, inviting him to stay at their home, where they are joined by their room-mate Harriet (Shannon Elizabeth).
John and Judy
John (Martin Freeman) and Judy (Joanna Page) are professional body doubles for films. They meet doing the sex scenes for a film for which Tony is a production assistant. John tells Judy that "It's lovely to find someone [he] can actually chat to." While they are perfectly comfortable being naked and simulating sex on-set, they are shy and tentative off-set. They carefully pursue a relationship, attending the Christmas pageant (involving David and Natalie, Harry and Karen's children, Daniel and Sam, etc.) at the local school with John's brother.
Rufus
Rufus (Rowan Atkinson) is the jewellery salesman whose meticulous gift-wrapping nearly results in Karen seeing Harry buying a necklace for Mia. In another scene, his distraction of airport staff enables Sam to sneak past them to talk to Joanna. (In the director and cast commentary, it is revealed that Rufus was originally supposed to be a Christmas angel, but this was dropped from the final script.)
Epilogue
One month later, all of the characters are seen at Heathrow Airport. Billy's Christmas single has spurred a comeback. Juliet, Peter and Mark meet Jamie and his bride, Aurélia. Karen and the kids greet Harry, but Karen's stifled reaction suggests they are struggling to move past his indiscretion. Sam greets Joanna, who has returned from America, and Daniel is joined by his new girlfriend Carol and her son. Newlyweds John and Judy, heading off to their honeymoon, run into Tony, who is awaiting Colin's return from America. Colin returns with Harriet and her sister Carla (Denise Richards), who meets Tony for the first time but greets him with a hug and a kiss on the lips. Natalie welcomes David back from his flight in view of the press, showing their relationship is now public. These scenes dissolve into footage of actual arrivals at Heathrow, as the screen is divided into an increasing number of smaller segments which form the shape of a heart.
Story association
All the stories are linked in some way; while Billy Mack and his manager may not connect with any of the other characters physically, Billy appears frequently on characters' radios and TVs, his music video twice providing an important plot device for Sam's pursuit of Joanna, and they also cross paths with the other characters in the closing Heathrow scene. John and Judy work with Tony, who is best friends with Colin, who works for a catering company that services the office where Sarah, Karl, Mia and Harry work. Mia is friends with Mark, who runs the art gallery where the Christmas office party takes place. Mia also lives next door to Natalie. Mark is in love with Juliet and friends with Peter. The couple are friends with Jamie and Sarah. Harry is married to Karen, who is friends with Daniel and her brother is David, who works with Natalie. Harry and Karen's children (and thus David's niece and nephew), Natalie's siblings (and thus Mia's neighbours) and Carol's son are all schoolmates of Sam and Joanna. An additional plot that was dropped in editing concerned the children's headmistress (Anne Reid) and her dying lesbian partner (Frances de la Tour).
Cast
Alan Rickman as Harry
Emma Thompson as Karen
Hugh Grant as David, the Prime Minister
Keira Knightley as Juliet
Colin Firth as Jamie
Sienna Guillory as Jamie's girlfriend
Lúcia Moniz as Aurélia
Liam Neeson as Daniel
Thomas Sangster as Sam
Bill Nighy as Billy Mack
Gregor Fisher as Joe
Martine McCutcheon as Natalie
Chiwetel Ejiofor as Peter
Andrew Lincoln as Mark
Laura Linney as Sarah
Rodrigo Santoro as Karl
Michael Fitzgerald as Michael
Kris Marshall as Colin
Abdul Salis as Tony
Heike Makatsch as Mia
Martin Freeman as John
Joanna Page as Judy
Olivia Olson as Joanna
Billy Bob Thornton as the U.S. President
Rowan Atkinson as Rufus
Claudia Schiffer as Carol
Nina Sosanya as Annie
Ivana Miličević as Stacey
January Jones as Jeannie
Elisha Cuthbert as Carol-Anne
Shannon Elizabeth as Harriet
Denise Richards as Carla
Lulu Popplewell as Daisy
Marcus Brigstocke as Mikey
Julia Davis as Nancy
Ruby Turner as Jean
Adam Godley as Mr Trench
Élisabeth Margoni as Eleonore
Meg Wynn Owen as Mary, PM's secretary
Production
Development
Initially, Curtis started writing with two distinct and separate films in mind, each featuring expanded versions of what would eventually become storylines in Love Actually; those featuring Hugh Grant and Colin Firth. He changed tack, however, having become frustrated with the process. Partly inspired by the films of Robert Altman as well as films such as Pulp Fiction, and inspired by Curtis having become "more interested in writing a film about love and what love sort of means" he had the idea of creating an ensemble film. The film initially did not have any sort of Christmas theme, although Curtis's penchant for such films eventually caused him to write it as one.
Curtis's original concept for the film included fourteen different scenarios, but four of them were cut (two having been filmed). The scene in which Colin attempts to chat up the female caterer at the wedding appeared in drafts of the screenplay for Four Weddings and a Funeral, but was cut from the final version. The music video for Billy Mack's song, "Christmas Is All Around", is a tribute to Robert Palmer's 1986 video, "Addicted to Love". Curtis has spoken negatively about the editing process for the film, which he labelled in 2014 as a "catastrophe" and "The only nightmare scenario that I've been caught in". The film was rushed in order to be ready for the 2003 Christmas season which he likened to "three-dimensional chess".
Casting
Ant and Dec played themselves in the film with Bill Nighy's character referring to Dec as "Ant or Dec". This refers to the common mistaking of one for the other, owing to their constant joint professional presence as a comedy and presenting duo. The veteran actress Jeanne Moreau is seen briefly, entering a taxi at the Marseille Airport. The soul singer Ruby Turner appears as Joanna Anderson's mother, one of the backing singers at the school Christmas pageant.
Curtis cast his daughter Scarlett in the film; she was given the choice of being an angel or a lobster, and played the part of Lobster number 2 in the nativity play, on the condition that she met Keira Knightley.
Helder Costa plays Mr Barros, Aurelia's father. He is a veteran actor in Portuguese cinema.
Locations
Most of the film was made on location in London, including Trafalgar Square, the central court of Somerset House in the Strand, Grosvenor Chapel on South Audley Street near Hyde Park, St Paul's Church, Clapham, the Millennium Bridge, Selfridges department store on Oxford Street, Lambeth Bridge, the Tate Modern in the former Bankside Power Station, Canary Wharf, Marble Arch, the St. Lukes Mews off All Saint's Road in Notting Hill, Chelsea Bridge, the OXO Tower, London City Hall, Poplar Road in Herne Hill, Elliott School in Pullman Gardens, Putney, Heathrow Airport and the Marseille Airport. Scenes set in 10 Downing Street were filmed at Shepperton Studios.
Standing up to the US President
Following Tony Blair's resignation as Prime Minister, pundits and speculators commented on a potential anti-American shift in Gordon Brown's cabinet as a "Love Actually moment", referring to the scene in which Hugh Grant's character stands up to the US President. In 2009, during President Barack Obama's first visit to the UK, Chris Matthews referred to the president in Love Actually as an example of George W. Bush and other former presidents' bullying of European allies. Commenting on this, Mediaite's Jon Bershad described the U.S. president character as a "sleazy Bill Clinton/George W. Bush hybrid". In the scene in question, the swaggering president bullies the prime minister and then sexually harasses a member of the household staff. In September 2013, David Cameron made a speech in reply to Russia's comment that Britain was a small insignificant country, which drew comparisons with Hugh Grant's speech during the film.
Soundtrack
US version
The US edition of the soundtrack removed two pieces of score and "Sometimes" by Gabrielle and reordered the tracklist. It also replaced the Girls Aloud cover of "Jump (For My Love)" with the original by The Pointer Sisters, and replaced Maroon 5's "Sweetest Goodbye" with a medley of "Sweetest Goodbye" with "Sunday Morning."
Score
The film's original score was composed, orchestrated and conducted by Craig Armstrong. It was commercially unreleased until 19 November 2021, when it was released digitally by Universal Pictures' Back Lot Music, and on CD by La-La Land Records.
Certifications
The soundtrack album reached number one on the UK Albums Chart, and by Christmas 2018 it had spent 348 weeks on the Chart. It reached the top forty on the US Billboard 200 in 2004 and ranked second on the Top Soundtracks chart. It achieved platinum record status in Australia.
Use in film
The UK and US versions of the actual film contain two instances of alternative music. In the UK cut, the montage leading up to and continuing through the first part of the office party is set to the song "Too Lost in You", by the British group Sugababes. In the US version of the film, this song is replaced with "The Trouble with Love Is", performed by the American singer Kelly Clarkson. Subsequently, in the UK version's end credit roll, the second song is a cover of "Jump (For My Love)" performed by Girls Aloud; in the US version, this song is replaced with "Too Lost in You".
Several songs were heard in the film but did not appear on either soundtrack:
"Bye Bye Baby (Baby Goodbye)" performed by Bay City Rollers
"Puppy Love" performed by S Club Juniors
"All I Want for Christmas Is You" performed by Tessa Niles
"River" performed by Joni Mitchell
"Rose" from the Titanic score, written by James Horner
"Like I Love You" performed by Justin Timberlake
"All Alone on Christmas" performed by Darlene Love
"Smooth" by Santana featuring Rob Thomas
"Silent Night" performed by Pre Teens
"Good King Wenceslas" performed by Hugh Grant (as David) and Andrew Tinkler (as Gavin)
"Catch a Falling Star" performed by child cast
Reception
Box office
The Working Title Films production, with a budget of $40–45 million, was released by Universal Pictures. It grossed $62.7 million in the United Kingdom, $14 million in Australia and $59.5 million in the US and Canada. It took a worldwide total of $246.2 million.
Critical response
The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 64% of 224 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 6.4/10. The site's critics consensus states: "A sugary tale overstuffed with too many stories. Still, the cast charms." On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 55 out of 100, based on 41 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
Todd McCarthy of Variety called it "a roundly entertaining romantic comedy," a "doggedly cheery confection," and "a package that feels as luxuriously appointed and expertly tooled as a Rolls-Royce" and predicted "its cheeky wit, impossibly attractive cast, and sure-handed professionalism ... along with its all-encompassing romanticism should make this a highly popular early holiday attraction for adults on both sides of the pond". Michael Atkinson of The Village Voice called it "love British style, handicapped slightly by corny circumstance and populated by colorful neurotics". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film out of four stars, describing it as "a belly-flop into the sea of romantic comedy ... The movie's only flaw is also a virtue: It's jammed with characters, stories, warmth and laughs, until at times Curtis seems to be working from a checklist of obligatory movie love situations and doesn't want to leave anything out ... It feels a little like a gourmet meal that turns into a hot-dog eating contest." Susan Wloszczyna of USA Today wrote "Curtis' multi-tiered cake of comedy, slathered in eye-candy icing and set mostly in London at Christmas, serves sundry slices of love—sad, sweet and silly—in all of their messy, often surprising, glory."
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly rated it B and called it "a toasty, star-packed ensemble comedy ... [that's] going to make a lot of holiday romantics feel very, very good; watching it; I felt cozy and charmed myself." Nev Pierce of the BBC awarded it four of a possible five stars and called it a "vibrant romantic comedy ... Warm, bittersweet and hilarious, this is lovely, actually. Prepare to be smitten." Carla Meyer of the San Francisco Chronicle opined "[it] abandons any pretext of sophistication for gloppy sentimentality, sugary pop songs and bawdy humor – an approach that works about half the time ... most of the story lines maintain interest because of the fine cast and general goodwill of the picture."
In his review in The New York Times, journalist A. O. Scott called it "a romantic comedy swollen to the length of an Oscar-trawling epic – nearly two and a quarter hours of cheekiness, diffidence and high-tone smirking" and added, "it is more like a record label's greatest-hits compilation or a very special sitcom clip-reel show than an actual movie. ... the film's governing idea of love is both shallow and dishonest, and its sweet, chipper demeanor masks a sour cynicism about human emotions that is all the more sleazy for remaining unacknowledged. It has the calloused, leering soul of an early-60s rat-pack comedy, but without the suave, seductive bravado. ... It is disturbing to see [Emma] Thompson's range and subtlety so shamelessly trashed, and to see Laura Linney's intelligence similarly abused as a lonely, frustrated do-gooder. The fate of their characters suggests that women who are not young, pert secretaries or household workers have no real hope of sexual fulfillment and can find only a compromised, damaged form of love."
In Rolling Stone, Peter Travers rated it two stars out of a possible four, saying "there are laughs laced with feeling here, but the deft screenwriter Richard Curtis dilutes the impact by tossing in more and more stories. As a director ... Curtis can't seem to rein in his writer. ... He ladles sugar over the eager-to-please Love Actually to make it go down easy, forgetting that sometimes it just makes you gag." Christopher Orr of The Atlantic remains negative toward the work and described it as the least romantic movie of all time, considering its ultimate message to be, "It's probably best if you give up on love altogether and get on with the rest of your life."
Although critics' response to Love Actually was mixed, the film is popular among audiences and has been discussed as an arguable modern-day Christmas classic.
Accolades
Other adaptations
The screenplay by Richard Curtis was published by Michael Joseph Ltd. in the United Kingdom and by St. Martin's Griffin in the US.
Red Nose Day Actually
In 2017, Richard Curtis wrote a script for Red Nose Day which reunited a dozen characters and picked up their storylines fourteen years later. Filming began in February 2017, and the short film was broadcast on BBC One on 24 March 2017.
See also
List of Christmas films
Love Is All (Dutch: Alles is Liefde), 2007 Dutch romantic comedy film inspired by Love Actually
Salute To Love (Hindi: Salaam-e-Ishq), 2007 Indian film based on Love Actually
He's Just Not That Into You, 2009 American romantic comedy film with multiple protagonists and stories similar to Love Actually.
New Year Trees (Russian: Yolki), also known as Six Degrees of Celebration, 2010 comedy film that launched a successful movie franchise spanning six sequels
Letters to Santa (Polish: Listy do M.), 2011 Polish film inspired by Love Actually
"Glee, Actually", 2012 holiday episode from the fourth season of the American musical television series Glee
It All Began When I Met You, 2013 Japanese film inspired by Love Actually
List of fictional prime ministers of the United Kingdom
References
External links
2000s Christmas comedy-drama films
2003 romantic comedy-drama films
2003 films
British Christmas comedy-drama films
British films
British romantic comedy-drama films
DNA Films films
English-language films
Films directed by Richard Curtis
Films produced by Eric Fellner
Films produced by Tim Bevan
Films scored by Craig Armstrong (composer)
Films set in London
Films set in Marseille
Films shot in London
Portuguese-language films
Films with screenplays by Richard Curtis
StudioCanal films
Working Title Films films
2003 directorial debut films
Films about writers
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The Whitlam government was the federal executive government of Australia led by Prime Minister Gough Whitlam of the Australian Labor Party. The government commenced when Labor defeated the McMahon Government at the 1972 federal election, ending a record 23 years of continuous Coalition government. It was terminated by Governor-General Sir John Kerr following the 1975 constitutional crisis and was succeeded by the Fraser Government—the sole occasion in Australian history when an elected federal government was dismissed by the head of state.
The Whitlam government was highly controversial during its short tenure but achieved some major reforms. Formal relations with China were established, conscription laws were repealed, all remaining Australian forces were withdrawn from the Vietnam War, universal healthcare was introduced and some remaining discriminatory provisions of the White Australia policy were abolished. Tertiary education fees were abolished for a period. However, these and other enthusiastic reforms corresponded to a crisis: "By mid-1975, inflation hit 17.6 per cent and wage rises hit 32.9 per cent. The economy boomed in 1973 and the first half of '74, but then suffered a severe recession." The Whitlam government was re-elected for a second term at the 1974 double-dissolution election but, following the dismissal, was heavily defeated by the new Fraser Government in the 1975 election.
Background
The Australian Labor Party had entered opposition in 1949, following the loss of the Chifley Government to the Robert Menzies-led Liberal-Country Party Coalition. The Coalition then governed continuously for 23 years. Gough Whitlam became deputy leader of the Labor Party in 1960, and Arthur Calwell subsequently retired as leader in 1967 following Labor's poor result in the 1966 election. Whitlam was elected party leader in April 1967, with Lance Barnard as deputy leader. Labor reduced the Gorton Government's majority and came within 4 seats of government in the 1969 election. Whitlam then led the Labor Party to victory against the McMahon Government at the 1972 election.
First term
Duumvirate
Whitlam took office with a majority in the House of Representatives, but without control of the Senate (elected in 1967 and 1970). The Senate at that time consisted of ten members from each of the six states, elected by proportional representation. The ALP parliamentary caucus chose the ministers, but Whitlam was allowed to assign portfolios. A caucus meeting could not be held until after the final results came in on 15 December. In the meantime, it was expected that McMahon would remain caretaker prime minister. Whitlam, however, was unwilling to wait that long. On 5 December, once Labor's win was secure, Whitlam had the Governor-General, Sir Paul Hasluck, swear him in as prime minister and Labor's deputy leader, Lance Barnard, as deputy prime minister. The two men held 27 portfolios between them during the two weeks before a full cabinet could be determined.
During the two weeks the so-called "duumvirate" held office, Whitlam sought to fulfill those campaign promises that did not require legislation. Whitlam ordered negotiations to establish full relations with the People's Republic of China, and broke those with Taiwan. Legislation allowed the Minister for Defence to grant exemptions from conscription. Barnard held this office, and exempted everyone. Seven men were at that time incarcerated for refusing conscription; Whitlam arranged for their freedom. The Whitlam government in its first days re-opened the equal pay case pending before the Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Commission led by Sydney barrister Mary Gaudron, and appointed a woman, Elizabeth Evatt, as presidential member of the commission. Whitlam and Barnard eliminated sales tax on contraceptive pills, announced major grants for the arts, and appointed an interim schools commission. The duumvirate barred racially discriminatory sport teams from Australia, and instructed the Australian delegation at the United Nations to vote in favour of sanctions on apartheid South Africa and Rhodesia. It also ordered home all remaining Australian troops in Vietnam, though most (including all conscripts) had been withdrawn by McMahon.
According to Whitlam speechwriter Graham Freudenberg, the duumvirate was a success, as it showed that the Labor government could manipulate the machinery of government, despite its long absence from office. However, Freudenberg noted that the rapid pace and public excitement caused by the duumvirate's actions caused the Opposition to be wary of giving Labor too easy a time, and led to one post mortem verdict on the Whitlam government, "We did too much too soon."
Enacting an agenda
The McMahon government had consisted of 27 ministers, twelve of whom comprised the Cabinet. In the run-up to the election, the Labor caucus had decided that should the party take power, all 27 ministers were to be Cabinet members. Intense canvassing took place amongst ALP parliamentarians as the duumvirate did its work, and on 18 December the caucus elected the Cabinet. The results were generally acceptable to Whitlam, and within three hours, he had announced the portfolios of the cabinet members. To give himself greater control over the Cabinet, in January 1973 Whitlam established five cabinet committees (with the members appointed by himself, not the caucus) and took full control of the cabinet agenda.
The Whitlam government abolished the death penalty for federal crimes. Legal Aid was established, with offices in each state capital. It abolished tertiary school (university) fees, and established the Schools Commission to allocate funds to schools. Whitlam founded the Department of Urban Development and, having lived in developing Cabramatta when it was largely unsewered, set a goal to leave no urban home unsewered.
The new government gave grants directly to local government units for urban renewal, flood prevention, and the promotion of tourism. Other federal grants financed highways linking the state capitals, and paid for standard-gauge rail lines between the states. The government created a new city at Albury-Wodonga on the New South Wales-Victoria border. "Advance Australia Fair" became the country's national anthem, in preference to "God Save the Queen". The Order of Australia replaced the British honours system in early 1975.
Whitlam was a vocal advocate for Indigenous rights. His government created the Aboriginal Land Fund to help Indigenous groups buy back privately owned lands. The Aboriginal Loans Commission was initiated to assist Indigenous Australians with the purchase of property with a view to home ownership, as well as to help establish Indigenous-owned businesses and pay for health and education expenses,.
In 1973, the National Gallery of Australia, then called the Australian National Gallery, bought the painting Blue Poles by 20th-century artist Jackson Pollock for US$2 million (A$1.3 million at the time of payment)—about a third of its annual budget. This required Whitlam's personal permission, which he gave on the condition the price was publicised. In the conservative climate of the time, the purchase created a political and media scandal, and was said to symbolise either Whitlam's foresight and vision, or his profligate spending.
Whitlam travelled extensively as prime minister, and was the first Australian prime minister to visit China while in office. He was criticised for this travel, especially after Cyclone Tracy struck Darwin; he interrupted an extensive tour of Europe for 48 hours (deemed too brief a period by many) to view the devastation.
Early troubles
In February 1973, the Attorney-General, Senator Lionel Murphy, led a police raid on the Melbourne office of the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation, which was under his ministerial responsibility. Murphy believed that ASIO might have files relating to domestic Croatian terrorist threats against Yugoslav Prime Minister Džemal Bijedić, who was about to visit Australia, and feared ASIO might conceal or destroy them. The Opposition attacked the Government over the raid, terming Murphy a "loose cannon". A Senate investigation of the incident was cut short when Parliament dissolved in 1974. According to journalist and author Wallace Brown, the controversy over the raid continued to dog the Whitlam government throughout its term because the incident was "so silly".
From the start of the Whitlam government, the Opposition, led by Billy Snedden (who replaced McMahon as Liberal leader in December 1972) sought to use control of the Senate to baulk Whitlam. It did not seek to block all government legislation; the Coalition senators, led by Senate Liberal leader Reg Withers, sought to block government legislation only when the obstruction would advance the Opposition's agenda. The Whitlam government also had numerous problems and issues in relations with the states. New South Wales refused the government's request that it close the Rhodesian Information Centre in Sydney. The Queensland premier, Joh Bjelke-Petersen, refused to consider any adjustment in Queensland's border with Papua New Guinea, which, due to the state's ownership of islands in the Torres Strait, came within half a kilometre (about one-third of a mile) of the Papuan mainland. Liberal state governments in New South Wales and Victoria were re-elected by large margins in 1973. Whitlam and his majority in the House of Representatives proposed a constitutional referendum in December 1973, transferring control of wages and prices from the states to the Federal government. The two propositions failed to attract a majority of voters in any state, and were rejected by over 800,000 votes nationwide.
Labor had come to office during a period of improvement for Australia's economic outlook, with rural industries performing well, unemployment falling, production increasing and a boom in foreign investment and exports. Nevertheless, signs of increasing inflation and slow private business investment portended looming economic troubles, leading to the 1973–75 recession and the 1973 oil crisis. According to political historian Brian Carroll, the Whitlam government chose in its 1973–4 budget to "put major emphasis on the Party's social objectives rather than on moderating the obvious expansionary trends in the economy" and the budget substantially increased direct government spending and increased redistribution of income through welfare.
By early 1974, the Senate had rejected nineteen government bills, ten of them twice. With a half-Senate election due by midyear, Whitlam looked for ways to shore up support in that body. Queensland Senator and former DLP leader Vince Gair signalled his willingness to leave the Senate for a diplomatic post. With five Queensland seats at stake in the half-Senate election, the ALP would probably win only two, but if six were at stake, the party would most likely win three. Possible control of the Senate was therefore at stake; Whitlam agreed to Gair's request and had the Governor-General Sir Paul Hasluck appoint him Ambassador to Ireland. Word leaked of Gair's pending resignation, and Whitlam's opponents attempted to counteract his manoeuvre. On what became known as the "Night of the Long Prawns", Country Party members entertained Gair at a small party in the office of Senator Ron Maunsell, to delay him visiting the Senate President to tender his resignation. As Gair enjoyed beer and prawns, Bjelke-Petersen advised the Queensland Governor, Sir Colin Hannah, to issue writs for only the usual five vacancies, since Gair's seat was not yet vacant, effectively countering Whitlam's plan.
With the Opposition threatening to disrupt supply, or block the appropriation bills, Whitlam used the Senate's defeat of several bills twice to trigger a double dissolution election, holding it instead of the half-Senate election it had already announced. After a campaign featuring the Labor slogan "Give Gough a fair go", the Whitlam government was returned, with its majority in the House of Representatives cut from seven to five. Both Government and Opposition secured 29 seats in the Senate, with the balance of power held by two independents. The deadlock over the twice-rejected bills was broken, uniquely in Australian history, with a special joint sitting of the two houses of Parliament under Section 57 of the Constitution. This session, authorised by the new Governor-General, Sir John Kerr, passed bills providing for universal health insurance (known then as Medibank, today as Medicare) and providing the Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory with representation in the Senate, effective at the next election.
Second term
1974
By mid-1974, Australia was in an economic slump. The 1973 oil crisis had caused prices to spike and, according to government figures, inflation topped 13 percent for over a year between 1973 and 1974. Part of the inflation was due to Whitlam's desire to increase wages and conditions of the Commonwealth Public Service as a pacesetter for the private sector. The Whitlam government had cut tariffs by 25 percent in 1973; 1974 saw an increase in imports of 30 percent and a $1.5 billion increase in the trade deficit. Primary producers of commodities such as beef were caught in a credit squeeze as short-term rates rose to extremely high levels. Unemployment also rose significantly. Unease within the ALP led to Barnard's defeat when Jim Cairns challenged him for his deputy leadership. Whitlam gave little help to his embattled deputy, who had formed the other half of the duumvirate.
Again, in the 1974–75 budget, the government emphasised its social objectives, with Treasurer Frank Crean saying that its "overriding objective is to get on with various initiatives in the fields of education, health, social welfare and urban improvements". According to Carroll, most economic observers agreed "there was little in the budget likely to arrest what they saw as the alarming drift in the economic climate". By 1974, inflation had worsened and Australia had entered the 1973–75 recession and suffered through the 1973 oil crisis. Unemployment reached 5% (at that time considered high).
Despite these economic indicators, the budget presented in August 1974 saw large increases in spending, especially in education. Treasury officials had advised a series of tax and fee increases, ranging from excise taxes to the cost of posting a letter; their advice was mostly rejected by Cabinet. The budget was unsuccessful in dealing with the inflation and unemployment, and Whitlam introduced large tax cuts in November. He also announced additional spending to help the private sector.
In August, the government launched the Royal Commission on Intelligence and Security, led by Justice Robert Marsden Hope, to investigate the Australian Intelligence Community and, especially, the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation.
Following the 1974–75 budget, Whitlam removed Frank Crean as Treasurer, replacing him with deputy prime minister Jim Cairns. Cairns's reputation took an early blow with media coverage of the appointment of Junie Morosi as his private secretary, a woman with no prior treasury or public service experience, and with whom he engaged in an extramarital affair. Cairns then misled parliament over the Loans Affair and was in turn replaced by Bill Hayden before having a chance to bring down his first budget. According to Brian Carroll, Hayden "presented a budget more in keeping with the established notion that it was an instrument of economic management rather than of social reform", however by the time Hayden reached the Treasury portfolio "the Whitlam government's political troubles were beginning to overtake it".
Final months
Whitlam appointed Senator Murphy to the High Court, even though Murphy's Senate seat would not be up for election if a half-Senate election were held. Labor then held three of the five short-term New South Wales Senate seats. Under proportional representation, Labor could hold its three short term seats in the next half-Senate election, but if Murphy's seat were also contested, Labor was unlikely to win four out of six. Thus, a Murphy appointment meant the almost certain loss of a seat in the closely divided Senate at the next election. Whitlam appointed Murphy anyway. By convention, senators appointed by the state legislature to fill casual vacancies were from the same political party as the former senator. The New South Wales premier, Tom Lewis felt that this convention only applied to vacancies caused by deaths or ill-health, and arranged for the legislature to elect Cleaver Bunton, former mayor of Albury and an independent.
By March 1975, many Liberal parliamentarians felt that Snedden was doing an inadequate job as Leader of the Opposition, and that Whitlam was dominating him in the House of Representatives. Malcolm Fraser challenged Snedden for the leadership, and defeated him on 21 March.
Soon after Fraser's accession, controversy arose over the Whitlam government's actions in trying to restart peace talks in Vietnam. As the North prepared to end the civil war, Whitlam sent cables to both Vietnamese governments, telling Parliament that both cables were substantially the same. The Opposition contended he had misled Parliament, and a motion to censure Whitlam was defeated along party lines. The Opposition also attacked Whitlam for not allowing enough South Vietnamese refugees into Australia, with Fraser calling for the entry of 50,000. Freudenberg alleges that 1,026 Vietnamese refugees entered Australia in the final eight months of the Whitlam government, and only 399 in 1976 under Fraser. However, by 1977, Australia had accepted over five thousand refugees.
As the political situation deteriorated, Whitlam and his government continued to enact legislation: The Family Law Act 1975 provided for no-fault divorce while the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 caused Australia to ratify United Nations conventions against racial discrimination that Australia had signed under Holt, but which had never been ratified. In August 1975, Whitlam gave the Gurindji people of the Northern Territory title deeds to part of their traditional lands, beginning the process of Aboriginal land reform. The next month, Australia granted independence to Papua New Guinea.
Following the 1974 Carnation Revolution, Portugal began a process of decolonisation and began a withdrawal from Portuguese Timor (later East Timor). Australians had long taken an interest in the colony; the nation had sent troops to the region during World War II, and many East Timorese had fought the Japanese as guerrillas. In September 1974, Whitlam met with Indonesian President, Suharto, in Indonesia and indicated that he would support Indonesia if it annexed East Timor. At the height of the Cold War and with American retreat from Indo-China, he felt that if incorporated into Indonesia, the region would be more stable, and Australia would not risk having the East Timorese FRETILIN movement, which many feared was communist, come to power. Whitlam says that he forcefully told Indonesian President Suharto that the East Timorese were entitled to decide the colony's fate through self-determination. Indonesia invaded East Timor in December 1975, and occupied it until the 1999 vote for independence.
Whitlam had offered Barnard a diplomatic post; in early 1975 Barnard agreed to this, triggering the 1975 Bass by-election in his Tasmanian electorate. The election on 28 June proved a disaster for Labor, which lost the seat with a swing against it of 17 percent. The next week, Whitlam fired Barnard's successor as deputy prime minister, Cairns, who had misled Parliament regarding the Loans Affair amid innuendo about his relationship with his office manager, Junie Morosi. At the time of Cairns' dismissal, one Senate seat was vacant, following the death on 30 June of Queensland ALP Senator Bertie Milliner. The state Labor party nominated Mal Colston, resulting in a deadlock. The unicameral Queensland legislature twice voted against Colston, and the party refused to submit any alternative candidates. Bjelke-Petersen finally convinced the legislature to elect a low-level union official, Albert Field, who had contacted his office and expressed a willingness to serve. In interviews, Field made it clear he would not support Whitlam. Field was expelled from the ALP for standing against Colston, and Labor senators boycotted his swearing-in. Whitlam argued that, because of the manner of filling vacancies, the Senate was "corrupted" and "tainted", with the Opposition enjoying a majority they did not win at the ballot box.
Loans Affair
Minerals and Energy Minister Rex Connor wanted funds for a series of national development projects. He proposed that to finance his plans, the government should borrow $US 4 billion (at that time a huge sum of money). It was a requirement of the Australian Constitution that non-temporary government borrowings must be through the Loan Council. Although the development projects were long-term, Whitlam, together with ministers Cairns, Murphy and Connor authorised Connor to seek the loan on 13 December 1974, without involving the Loan Council. Connor had already been investigating the loan. Through an Adelaide builder, he had been introduced to Pakistani dealer Tirath Khemlani. According to Khemlani, Connor asked for a 20-year loan with interest at 7.7% and set a commission to Khemlani of 2.5%. Despite assurance that all was in order, Khemlani began to stall on the loan, notably after he was asked to go to Zurich with officials of the Reserve Bank of Australia to prove that the funds were in the Union Bank of Switzerland as he had claimed. The government revised its authority to Connor to $2 billion.
As news leaked of the plan, the Opposition began questioning the Government. Under questioning from Fraser, Whitlam said on 20 May that the loans pertained to "matters of energy", that the Loans Council had not been advised, and that it would be advised only "if and when the loan is made". The following day he told Fraser and Parliament that authority for the plan had been revoked. On 4 June 1975, the Treasurer and deputy prime minister, Jim Cairns, misled Parliament by claiming that he had not given a letter to an intermediary offering a 2.5% commission on a loan. Whitlam removed Cairns from Treasury and made him Minister for the environment, before dismissing him from Cabinet.
While the Loans Affair never resulted in an actual loan, according to author and Whitlam speechwriter Graham Freudenberg, "The only cost involved was the cost to the reputation of the Government. That cost was to be immense—it was government itself."
The Affair ultimately gave new Liberal leader Malcolm Fraser the perceived justification he needed to block supply of budget Bills in the Senate, with the aim of forcing Whitlam to an election.
Constitutional crisis
In October 1975, the Opposition, led by Fraser, determined to block supply by deferring consideration of appropriation bills. With Field on leave (his Senate appointment having been challenged), the Coalition had an effective majority of 30–29 in the Senate. The Coalition believed that if Whitlam could not deliver supply, and would not advise new elections, Kerr would have to dismiss him. Supply would run out on 30 November.
The stakes were raised in the conflict on 10 October, when the High Court declared valid the Act granting the territories two senators each. In a half-Senate election, most successful candidates would not take their places until 1 July 1976, but the territorial senators, and those filling Field's and Bunton's seats, would assume their seats at once. This gave Labor an outside chance of controlling the Senate, at least up until 1 July 1976. On 14 October, Labor minister Rex Connor, mastermind of the loans scheme, was forced to resign when Khemlani released documents showing that Connor had made misleading statements. The continuing scandal confirmed the Coalition in their stance that they would not concede supply. Whitlam on the other hand, convinced that he would win the battle, was glad of the distraction from the Loans Affair, and believed that he would "smash" not only the Senate, but Fraser's leadership as well.
Whitlam told the House of Representatives on 21 October,
Whitlam and his ministers repeatedly warned that the Opposition was damaging not only the Constitution, but Australia's economic position as well. The Coalition senators tried to remain united, as several became increasingly concerned about the tactic of blocking supply. As the crisis dragged into November, Whitlam attempted to make arrangements for public servants and suppliers to be able to cash cheques at banks. These transactions would be temporary loans which the government would repay once supply was restored.
Governor-General Kerr was following the crisis closely. At a luncheon with Whitlam and several of his ministers on 30 October, Kerr suggested a compromise: if Fraser conceded supply, Whitlam would agree not to call the half-Senate election until May or June 1976, or alternatively would agree not to call the Senate into session until after 1 July. Whitlam rejected the idea, seeking to end the Senate's right to deny supply. On 3 November, after a meeting with Kerr, Fraser proposed that if the government agreed to hold a House of Representatives election at the same time as the half-Senate election, the Coalition would concede supply. Whitlam rejected this offer, stating that he had no intention of advising a House election for at least a year.
With the crisis unresolved, on 6 November, Kerr decided to dismiss Whitlam as prime minister. Fearing that Whitlam would go to the Queen and have him removed, Kerr did not give Whitlam any hint of what was coming. He conferred (against Whitlam's advice) with High Court Chief Justice Sir Garfield Barwick, who agreed that he had the power to dismiss Whitlam.
A meeting among the party leaders, including Whitlam and Fraser, to resolve the crisis on the morning of 11 November came to nothing. Kerr and Whitlam met at the Governor-General's office that afternoon at 1.00 pm. Unknown to Whitlam, Fraser was waiting in an ante-room; Whitlam later stated that he would not have set foot in the building if he had known Fraser was there. Whitlam, as he had told Kerr by phone earlier that day, came prepared to advise a half-Senate election, to be held on 13 December. Kerr instead told Whitlam that he had terminated his commission as prime minister, and handed him a letter to that effect. After the conversation, Whitlam returned to the prime minister's residence, The Lodge, had lunch and conferred with his advisers. Immediately after his meeting with Whitlam, Kerr commissioned Fraser as caretaker prime minister, on the assurance he could obtain supply and would then advise Kerr to dissolve both houses for election.
In the confusion, Whitlam and his advisers did not immediately tell any Senate members of the dismissal, with the result that when the Senate convened at 2.00 pm, the appropriation bills were rapidly passed, with the ALP senators assuming the Opposition had given in. The bills were soon sent to Kerr to receive Royal Assent. At 2.34 pm, ten minutes after supply had been secured, Fraser rose in the House and announced he was prime minister. He promptly suffered a series of defeats in the House, which instructed the Speaker, Gordon Scholes, to advise Kerr to reinstate Whitlam.
By the time Kerr received Scholes, Parliament had been dissolved by proclamation. Kerr's Official Secretary, David Smith came to Parliament House to proclaim the dissolution from the front steps. A large, angry crowd had gathered, and Smith was nearly drowned out by their noise. He concluded with the traditional "God save the Queen". Former Prime Minister Whitlam, who had been standing behind Smith, then addressed the crowd:Well may we say "God save the Queen", because nothing will save the Governor-General! The Proclamation which you have just heard read by the Governor-General's Official Secretary was countersigned Malcolm Fraser, who will undoubtedly go down in Australian history from Remembrance Day 1975 as Kerr's cur. They won't silence the outskirts of Parliament House, even if the inside has been silenced for a few weeks... Maintain your rage and enthusiasm for the campaign for the election now to be held and until polling day.
See also
First Whitlam Ministry
Second Whitlam Ministry
Third Whitlam Ministry
References
Bibliography
1972 establishments in Australia
1975 disestablishments in Australia
Whitlam
Australian Labor Party governments
Gough Whitlam
History of Australia since 1945
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A puppet state, puppet régime or puppet government or dummy government is a state that is de jure independent but de facto completely dependent upon an outside power and subject to its orders. Puppet states have nominal sovereignty, but a foreign power effectively exercises control through means such as financial interests, economic, or military support. By leaving a local government in existence the outside Powers evade all responsibility, while at the same time successfully paralyzing the Government they tolerate.
Puppet states are distinguished from allies, which choose their actions on their own or in accordance with treaties they voluntarily entered. Puppet states are forced into providing legal endorsement for actions already taken by a foreign power.
Characteristics
A puppet state preserves the external paraphernalia of independence (such as a name, flag, anthem, constitution, law codes, motto and government), but in reality it is an organ of another state which creates,
sponsors or otherwise controls the government of the puppet state (the "puppet government"). International law does not recognize occupied puppet states as legitimate.
Puppet states can cease to be puppets through:
the military defeat of the "master" state (as in Europe and Asia in 1945),
absorption into the master state (as in the early Soviet Union),
revolution, notably occurring after withdrawal of foreign occupying forces (like Afghanistan in 1992), or
achievement of independence through state-building methods (especially through de-colonisation).
Terminology
The term is a metaphor which compares a state or government to a puppet controlled by a puppeteer using strings. The first recorded use of the term "puppet government" is from 1884, in reference to the Khedivate of Egypt.
In the Middle Ages vassal states existed which were based on delegation of rule of a country from a King to noble men of lower rank. Since the Peace of Westphalia of 1648 the concept of a nation came into existence where sovereignty was connected more to the people who inhabited the land than to the nobility who owned the land.
A similar concept mainly associated with pre-19th century political history is suzerainty, the control of the external affairs of one state by another.
Examples
19th century
The Batavian Republic was established in the Netherlands under French revolutionary protection. In Eastern Europe, France established a Polish client state of the Duchy of Warsaw.
In Italy, republics were created in the late 18th and early 19th centuries with the assistance and encouragement of Napoleonic France (see also French client republics).
During 1836 U.S. citizens allowed to live in the Mexican state of Texas revolted against the Mexican government to establish a U.S.-backed Republic of Texas, a country that existed less than 10 years (from May 14, 1836, to December 29, 1845) before it was annexed to the United States of America.
However, in August 1837, Memucan Hunt, Jr., the Texan minister to the United States, submitted the first official annexation proposal to the Van Buren administration (the first American-led attempts to take over Mexican Texas by filibustering date back to 1819 and by separatist settlers since 1826).
In 1810 U.S. citizens living in Spanish territory declared the area from the Mississippi River to the present state of Florida to be an independent nation. Known as the Republic of West Florida, it only lasted for 10 weeks. Not desiring to cross American interests, the republic's government encouraged annexation by the U.S., which soon occurred.
In 1896 Britain established a state in Zanzibar.
World War I
Kingdom of Poland (1916–1918) – The Central Powers' forces occupied Russian Congress Poland in 1915 and in 1916 the German Empire and Austria-Hungary created a Polish Monarchy in order to exploit the occupied territories in an easier way and mobilize the Poles against the Russians (see Polish Legions). In 1918 the state became independent and formed the backbone of the new internationally recognized Second Polish Republic.
Kingdom of Lithuania (1918) – after Russia's defeat and the territorial cessions of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Germans established a Lithuanian kingdom. However it became an independent republic with Germany's defeat.
Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (1918) – in 1915 the Imperial German forces occupied the Russian Courland Governorate and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ended the war in the east, so the local ethnic Baltic Germans established a Duchy under the German crown from that part of Ober Ost, with a common return of civil administration in favor of military. This state was very swiftly merged with the Baltic State Duchy, and German-occupied territories of Russian Empire in Livonia and Estonia, into a multi-ethnic United Baltic Duchy.
Provisional National Government of the Southwestern Caucasus and Provisional Government of Western Thrace were the provisional republics that were established by the Turkish minorities in Thrace and Caucasia, after the Ottoman Empire lost its lands in these regions. Both were the products of the Ottoman Intelligence agency, Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa, in terms of organisational structure and organisers, and they had remarkably common features.
Axis Powers of World War II
Imperial Japan
During Japan's imperial period, and particularly during the Pacific War (parts of which are considered the Pacific theatre of World War II), the Imperial Japanese regime established a number of dependent states.
Nominally sovereign states
Manchukuo (1932–1945), set up in Manchuria under the leadership of the last Chinese Emperor, Puyi.
North Shanxi Autonomous Government (1937-1939), was formed in northern Shanxi with its capital at Datong on October 15, 1937. The state was then merged with South Chahar Autonomous Government as well as the Mongol United Autonomous Government into Menjiang.
South Chahar Autonomous Government (1937-1939), was formed in South Chahar with its capital at Kalgan (modern day Zhangjiakou) on September 4, 1937. The state was merged with the North Shanxi Autonomous Government as well as the Mongol United Autonomous Government to create Mengjiang.
Mongol Military Government (1936-1937) as well as Mongol United Autonomous Government (1937-1939) were established in Inner Mongolia as puppet states with local collaborators. This state formed the large basis of what was to become Mengjiang.
Mengjiang, set up in Inner Mongolia on May 12, 1936, as the Mongol Military Government (蒙古軍政府) was renamed in October 1937 as the Mongol United Autonomous Government (蒙古聯盟自治政府). On September 1, 1939, the predominantly Han Chinese governments of South Chahar Autonomous Government and North Shanxi Autonomous Government were merged with the Mongol Autonomous Government, creating the new Mengjiang United Autonomous Government (蒙疆聯合自治政府). All of these were headed by De Wang.
East Hebei Autonomous Council – a state in northeast China between 1935 and 1938.
Great Way (Dadao) government (Shanghai 1937–1940) – A short-lived regime based in Shanghai. This provinsional government was established as a preliminary collaboration state as the Japanese took control of all of Shanghai and advanced towards Nanking. This was then merged with the Reformed Government of China as well as the Provisional Government of China into the Reorganised Nationalist Government of the Republic of China under the leadership of Chairmen Wang Jingwei.
Reformed Government of the Republic of China – First regime established in Nanjing after the Battle of Nanjing. Later fused into the Provisional Government of China.
Provisional Government of China (December 14, 1937 – March 30, 1940) – Incorporated into the Nanjing Nationalist Government on March 30, 1940.
Reorganised Nationalist Government of the Republic of China (March 30, 1940 – 1945) – Established in Nanjing under the leadership of Wang Jingwei.
State of Burma (Burma, 1942–1945) – Head of State: Ba Maw.
Second Philippine Republic (1943–1945) – government headed by José P. Laurel as President.
Provisional Government of Free India (1943–1945) - set up in Singapore in October 1943 by Subhas Chandra Bose and was in charge of Indian expatriates and military personnel in Japanese Southeast Asia. The government was established with prospective control of Indian territory to fall to the offensive to India. Of the territory of post-independence India, the government took charge of Kohima (after it fell to Japanese-INA offensive), parts of Manipur that fell to both the Japanese 15th Army as well as to the INA, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Empire of Vietnam (Vietnamese: Đế quốc Việt Nam, Hán tự: 帝國越南) (March–August 1945) – Emperor Bảo Đại's regime with Trần Trọng Kim as prime minister after proclaiming independence from France.
Kingdom of Cambodia (Cambodia, March–August 1945) – King Norodom Sihanouk's regime with Son Ngoc Thanh as Prime Minister after proclaiming independence from France.
Kingdom of Laos – King Sisavang Vong's régime after proclaiming independence from France.
Unrealized drafts for dependent states
Japan had made drafts for other dependent states. The Provisional Priamurye Government never got beyond the planning stages. In addition to the Japanese, the Germans supported the formation of this state.
In 1945, as the Second World War drew to a close, Japan planned to grant independence to the former Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). These plans ended when the Japanese surrendered on August 15, 1945.
Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy
Several European governments under the domination of Germany and Italy during World War II have been described as "puppet régimes". The formal means of control in occupied Europe varied greatly. These states fall into several categories.
Existing states in alliance with Germany and Italy
Government of National Unity (1944–1945) – The pro-Nazi régime of Prime Minister Ferenc Szálasi supported by the Arrow Cross Party was a German puppet régime. Arrow Cross was a pro-German, anti-Semitic Fascist party. Szálasi was installed by the Germans after Hitler launched Operation Panzerfaust and had the Hungarian Regent, Admiral Miklós Horthy, removed and placed under house arrest. Horthy was forced to abdicate in favor of Szálasi. Szálasi fought on even after Budapest fell and Hungary was completely overrun.
Existing states under German or Italian rule
Albania under Nazi Germany (1943–1944) – The Kingdom of Albania was an Italian protectorate and puppet régime. Italy invaded Albania in 1939 and ended the rule of King Zog I. Zog was exiled and King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy added King of Albania to his titles. King Victor Emmanuel and Shefqet Bej Verlaci, Albanian Prime Minister and Head of State, controlled the Italian protectorate. Shefqet Bej Verlaci was replaced as Prime Minister and Head of State by Mustafa Merlika Kruja on 3 December 1941. The Germans occupied Albania when Italy quit the war in 1943 and Ibrahim Bej Biçaku, Mehdi Bej Frashëri, and Rexhep Bej Mitrovica became successive Prime Minister under the Nazis.
Vichy France (1940–1942/4) – The Vichy French régime of Philippe Pétain had limited autonomy from 1940 to 1942, being heavily dependent on Germany. The Vichy government controlled many of France's colonies and the unoccupied part of France and enjoyed international recognition. In 1942, the Germans occupied the portion of France administered by the Vichy government in Case Anton and installed a new leadership under Pierre Laval, which ended much of the international legitimacy the government had.
Monaco (1943–1945) – In 1943, the Italian army invaded and occupied Monaco, setting up a fascist administration. Shortly thereafter, following Mussolini's collapse in Italy, the German army occupied Monaco and began the deportation of the Jewish population. Among them was René Blum, founder of the Ballet de l'Opera, who died in a Nazi extermination camp.
New states formed to reflect national aspirations
Slovak Republic under the Slovak People's Party (1939–1945) – The Slovak Republic was a German client state. The Slovak People's Party was a clerofascist nationalist movement associated with the Roman Catholic Church. Monsignor Jozef Tiso became the president in a nominally independent Slovakia.
Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945) – The Independent State of Croatia (Nezavisna Država Hrvatska or NDH) was a German and Italian puppet régime. On paper, the NDH was a kingdom under King Tomislav II (Aimone, Duke of Spoleto) of the House of Savoy, but Tomislav II was only a figurehead in Croatia who never exercised any real power, with Ante Pavelić being a somewhat independent leader ("poglavnik"), though staying obedient to Rome and Berlin.
States under control of Germany and Italy
Hellenic State (1941–1944) – The Hellenic State administration of Georgios Tsolakoglou, Konstantinos Logothetopoulos and Ioannis Rallis was a "collaborationist" puppet government during the Axis occupation of Greece. Germany, Italy and Bulgaria occupied different portions of Greece at different times during these régimes.
Government of National Salvation (1941–1944) – The government of General Milan Nedić and sometimes known as Nedić's Serbia was a German puppet régime operating in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia during the Axis occupation of Serbia.
Lokot Republic, Russia (1941–1943) – The Lokot Republic under Konstantin Voskoboinik and Bronislaw Kaminski was a semi-autonomous region in Nazi-occupied Russia under an all-Russian administration. The republic covered the area of several raions of Oryol and Kursk oblasts. It was directly associated with the Kaminski Brigade and the Russian Liberation Army (Russkaya Osvoboditelnaya Narodnaya Armiya or RONA).
Belarusian Central Rada (1943–1944) – The Belarusian Central Council (Biełaruskaja Centralnaja Rada) was nominally the government of Belarus from 1943 to 1944. It was a collaborationist government established by Nazi Germany (see Reichskommissariat Ostland).
Quisling's Norwegian National government (1942–1945) – The occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany started with all authority held by German Reich Commissioner (Reichskommissar) Josef Terboven, who exercised this through the Reichskommissariat Norwegen. The Norwegian pro-German fascist Vidkun Quisling had attempted a coup d'état against the Norwegian government during the German invasion on 9 April 1940, but he was not appointed by the Germans to head another native government until 1 February 1942.
Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945) – Formed after the invasion of Yugoslavia, the Independent State of Croatia was led by the Croatian fascist leader Ante Pavelić. It controlled all or most of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, parts of Serbia, and parts of Slovenia. The government relied on German support for much of its existence.
Italian Social Republic
Italian Social Republic (1943–1945, known also as the Republic of Salò) – General Pietro Badoglio and King Victor Emmanuel III withdrew Italy from the Axis Powers and moved the government to southern Italy, already conquered by the Allies. In response, the Germans occupied northern Italy and founded the Italian Social Republic (Repubblica Sociale Italiana or RSI) with Italian dictator Benito Mussolini as its "Head of State" and "Minister of Foreign Affairs". While the RSI government had some trappings of an independent state, it was completely dependent both economically and politically on Germany.
United Kingdom during and after World War II
The Axis demand for oil and the concern of the Allies that Germany would look to the oil-rich Middle East for a solution, caused the invasion of Iraq by the United Kingdom and the invasion of Iran by the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union. Pro-Axis governments in both Iraq and Iran were removed and replaced with Allied-dominated governments.
Kingdom of Iraq (1941–1947) – Iraq was important to the United Kingdom because of its position on the route to India. Iraq also could provide strategic oil reserves. But, due to the UK's weakness early in the war, Iraq backed away from the pre-war Anglo-Iraqi Alliance. On 1 April 1941, the Hashemite monarchy in Iraq was over-thrown and there was a pro-German coup d'état under Rashid Ali. The Rashid Ali regime began negotiations with the Axis powers and military aid was quickly sent to Mosul via Vichy French-controlled Syria. The Germans provided a squadron of twin engine fighters and a squadron of medium bombers. The Italians provided a squadron of biplane fighters. In mid-April 1941, a brigade of the 10th Indian Infantry Division landed at Basra (Operation Sabine). On 30 April, British forces at RAF Habbaniya were besieged by a numerically inferior Iraqi force. On 2 May, the British launched pre-emptive airstrikes against the Iraqis and the Anglo-Iraqi War began. By the end of May, the siege of RAF Habbaniya was lifted, Falluja was taken, Baghdad was surrounded by British forces, and the pro-German government of Rashid Ali collapsed. Rashid Ali and his supporters fled the country. The Hashemite monarchy (King Faisal II and Prime Minister Nuri al-Said) was restored. The UK then forced Iraq to declare war on the Axis in 1942. Commonwealth forces remained in Iraq until 26 October 1947.
Imperial State of Iran (1941–1943) – German workers in Iran caused the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union to question Iran's neutrality. In addition, Iran's geographical position was important to the Allies. So, in August 1941, the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran (Operation Countenance) was launched. In September 1941, Reza Shah Pahlavi was forced to abdicate his throne and went into exile. He was replaced by his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was willing to declare war on the Axis powers. By January 1942, the UK and the Soviet Union agreed to end their occupation of Iran six months after the end of the war.
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Tuvan People's Republic, also Tannu Tuva (1921–1944) achieved independence from China by means of local nationalist revolutions only to come under the domination of the Soviet Union in the 1920s. In 1944, Tannu Tuva was absorbed into the Soviet Union.
Finnish Democratic Republic (1939–1940) – The Finnish Democratic Republic (Suomen Kansanvaltainen Tasavalta) was a short-lived republic in the parts of Finland that were occupied by the Soviet Union during the Winter War. The Finnish Democratic Republic was also known as the "Terijoki Government" (Terijoen hallitus) because Terijoki was the first town captured by the Soviets.
Azerbaijan People's Government (1940–1946) – A short-lived state in Iranian Azerbaijan after WWII.
Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940) – In June 1940 the Republic of Latvia was occupied by the USSR and in July a government proclaimed Soviet power, In August 1940, Latvia was illegally annexed by the USSR.
Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940) – In June 1940 the Republic of Lithuania was occupied by the USSR and in July a government proclaimed Soviet power, In August 1940, Lithuania was illegally annexed by the USSR.
Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940) – In June 1940 the Republic of Estonia was occupied by the USSR and in July a government proclaimed Soviet power. In August 1940, Estonia was illegally annexed by the USSR.
Polish People's Republic (1947–1989) – The war-time governments under the Polish Committee of National Liberation, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland, and the Provisional Government of National Unity.
National-communist state of Romania (1947–1968) – The war-time National Front (FND) government under Prime Minister of Romania Petru Groza. The FND was led by the Romanian Communist Party (PCR). Romania refused to participate at the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia and, since that year, it started trading and having a warmer relationship with the Western World, resulting in the Soviet Union to lose control of Romania as a puppet state. This is known as the de-satellization of Communist Romania.
Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (1948–1990) – The war-time pro-Communist government National Front.
People's Republic of Bulgaria (1946–1990) – The war-time pro-Communist Fatherland Front government headed by Kimon Georgiev (Zveno).
Hungarian People's Republic (1949–1989) – The war-time government of Prime Minister Béla Miklós.
Republic of Mahabad (January 22, 1946 – January 15, 1947), officially known as the Republic of Kurdistan and established in several provinces of northwestern Iran, or what is known as Iranian Kurdistan, was a short-lived republic that sought Kurdish autonomy within the limits of the Iranian state. Iran re-took control in December and the leaders of the state were executed in March 1947 in Mahabad.
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978–1991)
As Soviet forces prevailed over the German Army on the Eastern Front during the Second World War, the Soviet Union supported the creation of communist governments throughout Eastern Europe. Specifically, the People's Republics in Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Albania were dominated by the Soviet Union. While all of these People's Republics did not "officially" take power until after World War II ended, they all have roots in pro-Communist war-time governments.
The Soviet Union established puppet communist governments in East Germany, Albania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, and Bulgaria. Yugoslavia was also a communist state closely linked to the Soviet Union, but Yugoslavia retained autonomy in its own lines. After the Tito-Stalin split, the relationship between the two countries deteriorated significantly. Yugoslavia was expelled from the international organizations of the Eastern bloc. After Stalin's death and his rejection of his policy by Khrushchev, peace was restored, bringing Yugoslavia back to the socialist brothers. However, the relationship between the two countries was never completely mended. Some other countries who were once Soviet puppet governments include Mongolia, North Korea, DRV (SRV), Cuba:After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, most of the communist states were reformed towards democratization. Only Vietnam and Cuba remain one-party Communist states. In North Korea since 2009, connections to communism under Marx-Leninism have been Supreme People's Assembly has been removed from the constitution even though Juche is linked to Marxism-Leninism.
Decolonization
In some cases, the process of decolonization has been managed by the decolonizing power to create a neo-colony, that is a nominally independent state whose economy and politics permits continued foreign domination. Neo-colonies are not normally considered puppet states.
Dutch East Indies
The Netherlands formed several puppet states in the former Dutch East Indies as part of the effort to quell the Indonesian National Revolutionː
East Indonesia
East Java
East Sumatra
Madura
Pasundan
South Sumatra
Bandjar
Bangka Island
Biliton
Central Java
East Kalimantan
Great Dayak
Southeast Borneo Federation
West Kalimantan
Congo crisis
Following Belgian Congo's independence as the Congo-Leopoldville in 1960, Belgian interests supported the short-lived breakaway state of Katanga (1960–1963).
South Africa's Bantustans
During the 1970s and 1980s, four ethnic bantustans, called "homelands" by the government of the time (some of which were extremely fragmented) were carved out of South Africa and given nominal sovereignty. Mostly Xhosa people resided in the Ciskei and Transkei, Tswana people in Bophuthatswana and Venda people in the Venda Republic.
The principal purpose of these states was to remove the Xhosa, Tswana and Venda peoples from South African citizenship (and so to provide grounds for denying them democratic rights). All four bantustans were reincorporated into a democratic South Africa on 27 April 1994.
Post-Cold War
Republic of Kuwait
The Republic of Kuwait was a short-lived pro-Iraqi state in the Persian Gulf that only existed three weeks before it was annexed by Iraq in 1990.
Republic of Serbian Krajina
The Republic of Serbian Krajina was a self proclaimed and by Serbian forces ethnic cleansed territory during the Croatian War (1991–95). It was not recognized internationally. That regime was completely dependent to the Serbian regime of Slobodan Milošević.
Current
Armenia
- A self-declared independent state heavily populated by Armenians, it is internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan. Russian peacekeepers control the Lachin corridor that allows traffic to reach Armenia, on which it is heavily dependent.
China
– The de facto independent Wa State in Myanmar is considered a puppet state that is linked with China.
Russia
is considered a puppet state that depends on Russia. The economy of Abkhazia is heavily integrated with Russia and uses the Russian ruble as its currency. About half of Abkhazia's state budget is financed with aid money from Russia. Most Abkhazians have Russian passports. Russia maintains a 3,500-strong force in Abkhazia with its headquarters in Gudauta, a former Soviet military base on the Black Sea coast. The borders of the Republic of Abkhazia are being protected by the Russian border guards.
– is considered to be a puppet state which is supported by Russia
– is considered to be a puppet state which is supported by Russia
has declared independence but its ability to maintain independence is solely based on Russian troops deployed on its territory. As South Ossetia is landlocked between Russia and Georgia, from which it seceded, it has to rely on Russia for economic and logistical support, as its entire exports and imports and air and road traffic is only between Russia. Former President of South Ossetia Eduard Kokoity claimed he would like South Ossetia eventually to become a part of the Russian Federation through reunification with North Ossetia.
– is sometimes considered a puppet state supported by Russia.
By limited opinion
Iran
– The Houthi government are considered by some to be a puppet state which is supported by Iran. This classification is disputed, however.
Saudi Arabia
– The Hadi government is sometimes considered a puppet state which is supported by Saudi Arabia.
Turkey
– According to the European Court of Human Rights, the Republic of Cyprus remains the sole legitimate government in Cyprus, and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus should be considered as a puppet state under Turkish effective control. Its isolation, the Turkish military presence and the heavy dependence on Turkish support mean that Turkey has a high level of control over the country's decision-making processes. That has led to some experts stating that it runs as an effective puppet state of Turkey. Other experts, however, have pointed out to the independent nature of elections and appointments in Northern Cyprus and disputes between the Turkish Cypriot and Turkish governments and conclude that "puppet state" is not an accurate description for Northern Cyprus.
United Arab Emirates
– Southern Transitional Council is sometimes considered a puppet state which is supported by the United Arab Emirates.
See also
References
Further reading
James Crawford. The creation of states in international law (1979)
Political metaphors
Client state
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Psychological warfare (PSYWAR), or the basic aspects of modern psychological operations (PsyOp), have been known by many other names or terms, including Military Information Support Operations (MISO), Psy Ops, political warfare, "Hearts and Minds", and propaganda. The term is used "to denote any action which is practiced mainly by psychological methods with the aim of evoking a planned psychological reaction in other people".
Various techniques are used, and are aimed at influencing a target audience's value system, belief system, emotions, motives, reasoning, or behavior. It is used to induce confessions or reinforce attitudes and behaviors favorable to the originator's objectives, and are sometimes combined with black operations or false flag tactics. It is also used to destroy the morale of enemies through tactics that aim to depress troops' psychological states.
Target audiences can be governments, organizations, groups, and individuals, and is not just limited to soldiers. Civilians of foreign territories can also be targeted by technology and media so as to cause an effect in the government of their country.
There is evidence of psychological warfare throughout written history. In modern times, psychological warfare efforts have been used extensively. Mass communication allows for direct communication with an enemy populace, and therefore has been used in many efforts. Social media channels and the internet allow for campaigns of disinformation and misinformation performed by agents anywhere in the world.
History
Early
Since prehistoric times, warlords and chiefs have recognized the importance of weakening the morale of opponents. In the Battle of Pelusium (525 BC) between the Persian Empire and ancient Egypt, the Persian forces used cats and other animals as a psychological tactic against the Egyptians, who avoided harming cats due to religious belief and spells.
Currying favor with supporters was the other side of psychological warfare, and an early practitioner of this was Alexander the Great, who successfully conquered large parts of Europe and the Middle East and held on to his territorial gains by co-opting local elites into the Greek administration and culture. Alexander left some of his men behind in each conquered city to introduce Greek culture and oppress dissident views. His soldiers were paid dowries to marry locals in an effort to encourage assimilation.
Genghis Khan, leader of the Mongolian Empire in the 13th century AD employed less subtle techniques. Defeating the will of the enemy before having to attack and reaching a consented settlement was preferable to facing his wrath. The Mongol generals demanded submission to the Khan and threatened the initially captured villages with complete destruction if they refused to surrender. If they had to fight to take the settlement, the Mongol generals fulfilled their threats and massacred the survivors. Tales of the encroaching horde spread to the next villages and created an aura of insecurity that undermined the possibility of future resistance.
Genghis Khan also employed tactics that made his numbers seem greater than they actually were. During night operations he ordered each soldier to light three torches at dusk to give the illusion of an overwhelming army and deceive and intimidate enemy scouts. He also sometimes had objects tied to the tails of his horses, so that riding on open and dry fields raised a cloud of dust that gave the enemy the impression of great numbers. His soldiers used arrows specially notched to whistle as they flew through the air, creating a terrifying noise.
Another tactic favored by the Mongols was catapulting severed human heads over city walls to frighten the inhabitants and spread disease in the besieged city's closed confines. This was especially used by the later Turko-Mongol chieftain.
The Muslim caliph Omar, in his battles against the Byzantine Empire, sent small reinforcements in the form of a continuous stream, giving the impression that a large force would accumulate eventually if not swiftly dealt with.
During the early Qin dynasty and late Eastern Zhou dynasty in 1st century AD China, the Empty Fort Strategy was used to trick the enemy into believing that an empty location was an ambush, in order to prevent them from attacking it using reverse psychology. This tactic also relied on luck, should the enemy believe that the location is a threat to them.
In the 6th century BCE Greek Bias of Priene successfully resisted the Lydian king Alyattes by fattening up a pair of mules and driving them out of the besieged city. When Alyattes' envoy was then sent to Priene, Bias had piles of sand covered with wheat to give the impression of plentiful resources.
This ruse appears to have been well known in medieval Europe: defenders in castles or towns under siege would throw food from the walls to show besiegers that provisions were plentiful. A famous example occurs in the 8th-century legend of Lady Carcas, who supposedly persuaded the Franks to abandon a five-year siege by this means and gave her name to Carcassonne as a result.
During the Attack on Marstrand, Peter Tordenskjold carried out military deception against the Swedes. Although probably apocryphal, he apparently succeeded in making his small force appear larger and feed disinformation to his opponents, similar to the Operations Fortitude and Titanic in World War II.
Modern
World War I
The start of modern psychological operations in war is generally dated to World War I. By that point, Western societies were increasingly educated and urbanized, and mass media was available in the form of large circulation newspapers and posters. It was also possible to transmit propaganda to the enemy via the use of airborne leaflets or through explosive delivery systems like modified artillery or mortar rounds.
At the start of the war, the belligerents, especially the British and Germans, began distributing propaganda, both domestically and on the Western front. The British had several advantages that allowed them to succeed in the battle for world opinion; they had one of the world's most reputable news systems, with much experience in international and cross-cultural communication, and they controlled much of the undersea cable system then in operation. These capabilities were easily transitioned to the task of warfare.
The British also had a diplomatic service that maintained good relations with many nations around the world, in contrast to the reputation of the German services. While German attempts to foment revolution in parts of the British Empire, such as Ireland and India, were ineffective, extensive experience in the Middle East allowed the British to successfully induce the Arabs to revolt against the Ottoman Empire.
In August 1914, David Lloyd George appointed a Member of Parliament (MP), Charles Masterman, to head a Propaganda Agency at Wellington House. A distinguished body of literary talent was enlisted for the task, with its members including Arthur Conan Doyle, Ford Madox Ford, G. K. Chesterton, Thomas Hardy, Rudyard Kipling and H. G. Wells. Over 1,160 pamphlets were published during the war and distributed to neutral countries, and eventually, to Germany. One of the first significant publications, the Report on Alleged German Outrages of 1915, had a great effect on general opinion across the world. The pamphlet documented atrocities, both actual and alleged, committed by the German army against Belgian civilians. A Dutch illustrator, Louis Raemaekers, provided the highly emotional drawings which appeared in the pamphlet.
In 1917, the bureau was subsumed into the new Department of Information and branched out into telegraph communications, radio, newspapers, magazines and the cinema. In 1918, Viscount Northcliffe was appointed Director of Propaganda in Enemy Countries. The department was split between propaganda against Germany organized by H.G Wells, and propaganda against the Austro-Hungarian Empire supervised by Wickham Steed and Robert William Seton-Watson; the attempts of the latter focused on the lack of ethnic cohesion in the Empire and stoked the grievances of minorities such as the Croats and Slovenes. It had a significant effect on the final collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Army at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto.
Aerial leaflets were dropped over German trenches containing postcards from prisoners of war detailing their humane conditions, surrender notices and general propaganda against the Kaiser and the German generals. By the end of the war, MI7b had distributed almost 26 million leaflets. The Germans began shooting the leaflet-dropping pilots, prompting the British to develop unmanned leaflet balloons that drifted across no-man's land. At least one in seven of these leaflets were not handed in by the soldiers to their superiors, despite severe penalties for that offence. Even General Hindenburg admitted that "Unsuspectingly, many thousands consumed the poison", and POWs admitted to being disillusioned by the propaganda leaflets that depicted the use of German troops as mere cannon fodder. In 1915, the British began airdropping a regular leaflet newspaper Le Courrier de l'Air for civilians in German-occupied France and Belgium.
At the start of the war, the French government took control of the media to suppress negative coverage. Only in 1916, with the establishment of the Maison de la Presse, did they begin to use similar tactics for the purpose of psychological warfare. One of its sections was the "Service de la Propagande aérienne" (Aerial Propaganda Service), headed by Professor Tonnelat and Jean-Jacques Waltz, an Alsatian artist code-named "Hansi". The French tended to distribute leaflets of images only, although the full publication of US President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, which had been heavily edited in the German newspapers, was distributed via airborne leaflets by the French.
The Central Powers were slow to use these techniques; however, at the start of the war the Germans succeeded in inducing the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire to declare 'holy war', or Jihad, against the Western infidels. They also attempted to foment rebellion against the British Empire in places as far afield as Ireland, Afghanistan, and India. The Germans' greatest success was in giving the Russian revolutionary, Lenin, free transit on a sealed train from Switzerland to Finland after the overthrow of the Tsar. This soon paid off when the Bolshevik Revolution took Russia out of the war.
World War II
Adolf Hitler was greatly influenced by the psychological tactics of warfare the British had employed during World War I, and attributed the defeat of Germany to the effects this propaganda had on the soldiers. He became committed to the use of mass propaganda to influence the minds of the German population in the decades to come. By calling his movement The Third Reich, he was able to convince many civilians that his cause was not just a fad, but the way of their future. Joseph Goebbels was appointed as Propaganda Minister when Hitler came to power in 1933, and he portrayed Hitler as a messianic figure for the redemption of Germany. Hitler also coupled this with the resonating projections of his orations for effect.
Germany's Fall Grün plan of invasion of Czechoslovakia had a large part dealing with psychological warfare aimed both at the Czechoslovak civilians and government as well as, crucially, at Czechoslovak allies. It became successful to the point that Germany gained support of UK and France through appeasement to occupy Czechoslovakia without having to fight an all-out war, sustaining only minimum losses in covert war before the Munich Agreement.
At the start of the Second World War, the British set up the Political Warfare Executive to produce and distribute propaganda. Through the use of powerful transmitters, broadcasts could be made across Europe. Sefton Delmer managed a successful black propaganda campaign through several radio stations which were designed to be popular with German troops while at the same time introducing news material that would weaken their morale under a veneer of authenticity. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill made use of radio broadcasts for propaganda against the Germans.
During World War II, the British made extensive use of deception – developing many new techniques and theories. The main protagonists at this time were 'A' Force, set up in 1940 under Dudley Clarke, and the London Controlling Section, chartered in 1942 under the control of John Bevan. Clarke pioneered many of the strategies of military deception. His ideas for combining fictional orders of battle, visual deception and double agents helped define Allied deception strategy during the war, for which he has been referred to as "the greatest British deceiver of WW2".
During the lead up to the Allied invasion of Normandy, many new tactics in psychological warfare were devised. The plan for Operation Bodyguard set out a general strategy to mislead German high command as to the exact date and location of the invasion. Planning began in 1943 under the auspices of the London Controlling Section (LCS). A draft strategy, referred to as Plan Jael, was presented to Allied high command at the Tehran Conference. Operation Fortitude was intended to convince the Germans of a greater Allied military strength than existed, through fictional field armies, faked operations to prepare the ground for invasion and leaked information about the Allied order of battle and war plans.
Elaborate naval deceptions (Operations Glimmer, Taxable and Big Drum) were undertaken in the English Channel. Small ships and aircraft simulated invasion fleets lying off Pas de Calais, Cap d'Antifer and the western flank of the real invasion force. At the same time Operation Titanic involved the RAF dropping fake paratroopers to the east and west of the Normandy landings.
The deceptions were implemented with the use of double agents, radio traffic and visual deception. The British "Double Cross" anti-espionage operation had proven very successful from the outset of the war, and the LCS was able to use double agents to send back misleading information about Allied invasion plans. The use of visual deception, including mock tanks and other military hardware had been developed during the North Africa campaign. Mock hardware was created for Bodyguard; in particular, dummy landing craft were stockpiled to give the impression that the invasion would take place near Calais.
The Operation was a strategic success and the Normandy landings caught German defences unaware. Subsequent deception led Hitler into delaying reinforcement from the Calais region for nearly seven weeks.
Vietnam War
The United States ran an extensive program of psychological warfare during the Vietnam War. The Phoenix Program had the dual aim of assassinating National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NLF or Viet Cong) personnel and terrorizing any potential sympathizers or passive supporters. The Chieu Hoi program of the South Vietnam government promoted NLF defections.
When members of the PRG were assassinated, CIA and Special Forces operatives placed playing cards in the mouth of the deceased as a calling card. During the Phoenix Program, over 19,000 NLF supporters were killed. The United States also used tapes of distorted human sounds and played them during the night making the Vietnamese soldiers think that the dead were back for revenge.
Recent operations
The CIA made extensive use of Contra soldiers to destabilize the Sandinista government in Nicaragua. The CIA used psychological warfare techniques against the Panamanians by delivering unlicensed TV broadcasts. The United States government has used propaganda broadcasts against the Cuban government through TV Marti, based in Miami, Florida. However, the Cuban government has been successful at jamming the signal of TV Marti.
In the Iraq War, the United States used the shock and awe campaign to psychologically maim and break the will of the Iraqi Army to fight.
In cyberspace, social media has enabled the use of disinformation on a wide scale. Analysts have found evidence of doctored or misleading photographs spread by social media in the Syrian Civil War and 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine, possibly with state involvement. Military and governments have engaged in psychological operations (PSYOPS) and informational warfare on social networking platforms to regulate foreign propaganda, which includes countries like the US, Russia, and China.
In operations in the South and East China Seas, both the United States and China have been engaged in "Cognitive Warfare", which involves both displays of force, staged photographs and sharing of disinformation.
Methods
Most modern uses of the term psychological warfare refer to the following military methods:
Demoralization:
Distributing pamphlets that encourage desertion or supply instructions on how to surrender
Shock and awe military strategy
Projecting repetitive and disturbing noises and music for long periods at high volume towards groups under siege like during Operation Nifty Package
Tolerance indoctrination, so that the totems and culture of a defeated enemy can be removed or replaced without conflict.
Propaganda radio stations, such as Lord Haw-Haw in World War II on the "Germany calling" station
Renaming cities and other places when captured, such as the renaming of Saigon to Ho Chi Minh City after Communist victory in the Vietnam War
False flag events
Use of loudspeaker systems to communicate with enemy soldiers
Terrorism
The threat of chemical weapons
Information warfare
Most of these techniques were developed during World War II or earlier, and have been used to some degree in every conflict since. Daniel Lerner was in the OSS (the predecessor to the American CIA) and in his book, attempts to analyze how effective the various strategies were. He concludes that there is little evidence that any of them were dramatically successful, except perhaps surrender instructions over loudspeakers when victory was imminent. Measuring the success or failure of psychological warfare is very hard, as the conditions are very far from being a controlled experiment.
Lerner also divides psychological warfare operations into three categories:
White propaganda (Omissions and Emphasis): Truthful and not strongly biased, where the source of information is acknowledged.
Grey propaganda (Omissions, Emphasis and Racial/Ethnic/Religious Bias): Largely truthful, containing no information that can be proven wrong; the source is not identified.
Black propaganda (Commissions of falsification): Inherently deceitful, information given in the product is attributed to a source that was not responsible for its creation.
Lerner says grey and black operations ultimately have a heavy cost, in that the target population sooner or later recognizes them as propaganda and discredits the source. He writes, "This is one of the few dogmas advanced by Sykewarriors that is likely to endure as an axiom of propaganda: Credibility is a condition of persuasion. Before you can make a man do as you say, you must make him believe what you say." Consistent with this idea, the Allied strategy in World War II was predominantly one of truth (with certain exceptions).
In Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes, Jacques Ellul discusses psychological warfare as a common peace policy practice between nations as a form of indirect aggression. This type of propaganda drains the public opinion of an opposing regime by stripping away its power on public opinion. This form of aggression is hard to defend against because no international court of justice is capable of protecting against psychological aggression since it cannot be legally adjudicated. "Here the propagandists is [sic] dealing with a foreign adversary whose morale he seeks to destroy by psychological means so that the opponent begins to doubt the validity of his beliefs and actions."
By country
China
According to U.S. military analysts, attacking the enemy’s mind is an important element of the People's Republic of China's military strategy. This type of warfare is rooted in the Chinese Stratagems outlined by Sun Tzu in The Art of War and Thirty-Six Stratagems. In its dealings with its rivals, China is expected to utilize Marxism to mobilize communist loyalists, as well as flex its economic and military muscle to persuade other nations to act in China's interests. The Chinese government also tries to control the media to keep a tight hold on propaganda efforts for its people.
France
The Centre interarmées des actions sur l’environnement is an organization made up of 300 soldiers whose mission is to assure to the four service arm of the French Armed Forces psychological warfare capacities. Deployed in particular to Mali and Afghanistan, its missions « consist in better explaining and accepting the action of French forces in operation with local actors and thus gaining their trust: direct aid to the populations, management of reconstruction sites, actions of communication of influence with the population, elites and local elected officials ». The center has capacities for analysis, influence, expertise and instruction.
Germany
In the German Bundeswehr, the Zentrum Operative Information and its subordinate Bataillon für Operative Information 950 are responsible for the PSYOP efforts (called Operative Information in German). Both the center and the battalion are subordinate to the new Streitkräftebasis (Joint Services Support Command, SKB) and together consist of about 1,200 soldiers specialising in modern communication and media technologies. One project of the German PSYOP forces is the radio station Stimme der Freiheit (Sada-e Azadi, Voice of Freedom), heard by thousands of Afghans. Another is the publication of various newspapers and magazines in Kosovo and Afghanistan, where German soldiers serve with NATO.
Russia
Soviet Union
United Kingdom
The British were one of the first major military powers to use psychological warfare in the First and Second World Wars. In the current British Armed Forces, PsyOps are handled by the tri-service 15 Psychological Operations Group. (See also MI5 and Secret Intelligence Service). The Psychological Operations Group comprises over 150 personnel, approximately 75 from the regular Armed Services and 75 from the Reserves. The Group supports deployed commanders in the provision of psychological operations in operational and tactical environments.
The Group was established immediately after the 1991 Gulf War, has since grown significantly in size to meet operational requirements, and from 2015 it will be one of the sub-units of the 77th Brigade, formerly called the Security Assistance Group.
In June 2015, NSA files published by Glenn Greenwald revealed details of the JTRIG group at British intelligence agency GCHQ covertly manipulating online communities. This is in line with JTRIG's goal: to "destroy, deny, degrade [and] disrupt" enemies by "discrediting" them, planting misinformation and shutting down their communications.
In March 2019, it emerged that the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (DSTL) of the UK's Ministry of Defence (MoD) is tendering to arms companies and universities for £70M worth of assistance under a project to develop new methods of psychological warfare. The project is known as the human and social sciences research capability (HSSRC).
United States
The term psychological warfare is believed to have migrated from Germany to the United States in 1941. During World War II, the United States Joint Chiefs of Staff defined psychological warfare broadly, stating "Psychological warfare employs any weapon to influence the mind of the enemy. The weapons are psychological only in the effect they produce and not because of the weapons themselves." The U.S. Department of Defense currently defines psychological warfare as:
"The planned use of propaganda and other psychological actions having the primary purpose of influencing the opinions, emotions, attitudes, and behavior of hostile foreign groups in such a way as to support the achievement of national objectives."
This definition indicates that a critical element of the U.S. psychological operations capabilities includes propaganda and by extension counterpropaganda. Joint Publication 3–53 establishes specific policy to use public affairs mediums to counter propaganda from foreign origins.
The purpose of United States psychological operations is to induce or reinforce attitudes and behaviors favorable to US objectives. The Special Activities Center (SAC) is a division of the Central Intelligence Agency's National Clandestine Service, responsible for Covert Action and "Special Activities". These special activities include covert political influence (which includes psychological operations) and paramilitary operations. SAC's political influence group is the only US unit allowed to conduct these operations covertly and is considered the primary unit in this area.
Dedicated psychological operations units exist in the United States Army. The United States Navy also plans and executes limited PSYOP missions. United States PSYOP units and soldiers of all branches of the military are prohibited by law from targeting U.S. citizens with PSYOP within the borders of the United States (Executive Order S-1233, DOD Directive S-3321.1, and National Security Decision Directive 130). While United States Army PSYOP units may offer non-PSYOP support to domestic military missions, they can only target foreign audiences.
A U.S. Army field manual released in January 2013 states that "Inform and Influence Activities" are critical for describing, directing, and leading military operations. Several Army Division leadership staff are assigned to “planning, integration and synchronization of designated information-related capabilities."
See also
Character assassination
Charles Douglas Jackson
Demonizing the enemy
Directed-energy weapon
Fear mongering
Information warfare
Lawfare
Media manipulation
Military psychology
Mind games
Minor sabotage
Moral panic
Noisy investigation
Psychological manipulation
Special Operations
Strategy of tension
Taliban propaganda
The Shock Doctrine
Unconventional Warfare
Peter Watson (intellectual historian)
Zersetzung
NATO
Able Archer 83
UK
Briggs Plan
Information Research Department
US specific:
Information Operations Roadmap
Military journalism
NLF and PAVN battle tactics
Zarqawi PSYOP program
World War II:
Psychological Warfare Division
USSR
Active measures
Related:
Asymmetric warfare
Fourth generation warfare
References
Bibliography
Fred Cohen. Frauds, Spies, and Lies – and How to Defeat Them. (2006). ASP Press.
Fred Cohen. World War 3 ... Information Warfare Basics. (2006). ASP Press.
Gagliano Giuseppe. Guerra psicologia.Disinformazione e movimenti sociali. Introduzione del Gen. Carlo Jean e di Alessandro Politi Editrice Aracne, Roma, 2012.
Gagliano Giuseppe. Guerra psicologia.Saggio sulle moderne tecniche militari, di guerra cognitiva e disinformazione. Introduzione del Gen. Carlo Jean, Editrice Fuoco, Roma 2012.
Paul M. A. Linebarger. Psychological Warfare: International Propaganda and Communications. (1948). Revised second edition, Duell, Sloan and Pearce (1954).
Roberts III, Mervyn Edwin. The Psychological War for Vietnam, 1960–1968 (2018)
External links
Movie: Psywar: The Real Battlefield is the Mind by Metanoia films
The history of psychological warfare
IWS Psychological Operations (PsyOps) / Influence Operations
"Pentagon psychological warfare operation", USA Today, 15 December 2005
"U.S. Adapts Cold-War Idea to Fight Terrorists", New York Times, 18 March 2008
US Army PSYOPS Info – Detailed information about the US Army Psychological Operation Soldiers
IWS — The Information Warfare Site
U.S. — PSYOP producing mid-eastern kids comic book
The Institute of Heraldry — Psychological Operations
Psychological warfare
The Nature of Psychological Warfare (CIA 1958) Original
Aggression
Crowd psychology
Information operations and warfare
Mind control
Propaganda techniques
Psychological warfare techniques
Warfare by type
Warfare post-1945
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The LXIV Legislature of the Mexican Congress is the current meeting of the Mexican Congress of the Union that convened on 1 September 2018 and will end on 31 August 2021. It is composed of the 500 federal deputies and 128 senators elected in the 2018 Mexican general election. While the deputies will serve only in the LXIV Legislature, the senators, elected to six-year terms, will also form the Senate in the LXV Legislature, which will convene in 2021.
Highlights
The LXIV Legislature is noteworthy for its gender parity, with the most women ever elected to the Chamber of Deputies and Senate. Women will hold 49 percent of the seats in the Senate, a national record and the third-highest percentage of women in a current national upper house, according to data collected by the Interparliamentary Union. The Chamber of Deputies will have the fourth-highest percentage of women among lower houses.
In the Chamber of Deputies, this was the first election to be conducted after a 2017 redistricting of the federal electoral districts conducted by the National Electoral Institute. In reapportionment, Mexico City lost three seats, while seven states added a seat and four states lost one seat each.
On August 23, the PRI, PRD, PAN and Movimiento Ciudadano announced they would challenge the allocation of proportional representation seats in the Chamber of Deputies, saying MORENA is overrepresented.
Composition
Senate
Chamber of Deputies
Leadership
Senate
Presiding
Martí Batres Guadarrama (MRN), 2018–2019
Mónica Fernández Balboa (MRN), 2019–2020
Oscar Eduardo Ramírez Aguilar (MRN), 2020–2021
Party Leadership
PAN Leader: Damián Zepeda Vidales, 2018
Rafael Moreno Valle Rosas, 2018
Mauricio Kuri González, from 2018
PRI Leader: Miguel Ángel Osorio Chong
PRD Leader: Miguel Ángel Mancera
PT Leader: Alejandro González Yáñez, until 2019
Geovanna Bañuelos de la Torre, from 2019
PVEM Leader: Manuel Velasco Coello, 2018
Raúl Bolaños Cacho Cué, from 2018
MC Leader: Dante Delgado Rannauro
MRN Leader: Ricardo Monreal Ávila
PES Leader: Sasil de León Villard
Chamber of Deputies
Presiding
Porfirio Muñoz Ledo (MRN), 2018–2019
Laura Rojas Hernández (PAN), 2019–2020
Dulce María Sauri Riancho (PRI), 2020–2021
Party Leadership
PAN Leader: Juan Carlos Romero Hicks
PRI Leader: René Juárez Cisneros
PRD Leader: Ricardo Gallardo Cardona, until 2019
Verónica Juárez Piña, from 2019
PT Leader: Reginaldo Sandoval Flores
PVEM Leader: Arturo Escobar y Vega
MC Leader: Alberto Esquer Gutiérrez, 2018
Itzcóatl Tonatiuh Bravo Padilla, 2018–2021
Fabiola Loya Hernández, from 2021
MRN Leader: Mario Martin Delgado, until 2020
Ignacio Mier Velazco, from 2020
PES Leader: Fernando Manzanilla Prieto, until 2019
Olga Juliana Elizondo Guerra, 2019
Jorge Argüelles Victorero, from 2019
Membership
Senate
The Senate is composed of 128 seats; three each elected from each of Mexico's 32 federative entities for a total of 96, as well as 32 proportional representation seats.
Aguascalientes
Martha Cecilia Márquez Alvarado (PAN)
Juan Antonio Martín del Campo (PAN)
Daniel Gutiérrez Castorena (MRN)
Baja California
Jaime Bonilla Valdez (MRN), until 6 December 2018
Gerardo Novelo Osuna (MRN), from 6 December 2018
Alejandra León Gastélum (PT)
Gina Cruz Blackledge (PAN)
Baja California Sur
Víctor Manuel Castro Cosío (MRN), until 2 December 2018
Ricardo Velázquez Meza (MRN), from 6 December 2018
Lucía Trasviña Waldenrath (MRN)
María Guadalupe Saldaña Cisneros (PAN), until 10 February 2021
Audelia Esthela Villarreal Zavala (PAN), from 11 February 2021
Campeche
Aníbal Ostoa Ortega (MRN), until 1 February 2021
Arturo Moo Cahuich (MRN), from 1 February 2021
Cecilia Margarita Sánchez García (MRN)
Rocío Adriana Abreu Artiñano (MRN)
Chiapas
Eduardo Ramírez Aguilar (MRN)
Sasil de León Villard (PES)
Noé Castañón Ramírez (MC)
Chihuahua
Bertha Alicia Caraveo Camarena (MRN)
Cruz Pérez Cuéllar (MRN)
Gustavo Madero Muñoz (PAN)
Coahuila
Armando Guadiana Tijerina (MRN), until 1 January 2021
Vacant
Eva Eugenia Galaz Caletti (MRN)
Verónica Martínez García (PRI)
Colima
Joel Padilla Peña (PT)
Gricelda Valencia de la Mora (MRN)
Gabriela Benavides Cobos (PVEM)
Durango
Alejandro González Yáñez (PT), until 5 March 2019
Miguel Ángel Lucero Olivas (PT), from 5 March 2019
Lilia Margarita Valdéz Martínez (MRN)
José Ramón Enríquez Herrera (MRN)
Guanajuato
Alejandra Noemí Reynoso Sánchez (PAN)
Erandi Bermúdez Méndez (PAN)
Martha Lucía Mícher Camarena (MRN)
Guerrero
Félix Salgado Macedonio (MRN), until 31 August 2020
Saúl López Sollano (MRN), from 22 September 2020
Nestora Salgado (MRN)
Manuel Añorve Baños (PRI)
Hidalgo
Angélica García Arrieta (MRN), until 22 December 2018
María Merced González González (MRN), from 2 January 2019
Julio Ramón Menchaca Salazar (MRN)
Nuvia Mayorga Delgado (PRI)
Jalisco
Clemente Castañeda Hoeflich (MC)
Verónica Delgadillo García (MC), until 11 March 2021
Ruth Alejandra López Hernández (MC), from 11 March 2021
María Antonia Cárdenas Mariscal (MRN)
Mexico
Delfina Gómez Álvarez (MRN), until 2 December 2018
Martha Guerrero Sánchez (MRN), from 4 December 2018
Higinio Martínez Miranda (MRN)
Juan Manuel Zepeda Hernández (PAN)
Mexico City
Martí Batres Guadarrama (MRN)
Citlalli Hernández Mora (MRN), until 14 September 2020
María Celeste Sánchez Sugía (MRN), from 14 October 2020
Emilio Álvarez Icaza (I)
Michoacán
Blanca Estela Peña Gudiño (MRN)
Cristóbal Arias Solís (MRN), until 21 January 2021
José Alfonso Solórzano Fraga (MRN), from 2 February 2021
Antonio García Conejo (PRD), until 4 March 2021
Marco Trejo Pureco (PRD), from 8 March 2021
Morelos
Lucía Virginia Meza Guzmán (MRN)
Radamés Salazar Solorio (MRN), until 21 February 2021
Sergio Pérez Flores (MRN), from 2 March 2021
Ángel García Yáñez (PRI)
Nayarit
Cora Cecilia Pinedo Alonso (MRN)
Miguel Ángel Navarro Quintero (MRN), until 15 December 2020
Vacant
Gloria Elizabeth Núñez Sánchez (PRI), until 26 February 2021
Martha María Rodríguez Domínguez
Nuevo León
Samuel García Sepúlveda (MC), until 18 November 2020
Luis David Ortiz Salinas (MC), from 19 November 2020
Indira Kempis Martínez (MC)
Víctor Oswaldo Fuentes Solís (PRI)
Oaxaca
Susana Harp (MRN), until 19 May 2020; from 12 August 2020
Concepción Rueda Gómez, from 29 June to 12 August 2020
Salomón Jara Cruz (MRN)
Raúl Bolaños Cacho Cué (PVEM)
Puebla
Alejandro Armenta Mier (MRN)
Nancy de la Sierra Arámburo (PT)
Nadia Navarro Acevedo (PAN), until 8 April 2021
Vacant
Querétaro
Mauricio Kuri González (PAN), until 2 February 2021
Alfredo Botello Montes (PAN), from 2 February 2021
Guadalupe Murguía Gutiérrez (PAN)
Gilberto Herrera Ruiz (MRN)
Quintana Roo
Marybel Villegas Canché (MRN)
José Luis Pech Varguez (MRN)
Mayuli Martínez Simón (PAN), until 8 April 2021
Vacant
San Luis Potosí
Leonor Noyola Cervantes (PVEM), until 4 March 2021
Graciela Gaitán Díaz (PVEM), from 10 March 2021
Marco Antonio Gama Basarte (PAN), until 15 October 2020
Francisco Javier Salazar Sáenz (PAN), from 15 October 2020
Primo Dothe Mata (MRN)
Sinaloa
Rubén Rocha Moya (MRN), until 5 March 2021
Raúl de Jesús Elenes Angulo (MRN), from 9 March 2021
Imelda Castro Castro (MRN)
Mario Zamora Gastélum (PRI), until 4 March 2021
Heriberto Galindo Quiñones, from 9 March 2021
Sonora
Lilly Téllez (PAN)
Alfonso Durazo Montaño (MRN), until 8 November 2018
Arturo Bours Griffith (MRN), from 8 November 2018
Sylvana Beltrones Sánchez (PRI)
Tabasco
Mónica Fernández Balboa (MRN)
Javier May Rodríguez (MRN)
Juan Manuel Fócil Pérez (PRD)
Tamaulipas
Américo Villarreal Anaya (MRN)
María Guadalupe Covarrubias Cervantes (MRN)
Ismael García Cabeza de Vaca (PAN)
Tlaxcala
Ana Lilia Rivera Rivera (MRN)
José Antonio Álvarez Lima (MRN), until 28 February 2019; from 20 November 2020
Joel Molina Ramírez (MRN), from 28 February 2019 to 24 October 2020
Minerva Hernández Ramos (PAN)
Veracruz
Rocío Nahle García (MRN), until 27 November 2018
Gloria Sánchez Hernández (MRN), from 29 November 2018
Ricardo Ahued Bardahuil (MRN)
Julen Rementería del Puerto (PAN)
Yucatán
Jorge Carlos Ramírez Marín (PRI), until 8 April 2021
Jorge Alberto Habib Abimerhi (PRI)
Verónica Noemí Camino Farjat (MRN), until 8 April 2021
María Marena López García (MRN), from 13 April 2021
Raúl Paz Alonzo (PAN)
Zacatecas
María Soledad Luévano Cantú (MRN)
José Narro Céspedes (MRN)
Claudia Anaya Mota (PRI), until 4 March 2021
Evelia Sandoval Urban (PRI), from 4 March 2021
Senators by proportional representation
PAN List
Josefina Vázquez Mota (PAN)
Xóchitl Gálvez Ruiz (PRD)
Indira Rosales San Román (PAN)
Damián Zepeda Vidales (PAN)
Kenia López Rabadán (PAN)
Rafael Moreno Valle Rosas (PAN), until 24 December 2018
Roberto Moya Clemente (PAN), from 2 January 2019
PRI List
Claudia Ruiz Massieu Salinas (PRI)
Carlos Humberto Aceves (PRI)
Vanessa Rubio Márquez (PRI), until 16 July 2020
Nancy Guadalupe Sánchez Arredondo (MRN), from 16 July 2020
Miguel Ángel Osorio Chong (PRI)
Beatriz Paredes Rangel (PRI)
Eruviel Ávila Villegas (PRI)
PRD List
Miguel Ángel Mancera (PRD)
Israel Zamora Guzmán (PVEM)
PT List
Geovanna Bañuelos de la Torre (PT)
PVEM List
Alejandra Lagunes (PVEM)
Manuel Velasco Coello (PVEM)
MC List
Patricia Mercado (MC)
Dante Delgado Rannauro (MC)
MRN List
Antares Vázquez Alatorre (MRN)
Héctor Vasconcelos (MRN)
Olga Sánchez Cordero (MRN), until 29 November 2018
Jesusa Rodríguez (MRN), from 29 November 2018
Ricardo Monreal Ávila (MRN)
Ifigenia Martínez (MRN)
Napoleón Gómez Urrutia (MRN)
Elvia Marcela Mora Arellano (PES)
Germán Martínez Cázares (MRN)
Katya Elizabeth Ávila Vázquez (PES)
Casimiro Méndez Ortiz (MRN)
Eunice Renata Romo Molina (PES)
Gabriel García Hernández (MRN), until 29 November 2018
José Alejandro Peña Villa (MRN), from 29 November 2018
Claudia Balderas Espinoza (MRN)
Chamber of Deputies
The Chamber of Deputies is composed of 500 seats, elected from 300 single-member federal electoral districts and 40 apiece from five proportional representation electoral regions.
Aguascalientes
1. Francisco Javier Luevano Nuñez (PAN)
2. Elba Lorena Torres Díaz (PT)
3. Martha Elisa González Estrada (PAN)
Baja California
1. Jesús Salvador Minor Mora (MRN)
2. Marina del Pilar Ávila Olmeda (MRN)
3. Armando Reyes Ledesma (PT)
4. Socorro Andaloza Gómez (MRN)
5. Mario Ismael Moreno Gil (MRN)
6. Javier Castañeda Pomposo (MRN)
7. Érik Morales (MRN)
8. Héctor Cruz Aparicio (PES)
Baja California Sur
1. Ana Ruth García Grande (MRN)
2. Alfredo Porras Domínguez (PT)
Campeche
1. Carlos Martínez Ake (MRN)
2. Irasema Buenfil Díaz (MRN)
Chiapas
1. Manuela Obrador Narváez (MRN)
2. Humberto Pedrero Moreno (MRN)
3. Alfredo Vázquez Vázquez (MRN)
4. Roque Luis Rabelo Velasco (MRN)
5. Clementina Dekker Gómez (PT)
6. Zoé Robledo Aburto (MRN)
Raúl Bonifaz Moedano (MRN)
7. Miguel Prado de los Santos (MRN)
8. María Roselia Jiménez Pérez (PT)
9. Leticia Aguilar Molina (MRN)
10. Juan Farrera Esponda (MRN)
11. Roberto Rubio Montejo (PVEM)
12. José Luis Elorza Flores (MRN)
13. Maricruz Roblero Gordillo (PT)
Chihuahua
1. Esther Mejía Cruz (MRN)
2. Maité Vargas Meraz (MRN)
3. Claudia Elena Lastra Muñoz (PT)
4. Ulises García Soto (MRN)
5. Mario Mata Carrasco (PAN)
6. Miguel Riggs Baeza (PAN)
7. Eraclio Rodríguez Gómez (PT)
8. Alan Falomir Sáenz (MC)
9. Ángeles Gutiérrez Valdez (PAN)
Ciudad de Mexico
1. Erika del Castillo Ibarra (PES)
2. Armando González Escoto (MRN)
3. Miguel Ángel Jáuregui (MRN)
4. Gerardo Fernández Noroña (PT)
5. Claudia López Rayón (MRN)
6. Sergio Mayer (MRN)
7. Beatriz Rojas Martínez (PES)
8. María Rosete Sánchez (PT)
9. Adriana Espinosa de los Monteros (PT)
10. Javier Hidalgo Ponce (MRN)
11. Rocío Barrera Badillo (MRN)
12. Dolores Padierna Luna (MRN)
13. Mario Martín Delgado (MRN)
Oscar Gutiérrez Camacho (MRN)
14. Alfonso Ramírez Cuéllar (MRN)
15. Luis Alberto Mendoza Acevedo (PAN)
16. Lorena Villavicencio Ayala (MRN)
17. Francisco Javier Saldívar Camacho (PT)
18. Ana María Rodríguez Ruiz (MRN)
19. Aleida Alavez Ruiz (MRN)
20. Ana Karina Rojo Pimentel (MRN)
21. Flor Ivone Morales Miranda (PT)
22. Víctor Varela López (PES)
23. Pablo Gómez Álvarez (MRN)
24. Guadalupe Ramos Sotelo (MRN)
Coahuila
1. Lenin Pérez Rivera (PAN)
2. Francisco Javier Borrego Adame (MRN)
3. Melba Farías Zambrano (MRN)
4. Martha Garay Cadena (PRI)
5. Luis Fernando Salazar Fernández (MRN)
6. José Ángel Pérez Hernández (PES)
7. Fernando de las Fuentes Hernández (PRI)
Colima
1. Claudia Yáñez Centeno (MRN)
2. Indira Vizcaíno Silva (PT)
Durango
1. Martha Olivia García Vidaña (MRN)
2. Alma Marina Vitela (PES)
3. Maribel Aguilera Cháirez (MRN)
4. Hilda Patricia Ortega Nájera (MRN)
Guanajuato
1. Ariel Rodríguez Vázquez (MC)
2. Ricardo Villarreal García (PAN)
3. Ángeles Ayala Díaz (PAN)
4. Juan Carlos Romero Hicks (PAN)
5. Éctor Jaime Ramírez Barba (PAN)
6. María del Pilar Ortega Martínez (PAN)
7. Karen González Márquez (PAN)
8. Justino Arriaga Rojas (PAN)
9. Janet Melanie Murillo Chávez (PAN)
10. Lilia Villafuerte Zavala (PVEM)
11. Jorge Arturo Espadas Galván (PAN)
12. Sarai Núñez Cerón (PAN)
13. Emmanuel Reyes Carmona (MRN)
14. María Eugenia Espinosa Rivas (PAN)
15. Sergio Fernando Ascencio Barba (PAN)
Guerrero
1. Víctor Alfonso Mojica Wences (PT)
2. Araceli Ocampo Manzanares (PES)
3. María del Carmen Cabrera Lagunas (MRN)
4. Abelina López Rodríguez (MRN)
5. Javier Manzano Salazar (MRN)
6. Raymundo García Gutiérrez (PRD)
7. Carlos Sánchez Barrios (MRN)
8. Rubén Cayetano García (MRN)
9. María del Rosario Merlín (PT)
Hidalgo
1. Fortunato Rivera Castillo (MRN)
2. Cipriano Charrez Pedraza (MRN)
3. Sandra Olvera Bautista (MRN)
4. María Isabel Alfaro Morales (MRN)
5. Julio César Ángeles Mendoza (MRN)
6. Lidia García Anaya (MRN)
7. Jannet Téllez Infante (MRN)
Jalisco
1. Eduardo Ron Ramos (MC)
2. Martha Esthela Romo Cuéllar (PAN)
3. Guadalupe Romo Romo (PAN)
4. Mario Alberto Rodríguez Carrillo (MC)
5. Lorena Jiménez Andrade (MRN)
6. Fabiola Loya Hernández (MC)
7. Juan Carlos Villarreal Salazar (MC)
8. Abril Alcalá Padilla (PRD)
9. Carmen Prudencio González (MC)
10. Geraldina Isabel Herrera Vega (MC)
11. Kehila Ku Escalante (MC)
12. Adriana Gabriela Medina Ortiz (MC)
13. Lourdes Contreras González (MC)
14. Juan Francisco Ramírez Salcido (MC)
15. Absalón García Ochoa (PAN)
16. Laura Imelda Pérez Segura (PT)
17. Juan Martín Espinoza Cárdenas (MC)
18. Mónica Almeida López (PRD)
19. Alberto Esquer Gutiérrez (MC)
20. Ana Priscila González García (MC)
Mexico
1. Ricardo Aguilar Castillo (PRI)
2. Dionicia Vázquez García (MRN)
3. María Teresa Marú Mejía (PT)
4. Nelly Carrasco Godínez (MRN)
5. Francisco Favela Peñuñuri (PT)
6. Carolina García Aguilar (PES)
7. Xóchitl Zagal Ramírez (PES)
8. Gustavo Contreras Montes (MRN)
9. Eduardo Zarzosa Sánchez (PRI)
10. Alma Delia Navarrete Rivera (PES)
11. María Eugenia Hernández Pérez (MRN)
12. Felipe Rafael Arvizu de la Luz (MRN)
13. María Elizabeth Díaz García (MRN)
14. Claudia Domínguez Vázquez (MRN)
15. Raúl Ernesto Sánchez Barrales (PT)
16. Emilio Manzanilla Téllez (PT)
17. María Guadalupe Román Ávila (MRN)
18. Claudia Reyes Montiel (PRD)
19. Ulises Murguía Soto (MRN)
20. Juan Pablo Sánchez Rodríguez (MRN)
21. Graciela Sánchez Ortiz (PES)
22. María Teresa Rosa Mora Ríos (PT)
23. David Orihuela Nava (MRN)
24. Ángeles Huerta del Río (MRN)
25. Delfino López Aparicio (MRN)
26. Esmeralda Moreno Medina (MRN)
27. Óscar González Yáñez (MRN)
28. Roberto Domínguez Rodríguez (MRN)
29. Martha Robles Ortiz (MRN)
30. César Agustín Hernández Pérez (MRN)
31. Juan Ángel Bautista Bravo (MRN)
32. Luis Enrique Martínez Ventura (PT)
33. Vicente Onofre Vázquez (MRN)
34. Miroslava Carrillo Martínez (MRN)
35. Arturo Roberto Hernández Tapia (PT)
36. Cruz Roa Sánchez (PRI)
37. Pedro Zenteno Santaella (MRN)
38. Karla Yuritzi Almazán Burgos (MRN)
39. José Luis Montalvo Luna (PT)
40. Marco Antonio Reyes Colín (PT)
41. Nancy Resendiz Hernández (PES)
Michoacan
1. Feliciano Flores Anguiano (MRN)
2. Esteban Barajas Barajas (MRN)
3. Mary Carmen Bernal Martínez (PT)
4. Armando Tejeda Cid (PAN)
5. Yolanda Guerrero Barrera (MRN)
6. Anita Sánchez Castro (MRN)
7. Gonzalo Herrera Pérez (MRN)
8. Ana Lilia Guillén Quiroz (MRN)
9. Ignacio Campos Equihua (MRN)
10. Ivan Arturo Pérez Negrón Ruiz (PES)
11. José Guadalupe Aguilera Rojas (PRD)
12. Francisco Javier Huacus Esquivel (PT)
Morelos
1. Alejandro Mojica Toledo (PES)
2. Alejandra Pani Barragán (MRN)
3. Juanita Guerra Mena (PT)
4. Jorge Argüelles Victorero (PES)
5. José Guadalupe Ambrocio Gachuz (MRN)
Nayarit
1. Miguel Pavel Jarero Velázquez (PT)
2. Geraldine Ponce Méndez (MRN)
3. Mirtha Iliana Villalvazo Amaya (MRN)
Nuevo Leon
1. Hernán Salinas Wolberg (PAN)
2. María Guillermina Alvarado Moreno (PES)
3. José Luis García Duque (PT)
4. Ricardo Flores Suárez (PAN)
5. Santiago González Soto (PT)
6. Annia Gómez Cárdenas (PAN)
7. Laura Garza Gutiérrez (PT)
8. Ernesto Vargas Contreras (PES)
9. Juan Francisco Espinoza Eguía (PRI)
10. José Martín López Cisneros (PAN)
11. Ernesto Alfonso Robledo (PAN)
12. Sandra González Castañeda (PES)
Oaxaca
1. Irineo Molina Espinoza (MRN)
2. Irma Juan Carlos (MRN)
3. Margarita García García (PT)
4. Azael Santiago Chepi (MRN)
5. Carol Antonio Altamirano (MRN)
6. Beatriz Pérez López (MRN)
7. Rosalinda Domínguez Flores (MRN)
8. Benjamín Robles Montoya (PT)
9. Maria del Carmen Bautista Peláez (MRN)
10. Daniel Gutiérrez Gutiérrez (MRN)
Puebla
1. Miguel Acundo González (PES)
2. Maiella Gómez Maldonado (MC)
3. Claudio Báez Ruiz (PT)
4. Inés Parra Juárez (MRN)
5. Lizeth Sánchez García (PT)
6. Alejandro Carvajal Hidalgo (PT)
7. Edgar Guzmán Valdéz (PT)
8. Julieta Vences Valencia (MRN)
9. José Guillermo Aréchiga (MRN)
10. Nayeli Salvatori Bojalil (PES)
11. Saúl Huerta Corona (MRN)
12. Fernando Manzanilla Prieto (PES)
13. Héctor Jiménez y Meneses (MRN)
14. Nelly Maceda Carrera (PT)
15. Alejandro Barroso Chávez (PT)
Queretaro
1. Sonia Rocha Acosta (PAN)
2. Jorge Luis Montes Nieves (MRN)
3. Beatriz Robles Gutiérrez (MRN)
4. Felipe Macías Olvera (PAN)
5. Ana Paola López Birlain (PAN)
Quintana Roo
1. Adriana Teissier Zavala (PES)
2. Patricia Palma Olvera (MRN)
3. Mildred Ávila Vera (MRN)
4. Jesús Pool Moo (PRD)
San Luis Potosi
1. Sara Rocha Medina (PRI)
2. Ricardo Gallardo Cardona (PVEM)
3. Óscar Bautista Villegas (PRI)
4. José Ricardo Delsol Estrada (PT)
5. Josefina Salazar Báez (PAN)
6. Guadalupe Almaguer Pardo (PRD)
7. Marcelino Rivera Hernández (PAN)
Sinaloa
1. Maximiliano Ruiz Arias (PT)
2. Jaime Montes Salas (MRN)
3. Jesus Garcia Hernandez (MRN)
4. Casimiro Zamora Valdéz (MRN)
5. Yadira Santiago Marcos (MRN)
6. Olegaria Carrazco Macias (MRN)
7. Merary Villegas Sanchez (MRN)
Sonora
1. Manuel Baldenebro Arredondo (PES)
2. Ana Gabriela Guevara (PT)
Ana Bernal Camarena (PT)
3. Lorenia Valles Sampedro (MRN)
4. Heriberto Aguilar Castillo (MRN)
5. Wendy Briceño Zuloaga (MRN)
6. Javier Lamarque Cano (MRN)
7. Hildelisa González Morales (PT)
Tabasco
1. Estela Núñez Alvarez (PES)
2. Teresa Burelo Cortázar (MRN)
3. Gregorio Espadas Méndez (MRN)
4. Manuel Rodríguez González (MRN)
5. Laura Patricia Avalos Magaña (MRN)
6. Ricardo de la Peña Marshall (PES)
Tamaulipas
1. José Salvador Rosas Quintanilla (PAN)
2. Olga Juliana Elizondo Guerra (PT)
3. Héctor Joel Villegas González (PES)
4. Adriana Lozano Rodríguez (PES)
5. Mario Alberto Ramos Tamez (PAN)
6. Vicente Verástegui Ostos (PAN)
7. Erasmo González Robledo (MRN)
8. Olga Patricia Sosa Ruiz (PES)
9. Armando Javier Zertuche Zuani (PT)
Tlaxcala
1. Jose de la Luz Sosa Salinas (MRN)
2. Rubén Terán Águila (MRN)
3. Lorena Cuéllar Cisneros (PES)
Veracruz
1. Ricardo García Escalante (PAN)
2. Jesús Guzmán Aviles (PAN)
3. Maria Bertha Espinoza Segura (MRN)
4. Ricardo Francisco Exsome Zapata (MRN)
5. Raquel Bonilla Herrera (MRN)
6. Jaime Humberto Pérez Bernabe (MRN)
7. Rodrigo Calderón Salas (MRN)
8. Claudia Tello Espinosa (MRN)
9. Carmen Mora García (MRN)
10. Rafael Hernández Villalpando (MRN)
11. Flora Tania Cruz Santos (MRN)
12. Mariana Dunyaska García Rojas (PAN)
13. Eleuterio Arrieta Sánchez (MRN)
14. Carmen Medel Palma (MRN)
15. Dulce María Villegas Guarneros (MRN)
16. Juan Martínez Flores (MRN)
17. Valentín Reyes López (MRN)
18. Bonifacio Aguilar Linda (MRN)
19. Paola Tenorio Adame (MRN)
20. Eulalio Ríos Fararoni (MRN)
Yucatan
1. Jesús Carlos Vidal Peniche (PVEM)
2. María Ester Alonzo Morales (PRI)
3. Limbert Interian Gallegos (MRN)
4. Elías Lixa Abimerhi (PAN)
5. Juan José Canul Pérez (PRI)
Zacatecas
1. Mirna Zabeida Maldonado Tapia (PES)
2. Lyndiana Bugarín Cortes (PVEM)
3. Alfredo Femat Bañuelos (PT)
4. Samuel Herrera Chávez (MRN)
Deputies by proportional representation
Notes
References
External links
Official page of the Senate
Official page for the Chamber of Deputies
See also
Category:Deputies of the LXIV Legislature of Mexico
Congress of Mexico by session
2018 in Mexico
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Known as The Garden of Wales, Carmarthenshire is a county of rich, fertile farmland and productive seas and estuaries, that give it a range of foods that motivate many home cooks and restaurateurs. There is a local tradition in brewing, milling, gathering shellfish from the coasts and meat production. Carmarthenshire has been described by The Daily Telegraph as a "worthwhile destination for foodies" with the county having a modest matter of fact excellence. Carmarthenshire has ambitions to become the premier food-producing county of Wales, based on its strong reputation for first-class products. and Carmarthenshire County Council produces its own on-line and hard-copy recipe book called Taste from Carmarthenshire, for those interested in learning more about the county's cuisine.
Markets
Agriculture is an important industry in Carmarthenshire, and most people visit the busy market towns throughout the county. Each market operates a livestock sale on different days. Llanybydder has a normal mart held on Mondays, and a monthly horse sale on the last Thursday of the month. Carmarthen is the county town, and has a full market on Wednesdays and Saturdays, but many stalls are permanent and open every day. The market is important for those wanting to purchase fresh local foods. Carmarthen Market is now at the heart of the £74m St Catherine's Walk redevelopment scheme, which was completed in 2010. Carmarthen has been described as an authentic market town worth a second look. Llanelli market is another busy county market, with more than 50 family run businesses.
The farming year includes agricultural shows held at the show ground of the United Counties Agricultural and Hunters Society at Nantyci, Carmarthen which often includes exhibits of local produce.
Meat
Carmarthenshire's undulating land is prime dairy and mixed farming country, with lamb and beef both important. In his 1726 pastoral poem "Grongar Hill" the poet John Dyer refers to the valley of the River Towy as follows:
Old castles on the cliffs arise,
Proudly tow’ring in the skies!
Rushing from the woods, the spires
Seem from hence ascending fires!
Half his beams Apollo sheds
On the yellow mountain-heads!
Gilds the fleeces of the flocks:
And glitters on the broken rocks!
Pressdee notes that a number of farms specialise in beef production from a range of British and Continental breeds, with Welsh Black becoming more popular, as in other Welsh regions, over recent years.
Several organic farms have made an impact in the county, including Fferm Tyllwyd located at Felingwm Uchaf, producing organic Welsh Black beef steaks. Welsh Black beef is matured for 21 days at SJ & S Baker, located at Pontyberem. The May Organic Farms at Lampeter offer organic highland beef, Welsh mountain lamb and mutton reared on 100 hectares of conservation land. Welsh Black beef is a speciality of Cig Calon Cymru at Cross Hands, where they have a state-of-the-art butchery linked to their own abattoir and farms. Dewi Roberts of Ffairfach, Llandeilo has his own premium range, which is connected with all the local farmers and draws customers from a wide area, and from internet sales. Another quality supplier is Cambrian Organics of Llandysul. Ystrad Traditional Organics based in Brechfa, produces lamb, hogget, mutton and beef from some of Britain's rarest breeds and was a True Taste of Wales award winner in 2007
Pigs are part of the mixed farming economy. Traditionally every farm kept a Welsh pig as part of the staple diet. During the winter, the main source of meat was cured ham and bacon from pigs raised on the farm. Hams were cured in the large chimneys of farm kitchens, which slowly dried the ham and bacon after it had been salted. This tradition has largely died out, but the remaining producers make hams which are similar to Bayonne, Serrano, or Parma hams. Freshly cured ham is sliced for grilling, older ham is boiled as a York ham, and ham cured for many months is sliced wafer thin, like Parma ham. Carmarthen ham has a similar farmyard flavour. The hocks have the greatest flavour, and need to be boiled a long time to soften the meat. They make a good base for winter stew, or a summer ‘paysanne’ salad. Dry-cured Carmarthen Ham can be found at Carmarthen Market. Five generations of the Rees family have sold ham here spanning 200 years. and their family were the first commercial producers of dry-cured ham in Britain. Carmarthen Ham is dry salt-cured and then air dried and sold whole boneless, or sliced thinly and vacuum packed. It is believed that when the Romans settled in Carmarthen they acquired the recipe and on their return to Italy called it Parma Ham. The ham is cut in thin wafers and is served like prosciutto or Parma ham, but is saltier. Carmarthen Ham production remains a cottage industry, in order to keep it a premium product. Carmarthen Ham is a particular favourite of the Prince of Wales. The Rees family also produce a short back and streaky bacon. This is dry-cured for one week and hung for a further three weeks. It is recommended that the bacon is blanched before frying to remove any excess salt. The Rees family have more than 80 hams curing at any one time, and it takes nine months to cure they also have a mail order business and travel to the nearby markets of Brecon, Fishguard, Haverfordwest, Pembroke and Cardigan.
Recipes for Carmarthen ham include: Country Ham with Vegetable Stew; Pancakes stuffed with Carmarthen Ham and Wild Mushrooms with a Savoury Custard; Salad Paysanne with Carmarthen Ham and Lentils, and Carmarthen Ham in Beer Carmarthenshire Ham has featured on Rick Stein's Food Heroes The Welsh chef Dudley recommends the recipe Pork Wrapped in Carmarthenshire Ham At the Royal Welsh Show 2010, Carmarthenshire Ham was included in the new European Protected Food names initiative for Protective Geographical Indication (PGI) status, which would give European Union legal status to Carmarthenshire Ham.
Carmarthen Market also sells home-made brawn, sausages, pork pies, and faggots. Faggots can be bought at Ettie Richardson's Home Baking stall, which sells them fresh every Wednesday, Friday and Saturday. A & G Williams of Felinfoel produce traditional Welsh faggots and other savoury products. Brawn is a traditional Carmarthenshire dish, and one Carmarthenshire recipe includes pig's head and trotters which are rubbed well with salt and then placed in a crock and left for 2 or 3 days. The meat is then washed in cold water, placed in a boiler pan, brought to the boil and then simmered for 3–4 hours until the meat leaves the bone. The meat is then minced with onions, sage and pepper and then, the liquor strained, and then the mixture simmered for about 15 minutes and then left to cool.
Fets y Cybydd, or the Miser's Feast, was a very popular dish in Carmarthenshire 100 years ago. It was made in a saucepan, but can also be made in a casserole. The bottom of the dish is covered in peeled potatoes, and a sliced onion, with a little salt, covered with water and then brought to the boil. When the water is boiling, a few slices of bacon or a piece of ham are placed on top. The lid is replaced and the whole simmered until the potatoes are cooked, and the water absorbed. The miser was supposed to eat the potatoes one day, mashed up in the liquid, keeping the slices of bacon to be eaten the next day with plain boiled potatoes.
The poet Lynette Roberts, who spent her final years from 1989 in Ferryside and is buried in the churchyard in Llanybri, wrote about making cawl in her Poem from Llanybri (1946), as follows:
In the village when you come. At noon-day
I will offer you a choice bowl of cawl
Served with a 'lover's' spoon and a chopped spray
Of leeks or savori fach...
Gilli Davies notes that:
..it is not so long ago that almost every meal in rural Wales included cawl in some form or other. Fresh herbs, often winter savory, was grown near the back door so that it could easily be picked and added to the cawl. Only salted meat would have been available, and oatmeal, mixed with a little water and stirred in, was added to the cawl to make it go further. Sometimes cooked oatcakes were crushed and added to a bowl of cawl that had been reheated three or four times, and served at breakfast time. In cold weather cawl would be followed by apple or plain dumplings, made by mixing flour with a spoonful of cawl to make a thick paste. The paste was then spread around an unskinned apple and left to simmer on top of the soup.
The Marketing and Tourism department of Carmarthenshire County Council has developed a Cawl Crawl, this is a themed route that people can follow and includes establishments in Carmarthenshire that make their own individual variations on the traditional cawl dish.
Fish
Carmarthen Bay sweeps from Gower to Tenby and is the delta for the Carmarthenshire rivers which have excellent fishing: the rivers Towy, Teifi, Afon Cothi and Taf. The ancient craft of coracle fishing can still be seen on the river Teifi, especially between Cenarth and Cilgerran, and on the river Towy near Carmarthen.
Sewin is known as the prince of Welsh fish. They feed more locally than salmon and hence are more distinctive from region to region, with a pale, pinky flesh and a high oil content. The season begins around Easter and ends in the summer, with the largest fish having the earliest run up the rivers.
Sewin range in size from less than a pound in weight to 3 lbs, known as shiglin (the smallest) and twlpin (the larger) in late July and August, to fully grown fish known as gwencin, which equal a salmon in size and come in May or June (or earlier), and again in September. Large sewin can be distinguished from salmon by the tail: the tail is more deeply indented, the colour is browny-grey instead of blue-grey, and the body is slimmer near the tail. Welsh anglers claim that the Tywi yields more sewin over 10 lbs than every sea-trout river in England and Scotland put together.
Raymond Rees, at Carmarthen Market, has iced fish slabs with fresh fish from the coast and the Towy river. He specialises in sewin. He also has one of the few licenses to fish with a coracle on the Towy. This is the longest river entirely within the county. Sewin has a more delicate flavour than salmon and is best cooked simply: grilled or baked gently with plenty of salty Welsh butter. The butter on the hot flesh brings out the flavour, and the rough texture of locally baked brown bread contrasts well with the smooth flesh of sewin. To tell if a whole sewin is of good flavour, the colour of the flesh should be examined by requesting the fishmonger to make a tiny incision with a knife point in the middle of the back of the fish. The flesh should be a clear pink, not a pale or fawny pink, which suggests that the fish has been in the river too long. Big sewin can grow out of their taste and become flavourless, these fish are better stuffed. If a sauce is used, then fennel is the best herb to add, and grows wild along the west coast of Wales; an alternative is a cucumber sauce or samphire which grows on the Loughor estuary.
Sea food
Mussels are gathered by hand from Carmarthen Bay and are best in the winter time, when there is an ‘R’ in the month. September to April is the traditional mussel (and oyster) season. Cockles are gathered in the Burry Inlet, but mainly on the Gower side (see Cuisine of Gower). However, Les Parsons, a native Laugharne, started his own shellfish business on the Carmarthenshire side of the estuary after returning home from military service in India in 1947. This was around the time that Dylan Thomas was resident, and writing about the web-footed cocklewomen of Laugharne. Les Parson experimented with bottling cockles in vinegar, to enable them to be sold further afield, and established Parson's Pickles. The firm uses Laugharne Castle as part of its corporate identity because the original factory was located in a mill close to the castle. The company now operates out of Burry Port and produces cockles, mussels, shellfish and pickles, to traditional recipes and European Union accreditation standards.
Vegetables and fruit
Vegetables and fruit are grown in gardens and alltoments and Lynette Roberts describes the Carmarthenshire cottage garden as follows:
"In most gardens here two-thirds are taken up with potato seed, with a row shovelled up for broad beans, cabbage and parsley, and a small finer bed about 3ft by 4ft containing lettuce, carrot, leeks, shallots, beetroot and perhaps a little cress and radish. This makes a cottager independent as he seldom requires any other choice of vegetable."
In Under Milk Wood, Dylan Thomas writes about Mary Ann the Sailors and her cottage garden as follows, comparing it with the Garden of Eden:
"The Garden of Eden.
She comes in her smock-frock and clogs
Away from the cool scrubbed cobbled kitchen with the Sunday-school pictures on the whitewashed wall and the farmers' almanac hung above the settle and the sides of bacon on the ceiling hooks, and goes down the cockleshelled paths of that applepie kitchen garden, ducking under the gippo's clothespegs, catching her apron on the blackcurrant bushes, past beanrows and onion-bed and tomatoes ripening on the wall towards the old man playing the harmonium in the orchard, and sits down on the grass at his side and shells the green peas that grow up through the lap of her frock that brushes the dew."
In describing the walled garden at Heolddu, Margaret Evans recalled that the cottage garden was once considered to be a 'chemist shop" with vegetables, greens and fruit grown to keep the family healthy. Vegetables that could be stored and eaten during the winter included leeks, parsley, cabbage, swedes, carrots, parsnips, potatoes, and nuts.
Walled kitchen gardens were usually constructed for larger Carmarthenshire houses and here fruit, flowers and vegetables would be grown. The walls gave privacy and protected the plants from the frost and often included greenhouses for tender plants. In Carmarthenshire most of these gardens date from the nineteenth century and were stocked with plants bought as seeds from English seed catalogues. Orders would be delivered by train or mail coach. In this way popular English cultivars of fruit and vegetables were introduced into the county. However, by the 1800s Carmarthenshire had its own plant nurseries. After World War I, most of these gardens were abandoned but Aberglasney and Middleton (at the National Botanic Garden of Wales), have been rescued and replanted and are now open to the public, with plans to do the same with the garden at Abergwili.
Families without a garden would often grow fruit and vegetables on an allotment. Holland notes that the allotment movement began as a means of feeding the poor and reducing the poor rate in agricultural districts, but that today they are a means of improving mental and physical health. He notes that this century they have become popular as a result of the organic movement. The National Trust created 60 allotments in Llandeilo in 2009, and community allotments were opened at Llannon in 2012. In 2011, Carmarthenshire County Council Policy & Resources Scrutiny Committee noted that concerns regarding food origin and quality, coupled with the current financial pressures, are some of the main causes for increasing demand for allotments and that the council wished to identify suitable plots of land for new allotments.
Garden vegetables would be used to make cawl, this would be made with just vegetables or meat would be added. In Carmarthenshire, a vegetable cawl is called Cawl pen lletwad, and this was usually prepared when meat was in short supply. Tibbott has a note of such a cawl from Cwm-bach. Sometimes a cawl would need to be prepared quickly, and in this case the vegetables (and meat if added) would be cut into small pieces and boiled together. This type of cawl is known as Cawl ffwt a berw and Tibbott records such a recipe from Trelech.
Potatoes were a staple garden vegetable and would be roasted or boiled. One example of a potato dish which Tibbott has recorded is called Cig ar wyneb tato, this is a dish of roast potatoes (Tato Rhost) where the potatoes are part boiled in a heavy saucepan and then covered with bacon rashers, with a thick layer of chopped onions or chives placed on top. The pan is covered with a closely fitting lid and cooked with a little water for half an hour, so that the bacon fat browns the potatoes at the bottom of the pan. On churning day the dish would be served with buttermilk (Tato rhost a llaeth enwyn). The meal is cooked without the need for much supervision and was usually made in a ffwrn fach over an open fire.
Apples were an important food source for local people and this can be seen in the many farms in the county that include the word perllan (orchard) or afallen (apple tree) in the name of the farm. In the book Hen Dy Fferm (The Old Farmhouse) (1961) the author, D J Williams, mentions three varieties of apple grown locally at that time: Afal Vicar, Afal Bwen Bach and Marged Niclas, with only Marged Niclas having been rediscovered. At Maesquarre, John Lewis Williams (1853-1919) grew two varieties which have since been lost: an oblong apple known as Twil Dyn Gwydd (Gander's Backside) and Afal Melys Bach (Small Sweet Apple). Another lost variety is Pren Miles which is referred to in a notebook from Llandeilo from the twentieth century. Large estates would buy seed from catalogues produced by English nurseries and would therefore plant standard English varieties but the smaller land holders would plant varieties of traditional Welsh apples. When an imported variety failed, usually due to the wetter Welsh climate, a local variety would be substituted instead. Paul Davies, of Dolauhirion nursery near Llandeilo, who helped rescue Welsh apple varieties refers to a large orchard of 100 trees near Llanwrda planted in the 1920s from English types, but where a more hardy local variety, known as Marged Niclas, had been substituted in place of failed imported varieties. He notes that the benefit of Welsh apple varieties is that they can be planted directly into the ground without the need for grafting (known as burrknot). Morgan Nicholas was a popular apple variety that could be stored and eaten until May when the gooseberry crop was available for pie making. Other apple varieties from Carmarthenshire include Glansevin, Talgarth, Gelli Aur and Tinyrwydd. The National Botanic Garden of Wales has established an orchard of native apple trees and on 21 November 2017 was awarded National Plant Collection status for its orchard of Welsh varieties. Graves notes that John Speed's map of Carmarthen shows the town walls filled with orchards while a 1905 map of the Tywi valley shows 150 separate orchards between Llandeilo and Llandovery. Davies recounts that one local lady would be taken by her mother to the Tywi valley every spring to see the valley which would be white with apple blossom Apples were also used for medicinal purposes with the Physicians of Myddfai prescribing them for ague (intermittent fever), jaundice, and eye water. The orchards at Dryslwyn Castle were well enough known to be recited in a poem by Lewis Glyn Cothi:
Iddaw fo mae neuadd falch
Ac yn wengaer gan wyngalch,
Ac o gylch ogylch i hon,
Naw o arddau yn wyrddion,
Perllanwydd a gwinwydd gwyr,
Derw ieuainc hyd yr awyr.
He holds a proud hall
And a white fort, whitewashed
And all around
Nine gardens green
Great orchards and vines
Young oaks touching the sky
Cheese
The Farmhouse Cheese Shop, run by John and Patrice Savage-Ontswedder, can be found in Carmarthen Market. They have their own range of Teifi Cheeses and Glynhynod Caerphilly, together with almost all the other cheeses made in West Wales.
Teifi Cheese is an organic vegetarian cow's milk cheese with a bright yellow interior and sweet fruity flavour when young. As it ages, the cheese becomes hard and flaky. It is similar to Gouda cheese and can be eaten on its own, or used in recipes where it adds richness and depth. The flavour is influenced by the grasses growing in the Teifi valley.
Savage-Ontswedder also produce Celtic Promise, a modern vegetarian surface-ripened cow's milk cheese with a semi-soft texture and a moist orange-red rind with a dusting of mould. It is washed in cider brine during ripening and is creamy, rich and yellow with a pungent aroma and piquant taste. This cheese, together with another of their cheeses, known as Saval have been champions at the British Cheese Awards. Celtic Promise complements cider, ale and medium-bodied wines.
Llanboidy Cheese was made on an organic farm near Llanboidy, it was the only cheese in Europe made from the milk of Red Poll cows, a rare pedigree breed grazing traditional pastures and drinking from the farm well. This gave the cheese a fresh-cut hay aroma and sharp, grassy tang. It was made by hand and allowed to develop and mature in its own rind. It had a smooth, silky texture and robust taste.
Other Carmarthenshire cheeses include Caws Cenarth and Kid Me Not, both winners of prizes at the British Cheese Awards. Caws Cenarth supplies Perl Las blue organic cheese to England's Twickenham rugby stadium and has also supplied British Airways.
Condiments
Kite Wholefoods, of Pontyberem, are artisan producers of organic mayonnaise. Pencae Mawr Farm Foods of Llanfynydd, Carmarthen, produce home-made chutneys, preserves and other condiments and are True Taste Award winners winning a gold medal for best organic product (beetroot relish) and a silver award for speciality product (blackcurrant and vanilla).
Cakes and sweets
Popty Bach-y-Wlad which means little baker in the countryside is a traditional bakery run by Enfys Marks at Carmarthen Market, baking Welsh Cakes, Bara Brith, teisen lap (the Welsh plate cake), boiled cake and a range of assorted breads, cakes and buns. At Pobdy Stephens Bakehouse, also art Carmarthen Market, can be found Welsh cakes, sultana pancakes, chunky pasties and Victoria sponges.
The Richardson family of Llansteffan have a shop in Carmarthen Market selling Etta's Royal Cake. The family firm was set up in the 1970s by Etta Richardson Etta's Royal Cake is a favourite of the Prince of Wales, eight cakes were delivered to Highgrove one Christmas, and the cake was ordered by Queen Elizabeth II for the wedding reception of Prince Charles and Camilla.
Fiona's Fudge, in Carmarthen, produces home-made fruit cakes and fudge. In Llandovery, organic fudge, biscuits and cakes are made by Just So Scrumpitious/O Mor Braf without using preservatives and gift packaged.
Mario's Ice Cream, produced by Mario Dalavalle, a third generation ice-cream maker, was awarded the National Ice Alliance Silver Shield in 2007 for the best dairy ice cream in Great Britain. He produces 30 varieties of ice cream at his dairy in Crosshands. All the milk comes from a 15 mile radius of his dairy, including the Nant-y-Bwla pedigree Jersey herd, and the Gwendraeth Valley's Cwmheidir Farm, gold medal winners at the Royal Welsh Show. Mario points out that cheap ice cream is full of air and vegetable fat, he believes the reason that his business has grown is because people are willing to pay more for quality. Mario's Ice Cream is available across Wales and at Asda stores. Another national ice cream award winner is Frank's Ice Cream produced for the last 80 years from Capel Hendre, Ammanford, it is available from Tescos and has won the British, European and Champion of Champions’ cup. and produces a diabetic vanilla ice cream Tregroes Waffle Bakery, of Llandysul, produces sweet waffles based on traditional recipes.
Brynderi Honey Farm, of Whitland, are honey producers and international organic honey packers from farm produced honey to honey harvested from organic-certified hives. They also produce honey ice-cream and marmalade.
Drink
Felinfoel Brewery Company based at Felinfoel, Llanelli, is a traditional brewery noted for cask ale and bottled beer. It was founded in 1840 and invented canned beer in 1935. Its Double Dragon beer is distributed as far as the United States, Germany and France. Evan Evans Brewery is a brewery based in Llandeilo producing ale called Cwrw, which is Welsh for beer. The Towy Valley Cider Company is based in Carmarthen Their cider is made to a traditional recipe using apple juice pressed on the farm. It is matured in oak barrels and then kept for at least a year before distribution, which makes it a strong, clear, still cider.
Brecon Carreg is a natural spring water which is either still or sparkling, and is produced at Trap, Carmarthenshire.
Other markets and box schemes
Other markets include Ammanford street market (every Friday), Llandeilo open air market (every Friday), Carmarthen farmers’ market (first Friday of every month), Llandovery market (last Saturday of every month), Ammanford farmers’ market (last Thursday of every month).
There are 3 large scale food & drink festivals held at Carmarthen Showground in Carmarthen, showcasing the best in Season of the counties food, drinks and crafts: The Winter Show, The Spring Show and the Summer Show. www.wintershowwales.co.uk
Box schemes are provided by Organics to Go, based at Golden Grove near Llandeilo, which includes specific items to order and delivers throughout South and West Wales. M & M Organics of Pontyberem, Llanelli run a box scheme covering Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire areas. The Organic Pantry, based in Ammanford, does door deliveries.
See also
Welsh cuisine
Cuisine of Ceredigion
Cuisine of Gower
Cuisine of Monmouthshire
Cuisine of Pembrokeshire
Further reading
Carmarthenshire Farmhouse Fayre
Welsh Fare - website by National Museum Cardiff based on their book printed in 1976 containing recipes selected by S. Minwel Tibbott in respect of the Cuisine of Wales
External links
Carmarthen Food on-line local produce market for Carmarthenshire
Visit Carmarthenshire web site of Carmarthenshire Tourism Association with section on local food
Hungry City Hippy - 48 hours in Carmarthenshire a food lover's itinerary a Cardiff food blogger's report on Carmarthenshire food
Grown in Wales web site dedicated to food and plant growers in Wales with regional guide including Carmarthenshire
Olive Magazine, Foodie road trip in Carmarthenshire article on places to eat and drink in Carmarthenshire
Clare Hargreaves food blog The chic face of Carmarthenshire - article on Carmarthenshire food
Carmarthen market market web site with list of food stalls and cafes
People's Collection Wales Carmarthen coracles
Wright's Food Emporium review by The Guardian
Wright's Food Emporium review by WalesOnline (Media Wales)
References
Welsh cuisine
Carmarthenshire
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{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = 1966 Syrian coup d'état
| partof = the Arab Cold War
| image =
| caption =
| date = 21–23 February 1966
| place = Syria
| coordinates =
| map_type =
| latitude =
| longitude =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| territory =
| result =
Overthrow of the Aflaqists
Establishment of Salah Jadid's neo-Ba'athist government
The establishment of two separate Ba'ath movements; one Syrian dominated and another Iraqi dominated
| status =
| combatant1 = National Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party
| combatant2 = Syrian Regional Branch of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party
| commander1 = Michel Aflaq<small>The preeminent figure of the National Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</small>
Munif al-RazzazSect. Gen. of the National Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party
Salah al-Din al-BitarPrime Minister of Syria
Amin al-HafizPresident of Syria
Muhammad UmranMinister of Defence
| commander2 = Salah JadidAssistant Regional Secretary of the Regional Command of the Syrian Regional Branch
Maj. Gen. Hafez al-AssadCommander of the Syrian Air Force
Maj. Salim HatumSyrian Army Commander
Lt. Col. Mustafa TlasSyrian Army Commander
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
|casualties3 =400 killed
| notes =
}}
The 1966 Syrian coup d'état refers to events between 21 and 23 February during which the government of the Syrian Arab Republic was overthrown and replaced. The ruling National Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party were removed from power by a union of the party's Military Committee and the Regional Command, under the leadership of Salah Jadid.
The coup was precipitated by a heightening in the power struggle between the party's old guard, represented by Michel Aflaq, Salah al-Din al-Bitar, and Munif al-Razzaz, and the younger factions adhering to a Neo-Ba'athist position. On 21 February, supporters of the old guard in the army ordered the transfer of their rivals. Two days later, the Military Committee, backing the younger factions, launched a coup that involved violent fighting in Aleppo, Damascus, Deir ez-Zor, and Latakia. As a result of the coup, the party's historical founders fled the country and spent the rest of their lives in exile.
Jadid's government was the most radical administration in Syria's history. The coup created a permanent schism between the Syrian and Iraqi regional branches of the Ba'ath Party and their respective National Commands, with many senior Syrian Ba'athists defecting to Iraq. As a legacy of the coup, during Jadid's rule, Syria initiated a propaganda campaign against the Iraqi Ba'athists. Jadid's government would be overthrown in the Corrective Movement of 1970, which brought Hafez al-Assad to power.
Background
Consolidation of power
After taking power in the 1963 Syrian coup d'état, officially the 8th of March Revolution, a power struggle erupted between the Nasserites in the National Council for the Revolutionary Command and the Ba'ath Party. The Nasserites sought to reestablish the United Arab Republic, the former federation encompassing Egypt and Syria from 1958 to 1961, on Gamal Abdel Nasser's terms, but the Ba'athists were skeptical of a new union with Nasser and wanted a loose federation where the Ba'ath Party could rule Syria alone without interference. The Nasserites mobilised large street demonstrations in favour of a union. It took time before the Ba'ath Party knew how to respond to the issue, since the majority of Syrian Arab Nationalists were not adherents to Ba'athism, but of Nasserism and Nasser in general.
Instead of trying to win the support of the populace, the Ba'athists moved to consolidate their control over the Syrian military. Several hundred Nasserites and conservatives were purged from the military, and Ba'athists were recruited to fill senior positions. Most of the newly recruited Ba'athist officers came from the countryside or from a low social class. These Ba'athist officers replaced the chiefly "urban Sunni upper-middle and middle class" officer corps, and replaced it with an officer corps with a rural background who more often the "kinsmen of the leading minority officer". These changes led to the decimation of Sunni control over the military establishment.
The cost of clamping down on the protests was a loss of legitimacy, and the emergence of Amin al-Hafiz as the first Ba'athist military strongman. The traditional elite, consisting of the upper classes, who had been overthrown from political power by the Ba'athists, felt threatened by the Ba'ath Party's socialist policies. The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria was a historical rival of the Syrian Regional Branch, and it felt threatened by the party's secular nature. Akram al-Hawrani and his supporters and the Syrian Communist Party opposed the one-party system which the Ba'ath Party was establishing.
The majority of Sunni Muslims were Arab nationalists, but not Ba'athist, making them feel alienated. The party was chiefly dominated by minority groups such as Alawites, Druzes, and Isma'ilis, and people from the countryside in general; this created an urban–rural conflict based predominantly on ethnic differences. With its coming to power, the Ba'ath Party was threatened by the predominantly anti-Ba'athist sentiment in urban politics—probably the only reason why the Ba'athists managed to stay in power was the rather weakly organised and fragmented opposition it faced.
Conflict with the Aflaqists
Cohesive internal unity had all but collapsed after the 1963 seizure of power; Michel Aflaq, Salah al-Din al-Bitar, and their followers wanted to implement "classic" Ba'athism in the sense that they wanted to establish a loose union with Nasser's Egypt, implement a moderate form of socialism, and to have a one-party state which respected the rights of the individual, tolerating freedom of speech and freedom of thought. However, the Aflaqites (or Aflaqists) were quickly forced into the background, and at the 6th National Ba'ath Party Congress, the Military Committee and their supporters succeeding in creating a new form of Ba'athism – a Ba'athism strongly influenced by Marxism–Leninism. This new form of Ba'athism laid emphasis on "revolution in one country" rather than to unifying the Arab world. At the same time, the 6th National Congress implemented a resolution which stressed the implementation of a socialist revolution in Syria. Under this form of socialism, the economy as a whole would adhere to state planning and the commanding heights of the economy and foreign trade were to be nationalised. They believed these policies would end exploitation of labour, that capitalism would disappear, and in agriculture they envisioned a plan were land was given "to he who works it". However, private enterprise would still exist in retail trade, construction, tourism, and small industry in general. These changes and more would refashion the Ba'ath Party into a Leninist party.
In the aftermath of the 1964 riot in Hama and other cities, the radicals were on the retreat and the Aflaqites regained control for a brief period. Bitar formed a new government which halted the nationalisation process, reaffirm respect for civil liberties and private property. However, these policy changes did not win sufficient support, and the population at large still opposed Ba'ath Party rule. The upper classes continued to disinvest capital and smuggle capital out of the country, and the only foreseeable solution to this loss of capital was continuing with nationalisation. The party's left-wing argued that the bourgeoisie would never be won over unless they were given total control over the economy as they had before. It was this power struggle between the moderate Aflaqites who dominated the National Command of the Ba'ath Party and the radicals who dominated the Syrian Regional Command of the Ba'ath Party which led to the 1966 coup d'état.
Power struggle
Before the crushing of the riots of 1964, a power struggle started within the Military Committee between Minister of Defence Muhammad Umran, and Salah Jadid. Umran, the committee's most senior member, wanted reconciliation with the rioters and an end to confrontation with the middle class, in contrast, Jadid believed the solution was to coerce and repress the protesters so as to save the 8th of March Revolution. This was the first open schism within the Military Committee, and would prove decisive in coming events. With Hafez al-Assad's support, the Military Committee initiated a violent counter-attack on the rioters This decision led to Umran's downfall. He responded by revealing the Military Committee's plan of taking over the Ba'ath Party to the party's National Command. Aflaq, the Secretary General of the National Command, responded to the information by ordering the dissolution of the Syrian Regional Command. He was forced to withdraw his request because the party's rank-and-file rose in protest. When an old guard Ba'athist tauntingly asked Aflaq "how big a role his party still played in government", Aflaq replied "About one-thousandth of one percent". Umran's revelations to the National Command led to his exile, and with the National Command impotent, the Military Committee, through its control of the Syrian Regional Command, initiated an attack on the bourgeoisie and initiated a nationalisation drive which extended state ownership to electricity generation, oil distribution, cotton ginning, and to an estimated 70 percent of foreign trade.
After Umran's downfall, the National Command and the Military Committee continued their respective struggle for control of the Ba'ath Party. While the National Command invoked party rules and regulations against the Military Committee, it was clear from the beginning that the initiative lay with the Military Committee. The reason for the Military Committee's success was its alliance with the Regionalists, a group of branches which had not adhered to Aflaq's 1958 orders to dissolve the Syrian Regional Branch. The Regionalists disliked Aflaq and opposed his leadership. Assad called the Regionalists the "true cells of the party".
The power contest between the allied Military Committee and the Regionalists against the National Command was fought out within the party structure. However, the Military Committee and the Regionalists managed to turn the party structure on its head. At the 2nd Regional Congress (held in March 1965), it was decided to endorse the principle that the Regional Secretary of the Regional Command would be the ex officio head of state, and the Regional Command acquired the power to appoint the prime minister, the cabinet, the chief of staff, and the top military commanders. This change curtailed the powers of the National Command, who thenceforth had very little say in Syrian internal affairs. In response, at the 8th National Congress (April 1965) Aflaq had originally planned to launch an attack on the Military Committee and the Regionalists, but was persuaded not to by fellow National Command members – most notably by a Lebanese member, Jibran Majdalani, and a Saudi member, Ali Ghannam – because it could lead to the removal of the party's civilian leadership, as had occurred in the Iraqi Regional Branch. Because of this decision, Aflaq was voted from office as Secretary General, to be succeeded by fellow National Command member Munif al-Razzaz. Razzaz was a Syrian-born Jordanian who was not rooted enough in party politics to solve the crisis, even if under his command several joint meetings of the National and Regional Commands took place. Not longer after Aflaq's loss of office, Hafiz, the Secretary of the Regional Command, changed his allegiance to support the National Command. While Hafiz was the de jure leader of Syria (he held the offices of Regional Command secretary, Chairman of the Presidential Council, prime minister and commander-in-chief), it was Jadid, the Assistant Secretary General of the Regional Command, who was the de facto leader of Syria.
The coup
Arrangements devised in 1963 between Aflaq and the Military Committee led to a very close mutual involvement of the military and civilian sectors of the regime, so that by the end of 1965 the politics of the Syrian army had become almost identical to the politics of the Ba'th Party. The principal military protagonist of the period Hafiz, Jadid, and Umran were no longer on military service and their power depended on their intermediary supporters in the army and in the party. In November 1965, the National Command issued a resolution which stated it was forbidden for the Regional Command to transfer or dismiss military officers without the consent of the National Command. After hearing of the resolution, Jadid rebelled immediately, and ordered Colonel Mustafa Tlas to arrest the commanders of the Homs garrison and his deputy, both supporters of National Command. In response, Razzaz called for an emergency session of the National Command which decreed the Regional Command dissolved, and made Bitar Prime Minister. Hafiz was made Chairman of a new Presidential Council and Shibli al-Aysami his deputy. Umran was recalled from exile and reappointed to the office of Minister of Defence and commander-in-chief, and Mansur al-Atrash was appointed Chairman of a new and expanded National Revolutionary Council. Jadid and his supporters responded by making war on the National Command. Assad, who neither liked nor had sympathy for the Aflaqites, did not support a showdown through the use of force. In response to the coming coup, Assad, along with Naji Jamil, Husayn Mulhim and Yusuf Sayigh, left for London.
The coup began on 21 February 1966 when Umran tested his authority as Minister of Defence by ordering the transfer of three key Jadid supporters; Major-General Ahmed Suidani, Colonel Izzad Jadid and Major Salim Hatum. The Military Committee would respond the next day, but before that it staged a ruse which threw the National Command off balance. The ruse was that Abd al-Ghani Ibrahim, the Alawi commander of the front facing Israel, reported to headquarters that a quarrel had broken out among front-line officers, and that guns had been used. Umran, al-Hafiz and the Chief of Staff left for the Golan Heights in a hurry for a lengthy discussion with the officer corps there; when they returned at 3 am on 23 February they were exhausted. Two hours later, at 5 am, Jadid launched his coup. Not long after, the attack on al-Hafiz's private residence began, led by Salim Hatum and Rifaat al-Assad, and supported by a squadron of tank units led by Izzad Jadid. Despite a spirited defence, Hafiz's forces surrendered after all their ammunition was spent – Hafiz's daughter lost an eye in the attacks. The commander of al-Hafiz's bodyguard, Mahmud Musa, was nearly killed by Izzad Jadid, but was saved and smuggled out of Syria by Hatum. There was resistance outside Damascus. In Hama, Tlass was forced to send forces from Homs to quell the uprising, while in Aleppo Aflaq loyalists briefly controlled the radio station and some resistance was reported in Latakia and Deir ez-Zor. After their military defeats, resistance all but collapsed – Razzaz was the only National Command member to put up any organised resistance after the military defeats, issuing statements against the government from his different hiding places.
Aftermath
The new government
Immediately after the coup, officers loyal to Umran and the Aflaqites were purged from the armed forces, being imprisoned alongside Umran at Mezze prison. One of the first acts of Jadid's government was to appoint Assad Minister of Defence. Assad however, did not support the coup, and told Mansur al-Atrash, Jubran Majdalani, and other Aflaqites that he did not support Jadid's actions. Later, in an interview with Le Monde, Assad claimed that the military's intervention was regrettable because the Ba'ath Party was democratic, and that the disputes should have been resolved in a democratic manner. However, Assad did view the actions as necessary, as it put an end, in his view, to the dictatorship of the National Command.
Jadid's government has been referred to as Syria's most radical government in history. He initiated rash and radical policies internally and externally, and tried to overturn Syrian society from the top to the bottom. While Assad and Jadid agreed ideologically, they did not agree on how to implement these beliefs in practice. The Military Committee, which had been the officers' key decision-making process during 1963–66, lost its central institutional authority under Jadid because the fight against the Aflaqites was over – the key reason for the committee's existence in the first place. While Jadid never acquired, or took the offices of Prime Minister or President, instead opting to rule through the office of Assistant Secretary of the Regional Command, he was the undisputed ruler of Syria from 1966 to 1970. Before the 1966 coup, Jadid had controlled the Syrian armed forces through his post as Head of the Bureau of Officers' Affairs, but from 1966 onwards Jadid became absorbed with running the country, and in his place, Assad was given the task of controlling the armed forces. This would later prove to be a mistake, and lead to Jadid's downfall in the 1970 Corrective Revolution.
Jadid appointed Nureddin al-Atassi as President, Regional Secretary of the Regional Command and Secretary General of the National Command, Yusuf Zu'ayyin became Prime Minister again, and Brahim Makhous was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs. Other personalities were former Head of Military Intelligence Ahmed Suidani, who was appointed Chief of Staff, Colonel Muhammad Rabah al-Tawil was appointed Minister of Labour and Head of the newly established Popular Resistance Forces, and Colonel Abd al-Karim al-Jundi, a founding member of the Military Committee, was appointed Minister of Agrarian Reform and later, Minister of Interior.
Neo-Ba'athism
Some believe, Avraham Ben-Tzur being the most prominent writer on the subject, that the Ba'athist ideology preached in Syria after the coup should be referred to as neo-Ba'athism since it has nothing to do with the ideology's classic form espoused by Aflaq, Bitar and the Aflaqites in general. Munif al-Razzaz agreed with the theory, stating that from 1961 onwards, there existed two Ba'ath parties – "the military Ba'ath Party and the Ba'ath Party, and real power lay with the former." He further noted that the military Ba'ath (as "paraphrased by Martin Seymour") "was and remains Ba'athist only in name; that it was and remains little more than a military clique with civilian hangers-on; and that from the initial founding of the Military Committee by disgruntled Syrian officers exiled in Cairo in 1959, the chain of events and the total corruption of Ba'athism proceeded with intolerable logic." Bitar agreed, stating that the 1966 coup "marked the end of Ba'athist politics in Syria." Aflaq shared the sentiment, and stated; "I no longer recognise my party!".
The split
The ousting of Aflaq, Bitar, and the National Command is the deepest schism in the Ba'ath movement's history. While there had been many schisms and splits in the Ba'ath Party, Aflaq and Bitar always emerged as the victors, and remained party leaders, but the 1966 coup brought a new generation of leaders to power who had different aims to their predecessors. While Aflaq and Bitar still had supporters in Syria and in non-Syrian Regional Branches, they were hampered by the lack of financial means – the Syrian Regional Branch had funded them since 1963. Jadid and his supporters now had the Syrian state at their disposal, and were theoretically able to establish new party organisations or coerce pro-Aflaq opinion, this failed to work since most of the regional branches changed their allegiance to Baghdad. Later in 1966, the first post-Aflaqite National Congress, officially designated the 9th, was held, and a new National Command was elected. Another change was to the ideological orientation of the Syrian Regional Branch and the new National Command; while the Aflaqites believed in an all-Arab Ba'ath Party and the unification of the Arab world, the Syria's new leaders saw this as impractical. Following the coup, the National Command became subservient in all but name to the Syrian Regional Command, and ceased to have an effective role in Arab or Syrian politics.
Following the exile of the National Command, some of its members, including Hafiz, convened the 9th Ba'ath National Congress (to differentiate it from the Syrian "9th National Congress") and elected a new National Command, with Aflaq, who did not attend the congress, as the National Command's Secretary General. For those like Bitar and Razzaz, the exile from Syria was too hard, and they left the party. Aflaq moved to Brazil, remaining there till 1968.
Party-to-party relations
When the National Command was toppled in 1966, the Iraqi Regional Branch remained, at least verbally, supportive of the "legitimate leadership" of Aflaq. When the Iraqi Regional Branch regained power in 1968 in the 17 July Revolution no attempts were made at a merger, to achieve their supposed goal of Arab unity, or reconciliation with the Syrian Ba'ath. After the establishment of Ba'ath rule in Iraq, many members of the Syrian-dominated Ba'ath movement defected to its Iraqi-counterpart, few if any Iraqi-loyal Ba'athists attempted to change its allegiance to Damascus. The reason for this was that those defecting from Damascus were loyal to the old, Aflaqite National Command. Several older members such as Bitar, Hafiz, Shibli al-Aysami and Elias Farah, either visited Iraq or sent a congratulatory message to Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, the Regional Secretary of the Iraqi Regional Command. Aflaq did not visit Iraq until 1969, but from late 1970, he would become a leading Iraqi Ba'ath official, although he never acquired any decision-making power.
From the beginning the Damascus government began an overwhelmingly anti-Iraqi Ba'athist propaganda campaign, to which their counterparts in Baghdad responded. However, the Iraqi Ba'athists helped Assad, who at the 4th Regional Congress of the Syrian Regional Branch called for the reunification of the Ba'ath Party, in his attempt to seize power from Jadid. It was reported that Assad promised the Iraqis to recognize Aflaq's historical leadership. Iraq's foreign minister Abdul Karim al-Shaikhly even had his own personal office in the Syrian Ministry of Defence, which Assad headed. However, this should not be misconstrued, the Iraqi Regional Branch was Arab nationalist in name only, and was in fact Iraqi nationalist.
The Syrian Regional Branch began denouncing Aflaq as a "thief". They claimed that he had stolen the Ba'athist ideology from Zaki al-Arsuzi and proclaimed it as his own, with Assad hailing Arsuzi as the principal founder of Ba'athist thought. The Iraqi Regional Branch, however, still proclaimed Aflaq as the founder of Ba'athism. Assad has referred to Arsuzi as the "greatest Syrian of his day" and claimed him to be the "first to conceive of the Ba'ath as a political movement." Aflaq was condemned to death in absentia'' in 1971 by Assad's government. The Syrian Regional Branch erected a statue in Arsuzi's honour not long after the 1966 coup. Nevertheless, the majority of Ba'ath followers outside Syria still view Aflaq, not Arsuzi, as the principal founder of Ba'athism.
When the Iraqi Regional Branch seized power, the Syrian Regional Branch responded by not mentioning in the press release that a Ba'ath organisation had taken power in Iraq. For instance, it mentioned that Bakr had been appointed president, but did not mention his party's affiliation, and instead referred to the incident as a military coup. While the Syrian Ba'ath denied giving any legitimacy to Iraqi Ba'ath, the Iraqi Ba'ath were more conciliatory. For instance, Bakr stated "They are Ba'athists, we are Ba'athists" shortly after the Iraqi Regional Branch seized power. Foreign Minister Shaykli stated shortly after that "there is nothing preventing co-operation between us [meaning Iraq and Syria]". The anti-Iraq propaganda reached new heights within Syria at the same time that Assad was strengthening his position within the party and state. When Jadid was toppled by Assad during the Corrective Movement in 1970, it did not signal a change in attitudes, and the first joint communique of the Syrian-dominated National Command and the Syrian Regional Command referred to the Iraqi Ba'ath as a "rightist clique".
See also
List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
Syrian Crisis of 1957
1963 Syrian coup d'état (officially referred to as the "8th of March Revolution")
Corrective Movement
Syrian civil war
References
Notes
Bibliography
1960s coups d'état and coup attempts
Conflicts in 1966
Syrian Coup D'etat, 1966
Military coups in Syria
Ba'athism
History of the Ba'ath Party
Arab nationalism in Syria
Arab nationalist rebellions
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The Kingdom of Bavaria (; ) was a German state that succeeded the former Electorate of Bavaria in 1805 and continued to exist until 1918. With the unification of Germany into the German Empire in 1871, the kingdom became a federated state of the new empire and was second in size, power, and wealth only to the leading state, the Kingdom of Prussia.
The polity's foundation dates back to the ascension of prince-elector Maximilian IV Joseph of the House of Wittelsbach as King of Bavaria in 1805. The crown would go on being held by the Wittelsbachs until the kingdom came to an end in 1918. Most of the border of modern Germany's Free State of Bavaria were established after 1814 with the Treaty of Paris, in which the Kingdom of Bavaria ceded Tyrol and Vorarlberg to the Austrian Empire while receiving Aschaffenburg and Würzburg.
In 1918, Bavaria became a republic after the German Revolution, and the kingdom was thus succeeded by the current Free State of Bavaria.
History
Foundation and expansion under Maximilian I
On 30 December 1777, the Bavarian line of the Wittelsbachs became extinct, and the succession on the Electorate of Bavaria passed to Charles Theodore, the Elector Palatine. After a separation of four and a half centuries, the Palatinate, to which the duchies of Jülich and Berg had been added, was thus reunited with Bavaria. In 1793, French revolutionary armies overran the Palatinate; in 1795, the French, under Moreau, invaded Bavaria itself, advanced to Munich—where they were received with joy by the long-suppressed Liberals—and laid siege to Ingolstadt. Charles Theodore, who had done nothing to prevent wars or to resist the invasion, fled to Saxony, leaving a regency, the members of which signed a convention with Moreau, by which he granted an armistice in return for a heavy contribution (7 September 1796). Between the French and the Austrians, Bavaria was now in a bad situation. Before the death of Charles Theodore (16 February 1799), the Austrians had again occupied the country, in preparation for renewing the war with France.
Maximilian IV Joseph (of Zweibrücken), the new elector, succeeded to a difficult inheritance. Though his own sympathies, and those of his all-powerful minister, Maximilian von Montgelas, were, if anything, French rather than Austrian, the state of the Bavarian finances, and the fact that the Bavarian troops were scattered and disorganized, placed him helpless in the hands of Austria; on 2 December 1800, the Bavarian arms were involved in the Austrian defeat at Hohenlinden, and Moreau once more occupied Munich. By the Treaty of Lunéville (9 February 1801), Bavaria lost the Palatinate and the duchies of Zweibrücken and Jülich. In view of the scarcely disguised ambitions and intrigues of the Austrian court, Montgelas now believed that the interests of Bavaria lay in a frank alliance with the French Republic; he succeeded in overcoming the reluctance of Maximilian Joseph; and, on 24 August, a separate treaty of peace and alliance with France was signed at Paris.
The 1805 Peace of Pressburg allowed Maximilian to raise Bavaria to the status of a kingdom. Accordingly, Maximilian proclaimed himself king on 1 January 1806. The King still served as an elector until Bavaria seceded from the Holy Roman Empire on 1 August 1806. The Duchy of Berg was ceded to Napoleon only in 1806. The new kingdom faced challenges from the outset of its creation, relying on the support of Napoleonic France. The kingdom faced war with Austria in 1808 and from 1810 to 1814, lost territory to Württemberg, Italy, and then Austria. In 1808, all relics of serfdom were abolished, which had left the old empire. In the same year, Maximilian promulgated Bavaria's first written constitution. Over the next five years, it was amended numerous times in accordance with Paris' wishes.
During the French invasion of Russia in 1812 about 30,000 Bavarian soldiers were killed in action. With the Treaty of Ried of 8 October 1813 Bavaria left the Confederation of the Rhine and agreed to join the Sixth Coalition against Napoleon in exchange for a guarantee of her continued sovereign and independent status. On 14 October, Bavaria made a formal declaration of war against Napoleonic France. The treaty was passionately backed by the Crown Prince Ludwig and by Marshal von Wrede. With the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813 ended the German Campaign with the Coalition nations as the victors, in a complete failure for the French, although they achieved a minor victory when an army of Kingdom of Bavaria attempted to block the retreat of the French Grande Armée at Hanau.
With the defeat of Napoleon's France in 1814, Bavaria was compensated for some of its losses, and received new territories such as the Grand Duchy of Würzburg, the Archbishopric of Mainz (Aschaffenburg) and parts of the Grand Duchy of Hesse. Finally, in 1816, the Rhenish Palatinate was taken from France in exchange for most of Salzburg which was then ceded to Austria (Treaty of Munich (1816)). It was the second largest and second most powerful state south of the Main, behind only Austria. In Germany as a whole, it ranked third behind Prussia and Austria.
Between 1799 and 1817, the leading minister Count Montgelas followed a strict policy of modernisation and laid the foundations of administrative structures that survived even the monarchy and are (in their core) valid until today. On 1 February 1817, Montgelas had been dismissed and Bavaria had entered on a new era of constitutional reform.
Constitution
On 26 May 1818, Bavaria's second constitution was proclaimed. The constitution established a bicameral Parliament (Landtag). The upper house (Kammer der Reichsräte, meaning "House of Councillors") comprising the aristocracy and noblemen, including the royal princes, holders of the crown offices, archbishops, members of the Mediatized Houses in bavaria and hereditary and lifelong nominees of the crown. The lower house (Kammer der Abgeordneten, meaning "House of Representatives"), would include representatives of landowners, the three universities, clergy (Catholic and Protestant), the towns and the peasants. Without the consent of both houses, no law could be passed and no tax could be levied. The rights of Protestants were safeguarded in the constitution with articles supporting the equality of all religions, despite opposition by supporters of the Roman Catholic Church. The initial constitution almost proved disastrous for the monarchy, with controversies such as the army having to swear allegiance to the new constitution. The monarchy appealed to the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire for advice, the two refused to take action on Bavaria's behalf, but the debacles lessened and the state stabilized with the accession of Ludwig I to the throne following the death of Maximilian in 1825.
Within the Kingdom of Bavaria, the Palatinate enjoyed a special legal and administrative position, as the Bavarian government maintained substantial achievements of the French period. The German historian Heiner Haan described the special status of the Palatinate within Bavaria as a relation of "Hauptstaat" (main state, i.e. Bavaria) and "Nebenstaat" (alongside state, i.e. the Palatinate).
Ludwig I, Maximilian II and the Revolutions
In 1825, Ludwig I ascended the throne of Bavaria. Under Ludwig, the arts flourished in Bavaria, and Ludwig personally ordered and financially assisted the creation of many neoclassical buildings and architecture across Bavaria. Ludwig also increased Bavaria's pace towards industrialization under his reign. In foreign affairs under Ludwig's rule, Bavaria supported the Greeks during the Greek War of Independence with his second son, Otto being elected King of Greece in 1832. As for politics, initial reforms advocated by Ludwig were both liberal and reform-oriented. However, after the Revolutions of 1830, Ludwig turned to conservative reaction. The Hambacher Fest in 1832 showed the discontent of the population with high taxes and censorship. Bavaria joined the Zollverein in 1834. In 1835, the first German railway was constructed in Bavaria, between the cities of Fürth and Nuremberg.
In 1837, the Roman Catholic-supported clerical movement, the Ultramontanes, came to power in the Bavarian parliament and began a campaign of reform to the constitution, which removed civil rights that had earlier been granted to Protestants, as well as enforcing censorship and forbidding the free discussion of internal politics. This regime was short-lived due to the demand by the Ultramontanes of the naturalization of Ludwig I's Irish mistress, Lola Montez, a notorious courtesan and dancer, which was resented by Ludwig, and the Ultramontanes were pushed out.
During the Revolutions of 1848, Ludwig abdicated on 20 March 1848 in favour of his eldest son, Maximilian II. The revolutions also brought amendments to the constitution, including changes to the lower house of the Landtag with equal suffrage for every male who paid a direct tax. Maximilian II responded to the demands of the people for a united German state by attending the Frankfurt Assembly, which intended to create such a state. However, when Maximilian II rejected the Frankfurt Constitution in 1849, there was an uprising in the Bavarian Palatinate under Joseph Martin Reichard, which was put down with the support of Prussian forces. However Maximilian II stood alongside Bavaria's ally, the Austrian Empire, in opposition to Austria's enemy, the Kingdom of Prussia. This position was resented by many Bavarian citizens, who wanted a united Germany. In the end Prussia declined the crown offered by the Frankfurt Assembly as the proposed constitution of a German state was perceived to be too liberal and not in Prussia's interests.
In the aftermath of the failure of the Frankfurt Assembly, Prussia and Austria continued to debate over which monarchy had the inherent right to rule Germany. A dispute between Austria and the Prince of Hesse-Kassel was used by Austria and its allies (including Bavaria) to promote the isolation of Prussia in German political affairs. This diplomatic insult almost led to war when Austria, Bavaria, and other allies moved troops through Bavaria towards Hesse-Kassel in 1850. However, Prussia backed down to Austria, and accepted of dual leadership. This event was known as the Punctation of Olmütz but also known as the "Humiliation of Olmütz" by Prussia. This event solidified the Bavarian kingdom's alliance with Austria against Prussia. When the project to unite the German middle-sized powers under Bavarian leadership against Prussia and Austria (the so-called Trias) failed, Minister-President Von der Pfordten resigned in 1859. Attempts by Prussia to reorganize the loose and un-led German Confederation were opposed by Bavaria and Austria, with Bavaria taking part in its own discussions with Austria and other allies in 1863, in Frankfurt, without Prussia and its allies attending.
Austro-Prussian War
In 1864, Maximilian II died early, and his eighteen-year-old son, Ludwig II, became King of Bavaria as tensions between Austria and Prussia escalated steadily. Prussian Minister-President Otto von Bismarck, recognizing the immediate likelihood of war, tried to keep Bavaria neutral. Ludwig II refused Bismarck's offers and continued Bavaria's alliance with Austria. In 1866, the Austro-Prussian War began. Bavaria and most of the south German states allied with Austria, but contributed far less to the war against Prussia.
Prussia quickly defeated the Kingdom of Hanover, then won the Battle of Königgrätz (3 July 1866) against Austria, which was totally defeated by Prussia shortly afterward. The states of the German Confederation had not agreed on a common strategy in the war. Their separate armies were therefore defeated in succession by Prussia.
The Bavarian army was defeated in Lower Franconia at the Battle of Kissingen (10 July 1866). Prince Karl Theodor of Bavaria took command, but the Bavarians were decisively beaten at Uettingen (26 July 1866).
Austria was defeated, and the German Confederation was dissolved, ending Austria's influence over the lesser German states. Bavaria lost Gersfeld and Bad Orb to Prussia; they became part of the new province of Hesse-Nassau. From this time, Bavaria steadily progressed into Prussia's sphere of influence.
Ludwig II and the German Empire
With Austria's defeat in the Austro-Prussian War, the northern German states quickly unified into the North German Confederation, with the Prussian king leading the state. Bavaria's previous inhibitions towards Prussia changed, along with those of many of the south German states, after French emperor Napoleon III began speaking of France's need for "compensation" from its loss in 1814 and included Bavarian-held Palatinate as part of its territorial claims. Ludwig II joined an alliance with Prussia in 1870 against France, which was seen by Germans as the greatest enemy to a united Germany. At the same time, Bavaria increased its political, legal, and trade ties with the North German Confederation. In 1870, war erupted between France and Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War. The Bavarian Army was sent under the command of the Prussian crown prince against the French army.
With France's defeat and humiliation against the combined German forces, it was Ludwig II who proposed that Prussian King Wilhelm I be proclaimed German Emperor or "Kaiser" of the German Empire ("Deutsches Reich"), which occurred in 1871 in German-occupied Versailles, France. The territories of the German Empire were declared, which included the states of the North German Confederation and all of the south German states, with the major exception of Austria. The Empire also annexed the formerly French territory of Alsace-Lorraine, due in large part to Ludwig's desire to move the French frontier away from the Palatinate.
Bavaria's entry into the German Empire changed from jubilation over France's defeat to dismay shortly afterward because of the direction Germany took under the new German Chancellor and Prussian Prime Minister, Otto von Bismarck. The Bavarian delegation under Count Otto von Bray-Steinburg had secured a privileged status for the Kingdom of Bavaria within the German Empire (Reservatrechte). The Kingdom of Bavaria was even able to retain its own diplomatic body and its own army, which would fall under Prussian command only in times of war.
After Bavaria's entry into the Empire, Ludwig II became increasingly detached from Bavaria's political affairs and spent vast amounts of money on personal projects, such as the construction of a number of fairytale castles and palaces, the most famous being the Wagnerian-style Castle Neuschwanstein. Ludwig used his personal wealth to finance these projects, and not state funds, and the construction projects landed him deeply in debt. These debts caused much concern among Bavaria's political elite, who sought to persuade Ludwig to cease his building; he refused, and relations between the government's ministers and the crown deteriorated.
At last, in 1886, the crisis came to a head. A medical commission appointed by the cabinet declared Ludwig insane and thus incapable of reigning. His uncle, Prince Luitpold, was appointed as regent. A day after Ludwig's deposition, the king died mysteriously after asking the commission's chief psychiatrist to go on a walk with him along Lake Starnberg (then called Lake Würm). Ludwig and the psychiatrist were found dead, floating in the lake. The official autopsy listed cause of death as suicide by drowning, but some sources claim that no water was found in Ludwig's lungs. While these claims could be explained by dry drowning, they have also led to some conspiracy theories of political assassination.
Regency and institutional reform
The crown passed to Ludwig's brother Otto. However, Otto had a long history of mental illness and had been placed under medical supervision three years earlier. The duties of head of state actually rested in the hands of Prince Luitpold, who continued to serve as regent for Otto.
During the regency of Prince-Regent Luitpold, from 1886 to 1912, relations between Bavaria and Prussia remained cold, with Bavarians remembering the anti-Catholic agenda of Bismarck's Kulturkampf, as well as Prussia's strategic dominance over the empire. Bavaria protested Prussian dominance over Germany and snubbed the Prussian-born German Emperor, Wilhelm II, in 1900, by forbidding the flying of any other flag other than the Bavarian flag on public buildings for the Emperor's birthday, but this was swiftly modified afterwards, allowing the German imperial flag to be hung beside the Bavarian flag.
The Catholic, conservative Patriotic Party founded in 1868 became the leading party in the Bavarian Landtag (Parliament). In 1887, its name was changed to Bavarian Centre. In 1893, the Social Democrats were elected to the parliament. From 1903, the University Education was also possible for female students. Electoral reforms changed the elections of the parliament from indirect to direct elections in 1906. With the Centre politician Georg von Hertling the Prince-Regent appointed to the head of government for the first time a representative of the Landtag's majority in 1912.
Luitpold's years as regent were marked by tremendous artistic and cultural activity in Bavaria where they are known as the Prinzregentenjahre ("The Prince Regent Years"). In 1912, Luitpold died, and his son, Prince-Regent Ludwig, took over as regent. By then, it had long been apparent that Otto would never be able to reign, and sentiment grew for Ludwig to become king in his own right. On 6 November, a year after the Landtag passed a law allowing him to do so, Ludwig ended the regency, deposed Otto and declared himself King of Bavaria as Ludwig III.
The Prinzregentenzeit ("prince's regent's time"), as the regency of Luitpold is often called, was due to the political passiveness of Luitpold an era of the gradual transfer of Bavarian interests behind those of the German empire. In connection with the unhappy end of the preceding rule of King Ludwig II this break in the Bavarian monarchy looked even stronger. Finally, the constitutional amendment of 1913 brought the determining break in the continuity of the king's rule in the opinion of historians, particularly as this change had been granted by the Landtag as a House of Representatives and meant therefore indirectly the first step from constitutional to the parliamentary monarchy. Today the connection of these two developments is regarded as a main cause for the unspectacular end of the Bavarian kingdom without opposition in the course of the November revolution of 1918. However the course of his 26-year regency Luitpold knew to overcome, by modesty, ability and popularity, the initial uneasiness of his subjects. These prince regent's years were transfigured, finally—above all in the retrospect – to a golden age of Bavaria, even if one mourned the "fairy tale king" Ludwig II furthermore what happens in a folkloric-nostalgic manner till this day.
Military autonomy
With the establishment of the German Empire, a series of conventions brought the bulk of the various state military forces directly under the administration of the Prussian War Ministry. Bavaria however maintained a degree of autonomy in peacetime, with its own two (later three) army corps remaining outside the Prussian order of battle. The Bavarian infantry and cavalry regiments retained their historic light blue and green uniforms, distinctive from the Prussian model adopted throughout most of the army. The individual Bavarian soldier swore an oath of loyalty to King Ludwig, though in wartime this pledge of obedience was extended to Kaiser Wilhelm as supreme commander. In July 1914, the Bavarian Army numbered 92,400 or 11 percent of the total Imperial Army.
World War I and the end of the Kingdom
In 1914, a clash of alliances occurred over Austria-Hungary's aggression against Serbia following the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Bosnian Serb militant. Germany went to the side of its former rival-turned-ally, Austria-Hungary, and declared war on France and Russia. Following the German invasion of neutral Belgium the United Kingdom declared war on Germany. Initially, in Bavaria and all across Germany, many recruits flocked enthusiastically to the Army. At the outbreak of the war, King Ludwig III sent an official dispatch to Berlin, to express Bavaria's solidarity. Later Ludwig even claimed annexations for Bavaria (Alsace and the city of Antwerp in Belgium, to receive an access to the sea). His hidden agenda was to maintain the balance of power between Prussia and Bavaria within the German Empire after a victory. Over time, with a stalemated and bloody war on the western front, Bavarians, like many Germans, grew weary of the conflict.
In 1917, the Bavarian Prime Minister Georg von Hertling became German Chancellor and Prime Minister of Prussia; Otto Ritter von Dandl became the new Prime Minister of Bavaria. Accused of showing blind loyalty to Prussia, Ludwig III became increasingly unpopular during the war. In 1918, the kingdom attempted to negotiate a separate peace with the allies but failed. By 1918, civil unrest was spreading across Bavaria and Germany, Bavarian defiance to Prussian hegemony and Bavarian separatism being key motivators.
On 7 November 1918, Ludwig fled from the Residenz Palace in Munich with his family. He was the first of the monarchs in the German Empire to be deposed; only days later, the Kaiser abdicated the German throne. Ludwig took up residence in Austria for what was intended to be a temporary stay. On 12 November, he issued the Anif declaration, declaring that under the circumstances, he was "in no position to lead the government." Accordingly, he released his soldiers and officials from their oath to him. Although he never formally abdicated, the socialist-led government of Kurt Eisner took Ludwig's declaration as such and declared the House of Wittelsbach deposed. With this, the 700-year rule of the Wittelsbach dynasty came to an end, and the former Kingdom of Bavaria became the People's State of Bavaria.
The funeral of Ludwig III in 1921 was feared or hoped to spark a restoration of the monarchy. Despite the abolition of the monarchy, the former King was laid to rest in front of the former royal family, the Bavarian government, military personnel, and an estimated 100,000 spectators, in the style of royal funerals. Prince Rupprecht did not wish to use the occasion of the passing of his father to attempt to reestablish the monarchy by force, preferring to do so by legal means. Cardinal Michael von Faulhaber, Archbishop of Munich, in his funeral speech, made a clear commitment to the monarchy while Rupprecht only declared that he had stepped into his birthright.
Geography, administrative regions and population
When Napoleon abolished the Holy Roman Empire, and Bavaria became a kingdom in 1806, its land area doubled. Tyrol (1805–1814) and Salzburg (1810–1816) were temporarily united with Bavaria but then returned (Tyrol) or ceded (Salzburg) to Habsburg/Austrian rule. In return the Rhenish Palatinate and Franconia were annexed to Bavaria in 1815.
After the founding of the kingdom the state was totally reorganised and, in 1808, divided into 15 administrative government districts (Regierungsbezirke (singular Regierungsbezirk)) in Bavaria called Kreise (singular Kreis). They were created in the fashion of the French departements, quite even in size and population, and named after their main rivers: Altmühl-, Eisack-, Etsch-, Iller-, Inn-, Isar-, Lech-, Main-, Naab-, Oberdonau-, Pegnitz-, Regen-, Rezat-, Salzach- and Unterdonaukreis
Because of the numerous territorial changes in 1810 and 1815, the divisions needed to be adjusted and the number of Kreise was reduced to 8: Isar-, Unterdonau-, Oberdonau-, Regen-, Rezat-, Untermain-, Obermain- and Rheinkreis.
As of 1838, at the instigation of King Ludwig I, the Kreise were renamed after the former historical tribes and territories of the respective area in: Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria, Swabia and Neuburg, Upper Palatinate and Regensburg, Middle Franconia, Lower Franconia and Aschaffenburg, Upper Franconia and Palatinate. The town names of Neuburg, Regensburg and Aschaffenburg were later dropped.
Accordingly, the king changed his royal titles to Ludwig, King of Bavaria, Duke of Franconia, Duke in Swabia and Count Palatine of the Rhine and these were retained by his successors. The Palatinate (formerly Rheinkreis) which Bavaria had acquired was mainly the western part of the former Electorate of the Palatinate. Ludwig's plan to acquire also the former eastern part could not be realized. The Electorate, a former dominion of the Bavarian Wittelsbach dynasty, had been split up in 1815, the eastern bank of the Rhine with Mannheim and Heidelberg was given to Baden. The western bank was granted to Bavaria as compensation for the loss of Tyrol and Salzburg.
After the Austro-Prussian War (1866) in which Bavaria had sided with defeated Austria, it had to cede several Lower Franconian districts to Prussia. The duchy of Coburg was never part of the Kingdom of Bavaria since it was annexed to Bavaria only in 1920. Ostheim was added to Bavaria in 1945.
In the first half of the 20th. century, the initial terminology of Kreis and Bezirk gave way to Regierungsbezirk and Landkreis.
Statistics
Area = 75,865 km2 (1900)
Population = 3,707,966 (1818) / 4,370,977 (1840) / 6,176,057 (1900) / 6,524,372 (1910)
Government districts (Kreise) (1808–1817):
Altmühlkreis (1808–1810 / dissolved)
Eisackkreis (1808–1810 / ceded to Italy)
Etschkreis (1808–1810 / ceded to Italy)
Illerkreis (1808–1817 / dissolved)
Innkreis (1808–1814 / ceded to Austria)
Isarkreis (1808–1838)
Lechkreis (1808–1810 / dissolved)
Mainkreis (1808–1838)
Naabkreis (1808–1810 / dissolved)
Oberdonaukreis (1808–1838)
Pegnitzkreis (1808–1810 / dissolved)
Regenkreis (1808–1838)
Rezatkreis (1808–1838)
Salzachkreis (1810–1816 / ceded to Austria)
Unterdonaukreis (1808–1838)
Government districts (Kreise) (1816/17–1838)
Isarkreis (transformed into Upper Bavaria)
Obermainkreis (transformed into Upper Franconia)
Oberdonaukreis (transformed into Swabia)
Regenkreis (transformed into Upper Palatinate)
Rezatkreis (transformed into Middle Franconia)
Unterdonaukreis (transformed into Lower Bavaria)
Untermainkreis (transformed into Lower Franconia)
Rheinkreis (transformed into Palatinate)
Government districts (Kreise) (1838–1918):
Upper Bavaria () (Capital: Munich)
Upper Franconia () (Capital: Bayreuth)
Swabia () (Capital: Augsburg)
Upper Palatinate () (Capital: Regensburg)
Middle Franconia () (Capital: Ansbach)
Lower Bavaria () (Capital: Landshut)
Lower Franconia () (Capital: Würzburg)
Palatinate () (Capital: Speyer)
See also
King of Bavaria
List of Minister-Presidents of Bavaria
Bavaria
History of Bavaria
History of Germany
References
External links
Catholic Encyclopedia: The Kingdom of Bavaria
Guide to Bavaria: The Kingdom of Bavaria
Kingdom of Bavaria
Former kingdoms
States of the German Empire
States of the German Confederation
States of the Confederation of the Rhine
.
Kingdom of Bavaria
Kingdom of Bavaria
Kingdom of Bavaria
Kingdom of Bavaria
Kingdom of Bavaria
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Places where PowerVR technology and its various iterations have been used:
Series1 (NEC)
Series2 (NEC)
Series3 (STMicro)
VGX
PowerVR VGX150
Series4 (MBX and MBX Lite)
Freescale i.MX31 — MBX Lite + FPU (VFP11) + ARM1136
DAVE Embedded Systems Qong (SOM)
ELSA PAL Mini Book e-A533-L
Garz & Fricke Adelaide
TQ Components TQMa31
iCEphone
LORE Embedded TS1
Freescale i.MX31C — MBX Lite + FPU (VFP11) + ARM1136
Cogent CSB733 (SOM)
DAVE Embedded Systems Qong (SOM)
Freescale MPC5121e — MBX Lite + VGP Lite + PowerPC e300
CherryPal C114
DAVE Embedded Systems Aria (SOM)
LimePC range (UMPC, HandheldPC, PalmPC, LimePC HDTV set)
PhaedruS SystemS CSB781
GDA Technologies Bali Reference Board
Intel CE 2110 (Olo River) — MBX Lite + XScale CPU
ASUS set-top boxes
Chunghwa Telecom Multimedia on Demand set-top boxes
Digeo Moxi Multi-Room HD Digital Media Recorder
Digeo Moxi Mate
Digital Video Networks set-top boxes
OKI Next Generation Hybrid STB
ZTE set-top boxes
Marvell 2700G - discontinued - (was Intel 2700G (Marathon)) — MBX Lite + XScale PXA27x CPU
Advance Tech M.A.G.I.C.
Advantech UbiQ-350
Advantech UbiQ-470
Compulab CM-F82 (PowerPC Module)
Dell Axim X50v
Dell Axim X51v
Dresser Wayne iX
Gigabyte GSmart t600
Gigabyte GSmart MW998
Palm Foleo
Pepper Pad
PFU Systems MediaStaff DS
NXP Nexperia PNX4008 — MBX Lite + FPU + ARM926
Sony Ericsson M600 and M608c
Sony Ericsson P1i and P1c
Sony Ericsson P990 and P990c
Sony Ericsson W950i and W958c
Sony Ericsson W960i and W960c
NXP Nexperia PNX4009 — MBX Lite + FPU + ARM926
Sony Ericsson G700 and G700c
Sony Ericsson G700 Business Edition
Sony Ericsson G900
Sony Ericsson P200
Renesas SH3707 — MBX + VGP + FPU + SH-4
Sega Aurora
Renesas SH-Mobile3 (SH73180), Renesas SH-Mobile3+ (SH73182), Renesas SH-Mobile3A (SH73230), Renesas SH-Mobile3A+ (SH73450) — MBX Lite + VGP Lite + SH-X(SH4AL-DSP)
Fujitsu F702iD
Fujitsu F901iC
Fujitsu F902i
Fujitsu F902iS
Helio Hero
Mitsubishi D702i
Mitsubishi D851iWM (MUSIC PORTER X)
Mitsubishi D901i
Mitsubishi D901iS
Mitsubishi D902i
Mitsubishi D902iS
Motorola MS550
Pantech PN-8300
SK Teletech (SKY) IM-8300
Renesas SH-Mobile G1 — MBX Lite + VGP Lite + SH-X2(SH4AL-DSP)
Fujitsu F704i
Fujitsu Raku-Raku PHONE III (F882iES)
Fujitsu Raku-Raku PHONE Basic (F883i)
Fujitsu Raku-Raku PHONE IV (F883iES)
Fujitsu F903i
Fujitsu F903iX HIGH-SPEED
Fujitsu F904i
Mitsubishi D704i
Mitsubishi D903i
Mitsubishi D903iTV
Mitsubishi D904i
Renesas SH-Mobile G2 — MBX Lite + VGP Lite + SH-X2(SH4AL-DSP)
Fujitsu F905i
Mitsubishi D905i
Sharp SH905i
Sony Ericsson SO905i
Sony Ericsson SO905iCS
Fujitsu F906i
Fujitsu F706i
Sharp SH906i
Sharp SH906iTV
Sharp SH706i
Sharp SH706ie
Sharp SH706iw
Sony Ericsson SO906i
Sony Ericsson SO706i
Renesas SH-Navi1 (SH7770) — MBX + VGP + FPU + SH-X(SH-4A), Renesas unidentified — MBX + SuperH
Alpine Car Information Systems
Clarion MAX960HD
Clarion NAX963HD
Clarion NAX970HD
Clarion NAX973HD and MAX973HD
Clarion MAX9700DT
Clarion MAX9750DT
Mitsubishi HDD Navi H9000
Mitsubishi HDD Navi H9700
Pioneer Carrozzeria HDD CyberNavi AVIC-VH009
Pioneer Carrozzeria HDD CyberNavi AVIC-ZH900MD
Renesas SH-Navi2G (SH7775) — MBX + VGP + FPU + SH-X2(SH-4A)
Samsung S3C2460 — MBX Lite + FPU + ARM926
Samsung S5L8900 — MBX Lite + VGP Lite + FPU (VFP11) + ARM1176
iPhone
iPhone 3G
iPod Touch
iPod Touch 2nd gen
iPod Nano 4th gen
iPod Nano 5th gen
Samsung S5PC510 — MBX Lite + VGP Lite + FPU + A10 + POWER VR 540
MEIZU M9
SiRF SiRFprima — MBX Lite + VGP Lite + MVED1 + FPU + ARM11
Dmedia G400 WiMAX MID
CMMB K704
CMMB T700
ACCO MID Q7
ACCO P439
FineDrive iQ500
RMVB C7
Vanhe T700
WayteQ X610, X620, N800, N810, X810, X820
YFI 80T-1
Sunplus unidentified — MBX
Texas Instruments OMAP 2420 — MBX + VGP + FPU (VFP11) + ARM1136
Motorola MOTO Q 9h
Motorola MOTO Q music 9m
Motorola MOTO Q PRO
Motorola MOTORIZR Z8
Motorola MOTORIZR Z10
NEC N902i
NEC N902iS
NEC N902iX HIGH-SPEED
Nokia E90 Communicator
Nokia N82
Nokia N93
Nokia N93i
Nokia N95 (Classic, US, SoftBank X02NK Japanese, and 8 GB versions) ( N95 RM-159 / 245 = TI OMAP DM290Z WV C-68A0KYW EI )
Nokia N800
Nokia N810
Nokia N810 Wimax edition
Panasonic P702iD
Panasonic P702iS
Panasonic P902i
Panasonic P902iS
Sharp SH702iD
Sharp SH702iS
Sharp SH902i
Sharp SH902iS
Sharp DOLCE SL (SH902iSL)
Sony Ericsson SO902i
Sony Ericsson SO902iWP+
Texas Instruments OMAP2430 — MBX Lite + VGP Lite + FPU + ARM1136
ASUS M536
Fujitsu F1100
NEC N903i
NEC N904i
NEC N905i
NEC N905iμ
Palm Treo 800w
Panasonic P903i
Panasonic P903iTV
Panasonic P903iX HIGH-SPEED
Samsung SGH-G810
Samsung SGH-i550
Samsung SGH-i560
Samsung innov8 (SGH-i8510)
Samsung GT-i7110
Sharp SH704i
Sharp SH903i
Sharp SH904i
Sony Ericsson SO704i
Sony Ericsson SO903i
Texas Instruments OMAP2530 — MBX Lite + VGP Lite + FPU + ARM1176
Thinkware iNAVI K2
Digital Cube iStation T5
APSI LM480
PowerVR Video Cores (MVED/VXD)
Apple A4 — VXD375
Apple iPad
Apple iPhone 4
Apple iPod Touch 4th Gen
Apple TV Second Generation
Apple A5
Apple iPad 2
Apple iPad Mini
Apple iPhone 4S
Apple iPod Touch 5th Gen
Apple A5X
Apple iPad 3
Apple A6
Apple iPhone 5
Apple iPhone 5C
Apple A6X
Apple iPad 4
Marvell PXA310/312 — MVED
Airis T483 / T482L
Blackberry Bold 9700
Geeks'Phone ONE
General Mobile DSTL1
Gigabyte GSmart MS808
HP iPaq 11x/21x
HKC Prado
HKC Mopad 8/E
HKC G920, G908
i-MATE 810F (Hummer)
Motorola FR68 and FR6000
NIM1000
NDrive S400
Pharos 565
Qigi AK007C, i6-Goal, i6-Win, i6C, U8/U8P
RoverPC Pro G7, X7, evo V7
Samsung i780, i900 Omnia, i907 Epix, i908 Omnia, i910 Omnia, SCH-M490 T*OMNIA, SCH-M495 T*OMNIA
Samsung SPH-M4800 Ultra Messaging II
SoftBank 930SC Omnia
WayteQ X520, X-Phone
Samsung S5PC100 — VXD370
Apple iPhone 3GS
Apple iPod Touch 3rd Gen
Samsung Hummingbird S5PC110/SP5C111/S5PV210 — VXD370
PanDigital SuperNova 8" tablet
Samsung Galaxy S series(excluding i9003 and i9001)
Samsung Droid Charge
Samsung Exhibit 4G
Samsung Galaxy Tab P1000 and all variants(excluding Galaxy Tab WiFi P1010)
Samsung Galaxy S WiFi series
Samsung Nexus S series
T-Mobile Sidekick 4G
Samsung Exynos 5410
Samsung Galaxy S4 (GT-I9500)
Meizu MX3(M353)
SI Electronics unidentified — VXD380
Texas Instruments OMAP4430
Amazon Kindle Fire
Google Glass
LG Optimus 3D
LG Optimus L9
LG Prada 3.0
Motorola Atrix 2
Motorola Droid RAZR
Motorola Droid RAZR MAXX
Samsung Galaxy S II (GT-I9100G)
Samsung Galaxy Tab 2 7.0
Texas Instruments OMAP4460
Amazon Kindle Fire HD
Google Nexus Q
Huawei Ascend D1
Samsung Galaxy Nexus
PowerVR Video/Display Cores(PDP)
NEC EMMA 3TL — PDP
Sony Bravia TV's
Series5 (SGX)
PowerVR SGX (pixel, vertex, and geometry shader hardware)
next generation fully programmable universal scalable shader architecture
exceeding requirements of OpenGL 2.0 and up to DirectX 10.1 Shader Model 4.1
licensed to Allwinner Technology, Apple Inc, Sony, Ingenic Semiconductor, Intel, Nokia, Renesas, NEC, TI, MediaTek, NXP Semiconductors, Realtek, Rockchip Samsung, Sigma Designs, SigmaTel, SiRF, SiS and others
size from 2.6 mm² to 12.5 mm² (@65 nm)
6 variants announced (realistic, sustainable, less than 50% shader load, real-world performance listed at 200 MHz; peak performance significantly higher dependent on content and operating conditions)
SGX520 (7 mil Triangles/sec, 250Mpx/s@200 MHz) for the handheld mobile market
SGX530 (14 mil Triangles/sec, 500Mpx/s@200 MHz)for the handheld mobile market
SGX535 (14 mil Triangles/s, 1Gpx/s@200 MHz, Max Memory Band 4.2GB/s), For handheld high-end mobile, portable, MID, UMPC, consumer, and automotive devices.licensed by NEC. Intel calls it the GMA 500.
SGX540 (20 mil Triangles/s(Built-in Samsung S5PC110-111) 1Gpx/s@200 MHz, Built-in SOC.
SGX545 (40 mil Triangles/s, 1Gpx/s@200 MHz)
Products that include the SGX:
Allwinner Technology A31 — SGX544MP2 + G2D + CedarX + 4 * Cortex A7
Readboy G50
GoClever Orion 70
Foxconn InFocus
Mele A1000G
Onda V972
Ployer MOMO19HD
Bmorn K23
Ampe A10 Flagship
Epudo ES1006Q
Allwinner Technology A31s — SGX544MP2 + G2D + CedarX + 4 * Cortex A7
iView CyberPad iView-788TPC
Boardcon Compact31S
MSI Primo81
Teclast P88s mini
Ainol Novo 9 Firewire
Apical M7853,
Ployer momo mini
Gajah MD7019,
JWD m785
MELE AHD10A04
Ambarella iOne SoC — SGX540 + Cortex-A9 Dual
Apple A4 — SGX535 + VXD375 + Cortex-A8
Apple iPad
Apple iPhone 4
Apple iPod Touch 4th gen
Apple TV (2010)
Samsung — SGX540(S5PC110-111) + Cortex-A8
Samsung Galaxy S
Samsung Samsung Galaxy Tab
Samsung [[Vibrant, i997 Infuse 4G, Galaxy S 4G, Nexus S, i897 Captivate, S8530 Wave II]]
Intel CE 3100 (Canmore) — SGX535 (Intel GMA 500) + Pentium M-based Dothan CPU at 800MHz+
Conceptronic YUIXX
Gigabyte GN-MD300-RH
Metrological's Mediaconnect TV
Routon H3
Samsung STB-HDDVR
Toshiba Connected TVs
Toshiba Network Player
TCL IPTV
Fujitsu
Ingenic Semiconductor JZ4780 — SGX540 + XBurst (MIPS)
Creator CI20
Intel CE4100 (Sodaville) family — SGX535 + Bonnell-based Atom CPU
Orange Orange Box
Sony Bravia Internet TV
Intel CE4110 (Sodaville) — SGX535 at 200MHz + Bonnell-based Atom CPU at 1.2GHz
D-Link Boxee Box
Intel CE4130 (Sodaville) — SGX535 at 200MHz + Bonnell-based Atom CPU at 1.2GHz
Intel CE4150 (Sodaville) — SGX535 at 400MHz + Bonnell-based Atom CPU at 1.2GHz
Logitech Revue (970-000001)
Iliad Freebox Revolution
Intel CE4170 (Sodaville) — SGX535 at 400MHz + Bonnell-based Atom CPU at 1.6GHz
Intel CE4200 (Groveland) family — SGX535 + Bonnell-based Atom CPU
Bouygues Telecom BBox
Intel SCH US15/W/L (Poulsbo) — SGX535 (Intel GMA 500) + VXD370
Abit (USI) MID-100
Abit (USI) MID-150, MID-200
Acer Aspire One AO751h
Advantech MICA-101
Aigo MID P8860, P8880, P8888
Arbor Gladius G0710
Archos 9
ASUS EeePC T91
ASUS EeePC S121, EeePC 1101HGO/HA/HAB
ASUS R50A, R70A
Averatec (TriGem) MID
BenQ Aries2
Bandai Namco Rilakkuma
BenQ S6
Clarion MiND
CLEVO TN70M, TN71M, T89xM
Colmek Stinger
Compal jAX10
CompuLab Fit-PC2
Cowon W2
Dell Inspiron Mini 12, Inspiron Mini 10, Inspiron Mini 1010 Tiger
Digifriends WiMAX MID
DT Research DT312
DUX HFBX-3800
EB mobile internet device
FMV-BIBLO LOOX U/C40, LOOX U/C30
Fujitsu UMPC U2010
Fujitsu LifeBook U2020
Fujitsu LifeBook U820, UH900
Fujitsu FMV-BIBLO LOOX U
Fujitsu STYLISTIC Q550
Gigabyte M528
Hanbit Pepper Pad 3
HP Slate
Kohjinsha/Inventec S32, SC3
Kohjinsha W130, SX3KP06MS, SC3KX06A
Kohjinsha/Inventec X5
Kohjinsha PM series
Lenovo IdeaPad U8
LG XNote B831, LGX30
MaxID BHC-100, iDLMax
mis MP084T-001G
MSI Wind U115, U110
MSI X-Slim 320
NEC VersaPro UltraLite type VS
NEXCOM MRC 2100, MTC 2100, MTC 2100-MD
Nokia Booklet 3G
NOVA SideArm2 SA2I
OMRON Panel PC
Onkyo NX707
OQO Model 2+
Panasonic Toughbook CF-U1
Panasonic CF-H1 Mobile Clinical Assistant
Portwell Japan UMPC-2711
Quanta mobile internet device
Sony Vaio P series, Vaio X series
TCS-003-01595 — Intel Atom Rugged Tablet PC 8.4"
Terralogic Toughnote DB06-I Intel Atom Industrial Grade Rugged UMPC
Terralogic Toughnote DB06-M Intel Atom Military Grade Rugged UMPC
Toshiba mobile internet device
Trigem LLUON Mobbit PS400
UMID Clamshell
Yukyung Viliv S5, Viliv S7, Viliv X70, Viliv N5
WiBrain i1, M1
WILLCOM D4 (Sharp WS016SH)
Intel Z6xx (Lincroft) — SGX535+VXD+VXE (Intel GMA 600) + Bonnell-based Atom CPU
LG GW990 (Concept device)
OpenPeak OpenTablet 7
Aava Mobile (Concept device)
Wistron W1
Quanta Redvale
CZC P10T
Intel CE5315 (Berryville) — SGX545 + Saltwell-based Atom CPU at 1.2GHz
Asustor AS-204T (NAS)
Thecus N2520 (NAS)
Thecus N4520 (NAS)
Intel CE5335 (Berryville) — SGX545 + Saltwell-based Atom CPU at 1.6GHz
Synology DS214play (NAS)
Synology DS414play (NAS)
NEC EMMA Mobile/EV2 — SGX530 + Cortex-A9 MPCore (Dual)
NEC NaviEngine EC-4270, EC-4260 — SGX535 + ARM11 MPCore (Quad)
Alpine Car Information Systems (Spring 2010)
NEC Unidentified — SGX + PowerVR video & display
NEC Medity M2 — SGX + PowerVR video & display
NEC N-01A, N-02A, N-03A, N-04A, N-05A, N-06A, NEC N-07A, NEC N-08A, N-09A
Renesas SH-Mobile G3 — SGX530 + SH-4
Fujitsu F-01A, F-02A, F-03A, F-04A, F-08A, F-09A
Sharp SH-01A, SH-02A, SH-03A, SH-05A, SH-06A, SH-07A, SH-06A NERV
Renesas SH-Mobile G4 (in development) — SGX540 + SH-4
Fujitsu (in development)
Sharp (in development)
Renesas SH-Mobile APE4 (R8A73720) — SGX540 + Cortex-A8
Renesas SH-Navi3 (SH7776) — SGX530 + SH-X3(SH-4A (Dual))
Samsung APL0298C05 — SGX535 + VXD370 + Cortex-A8
Apple iPod Touch 3rd Gen (32GB/64GB)
Apple iPhone 3GS
Samsung S5PC110 — SGX540 + Cortex-A8
Meizu M9
Samsung S5PC111 (Hummingbird) — SGX540 + Cortex-A8
Samsung Vibrant
Samsung Epic 4G
Samsung Fascinate
Samsung Captivate
Samsung Galaxy S
Samsung P1000/P1000T Galaxy Tab
Samsung Yepp PMP
Nexus S
Samsung S5PV210 — SGX540 + Cortex-A8
Embest DevKit7000
Boardcon EM210
Sigma Designs SMP8656 — SGX530 + MIPS
Sigma Designs SMP8910 - SGX530 + MIPS
Texas Instruments OMAP3420 — SGX530 + Cortex-A8
Texas Instruments OMAP3430 — SGX530 + Cortex-A8
Nokia N900
Emblaze ELSE
Palm Pre
Palm Pre Plus
Samsung i8910, i8320
Samsung (Vodafone) 360 H1, 360 M1
Sony Ericsson Satio
Motorola Droid / Milestone
Motorola MOTOROI
Motorola XT800
HTC Qilin/Dopod T8388
Texas Instruments OMAP3440 — SGX530 + Cortex-A8
ARCHOS Android IMT
ECS T800 800 MHz
Motorola Milestone XT720
Texas Instruments OMAP3450 — SGX530 + Cortex-A8
ECS T800 1 GHz
Texas Instruments OMAP3515 — SGX530 + Cortex-A8
Texas Instruments AM3517 — SGX530 + Cortex-A8
Embest SOC8200
DAVE Embedded Systems Lizard (SOM)
Texas Instruments OMAP3530 — SGX530 + Cortex-A8
Embest DevKit8000
Embest SBC8100
Embest VSS3530
OpenSourceMID.org K7 MID
Always Innovating Touch Book
Beagle Board
Beagle MID
Gumstix Overo — Water, Fire
ICETEK-OMAP3530-MINI
Pandora (console)
OMAP35x EVM Mistral Solutions
ISB Corp. Android STB
Kopin Golden-i
GDA Technologies' OMAP3530-based PMP
Texas Instruments OMAP3620 — SGX530 + Cortex-A8
Motorola Droid 2
Texas Instruments OMAP3621 — SGX530 + Cortex-A8
Barnes & Noble Nook Color
Texas Instruments OMAP3630 — SGX530 + Cortex-A8
Archos 28, Archos 32, Archos 43, Archos 70, Archos 101
Synaptics Fuse
Sony Ericsson U5i "Vivaz", Sony Ericsson U8i "Vivaz pro"
Motorola Droid X (Shadow)
Motorola Milestone 2
Nokia N9
Palm Pre2
LG Optimus Black
Samsung Galaxy SL
Samsung P1010 Galaxy Tab Wi-Fi
Texas Instruments OMAP3640 — SGX530 + Cortex-A8
Motorola Droid 2 R2D2 special edition
Motorola Droid 2 Global
Texas Instruments Sitara AM3715 — SGX530 + Cortex-A8
Psion Omnii EP10
Embest DevKit8500A
Texas Instruments DaVinci DM3730 — SGX530 + Cortex-A8
InHand Fury
Beagleboard-xM
Embest DevKit8500D
Texas Instruments Sitara AM3891 — SGX530 + Cortex-A8
Texas Instruments Integra C6A8168 — SGX530 + Cortex-A8
Texas Instruments OMAP4430 — SGX540 + Cortex-A9 MPCore (dual)
Kindle Fire
Barnes & Noble Nook Tablet
Droid Bionic
Pandaboard
RIM Playbook
Texas Instruments OMAP4460 — SGX540 + Cortex-A9 MPCore (dual)
Galaxy Nexus
Kindle Fire HD 7"
Texas Instruments OMAP4470 — SGX544 + Cortex-A9 MPCore (dual)
Kindle Fire HD 8.9"
Archos 101 G10
Kobo arch (Zeus)
Samsung GT-I9105
Trident PNX8481 — SGX531
Trident PNX8491 — SGX531
Trident HiDTV PRO-SX5 — SGX531
Series5XT (SGX)
PowerVR SGXMP variants available as single and multi-core IP 543XT, 544XT, and 554XT series
Performance scales 95% linearly with number of cores and clock speed
Available in single to 16 core variants
SGX543
(single core) 35M polygon/s @200 MHz
(two cores) 68M polygon/s @200 MHz
(four cores) 133M polygon/s @200 MHz
(eight cores) 266M polygon/s @200 MHz
(sixteen cores) 532M polygon/s @200 MHz
Licensees:
Sony
Renesas
Texas Instruments
Apple
Intel
Samsung
MStar
MediaTek
Allwinner
PlayStation Vita
SGX543MP4+ (four cores) @200 MHz
Renesas G5/AG5/APE5R
SGX543MP2 (two cores)
Texas Instruments OMAP5430 & OMAP5432
SGX544MP2 (two cores) @532 MHz
Apple A5 - SGX543MP2 (two cores)
Apple iPad 2 (MP2@250 MHz)
Apple iPad Mini (MP2@250 MHz)
Apple iPhone 4S (MP2@200 MHz)
Apple iPod Touch (5th generation)(MP2@200 MHz)
Apple TV (3rd generation) (MP2@250 MHz)
Apple A5X - SGX543MP4 (four cores) @250 MHz
Apple iPad (3rd generation)
Apple A6 - SGX543MP3 (three cores) @325 MHz
Apple iPhone 5
Apple A6X - SGX554MP4 (four cores) @280 MHz
Apple iPad (4th generation)
Allwinner Allwinner A31 - SGX544MP2 (two cores) @355 MHz
Iben L1 Gaming Tablet
Allwinner Allwinner A31s - SGX544MP2 (two cores) @355 MHz
JXD S7800a
Samsung Exynos 5 Octa - SGX544MP3 (three cores) @533 MHz
Samsung Galaxy S4 (GT-I9500)
Series6
Code name: Rogue
PowerVR Series6 GPUs can deliver 20x or more of the performance of current generation GPU cores targeting comparable markets. This is enabled by an architecture that is around 5x more efficient than previous generations.
Supported Graphics API's
Vulkan, OpenGL ES 3.1, OpenGL ES 2.0, OpenGL 3.x/4.x, OpenCL 1.x and DirectX10 with certain family members extending their capabilities to full WHQL-compliant DirectX11.2 functionality.
Licensees
Apple
Allwinner
ST-Ericsson (defunct)
Texas Instruments
Renesas Electronics
MediaTek
HiSilicon
LG
Intel
Allwinner UltraOcta A80
Quad-core ARM Cortex-A15 and quad-core ARM Cortex-A7 (ARM big.LITTLE), PowerVR G6230, 4K video encoding and decoding.
Optimus Board
PCDuino 8
Cubieboard 8
ST-Ericsson
Nova A9600, built in 28 nm, 210 GFLOPs, 350 M polygons/s, fill rates in excess of 13 Gpixels/sec, sampling in 2013 (cancelled).
Apple A7
iPhone 5s, iPad Air, iPad Mini (2nd generation), iPad Mini (3rd generation) - PowerVR G6430 in a four cluster configuration
Apple A8
iPhone 6, iPhone 6 Plus - PowerVR Series 6XT GX6450@533 MHz (4 clusters)
Apple A8X
iPad Air 2 - 2* GX6450@533 MHz (mirrored - 8 clusters)
Actions-Semi ActDuino S900
Quad-core ARM Cortex-A53, PowerVR G6230, 4K video decoding.
Bubblegum-96
Series6XT
MediaTek MT8173
Dual-core ARM Cortex-A72 and dual-core ARM Cortex-A53 (ARM big.LITTLE), PowerVR GX6250, 4K H.264/HEVC(10-bit)/VP9 video decoding, WQXGA display support
Renesas R-Car H3
Quad-core ARM Cortex-A57 and quad-core ARM Cortex-A53 (ARM big.LITTLE), ARM Cortex-R7 dual-step, PowerVR GX6650
Series6XE
Rockchip RK3368
Octa-core ARM Cortex-A53, PowerVR G6110, 4K H.264/H.265 video decoding
References
External links
Samsung Series5XT license
HiSilicon Rogue license
MStar Series5XT license
MediaTek Series5XT license
Intel shows Clovertrail performance on a tablet
Technology-related lists
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The Romanian alphabet is a variant of the Latin alphabet used for writing the Romanian language. It is a modification of the classical Latin alphabet and consists of 31 letters, five of which (Ă, Â, Î, Ș, and Ț) have been modified from their Latin originals for the phonetic requirements of the language:
The letters Q (chiu), W (dublu v), and Y (igrec or i grec) were formally introduced in the Romanian alphabet in 1982, although they had been used earlier. They occur only in foreign words and their Romanian derivatives, such as quasar, watt, and yacht. The letter K, although relatively older, is also rarely used and appears only in proper names and international neologisms such as kilogram, broker, karate. These four letters are still perceived as foreign, which explains their usage for stylistic purposes in words such as nomenklatură (normally nomenclatură, meaning "nomenclature", but sometimes spelled with k instead of c if referring to members of the Communist leadership in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc countries, as Nomenklatura is used in English).
In cases where the word is a direct borrowing having diacritical marks not present in the above alphabet, official spelling tends to favor their use (München, Angoulême etc., as opposed to the use of Istanbul over İstanbul).
Letters and their pronunciation
Romanian spelling is mostly phonemic without silent letters (but see i). The table below gives the correspondence between letters and sounds. Some of the letters have several possible readings, even if allophones are not taken into account. When vowels , , , and are changed into their corresponding semivowels, this is not marked in writing. Letters K, Q, W, and Y appear only in foreign borrowings; the pronunciation of W and Y and of the combination QU depends on the origin of the word they appear in.
* See Comma-below (ș and ț) versus cedilla (ş and ţ).
Special letters
Romanian orthography does not use accents or diacritics – these are secondary symbols added to letters (i.e. basic glyphs) to alter their pronunciation or to distinguish between words. There are, however, five special letters in the Romanian alphabet (associated with four different sounds) which are formed by modifying other Latin letters; strictly speaking these letters function as basic glyphs in their own right rather than letters with diacritical marks, but they are often referred to as the latter.
Ă ă — a with breve – for the sound
 ⠗ a with circumflex – for the sound
Î î — i with circumflex – for the sound
Ș ș — s with comma – for the sound
Ț ț — t with comma – for the sound
The letter â is used exclusively in the middle of words; its majuscule version appears only in all-capitals inscriptions.
Writing letters ș and ț with a cedilla instead of a comma is considered incorrect by the Romanian Academy. Romanian writings, including books created to teach children to write, treat the comma and cedilla as a variation in font. See Unicode and HTML below.
Î versus Â
The letters î and â are phonetically and functionally identical. The reason for using both of them is historical, denoting the language's Latin origin.
For a few decades until a spelling reform in 1904, as many as four or five letters had been used for the same phoneme (â, ê, î, û, and occasionally ô), according to an etymological rule. All were used to represent the vowel , toward which the original Latin vowels written with circumflexes had converged. The 1904 reform saw only two letters remaining, â and î, the choice of which followed rules that changed several times during the 20th century.
During the first half of the century the rule was to use î in word-initial and word-final positions, and â everywhere else. There were exceptions, imposing the use of î in internal positions when words were combined or derived with prefixes or suffixes. For example, the adjective "ugly" was written with î because it derives from the verb "to hate".
In 1953, during the Communist era, the Romanian Academy eliminated the letter â, replacing it with î everywhere, including the name of the country, which was to be spelled . The first stipulation coincided with the official designation of the country as a People's Republic, which meant that its full title was . A minor spelling reform in 1964 brought back the letter â, but only in the spelling of "Romanian" and all its derivatives, including the name of the country. As such, the Socialist Republic proclaimed in 1965 is associated with the spelling .
Soon after the fall of the Ceaușescu government, the Romanian Academy decided to reintroduce â from 1993 onward, by canceling the effects of the 1953 spelling reform and essentially reverting to the 1904 rules (with some differences). The move was publicly justified as the rectification either of a Communist assault on tradition, or of a Soviet influence on the Romanian culture, and as a return to a traditional spelling that bears the mark of the language's Latin origin. The political context at the time, however, was that the Romanian Academy was largely regarded as a Communist and corrupt institution — Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife Elena had been its honored members, and membership had been controlled by the Communist Party. As such, the 1993 spelling reform was seen as an attempt of the Academy to break with its Communist past. The Academy invited the national community of linguists as well as foreign linguists specialized in Romanian to discuss the problem; when these overwhelmingly opposed the spelling reform in vehement terms, their position was explicitly dismissed as being too scientific.
According to the 1993 reform, the choice between î and â is thus again based on a rule that is neither strictly etymological nor phonological, but positional and morphological. The sound is always spelled as â, except at the beginning and the end of words, where î is to be used instead. Exceptions include proper nouns where the usage of the letters is frozen, whichever it may be, and compound words, whose components are each separately subjected to the rule (e.g. + → "clumsy", not *). However, the exception no longer applies to words derived with suffixes, in contrast with the 1904 norm; for instance what was spelled after 1904 became after 1993.
Although the reform was promoted as a means to show the Latin origin of Romanian, statistically only few of the words written with â according to the 1993 reform actually derive from Latin words having an a in the corresponding position. In fact, this includes a large number of words that contained an i in the original Latin and are similarly written with i in their Italian or Spanish counterparts. Examples include "river", from the Latin (compare Spanish ), now written ; along with < , < , < , < , etc.
While the 1993 spelling norm is compulsory in Romanian education and official publications, and gradually most other publications came to use it, there are still individuals, publications and publishing houses preferring the previous spelling norm or a mixed hybrid system of their own. Among them are the weekly cultural magazine and the daily , whereas some publications allow authors to choose either spelling norm; these include , magazine of the Writers' Union of Romania, and publishing houses such as . Dictionaries, grammars and other linguistic works have also been published using the and long after the 1993 reform.
Ultimately, the conflict results from two different linguistically-based reasonings as to how to spell . The choice of â derives from a being the most average or central of the five vowels (the official Bulgarian romanization uses the same logic, choosing a for ъ, resulting in the country's name being spelled Balgariya; and also the European Portuguese vowel for a mentioned above), whereas î is an attempt to choose the Latin letter that most intuitively writes the sound (similarly to how Polish uses the letter y).
Comma-below (ș and ț) versus cedilla (ş and ţ)
Although the Romanian Academy standard mandates the comma-below variants for the sounds and , the cedilla variants are still widely used. Many printed and online texts still incorrectly use "s with cedilla" and "t with cedilla". This state of affairs is due to an initial lack of glyph standardization, compounded by the lack of computer font support for the comma-below variants (see the Unicode section for details).
The lack of support for the comma diacritics has been corrected in current versions of major operating systems: Windows Vista or newer, Linux distributions after 2005, and currently supported Mac OS versions. As mandated by the European Union, Microsoft released a font update to correct this deficiency in Windows XP in early 2007, soon after Romania joined the European Union.
Obsolete letters
Before the spelling reform of 1904, there were several additional letters with diacritical marks.
Vowels:
ĭ — i with breve indicated semivowel i as part of Romanian diphthongs and triphthongs ia, ei, iei etc., or a final, "whispered" sound of the preceding palatalized consonant, in words such as București (), lupi ( – "wolves"), and greci ( – "Greeks") — Bucurescĭ (the proper spelling at the time used c instead of t, see -ești), lupĭ, grecĭ, like the Slavonic soft sign. The Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet kept the Cyrillic equivalents of this letter, namely й and ь, but it was abolished in the Romanian Latin alphabet for unknown reasons. By replacing this letter with a simple i without making any additional changes, the phonetic value of the letter i became ambiguous; even native speakers can sometimes mispronounce words such as the toponym Pecica (which has two syllables, but is often mistakenly pronounced with three) or the name Mavrogheni (which has four syllables, not three). Additionally, in a number of words such as subiect "subject" and ziar "newspaper", the pronunciation of i as a vowel or as a semivowel is different among speakers.
ŭ — u with breve was used only in the ending of a word. It was essentially a Latin equivalent of the Slavonic back yer found in languages like Russian. Unpronounced in most cases, it served to indicate that the previous consonant was not palatalized, or that the preceding i was the vowel and not a mere marker of palatalization. When ŭ was pronounced, it would follow a stressed vowel and stand in for semivowel u, as in words eŭ, aŭ, and meŭ, all spelled today without the breve. Once frequent, it survives today in author Mateiu Caragiale's name – originally spelled Mateiŭ (it is not specified whether the pronunciation should adopt a version that he himself probably never used, while in many editions he is still credited as Matei). In other names, only the breve was dropped, while preserving the pronunciation of a semivowel u, as is the case of B.P. Hasdeŭ.
ĕ — e with breve. This letter is now replaced with ă. The existence of two letters for one sound, the schwa, had an etymological purpose, showing from which vowel ("a" or "e") it originally derived. For example împĕrat – "emperor" (<Imperator), vĕd – "I see" (<vedo), umĕr – "shoulder" (<humerus), păsĕri – "birds" (< cf. passer).
é / É — Latin small/capital letter e with acute accent indicated a sound that corresponds either to today's Romanian diphthong ea, or in some words, to today's Romanian letter e. It would originally indicate the sound of Romanian letter e when it was pronounced as diphthong ea in certain Romanian regions, e.g. acéste (today spelled aceste) and céle (today spelled cele). This letter would sometimes indicate a derived word from a Romanian root word containing Latin letter e, as is the case of mirésă (today spelled mireasă) derived from mire. For other words it would underlie a relationship between a Romanian word and a Latin word containing letter e, where the Romanian word would use é, such as gréle (today spelled grele) derived from Latin word grevis. Lastly, this letter was used to accommodate the sound that corresponds to today's Romanian diphthong ia, as in the word ér (iar today).
ó / Ó — Latin small/capital letter o with acute accent indicated a sound that corresponds to today's Romanian diphthong oa. This letter would sometimes indicate a derived word from a Romanian root word containing Latin letter o, as is the case of popóre (today spelled popoare) derived from popor. For other words it would underlie a relationship between a Romanian word and a Latin word containing letter o, where the Romanian word would use ó, such as fórte (today spelled foarte) derived from Latin word forte. Lastly, this letter was used to accommodate the sound that corresponds to today's Romanian diphthong oa, as in the word fóme (foame today).
ê, û and ô — see Î versus  section above.
Consonants
d̦ / D̦ — Latin small/capital letter d with comma below was used to indicate the sound that corresponds today to Romanian letter z. It would denote that the word it belonged to derived from Latin and that its corresponding Latin letter was d. Examples of words containing this letter are: d̦ece ("ten"), d̦i ("day") – reflecting its derivation from the Latin word dies, Dumned̦eu ("God") – reflecting the Latin phrase Domine Deus, d̦ână ("fairy") – to be derived from the Latin word Diana. In today's Romanian language this letter is no longer present and Latin letter z is used in its stead. A parallel development has occurred in Polish, which turned d before a front vowel (i or e) into dz; Romanian then removed the d to leave the z.
Use of these letters was not fully adopted even before 1904, as some publications (e.g. Timpul and Universul) chose to use a simplified approach that resembled today's Romanian language writing.
Other diacritics
As with other languages, the acute accent is sometimes used in Romanian texts to indicate the stressed vowel in some words. This use is regular in dictionary headwords, but also occasionally found in carefully edited texts to disambiguate between homographs that are not also homophones, such as to differentiate between cópii ("copies") and copíi ("children"), éra ("the era") and erá ("was"), ácele ("the needles") and acéle ("those"), etc. The accent also distinguishes between homographic verb forms, such as încúie and încuié ("he locks" and "he has locked").
Diacritics in some borrowings are kept: bourrée, pietà. Foreign names are also usually spelled with their original diacritics: Bâle, Molière, even when an acute accent might be wrongly interpreted as a stress, as in István or Gérard. However, frequently used foreign names, such as names of cities or countries, are often spelled without diacritics: Bogota, Panama, Peru.
Digital typography
ISO 8859
The character encoding standard ISO 8859 initially defined a single code page for the entire Central and Eastern Europe — ISO 8859-2. This code page includes only "s" and "t" with cedillas. The South-Eastern European ISO 8859-16 includes "s" and "t" with comma below on the same places "s" and "t" with cedilla were in ISO 8859-2. The ISO 8859-16 code page became a standard after Unicode became widespread, however, so it was largely ignored by software vendors.
Unicode and HTML
The circumflex and breve accented Romanian letters were part of the Unicode standard since its inception, as well as the cedilla variants of s and t. Ș and ț (comma-below variants) were added to Unicode version 3.0. From Unicode version 3.0 to version 5.1, the cedilla-using characters were specified by the Unicode Standard to be "used in both Turkish and Romanian data" and that "a glyph variant with comma below is preferred for Romanian"; On the newly encoded comma-using characters, it said that they should be used "when distinct comma below form is required". Unicode 5.2 explicitly states that "the form with the cedilla is preferred in Turkish, and the form with the comma below is preferred in Romanian", while mentioning (possibly for historical reasons) that "in Turkish and Romanian, a cedilla and a comma below sometimes replace one another".
Widespread adoption was hampered for some years by the lack of fonts providing the new glyphs. In May 2007, five months after Romania (and Bulgaria) joined the EU, Microsoft released updated fonts that include all official glyphs of the Romanian (and Bulgarian) alphabet. This font update targeted Windows XP SP2, Windows Server 2003, and Windows Vista. The subset of Unicode most widely supported on Microsoft Windows systems, Windows Glyph List 4, still does not include the comma-below variants of S and T.
Vowels with diacritics are coded as follows:
Adobe/Linotype/Vista de facto standard
Adobe Systems decided that the Unicode glyphs "t with cedilla" U+0162/3 are not used in any language. (It is in fact used, but in very few languages. T with Cedilla exists as part of the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages, in some Gagauz orthographies, in the Kabyle dialect of the Berber language, and possibly elsewhere.) Adobe has therefore substituted the glyphs with "t with comma below" (U+021A/B) in all the fonts they ship. The unfortunate consequence of this decision is that Romanian documents using the (unofficial) Unicode points U+015E/F and U+0162/3 (for ș and ț) are rendered in Adobe fonts in a visually inconsistent way using "s with cedilla", but "t with comma" (see figure). Linotype fonts that support Romanian glyphs mostly follow this convention.
The fonts introduced by Microsoft in Windows Vista also implement this de facto Adobe standard. Few Microsoft fonts provide a consistent look when cedilla variants are used; notable ones are Tahoma, Verdana, Trebuchet MS, Microsoft Sans Serif and Segoe UI.
The free DejaVu and Linux Libertine fonts provide proper and consistent glyphs in both variants. Red Hat's Liberation fonts only support the comma below variants starting with version 1.04, scheduled for inclusion in Fedora 10.
OpenType ROM/locl feature
Some OpenType fonts from Adobe and all C-series Vista fonts implement the optional OpenType feature GSUB/latn/ROM/locl. This feature forces "s with cedilla" to be rendered using the same glyph as "s with comma below". When this second (but optional) remapping takes place, Romanian Unicode text is rendered with comma-below glyphs regardless of code point variants.
Unfortunately, most Microsoft pre-Vista OpenType fonts (Arial etc.) do not implement the ROM/locl feature, even after the European Union Expansion Font Update, so old documents will look inconsistent as in the left side of the above figure. Select few fonts, e.g. Verdana and Trebuchet MS, not only have a consistent look for cedilla variants (after the EU update), but also do a simultaneous remapping of cedilla s and t to comma-below variants when ROM/locl is activated. The free DejaVu and Linux Libertine fonts do not yet offer this feature in their current releases, but development versions do.
Pango supports the locl tag since version 1.17. XeTeX supports locl since version 0.995. As of July 2008, very few Windows applications support the locl feature tag. From the Adobe CS3 suite, only InDesign has support for it.
The status of Romanian support in the free fonts that ship with Fedora is maintained at Fedoraproject.org.
Combining characters
Unicode also allows diacritical marks to be represented as separate combining diacritical marks. The relevant combining accents are U+0326 COMBINING COMMA BELOW and U+0327 COMBINING CEDILLA. Support for applying a combining Comma Below to letters S and T may have been poorly supported in commercial fonts in the past, but nearly all modern fonts can successfully handle both the Cedilla and Comma Below marks for S and T. As with all fonts, typographical quality can vary, and so it is preferable to use the single code points instead. Whenever a combining diacritical mark is used in a document, the font in use should be tested to confirm that it is rendered acceptably.
(La)TeX
LaTeX allows typesetting in Romanian using the cedilla Ş and Ţ using the Cork encoding. The comma-below variants are not completely supported in the standard 8-bit TeX font encodings. The lack of a standard LICR (LaTeX Internal Character Representations) for comma-below Ș and Ț is part of the problem. The latin10 input method attempts to remedy the problem by defining the \textcommabelow LICR accent. This is unfortunately not supported by the utf8 input method.
The problem may partially worked around in a LaTeX document using these settings, which would allow use of ș, ț or their cedilla variants directly in the LaTeX source:
\usepackage[latin10,utf8]{inputenc}
% transliterates utf8 chars with çedila at their comma-below representation
\DeclareUnicodeCharacter{015F}{\textcommabelow s} % ş
\DeclareUnicodeCharacter{015E}{\textcommabelow S} % Ş
\DeclareUnicodeCharacter{0163}{\textcommabelow t} % ţ
\DeclareUnicodeCharacter{0162}{\textcommabelow T} % Ţ
% transliterates utf8 comma-below characters to the comma-below representation
\DeclareUnicodeCharacter{0219}{\textcommabelow s} % ș
\DeclareUnicodeCharacter{0218}{\textcommabelow S} % Ș
\DeclareUnicodeCharacter{021B}{\textcommabelow t} % ț
\DeclareUnicodeCharacter{021A}{\textcommabelow T} % Ț
The latin10 package composes the comma-below glyphs by superimposing a comma and the letters S and T. This method is suitable only for printing. In PDF documents produced this way searching or copying text does not work properly. The Polish QX encoding has some support for comma-below glyphs, which are improperly mapped to cedilla LICRs, but also lacks A breve (Ă), which must always be composite, thus unsearchable.
In the Latin Modern Type 1 fonts the T with comma below is found under the AGL name /Tcommaaccent. This is in contradiction with Adobe's decision discussed above, which puts a T with comma-below at /Tcedilla. In consequence, no fixed mapping can work across all Type 1 fonts; each font must come with its own mapping. Unfortunately, TeX output drivers, like dvips, dvipdfm or pdfTeX's internal PDF driver, access the glyphs by AGL name. Since all of the output drivers mentioned are unaware of this peculiarity, the problem is essentially intractable across all fonts. In consequence, one needs to use fonts that include a mapping which is not bypassed by TeX. This is the case with newer TeX engine XeTeX, which can use Unicode OpenType fonts, and does not bypass the font's Unicode map.
Keyboard layout
Modern computer operating systems can be configured to implement a standard Romanian keyboard layout, to permit typing on any keyboard as if it were a Romanian keyboard.
In systems such as Linux which employ the XCompose system, Romanian letters may be typed from a non-Romanian keyboard layout using a compose-key.
The system's keyboard layout must be set up to use a compose-key. (Exactly how this is accomplished depends on the distribution.) For instance, the 'left Alt' key is often used as a compose-key.
To type a letter with a diacritical mark, the compose-key is held down while another key is typed indicate the mark to be applied, then the base letter is typed. For instance, when using an English (US) keyboard layout, to produce ț, hold the compose-key down while typing semicolon ';', then release the compose-key and type 't'. Other marks may be similarly applied as follows:
Phonetic alphabet
There is a Romanian equivalent to the English-language NATO phonetic alphabet. Most code words are people's first names, with the exception of K, J, Q, W and Y. Letters with diacritics (Ă, Â, Î, Ș, Ț) are generally transmitted without diacritics (A, A, I, S, T).
See also
Aromanian alphabet
Istro-Romanian alphabet
Megleno-Romanian alphabet
Romanian transitional alphabet
Romanian Cyrillic alphabet
Romanian Braille
References
Notes
Bibliography
Mioara Avram, Ortografie pentru toți, Editura Litera Internațional, 2002
External links
Unicode Latin Extended-B characters, unicode.org
Sounds of the Romanian Language, etc.tuiasi.ro
Latin alphabets
Alphabet
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Research into music and emotion seeks to understand the psychological relationship between human affect and music. The field, a branch of music psychology, covers numerous areas of study, including the nature of emotional reactions to music, how characteristics of the listener may determine which emotions are felt, and which components of a musical composition or performance may elicit certain reactions. The research draws upon, and has significant implications for, such areas as philosophy, musicology, music therapy, music theory and aesthetics, as well as the acts of musical composition and of musical performance.
Philosophical approaches
Appearance emotionalism
Two of the most influential philosophers in the aesthetics of music are Stephen Davies and Jerrold Levinson. Davies calls his view of the expressiveness of emotions in music "appearance emotionalism", which holds that music expresses emotion without feeling it. Objects can convey emotion because their structures can contain certain characteristics that resemble emotional expression. "The resemblance that counts most for music's expressiveness ... is between music's temporally unfolding dynamic structure and configurations of human behaviour associated with the expression of emotion." The observer can note emotions from the listener's posture, gait, gestures, attitude, and comportment.
Associations between musical features and emotion differ among individuals. Appearance emotionalism claims many listeners' perceiving associations constitutes the expressiveness of music. Which musical features are more commonly associated with which emotions is part of music psychology. Davies claims that expressiveness is an objective property of music and not subjective in the sense of being projected into the music by the listener. Music's expressiveness is certainly response-dependent, i.e. it is realized in the listener's judgement. Skilled listeners very similarly attribute emotional expressiveness to a certain piece of music, thereby indicating according to Davies (2006) that the expressiveness of music is somewhat objective because if the music lacked expressiveness, then no expression could be projected into it as a reaction to the music.
The process theory
The philosopher Jenefer Robinson assumes the existence of a mutual dependence between cognition and elicitation in her description of 'emotions as process, music as process' theory (or 'process' theory). Robinson argues that the process of emotional elicitation begins with an 'automatic, immediate response that initiates motor and autonomic activity and prepares us for possible action' causing a process of cognition that may enable listeners to 'name' the felt emotion. This series of events continually exchanges with new, incoming information. Robinson argues that emotions may transform into one another, causing blends, conflicts, and ambiguities that make impede describing with one word the emotional state that one experiences at any given moment; instead, inner feelings are better thought of as the products of multiple emotional 'streams'. Robinson argues that music is a series of simultaneous processes, and that it therefore is an ideal medium for mirroring such more 'cognitive' aspects of emotion as musical themes' 'desiring' resolution or leitmotif's mirrors memory processes. These simultaneous musical processes can reinforce or conflict with each other and thus also express the way one emotion 'morphs into another over time'.
Conveying emotion through music
The ability to perceive emotion in music is said to develop early in childhood, and improve significantly throughout development. The capacity to perceive emotion in music is also subject to cultural influences, and both similarities and differences in emotion perception have been observed in cross-cultural studies. Empirical research has looked at which emotions can be conveyed as well as what structural factors in music help contribute to the perceived emotional expression. There are two schools of thought on how we interpret emotion in music. The cognitivists' approach argues that music simply displays an emotion, but does not allow for the personal experience of emotion in the listener. Emotivists argue that music elicits real emotional responses in the listener.
It has been argued that the emotion experienced from a piece of music is a multiplicative function of structural features, performance features, listener features, contextual features and extra-musical features of the piece, shown as:
Experienced Emotion = Structural features × Performance features × Listener features × Contextual features × Extra-Musical features
where:
Structural features = Segmental features × Suprasegmental features
Performance features = Performer skill × Performer state
Listener features = Musical expertise × Stable disposition × Current motivation
Contextual features = Location × Event
Extra-musical features = Non-auditory features × Expertise
Structural features
Structural features are divided into two parts, segmental features and suprasegmental features. Segmental features are the individual sounds or tones that make up the music; this includes acoustic structures such as duration, amplitude, and pitch. Suprasegmental features are the foundational structures of a piece, such as melody, tempo and rhythm. There are a number of specific musical features that are highly associated with particular emotions. Within the factors affecting emotional expression in music, tempo is typically regarded as the most important, but a number of other factors, such as mode, loudness, and melody, also influence the emotional valence of the piece.
Some studies find that perception of basic emotional features are a cultural universal, though people can more easily perceive emotion, and perceive more nuanced emotion, in music from their own culture.
Music has a direct connection to emotional states present in human beings. Different musical structures have been found to have a relationship with physiological responses. Research has shown that suprasegmental structures such as tonal space, specifically dissonance, create unpleasant negative emotions in participants. The emotional responses were measured with physiological assessments, such as skin conductance and electromyographic signals (EMG), while participants listened to musical excerpts. Further research on psychophysiological measures pertaining to music were conducted and found similar results; musical structures of rhythmic articulation, accentuation, and tempo were found to correlate strongly with physiological measures, the measured used here included heart rate and respiratory monitors that correlated with self-report questionnaires.
Music also affects socially-relevant memories, specifically memories produced by nostalgic musical excerpts (e.g., music from a significant time period in one’s life, like music listened to on road trips). Musical structures are more strongly interpreted in certain areas of the brain when the music evokes nostalgia. The interior frontal gyrus, substantia nigra, cerebellum, and insula were all identified to have a stronger correlation with nostalgic music than not. Brain activity is a very individualized concept with many of the musical excerpts having certain effects based on individuals’ past life experiences, thus this caveat should be kept in mind when generalizing findings across individuals.
Performance features
Performance features refer to the manner in which a piece of music is executed by the performer(s). These are broken into two categories: performer skills, and performer state. Performer skills are the compound ability and appearance of the performer; including physical appearance, reputation, and technical skills. The performer state is the interpretation, motivation, and stage presence of the performer.
Listener features
Listener features refer to the individual and social identity of the listener(s). This includes their personality, age, knowledge of music, and motivation to listen to the music.
Contextual features
Contextual features are aspects of the performance such as the location and the particular occasion for the performance (i.e., funeral, wedding, dance).
Extra-musical features
Extra-musical features refer to extra-musical information detached from auditory music signals, such as the genre or style of music.
These different factors influence expressed emotion at different magnitudes, and their effects are compounded by one another. Thus, experienced emotion is felt to a stronger degree if more factors are present. The order the factors are listed within the model denotes how much weight in the equation they carry. For this reason, the bulk of research has been done in structural features and listener features.
Conflicting cues
Which emotion is perceived is dependent on the context of the piece of music. Past research has argued that opposing emotions like happiness and sadness fall on a bipolar scale, where both cannot be felt at the same time. More recent research has suggested that happiness and sadness are experienced separately, which implies that they can be felt concurrently. One study investigated the latter possibility by having participants listen to computer-manipulated musical excerpts that have mixed cues between tempo and mode. Examples of mix-cue music include a piece with major key and slow tempo, and a minor-chord piece with a fast tempo. Participants then rated the extent to which the piece conveyed happiness or sadness. The results indicated that mixed-cue music conveys both happiness and sadness; however, it remained unclear whether participants perceived happiness and sadness simultaneously or vacillated between these two emotions. A follow-up study was done to examine these possibilities. While listening to mixed or consistent cue music, participants pressed one button when the music conveyed happiness, and another button when it conveyed sadness. The results revealed that subjects pressed both buttons simultaneously during songs with conflicting cues. These findings indicate that listeners can perceive both happiness and sadness concurrently. This has significant implications for how the structural features influence emotion, because when a mix of structural cues is used, a number of emotions may be conveyed.
Specific listener features
Development
Studies indicate that the ability to understand emotional messages in music starts early, and improves throughout child development. Studies investigating music and emotion in children primarily play a musical excerpt for children and have them look at pictorial expressions of faces. These facial expressions display different emotions and children are asked to select the face that best matches the music's emotional tone. Studies have shown that children are able to assign specific emotions to pieces of music; however, there is debate regarding the age at which this ability begins.
Infants
An infant is often exposed to a mother's speech that is musical in nature. It is possible that the motherly singing allows the mother to relay emotional messages to the infant. Infants also tend to prefer positive speech to neutral speech as well as happy music to negative music. It has also been posited that listening to their mother's singing may play a role in identity formation. This hypothesis is supported by a study that interviewed adults and asked them to describe musical experiences from their childhood. Findings showed that music was good for developing knowledge of emotions during childhood.
Pre-school children
These studies have shown that children at the age of 4 are able to begin to distinguish between emotions found in musical excerpts in ways that are similar to adults. The ability to distinguish these musical emotions seems to increase with age until adulthood. However, children at the age of 3 were unable to make the distinction between emotions expressed in music through matching a facial expression with the type of emotion found in the music. Some emotions, such as anger and fear, were also found to be harder to distinguish within music.
Elementary-age children
In studies with four-year-olds and five-year-olds, they are asked to label musical excerpts with the affective labels "happy", "sad", "angry", and "afraid". Results in one study showed that four-year-olds did not perform above chance with the labels "sad" and "angry", and the five-year-olds did not perform above chance with the label "afraid". A follow-up study found conflicting results, where five-year-olds performed much like adults. However, all ages confused categorizing "angry" and "afraid".
Pre-school and elementary-age children listened to twelve short melodies, each in either major or minor mode, and were instructed to choose between four pictures of faces: happy, contented, sad, and angry. All the children, even as young as three years old, performed above chance in assigning positive faces with major mode and negative faces with minor mode.
Personality effects
Different people perceive events differently based upon their individual characteristics. Similarly, the emotions elicited by listening to different types of music seem to be affected by factors such as personality and previous musical training. People with the personality type of agreeableness have been found to have higher emotional responses to music in general. Stronger sad feelings have also been associated with people with personality types of agreeableness and neuroticism. While some studies have shown that musical training can be correlated with music that evoked mixed feelings as well as higher IQ and test of emotional comprehension scores, other studies refute the claim that musical training affects perception of emotion in music. It is also worth noting that previous exposure to music can affect later behavioral choices, schoolwork, and social interactions. Therefore, previous music exposure does seem to have an effect on the personality and emotions of a child later in their life, and would subsequently affect their ability to perceive as well as express emotions during exposure to music. Gender, however, has not been shown to lead to a difference in perception of emotions found in music. Further research into which factors affect an individual's perception of emotion in music and the ability of the individual to have music-induced emotions are needed.
Eliciting emotion through music
Along with the research that music conveys an emotion to its listener(s), it has also been shown that music can produce emotion in the listener(s). This view often causes debate because the emotion is produced within the listener, and is consequently hard to measure. In spite of controversy, studies have shown observable responses to elicited emotions, which reinforces the Emotivists' view that music does elicit real emotional responses.
Responses to elicited emotion
The structural features of music not only help convey an emotional message to the listener, but also may create emotion in the listener. These emotions can be completely new feelings or may be an extension of previous emotional events. Empirical research has shown how listeners can absorb the piece's expression as their own emotion, as well as invoke a unique response based on their personal experiences.
Basic emotions
In research on eliciting emotion, participants report personally feeling a certain emotion in response to hearing a musical piece. Researchers have investigated whether the same structures that conveyed a particular emotion could elicit it as well. The researchers presented excerpts of fast tempo, major mode music and slow tempo, minor tone music to participants; these musical structures were chosen because they are known to convey happiness and sadness respectively. Participants rated their own emotions with elevated levels of happiness after listening to music with structures that convey happiness and elevated sadness after music with structures that convey sadness. This evidence suggests that the same structures that convey emotions in music can also elicit those same emotions in the listener.
In light of this finding, there has been particular controversy about music eliciting negative emotions. Cognitivists argue that choosing to listen to music that elicits negative emotions like sadness would be paradoxical, as listeners would not willingly strive to induce sadness. However, emotivists purport that music does elicit negative emotions, and listeners knowingly choose to listen in order to feel sadness in an impersonal way, similar to a viewer's desire to watch a tragic film. The reasons why people sometimes listen to sad music when feeling sad has been explored by means of interviewing people about their motivations for doing so. As a result of this research it has indeed been found that people sometimes listen to sad music when feeling sad to intensify feelings of sadness. Other reasons for listening to sad music when feeling sad were; in order to retrieve memories, to feel closer to other people, for cognitive reappraisal, to feel befriended by the music, to distract oneself, and for mood enhancement.
Researchers have also found an effect between one's familiarity with a piece of music and the emotions it elicits. In one study, half of participants were played twelve random musical excerpts one time, and rated their emotions after each piece. The other half of the participants listened to twelve random excerpts five times, and started their ratings on the third repetition. Findings showed that participants who listened to the excerpts five times rated their emotions with higher intensity than the participants who listened to them only once. This suggests that familiarity with a piece of music increases the emotions experienced by the listener.
Emotional memories and actions
Music may not only elicit new emotions, but connect listeners with other emotional sources. Music serves as a powerful cue to recall emotional memories back into awareness. Because music is such a pervasive part of social life, present in weddings, funerals and religious ceremonies, it brings back emotional memories that are often already associated with it. Music is also processed by the lower, sensory levels of the brain, making it impervious to later memory distortions. Therefore creating a strong connection between emotion and music within memory makes it easier to recall one when prompted by the other. Music can also tap into empathy, inducing emotions that are assumed to be felt by the performer or composer. Listeners can become sad because they recognize that those emotions must have been felt by the composer, much as the viewer of a play can empathize for the actors.
Listeners may also respond to emotional music through action. Throughout history music was composed to inspire people into specific action - to march, dance, sing or fight. Consequently, heightening the emotions in all these events. In fact, many people report being unable to sit still when certain rhythms are played, in some cases even engaging in subliminal actions when physical manifestations should be suppressed. Examples of this can be seen in young children's spontaneous outbursts into motion upon hearing music, or exuberant expressions shown at concerts.
Juslin & Västfjäll's BRECVEM model
Juslin & Västfjäll developed a model of seven ways in which music can elicit emotion, called the BRECVEM model.
Brain Stem Reflex: 'This refers to a process whereby an emotion is induced by music because one or more fundamental acoustical characteristics of the music are taken by the brain stem to signal a potentially important and urgent event. All other things being equal, sounds that are sudden, loud, dissonant, or feature fast temporal patterns induce arousal or feelings of unpleasantness in listeners...Such responses reflect the impact of auditory sensations – music as sound in the most basic sense.'
Rhythmic Entrainment: 'This refers to a process whereby an emotion is evoked by a piece of music because a powerful, external rhythm in the music influences some internal bodily rhythm of the listener (e.g. heart rate), such that the latter rhythm adjusts toward and eventually 'locks in' to a common periodicity. The adjusted heart rate can then spread to other components of emotion such as feeling, through proprioceptive feedback. This may produce an increased level of arousal in the listener.'
Evaluative Conditioning: 'This refers to a process whereby an emotion is induced by a piece of music simply because this stimulus has been paired repeatedly with other positive or negative stimuli. Thus, for instance, a particular piece of music may have occurred repeatedly together in time with a specific event that always made you happy (e.g., meeting your best friend). Over time, through repeated pairings, the music will eventually come to evoke happiness even in the absence of the friendly interaction.'
Emotional Contagion: 'This refers to a process whereby an emotion is induced by a piece of music because the listener perceives the emotional expression of the music, and then "mimics" this expression internally, which by means of either peripheral feedback from muscles, or a more direct activation of the relevant emotional representations in the brain, leads to an induction of the same emotion.'
Visual Imagery: 'This refers to a process whereby an emotion is induced in a listener because he or she conjures up visual images (e.g., of a beautiful landscape) while listening to the music.'
Episodic memory: 'This refers to a process whereby an emotion is induced in a listener because the music evokes a memory of a particular event in the listener's life. This is sometimes referred to as the "Darling, they are playing our tune" phenomenon.'
Musical expectancy: 'This refers to a process whereby an emotion is induced in a listener because a specific feature of the music violates, delays, or confirms the listener's expectations about the continuation of the music.'
Musical expectancy
With regards to violations of expectation in music several interesting results have been found. It has for example been found that listening to unconventional music may sometimes cause a meaning threat and result in compensatory behaviour in order to restore meaning.
Aesthetic Judgement and BRECVEMA
In 2013, Juslin created an additional aspect to the BRECVEM model called aesthetic judgement. This is the criteria which each individual has as a metric for music's aesthetic value. This can involve a number of varying personal preferences, such as the message conveyed, skill presented or novelty of style or idea.
Comparison of conveyed and elicited emotions
Evidence for emotion in music
There has been a bulk of evidence that listeners can identify specific emotions with certain types of music, but there has been less concrete evidence that music may elicit emotions. This is due to the fact that elicited emotion is subjective; and thus, it is difficult to find a valid criterion to study it. Elicited and conveyed emotion in music is usually understood from three types of evidence: self-report, physiological responses, and expressive behavior. Researchers use one or a combination of these methods to investigate emotional reactions to music.
Self-report
The self-report method is a verbal report by the listener regarding what they are experiencing. This is the most widely used method for studying emotion and has shown that people identify emotions and personally experience emotions while listening to music. Research in the area has shown that listeners' emotional responses are highly consistent. In fact, a meta-analysis of 41 studies on music performance found that happiness, sadness, tenderness, threat, and anger were identified above chance by listeners. Another study compared untrained listeners to musically trained listeners. Both groups were required to categorize musical excerpts that conveyed similar emotions. The findings showed that the categorizations were not different between the trained and untrained; thus demonstrating that the untrained listeners are highly accurate in perceiving emotion. It is more difficult to find evidence for elicited emotion, as it depends solely on the subjective response of the listener. This leaves reporting vulnerable to self-report biases such as participants responding according to social prescriptions or responding as they think the experimenter wants them to. As a result, the validity of the self-report method is often questioned, and consequently researchers are reluctant to draw definitive conclusions solely from these reports.
Physiological responses
Emotions are known to create physiological, or bodily, changes in a person, which can be tested experimentally. Some evidence shows one of these changes is within the nervous system. Arousing music is related to increased heart rate and muscle tension; calming music is connected to decreased heart rate and muscle tension, and increased skin temperature. Other research identifies outward physical responses such as shivers or goose bumps to be caused by changes in harmony and tears or lump-in-the-throat provoked by changes in melody. Researchers test these responses through the use of instruments for physiological measurement, such as recording pulse rate.
Expressive behavior
People are also known to show outward manifestations of their emotional states while listening to music. Studies using facial electromyography (EMG) have found that people react with subliminal facial expressions when listening to expressive music. In addition, music provides a stimulus for expressive behavior in many social contexts, such as concerts, dances, and ceremonies. Although these expressive behaviors can be measured experimentally, there have been very few controlled studies observing this behavior.
Strength of effects
Within the comparison between elicited and conveyed emotions, researchers have examined the relationship between these two types of responses to music. In general, research agrees that feeling and perception ratings are highly correlated, but not identical. More specifically, studies are inconclusive as to whether one response has a stronger effect than the other, and in what ways these two responses relate.
Conveyed more than elicited
In one study, participants heard a random selection of 24 excerpts, displaying six types of emotions, five times in a row. Half the participants described the emotions the music conveyed, and the other half responded with how the music made them feel. The results found that emotions conveyed by music were more intense than the emotions elicited by the same piece of music. Another study investigated under what specific conditions strong emotions were conveyed. Findings showed that ratings for conveyed emotions were higher in happy responses to music with consistent cues for happiness (i.e., fast tempo and major mode), for sad responses to music with consistent cues for sadness (i.e., slow tempo and minor mode,) and for sad responses in general. These studies suggest that people can recognize the emotion displayed in music more readily than feeling it personally.
Sometimes conveyed, sometimes elicited
Another study that had 32 participants listen to twelve musical pieces and found that the strength of perceived and elicited emotions were dependent on the structures of the piece of music. Perceived emotions were stronger than felt emotions when listeners rated for arousal and positive and negative activation. On the other hand, elicited emotions were stronger than perceived emotions when rating for pleasantness.
Elicited more than conveyed
In another study analysis revealed that emotional responses were stronger than the listeners' perceptions of emotions. This study used a between-subjects design, where 20 listeners judged to what extent they perceived four emotions: happy, sad, peaceful, and scared. A separate 19 listeners rated to what extent they experienced each of these emotions. The findings showed that all music stimuli elicited specific emotions for the group of participants rating elicited emotion, while music stimuli only occasionally conveyed emotion to the participants in the group identifying which emotions the music conveyed.
Based on these inconsistent findings, there is much research left to be done in order to determine how conveyed and elicited emotions are similar and different. There is disagreement about whether music induces 'true' emotions or if the emotions reported as felt in studies are instead just participants stating the emotions found in the music they are listening to.
Music as a therapeutic tool
Music therapy as a therapeutic tool has been shown to be an effective treatment for various ailments. Therapeutic techniques involve eliciting emotions by listening to music, composing music or lyrics and performing music.
Music therapy sessions may have the ability to help drug users who are attempting to break a drug habit, with users reporting feeling better able to feel emotions without the aid of drug use. Music therapy may also be a viable option for people experiencing extended stays in a hospital due to illness. In one study, music therapy provided child oncology patients with enhanced environmental support elements and elicited more engaging behaviors from the child. When treating troubled teenagers, a study by Keen revealed that music therapy has allowed therapists to interact with teenagers with less resistance, thus facilitating self-expression in the teenager.
Music therapy has also shown great promise in individuals with autism, serving as an emotional outlet for these patients. While other avenues of emotional expression and understanding may be difficult for people with autism, music may provide those with limited understanding of socio-emotional cues a way of accessing emotion.
References
Further reading
Gabrielsson, Alf (2011). Strong experiences with music: Music is much more than just music. Oxford University Press.
Juslin, Patrik N., and John Sloboda, eds (2011). Handbook of music and emotion: Theory, research, applications. Oxford University Press.
Emotion
Music psychology
Philosophy of music
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is a Japanese yuri manga series written and illustrated by Takako Shimura. It was serialized between November 2004 and July 2013 in Ohta Publishing's Manga Erotics F manga magazine and is licensed in English by Viz Media. Eight volumes were published between December 2005 and September 2013. The story focuses on Fumi Manjōme, a lesbian high school girl, and her close childhood friend Akira Okudaira, who tries to keep her friends happy through difficult times.
An 11-episode anime television series produced by J.C.Staff and directed by Ken'ichi Kasai aired in Japan between July and September 2009 on Fuji TV. An Internet radio show to promote the anime was produced between June and October 2009 on HiBiKi Radio Station hosted by Ai Takabe and Yūko Gibu, who voiced Fumi and Akira in the anime, respectively. The anime has been licensed by Right Stuf Inc.
Plot
At the start of Sweet Blue Flowers, Akira Okudaira, who is an entering high school student into Fujigaya Girls Academy, becomes reacquainted with her childhood friend Fumi Manjōme whom she has not seen for ten years. Fumi is attending Matsuoka Girl's High School where she quickly becomes friends with a handsome third-year student named Yasuko Sugimoto. Akira joins her school's drama club with her friend and classmate Kyōko Ikumi, who is in love with Yasuko, though Yasuko turns her down. Akira meets Kyōko's fiancé (in name only) Kō Sawanoi. Yasuko and Fumi become a couple, and Fumi comes out to Akira who is at first unsure on how to act, but still tries to support Fumi's new relationship.
Akira's drama club does an adaptation of Wuthering Heights for a drama festival; Fumi helps out with her friends Yōko Honatsugi, Misako Yasuda, and Miwa Motegi. Yasuko breaks up with Fumi, who learns that Yasuko's older sister Kazusa is marrying a teacher at Fujigaya named Masanori Kagami whom Yasuko had fallen in love with. Time passes after the wedding, and Yasuko decides to study abroad in London after graduating. Miwa and Akira's older brother Shinobu start going out, and Fumi tells Akira that she was her first love, much to Akira's embarrassment.
When Akira and her friends enter their second year of high school, an energetic first-year student named Haruka Ōno joins the Fujigaya drama club. Akira and Kyōko are split into different classrooms, and Akira meets a tall girl in her new class named Ryōko Ueda. The high school division of Fujigaya does the play Rokumeikan with Akira, Kyōko and Ryōko playing lead roles, though Ryōko only agrees to act because Akira also agrees to act alongside her. Fumi and Haruka become friends, and Haruka confides in Fumi that she suspects her older sister Orie may like women. Not knowing how to respond, Fumi seeks advice from Akira, but ends up confessing her love for her instead. Kyōko does not want Kō to break off the engagement, but he ends up finally breaking up with her. The play goes well and everyone praises the actress' performances. Over summer vacation, Akira suggests to Fumi that they go out together after thinking deeply about it.
Characters
Main characters
Fumi is a first-year student at Matsuoka Girl's High School, and is a tall, shy girl prone to crying. Fumi comes back to the town she grew up in and she meets, without realizing it, her childhood friend Akira Okudaira. When they were much younger, Akira had been Fumi's bodyguard, keeping her out of harm and consoling her when she cried. Fumi is a lesbian and had her first romantic relationship with her older female cousin Chizu Hanashiro, with whom she had sex. Soon after Fumi moves back to Kamakura, she finds out Chizu will soon marry a man she has never met. Not long after meeting Yasuko Sugimoto in the literature club, Fumi develops a crush on Yasuko, who later asks her out.
Akira, nicknamed "Ah" by some of her friends, is an innocent and cheerful girl in her first-year at Fujigaya Girls Academy. She was Fumi's best friend in elementary school and rekindles that relationship upon meeting her again 10 years later. She acts as a main source of advice for Fumi. Akira joins the drama club because her friend Kyōko Ikumi is a member of it. She often talks about food and gives advice, and dislikes scary stories or things that test her courage. Unexpectedly and unintentionally, Akira usually spills secrets about her friends to other people when they ask her questions about them. Her intentions are pure, and only discusses them to help her friends out. However, this sometimes causes problems for them instead.
Fujigaya students
Kyōko is a reckless girl who has eyes only for Yasuko. She is in the same class as Akira and is a member of the drama club. She has been dubbed as Princess for her charm, and is also skilled in sewing, art, tennis and acting. Many students look up to Kyōko in the same way Kyōko looks up to Yasuko. Kyōko is engaged (in name only) to Kō Sawanoi, a college student. This engagement was pushed for by Kyōko's mother while Kyōko and Kō were still young, and not all of Kō's relatives are happy about it.
Ayako is a third-year student when Akira joins Fujigaya. She is a member of the drama club and plays Catherine opposite Yasuko's Heathcliffe in the Drama Festival production of Wuthering Heights. After graduation, she goes to study abroad in England.
Kaori is a senior and the president of the drama club in Akira's first year. She regularly scolds the club's absent advisor, Masanori Kagami, for not showing a deeper interest in the club.
Haruka is a girl who joins Fujigaya as a student one year below Akira and becomes a new member of the drama club. She has an endearing personality that makes it easy for her to become friendly with anyone, though she's prone to making silly mistakes. Many students, especially Kyōko, remark on how similar Haruka is to how Akira was when she first came to Fujigaya. Haruka has an older sister, Orie, who is in a romantic relationship with Hinako Yamashina, a science teacher at Fujigaya. Haruka's family owns an old hot springs inn.
Ryōko is a tall girl who sits beside Akira in class in their second year. She has a gentle, quiet personality and enjoys reading; she's a library aide at Fujigaya. Her acting talents are noticed while she's reading aloud (to herself) Deer Cry Pavilion, a play that the Drama Club intends to put on that year. She ends up playing one of the leads. She says Akira is so small and cute that she wants to put Akira in her pocket.
Matsuoka students
Yasuko is a popular third-year senior at Matsuoka Girl's High School. She is a cool upperclassman and the captain of the basketball team, though Fumi mistakes her for being in the literature club when they first meet. After visiting Fujigaya Girls Academy and rejecting Kyōko's confession, she asks out Fumi, who accepts. Yasuko developed romantic feelings for a teacher, Masanori Kagami, when she was attending Fujigaya. After his rejection, she switched schools and changed focus from drama to basketball. Yasuko has three older sisters who all attended Fujigaya: Shinako, Kazusa, and Kuri.
Pon is a member of Fumi's first-year class and the first person to approach her. With her middle school friends Mogii and Yassan, she wants to form a drama club at Matsuoka. She tries to get Fumi to join, but Fumi isn't interested. Pon has a bright, frank personality and wears her hair in a shoulder-length bob cut. She is a bit on the clumsy side and has a hard time competing against Kyōko in tennis. She later turns out to be a talented script writer, which impresses Fumi.
Mogii is a member of the Matsuoka Drama Club with her friends Pon and Yassan. She has a gentle personality and wears her hair in a shoulder-length wavy style. She is the only one of her friends to be put into a separate class in their second year. Miwa becomes interested in Akira's brother Shinobu and the two start dating around the end of her first year of high school. Akira finds this awkward, but she and Mogii remain friends.
Yassan is president of the 3-person drama club at Matsuoka. She has thick eyebrows and boyish-short, frizzy hair. She likes to test people's courage or scaring them by either participating in a game of "test of courage" or telling ghost stories. Despite this, she gets emotional very easily when it comes to things she cares about, like her friends or the drama club.
Kaori is a classmate and friend of Yasuko. She's in the literature club with Fumi. Kaori and Yasuko's friendship is the reason Yasuko hangs out in the Literature Club room, and therefore the reason Yasuko and Fumi met.
Other characters
Okudaira family
: Akira's older brother, who attends college. He is constantly worried about his sister, and often takes her places in his car, though Akira often gets very annoyed at how protective her brother is towards her. When she was younger, he would sneak into her futon at night; now he tries to follow her around when he thinks she might be meeting with guys. He suspects Kō of being interested in Akira. Later, Shinobu starts dating Mogii and relaxes a little about Akira.
: Akira and Shinobu's mother, who tends to get easily excited. She often yells at Shinobu for his inappropriate behavior regarding Akira, but she also worries about Akira, just like Shinobu does. (She's just less protective about it.) Her sister describes Sakiko as the black sheep of the family. Sakiko was friends with Yoshie years ago, and regularly visits with her now that Fumi's family has moved back.
: Akira and Shinobu's father. He doesn't appear much, but he seems to have a personality similar to Shinobu's. He's a salaryman working for an IT company.
: Keiko is Akira and Shinobu's aunt, as well as Sakiko's sister. She currently lives in the outskirts of Yokohama, but she graduated from Fujigaya. Keiko and Sakiko don't always get along because of snobbish comments Keiko makes, while Akira is afraid of Keiko's forceful personality. When Shinobu introduces Mogii to her, Keiko overwhelms Mogii so much that she basically hides behind Shinobu.
Manjōme family
: Fumi's mother. She is good friends with Sakiko Okudaira.
: Fumi's father. He works at a bank. His job transfers him back to Kamakura, which brings Fumi and Akira back together.
: Fumi's cousin who lived near Fumi's family while she was going to college. She and Fumi were very close as children and developed a more physically intimate relationship once they were older. Fumi is in love with Chizu, but Chizu chooses to marry instead, breaking Fumi's heart. Chizu's first child looks a lot like Fumi did as a baby.
: Fumi's strict grandmother, who used to treat Akira like her own granddaughter (that is, strictly). She died two years before Fumi's family moved back to Kamakura. When Fumi is feeling bad about herself, she sometimes hears her own negative thoughts as if her grandmother were saying them.
Sugimoto family
: Yasuko's mother. She often pretends to be scandalized by her daughters' antics, but then says the most scandalous things herself. Despite this, she shows a caring side to Fumi when she visits.
: The oldest Sugimoto sister, who likes to joke and tease Yasuko. She attended Fujigaya at the same time as Hinako; Orie had a crush on Shinako in school before Hinako confessed. Shinako was quite popular in school and often had younger students admiring her and wanting to date her. She dated a female student named Kaoruko, who broke up with her, but it seems they got back together several times. Shinako regularly had many girlfriends and says she loved all of them.
: Kazusa is an artist. She has a kind personality and appears very feminine, except when she paints. For a short time, she worked as an art teacher at Fujigaya after graduating from there. While teaching, she met her future husband Masanori Kagami, also a teacher. She knows two of her sisters loved her husband when they were younger, but this doesn't appear to bother her. She also teaches Kyōko private art lessons and suspects Kyōko's feelings for Yasuko.
: Kuri is similar to Yasuko in that she was very popular when attending Fujigaya. Also like Yasuko, she too fell in love with Masanori Kagami, but she never told him her feelings. She wields a blunt personality and smokes. While at Fujigaya, her best friend Komako had a crush on her, though Kuri may not know this.
: Kazusa's husband, he teaches at Fujigaya, where they met. He nominally advises the Drama Club, but he almost never shows up, which the club members, especially Kaori, remark on often. He was the one who named Yasuko "Mistress of the Library"; Yasuko left Fujigaya after confessing her feelings to him and being turned down. He withheld this information from Kyōko when she asked if he knew why Yasuko had left. After his marriage to Kazusa, both Kuri and Yasuko seem to accept that he is beyond their reach.
: Sugimoto family cook and helper. She is soft-hearted and allows the younger Fumi to take tea to Yasuko after the sisters fight with each other.
: Sugimoto family driver. He insists on driving Yasuko around when he can.
Ikumi family
: Kyōko's mother. Kyōko hated her for a long time because of Kayoko's illness and how other people treated their family as a result. However, as Kyōko grew up, she came to realize that this wasn't her mother's problem. Kayoko is still disliked by many members of the Sawanoi family and is gossiped about by them, as Akira discovered by accident.
: Kyōko's fiancé, in name only. He is a college student from a wealthy family. They have known each other since childhood and Kō has a great concern for Kyōko, but he knows that she is in love with someone else.
: Kō's aunt, who welcomes Kyōko's friends to their family vacation home. She is kind to Fumi and Akira when they get sick, and she tries to stand up for Kyōko when other family members complain about her mother.
Ōno family
: Haruka's older sister. Orie also attended Fujigaya, where she fell in love with her best friend Hinako. Haruka finds a love letter in Orie's room and realizes that Orie is probably a lesbian. This worries her at first, but Haruka has always been close to Hinako as well, so she accepts the relationship.
: A science teacher at Fujigaya, and the homeroom teacher of Akira's second year class. She also attended Fujigaya, where she and Orie fell in love. Hinako often finds herself giving students advice; for example, Fumi comes to her when she's worried about her relationship with Akira. She also rescues the drama club when Haruka leaves several of the costumes at home right before the festival. Since Orie and Hinako have known each other since high school, Haruka refers to her as Hina.
Haruka's mother: Haruka and Orie's mother is invested in her children's lives, but she also knows when to let go. She has given up on Orie getting married. Haruka seems to have inherited some of her mother's personality, including her loud and friendly nature. However, her mother is more respectful of other people's privacy than Haruka tends to be.
Production
Manga
When Takako Shimura was writing her manga Dōnika Naru Hibi, she became interested in a story between girls, leading her to create Sweet Blue Flowers. While she felt that the story focus should be on girls for yuri works, Shimura also wanted to introduce some males since she thought it would add an interesting aspect to the series. Shimura felt it difficult to balance the need for some males, but also not wanting to add too many. When depicting the characters, she did not want to write about them going through puberty. When starting to write Sweet Blue Flowers, Shimura noticed that, in her opinion, she felt like a person depicting sexual perversion for writing about yuri relationships.
Before starting to write Sweet Blue Flowers, Shimura went with her editor to Kamakura, Kanagawa with the main objective of visiting the Kamakura Museum of Literature. Shimura took many pictures during their trip, and thought Kamakura felt like a great place to set the story. With a guide book of Kamakura in hand, Shimura thought of various locations that would later appear in Sweet Blue Flowers, such as the café that the characters frequent. Many of the pictures taken turned out unusable, though there were some she used as references for the setting, such as modeling the exterior of Fujigaya after the Kamakura Museum of Literature. Shimura also used the Komaba Park estate in Meguro, Tokyo for the interior of Fujigaya, such as with the staircase featured in chapter eleven. A large Japanese-style house on the same property as the Kamakura Museum of Literature was used as a model for the Sugimoto residence. The Enoshima Electric Railway is also featured in the series.
Anime
In 2005, anime producer Yūji Matsukura of J.C.Staff was meeting at Ohta Publishing for an unrelated anime project and told the editor-in-chief of Manga Erotics F, "U-mura", that he liked the Sweet Blue Flowers manga and would like to produce it into an anime in the future. Shortly after the first manga volume was released in December 2005, Matsukura went to a Media Factory producer, who also agreed to collaborating on a Sweet Blue Flowers anime. Matsukura went on to say that J.C.Staff is not the type of company to usually go out and make suggestions for anime projects and it was only because he liked Sweet Blue Flowers and later met U-mura by chance that an anime eventually became possible. Matsukura was in charge of choosing much of the staff. Ken'ichi Kasai was chosen as the director, because of his intuitiveness to make good-feeling anime according to Matsukura. For the series composition, Matsukura thought it would appear unexpected to pick Fumihiko Takayama, though he was asked to participate, because he likes shōjo manga. Takayama, who has experience as an animation director, would often make suggestions during the production of the animation, enough for Matsukura to joke that Takayama should have been staffed as the director instead, though Takayama flatly refused. Neither Kasai nor Takayama initially knew of the manga, but were approached by Matsukura, because he thought they would enjoy working on the project. This was the same case for the character designer and chief animation director Masayuki Onji.
Takayama initially suggested not to produce an anime, because of the difficulty in maintaining the feeling of the original work, and wanted to let someone else deal with it. Further difficulty was cited in Sweet Blue Flowers not being a plot driven story, but rather character driven. After accepting and beginning work on the scenario, Takayama happened to read a poem titled by Bin Ueda which had the phrase , and remarked that this was like the world was telling him he should write the scenario. At first, Kasai thought the entire work was going to be about yuri, but felt that an important point of the story was that Yasuko Sugimoto initially likes her teacher Masanori Kagami, rather than it being a complete yuri story if Yasuko had liked a female teacher. When writing the scenario for the first episode, Takayama found the length to be insufficient, and even after handing it over to Kasai, the episode was still about two minutes short. The missing material was filled in with various scenes of Fumi and Akira when they were younger, and Akira going to school. Where and how to end the anime was also an issue when writing the scenario, and it took a long time to decide.
Media
Manga
Sweet Blue Flowers is a manga series written and illustrated by Takako Shimura. It was serialized in Ohta Publishing's Manga Erotics F manga magazine between the 30th issue sold on November 17, 2004 and the 82nd issue released on July 6, 2013. Eight tankōbon volumes were released between December 15, 2005 and September 12, 2013 in Japan.
The manga has been licensed for release in French by Asuka under the title Fleurs Bleues. The series was released digitally in English on JManga, but after JManga closed down, Digital Manga Publishing took over the English-language publication rights. The series was later re-licensed in 2016 by Viz Media, who will publish the series in omnibus editions. In Spain, it was titled Flores azules by Milky Way. It allegedly sold poorly, prompting the editors to reply, "Our warehouse is full of flowers" when asked in the 2018 Barcelona Manga Convention about the possibility of licensing other yuri titles.
Internet radio show
An Internet radio show to promote the anime series called was broadcast between June 26 and October 30, 2009 on HiBiKi Radio Station in nineteen episodes, and aired between July 3 and November 6, 2009 on Media Factory Net Radio. The show, which aired every Friday, was hosted by Ai Takabe and Yūko Gibu, who voiced Fumi and Akira in the anime, respectively. Chiemi Ishimatsu, the voice of Yasuko, also joined the show for three broadcasts in late August 2009. A CD containing a couple of parts from some episodes as well as newly recorded material was released on December 22, 2009.
Anime
An 11-episode anime television series adaptation was produced by the animation studio J.C.Staff and directed by Ken'ichi Kasai. The anime aired in Japan between July 2 and September 10, 2009 on Fuji TV as the third series in Fuji TV's Noise timeslot. It was also streamed online on Crunchyroll. The anime has been licensed by The Right Stuf International and was released on subtitled DVD under their Lucky Penny label on March 5, 2013.
The series has two pieces of theme music; one opening theme and one ending theme. The opening theme is by Kukikodan, and the ending theme is by Ceui. The single for "Aoi Hana" was released on July 22, 2009, followed by the single for "Centifolia" on August 5, 2009. The anime's original soundtrack was released on August 26, 2009 by Lantis. Fuji TV producer Kōji Yamamoto revealed that a second season is not planned due to low DVD sales of the anime.
Reception
Erica Friedman, the president of Yuricon and ALC Publishing, reviewed the Sweet Blue Flowers anime and manga, praising Takako Shimura's original cover and interior art from the manga, and how that art style is "captured in the anime through crisp, realistic art." The story is also lauded for "far surpassing most Yuri in general" by its strength in a "character-driven" story, which is described as being both "aesthetically appealing" and "simple". Friedman cites that Sweet Blue Flowers could easily be compared to a Jane Austen story, and feels that the story is not "a melodrama or a parody, like Strawberry Panic!." Friedman later called Sweet Blue Flowers the best yuri anime of 2009, where she wrote how the series was one of the "most realistic portrayals of a young woman in love with another woman ever seen in an anime." Friedman also praised the faithful adaptation from manga to anime, including parts that she felt were done better animated.
Sweet Blue Flowers was featured as Anime News Network's Import of the Month in May 2007 where it was described as "the best of its genre" that "makes stuff like MariMite and Strawberry Panic! look like trashy dime-store romance by comparison." Takako Shimura's art was seen as "economical" with "clean layouts, sparse backgrounds, and everything that needs to be said contained within a single facial expression." However, the plot points are described as so calm that they are easy to gloss over. The relationships presented are seen as complex and the reviewer felt it was difficult to remember all the particulars in the story. G.B. Smith of Mania described the anime as presenting the story in a "sincere and open way...without any gimmicks," as opposed to other yuri-themed series that are "either heavily comedic in nature, or have disguised the relationship in one way or another." The replay value of the anime was questioned, because of situations that "lack a certain amount of compelling drama that makes for a truly memorable experience." The Sweet Blue Flowers anime was selected as a recommended work by the awards jury of the thirteenth Japan Media Arts Festival in 2009. Additionally, Beatrice Viri of CBR praised the manga for exploring LGBTQ themes, and called it "a sweet romance that many will enjoy."
References
External links
Anime official website
2004 manga
Coming-of-age anime and manga
Digital Manga Publishing titles
Fuji TV original programming
J.C.Staff
Japanese LGBT-related animated television series
Noise (TV programming block)
Ohta Publishing manga
Romance anime and manga
School life in anime and manga
Viz Media manga
Yuri (genre) anime and manga
2000s LGBT-related television series
2000s LGBT literature
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"The Possibilities" is the third episode of the supernatural drama television series, Preacher, which originally aired on AMC in the United States on June 12, 2016. The episode was written by Chris Kelley and directed by Scott Winant.
Tulip (Ruth Negga) meets a woman named Dany (Julie Dretzin) in Houston, Texas and receives a slip of paper with the address of the enigmatic Carlos, with Tulip intending Jesse to aid her in confronting and killing the man who ruined their lives. Jesse (Dominic Cooper) tests the limits of his newly found abilities of persuasion and finally understands the nature of his abilities when Donnie (Derek Wilson) confronts Custer with a gun, with Jesse later holding control over him. Cassidy (Joseph Gilgun) tells Jesse of the possibilities of his abilities, while discovering the true nature of government agents Fiore (Tom Brooke) and DeBlanc (Anatol Yusef); subsequently ending with a quasi-partnership between the mysterious two and the vampire. The episodic title is a reference to a speech given by Cassidy convincing Jesse about imagining the different possibilities of what he can do with his power.
"The Possibilities" received mostly praise from critics, who noted Jesse's interaction with Donnie, Cassidy learning the truth about Fiore and DeBlanc, and Tulip's performance with the cop as being the high points of the episode. The episode garnered a Nielsen rating of 0.7 in the 18–49 demographic, translating to 1.75 million viewers.
Plot
Tulip (Ruth Negga) meets a woman named Dany (Julie Dretzin) in Houston, Texas and hands over the stolen map. In return, Dany gives her a slip of paper with an address. In a flashback, a car zooms past Tulip in an alleyway as an alarm blares nearby. Back in the present, Tulip tells Dany that was the day she lost everything — including her relationship with Jesse. Afterwards, Dany sits behind a mysterious Man in White in a pop-up movie theater and hands him the map. He dismisses her. The Man in White leaves the theater.
At the Sundowner Motel, Sheriff Root interrogates Fiore (Tom Brooke) and DeBlanc (Anatol Yusef). They explain that "something" got loose and ended up in Annville. When Sheriff Root (W. Earl Brown) asks if they’re talking about an escaped prisoner, they say yes. Sheriff Root bemoans the state of humanity. After Sheriff Root leaves, Fiore suggests they try using the can again on Jesse, revealing an assortment of guns. At the Loach residence, Mrs. Loach (Bonita Friedericy) tells Emily that Tracy's (Gianna Lepera) eyes opened after Jesse prayed with her.
Donnie (Derek Wilson) walks his son, Chris (Thomas Barbusca), to the bus stop and tells Chris not to worry about noises coming from his parents' bedroom. Donnie adds that adults' relationships can be "complicated." Chris apologizes for ratting out Donnie to Jesse and says he attacked a boy who mocked Donnie for getting beat up by Jesse. Linus (Ptolemy Slocum) picks up a line of kids in his school bus. He smiles at the young girl he once desired and asks her name—his memory of the girl having been wiped out by Jesse. The kids on the bus erupt in squeals when they see Donnie, mimicking the sound Donnie made when Jesse beat him up. Donnie hollers at them.
At church, Cassidy (Joseph Gilgun) answers a knock at the front door and finds a coffin with the body of Ted. Emily (Lucy Griffiths) tells Cassidy to handle the body. Cassidy grabs the van keys and sees Jesse (Dominic Cooper) sitting in the common room. Jesse tries out his new power on Cassidy and barks out a list of commands. Cassidy's excited about Jesse’s new power.
A cop pulls Tulip over for speeding and asks her to step out of the car. The officer catches sight of a ring Tulip's slipped onto her finger, prompting him to ask where she served. He lightens up as she lies about her time in the military. Tulip explains she was speeding because she’s desperate to help a friend who's been making bad life decisions. The cop lets her go.
At Quincannon Meat & Power, Ms. Oatlash, the receptionist, leaves an envelope on Odin Quincannon's desk. At church, Cassidy brainstorms explanations for Jesse's superpower and asks what it feels like. Jesse describes it as "all of God’s creation inside of me." At the motel, Fiore and DeBlanc are outfitted in helmets and bulletproof vests, ready to deal with Jesse. In Quincannon's office, Donnie reads a letter from the owner of a company called Green Acre. Donnie offers to beat up the owner. Quincannon (Jackie Earle Haley) does not reply but tells Donnie to clear his lunch tray. Donnie struggles to pick up the tray with his one good arm. "A right-hand man with no right hand," Quincannon says.
Cassidy cremates Ted's body. As he returns with Ted's ashes, he sees Fiore and DeBlanc. Jesse drives down the road, with Tulip pulling up next to him, showing Jesse the address that Dany gave her. In a flashback, Jesse stands over a dead security guard whom he's shot in the head, as an alarm sounds in the background. Tulip screams at the getaway car as it speeds away. In the present, Tulip proposes they kill Carlos. Jesse and Tulip drive off together.
At night, Fiore and DeBlanc walk toward the church, armed with guns. Cassidy runs them over with the van, killing them. Cassidy looks at the bodies and recognizes them as the men he killed in the chainsaw fight. Believing them to be clones, he heads back to the church to find clean-up supplies. Inside, Cassidy runs into Fiore and DeBlanc. Before he can kill them again, they explain that they have come for Jesse, not him.
Tulip fills up at a gas station. Jesse wanders off to the bathroom. In the bathroom, Donnie sneaks up on Jesse with a gun, but Jesse tests his power on Donnie, who obeys his every command. On Jesse’s orders, Donnie puts the gun in his mouth and pulls back the hammer. Jesse now understands how his power works. He tells Donnie to leave. Back at the car, Jesse tells Tulip he changed his mind. Despite her protests, he walks away leaving her at the gas station.
At the church, DeBlanc tells Cassidy that people will die if they do not retrieve what is inside Jesse. Cassidy asks what they want to do with it, and DeBlanc says they do not want to do anything with it, as it must never be used. Cassidy asks what branch of government they are from, and Fiore replies that they are from heaven. Outside, Cassidy tells Fiore and DeBlanc that he will talk to Jesse about their mission and convince Jesse to come to them. At Sheriff Root's house, Eugene (Ian Colletti) tells his father about Tracy opening her eyes and suggests they pay a visit to the Loach house. Sheriff Root warns Eugene to stay away.
The next day, Jesse recites his eulogy for Ted to only Emily in the church graveyard. In a nearby field, the lid on a vent flies open, emitting a gas, before it closes shut again.
Production
Writing
"The Possibilities" was written by Chris Kelley. elements in the episode are based on the first seven issues in the Preacher series, "Gone to Texas", of which the script was first read and reviewed by Preacher co-creator Garth Ennis, as with the other episodes of the series. The elements adapt, or at least provides allusions to Herr Starr from "Until the End of the World", in the form of an opening sequence, as well as from "Salvation" with Odin Quincannon.
Shortly after the airing of "The Possibilities", AMC released a featurette titled "Inside Preacher: 'The Possibilities'" which went into greater detail about Jesse's latest discovery about his powers, why Tulip is so fervent in her quest for revenge and the dangers of Donnie learning Jesse's secret. Showrunner Sam Catlin was interviewed for the segment, and stated "This episode is a lot about Jessie imagining the different possibilities of what he can do with his power. He's sort of spooked by the fact he's got this power because he doesn't trust himself with it. Jessie needs to tell somebody." Catlin then acknowledges that both Custer and Cassidy "take his power for a ride". Speaking about the revelation of Carlos' location, Catlin noted about Brienne and Jaime's reunion that "I think he agrees to go with Tulip and kill Carlos for two reasons: Carlos is on Jesse's radar, and they've been looking for him for years [...] Tulip's found him. Also Jesse's in a place where he doesn't trust himself to be a preacher and to be a good guy with his power [...]. Catlin continued by mentioning Donnie's staged ambush in the gas station bathroom, where Jesse comes to learn the terrifying extent of his powers, "The bathroom scene is a test ... because Jesse has the perfect excuse and alibi to use the power for violence." He continued mentioning it to be an integral scene, "The fact that he's so directly tested in that moment and he passes that test gives him new confidence and he realises, "Now I know what I want to use it for" [...] He can actually be a good preacher."
Tom Brooke, who portrays Fiore, spoke of the story progression as being the thing which excites him the most, with Brooke stating, "[...] If you imagine where you think it’s going to go, I guarantee you that it will go somewhere completely different. I've seen a lot of elements in this show that other shows have, but they’re not used in the way that we use them. Nobody’s got a vampire like our vampire." Joseph Gilgun, who portrays Cassidy, spoke about his character's encounter with Jesse in "The Possibilities", "Cassidy's someone you can go too. He's not gonna judge you 'cos he's nuts, who is he to judge? I think Cassidy sees Jesse's power as being an opportunity."
Dominic Cooper, who portrays Jesse Custer, spoke with AMC about the progression of Custer in this particular episode, to which he states, "He feels a responsibility towards everyone, and each and every time he's confronted by such desperation. Cooper furthers this point by suggesting: "Jesse's been convinced by Tulip to go back on the road and find this man, who he feels is responsible for the breakup of their relationship, and the death of the security guard." to which he then adds, "It reaches a point with Jessie where the balance is tipped and you can see the furiousness of his past come out." Cooper concludes by making mention of Custer's scene with Donnie, wherein Cooper remarks, "When you are looking for signs you find signs, it's a sign. Then Donnie approaches Jessie in the toilet cubical prepare to blow Jesse's brains out, and he remembers again his reason for being in the town and what he's promise his father and what he must accomplish."
Ruth Negga, who plays Tulip O'Hare, spoke of O'Hare involvement with Custer in "The Possibilities", with Negga stating, "Someone hurt them very badly. Her way of making peace with that is getting revenge. It's like she needs [Jesse] to bare witness to it with her. Tulip represents the past, and the past for him is full of regret. all he can hear is his father." Derek Wilson spoke of his character Donnie Schenck and what the events set in "The Possibilities" may set in stone, with Wilson remarking of Custer, "I think in that moment he realises that this power could be use for something much grander. It's unbelievable." Wilson begins to speak of Donnie's discovery, "Donnie's whimpering on a toilet with a gun to his mouth. He's beaten. He doesn't need to die. The thing that that sets up is how Donnie, a very dangerous person, and unhinged person, knows about this power."
Casting
The episode saw the return of special guest star Jackie Earle Haley reprising his role as the villainous Odin Quincannon. Actor Graham McTavish's name is featured in the newly constructed opening title sequence, though he does not appear.
Actress Bonita Friedericy, known for her role as Diane Beckman in Chuck, reprises her role as Terri Loach, with Gianna LePera playing daughter Tracy Loach, respectively. "The Possibilities" shows the reintroduction of Ptolemy Slocum appearing as Linus, a sick man with an unhealthy interest in a little girl he sees every day in his school bus. The episode also marks the first appearance of guest star Julie Dretzin, the wife of Preacher showrunner Sam Catlin, as the mysterious Dany.
Filming
"The Possibilities" was directed by Scott Winant, a first time director for Preacher. The episode title is an allusion to the scene where Cassidy convinces Jesse about imagining the different possibilities of what he can do with his power. Prior to the airing of "The Possibilities", upcoming director and Preacher co-executive producer, Michael Slovis spoke of Winant turning to him and saying, "I've done a lot of fantasy or comic book-based episodic shows in my life, and none have been as deeply layered as this. It's extraordinary."
Winant spoke about filming certain scenes of the episode, the segment where Cassidy takes out DeBlanc and Fiore once more with the help of the All Saints van, in the behind the scenes featurette published by AMC after the airing of the episode. Winant mentions the relationship between the practical aspects of filming such a scene, with that of the visual effects, to which he states, "The visual effects people will have to combine the real actors with the fake dummies. The dummies become real as soon as their under the van tumbling around. I will set up my camera's with the actors, then I will remove them from those same setups & have the van run through."
Prosthetic designer Howard Berger was interviewed for the "Making Of Preacher: The Possibilities" segment and spoke of the creation of the van sequence, which primarily involved practical prosthetic's, though also incorporated some VFX. Berger went on to describe more specifically the usage of such practical prosthetic's, "These green screen gloves and leggings we'll put that on [Brooke and Yusef] and we'll get them dressed and we've got these body parts and we're going to attach them with Velcro underneath their costumes [...] For Fiore, who's gonna have a compound fracture, [we'll] green screen his leg [...]." Berger continued by detailing the process at which the prosthetic's are used, to which he stated, "They're just slip latex skins backed with polyfoam, it's like a two part a and b that you mix together and it foams up."Berger also mentioned, "Soft polyfoam that's been tinted red and their armature wire running through it so we can position it". Make-up artist Mike Smithson of KNB EFX was also interviewed for the "Making Of Preacher: “The Possibilities”" segment, with him noting, "Most of these body parts will be under clothing, but the carnage and trauma we're going to end up dressing." For the intricate scene of Cassidy running DeBlanc and Fiore over with the church van, 12 costumes, two dummies, three stunt doubles, and a great deal of prosthetics were involved.
Costume designer Karyn Wagner spoke of her role within "The Possibilities", more so her involvement in the van sequence with Cassidy, Fiore and DeBlanc, wherein Wagner stated, "For a stunt like this, you have to consider what you can get 8 to 12 of, because you nee multiple takes for principal actors. You also have stunt men who you have standing in for them, sets get dirty or destroyer; in this particular case you have dummies who also need clothes."
Negga, in an interview with The Wall Street Journal, insisted that she wanted to put in that would reveal Tulip’s quick-thinking on her feet within the scene between Tulip and the state trooper, as she stated, "She's really good at this. They added in that bit about how she has this technique. They're quite frightening, state troopers. I don't think you can easily talk your way out of anything with them. She has this trick where she has a veteran's ring ... which is actually a really terrible thing to do. She has the notion that, if it will help her out, she will go to extremes. At the same time, you don't feel judgment for her, and she doesn't do it out of any disrespect." Negga concluded that, "[...] I think that she’s really good at getting herself out of sticky situations, mainly because she’s really good at getting herself into sticky situations. There’s something about her. Even though she’s quite irreverent and loud, you can’t help but have affection for her.
Cinematography
"The Possibilities" was shot with a Sony F55 in 4K raw in a distributed aspect ratio of 16:9 by John Grillo. For lenses, Grillo uses Panavision PVintage primes, which are rehoused Ultra Speeds from the 1970s. He also uses Angenieux Optimo lenses, including the 15-40, 28-76, 45-120 and 24-290mm. He used a Tiffen Black Pro-Mist 1/8 filter in front of the lens, as it "helps take some of the edge off the sharpness of the sensor. We have some characters who wear prosthetics, so it definitely helps."
Visual effects
Kevin Lingenfelser was the overall Visual Effects Supervisor and visual effects company FuseFX worked on most of the visual effects for "The Possibilities".
Marketing
Prior to Preachers public release, AMC provided the first four episodes of the season 1 for review, only available to critics, which included "Pilot", "See", "The Possibilities" and "Monster Swamp". After two weeks of only title cards, "The Possibilities" features Preachers full-length opening credits sequence, featuring Western-influenced music from composer Dave Porter as well as a collection of images from the first few episodes.
On June 12, 2016, AMC released a sneak peek for the upcoming episode "The Possibilities", containing a segment of the opening scene with Tulip and Dany. Shortly after the airing of the episode, on June 13, AMC released a selection of extras for "The Possibilities", including photos, an interview with actor Tom Brooke, interviews with the crew as well as a making of behind the scenes. On June 13, 2016, AMC promoted the following of the Preacher magazine on Flipboard, where the latest in full episodes, sneak peeks, behind the scenes moments, exclusive cast interviews can be accessed through a mobile device.
On June 14, 2016, Madman Mike Allred brought his retro-pop style to the latest custom Preacher comic cover. The cover features the trio of Jesse, Cassidy and Tulip slyly celebrating having cut themselves free from the hands that have been pulling their strings, with covers by such artists as Preacher co-creator Steve Dillon and Preacher cover artist Glenn Fabry being available when singing up to the Preacher Insiders Club. On June 17, 2016, shortly before the release of the upcoming Preacher episode, Monster Swamp, artist Dustin Nguyen created the latest custom Preacher comic cover featuring Cassidy after having recently fed on something.
On June 13, 2016, Preachers "The Possibilities" became available to stream or purchase on AMC.com's website, iTunes, Amazon, Google Play, Xbox Video and more.
Reception
Ratings
"The Possibilities" was viewed by 1.75 million American households on its initial viewing, which was slightly less than the previous week's rating of 2.08 million viewers for the episode "See". "The Possibilities" also acquired a 0.7 rating in the 18–49 demographic, making it the eighteenth highest rated show on cable television of the night.
With Live+3 ratings the episode was watched by 3.16 millions people.
Critical reception
"The Possibilities" was received mostly positively by critics, who listed Gilgun's performance, Jesse's interaction with Donnie, Cassidy learning the truth about Fiore and DeBlanc, and Tulip's performance with the cop as being the high points of the episode. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 94% of critics gave the episode a "Certified Fresh" rating, based on 17 reviews with an average score of 6.9/10, with the site's consensus stating, "A slowdown after the raucous first two episodes, "The Possibilities" takes the time to address the plot and get us better acquainted with Jesse and Tulip's checkered past."
Eric Goldman of IGN reacted positively to "The Possibilities", remarking that: "The third episode of Preacher gave us some answers on Fiore and DeBlanc, while also filling in more info on Jesse and Tulip’s past. Meanwhile, Odin remains a very odd, ominous periphery figure. It remains to be seen what his “deal” fully is, but seeing him sitting there listening to the sounds of cattle was suitably creepy." Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode a 'B+' grade, and described "The Possibilities" as, "[...] isn't a huge nose-dive in quality. The tone is more or less intact, the acting’s still good, and some individual scenes work quite nicely on their own. But what seemed novel and maybe even innovative in those first two episodes is starting to look more and more like a creative team that has no idea how to tell a story."
Reflecting on "The Possibilities", JoBlo'''s Paul Shirey wrote the episode, "[...] [introduces] us to some new conflicts to the story, as well as a well-known threat from the comics that will be pure gold to see play out, depending on how far we get in the series." Shirey too noted that, "Cooper's intensity builds with each new episode and Negga has captured a great version of Tulip. Cassidy is by far my favorite supporting character [...]." Eric Thurm of The Guardian spoke highly, to which he stated, "Finally, we get a glimpse of what Tulip and Jesse did in their past life - and it's not pretty." In a B- grade review, Indiewire writer Jeff Stone summarized, "After two weeks of insanity, Episode 3, "The Possibilities," offers a lot of teases and not much else."
James White of Empire spoke most highly of Gilgun's performance, with him writing: "Yet more chances for [Gilgun] to be funny, playing up Cassidy's laziness and light fingers. He can also effortlessly play the quieter moments, such as the chat with Jesse when he finds the Preacher prone after his discovery of his new power." White also praised Donnie Vs. Jesse as the episodic highlight.
Alan Sepinwall of HitFix praised the episode to which he remarked, "“The Possibilities” is the first episode with a different director Scott Winant and writer Chris Kelley. It's also by far the clearest and most straightforward installment so far, for good and for ill [...] but on the whole, it's a more measured, at times bordering on slow, hour, focusing on the central character at his most dour." Mark Rozeman, for Paste, wrote, "“The Possibilities” is a much quieter, more straightforward affair. And while that’s to be expected, the episode sometimes feels a bit more like a bit of connective tissue than a solid episode unto itself." Rozeman spoke highly of the climatic confrontation between Jesse and Donnie, and Ruth Negga's performance.
Jonathan Hatfull of SciFiNow wrote, "There's good stuff here and some necessary breath taking, but it does feel like there's just a little bit of wheel spinning alongside catching up." Hatfull note that both Tom Brooke and Anatol Yusef "steal the show this week". Kimber Myers of The Playlist praised "The Possibilities", commenting that it [Shades] in the outlines the first two hours have given us and [adds] more dimension." Ron Hogan of Den Of Geek scored the episode four out of five stars, writing, "Whether she's cleverly talking her way out of a speeding ticket or browbeating the driver of a beat-up hatchback, Ruth Negga absolutely shines in "The Possibilities."
Cory Barker of TV Guide suggested that: "The Possibilities did the work needed to move Preacher'' forward. Some of the early outstanding questions were addressed with varying levels of clarity." Barker also remarked highly of Gilgun's acting by stating, "[Gilgun] has been the show's standout performer through three episodes, but Cassidy's incredulous response to the deadpan, matter-of-fact ways of Fiore and DeBlanc may be my favorite moment of Preacher thus far."
References
External links
at AMC.com
2016 American television episodes
Preacher (TV series) episodes
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Presidential elections were held in Iran 17 June 2005, with a second round run-off on 24 June. Mohammad Khatami, the previous President of Iran, stepped down on 2 August 2005, after serving his maximum two consecutive four-year terms according to the Islamic Republic's constitution. The election led to the victory of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, the hardline mayor of Tehran, with 19.48% of the votes in the first round and 61.69% in the second. Factors thought to have contributed to Ahmadinejad's victory include mobilization of mosque networks and conservative/hardline voters, and a protest vote against corrupt elite insiders and for "new political blood". A loyal supporter of conservative Supreme Leader Khamenei, Ahmadinejad kissed the leader's hand during his authorization ceremony. Officials reported a turnout of about 59% of Iran's 47 million eligible voters, a decline from the 63% turnout reported in the first round of balloting a week before.
Schedule
Schedule of the election had been decided between the Ministry of Interior and the Guardian Council for 17 June 2005. The election will continue as a runoff race, which will take place a week later than the first round of elections, on 24 June 2005. The registration of candidates began on 10 May 2005 and continued for five days, until 14 May. If the Guardian Council had requested, it may have been extended for five more days, until 19 May. The candidates were not allowed to do advertisements, until the final list of approved candidates are known. The official period for advertisement was from 27 May to 15 June.
In the first round, Iranian nationals born on or before 17 June 1990, residing in or outside Iran, were able to vote. The election in Iran began on 09:00 local time (04:30 UTC) and while the original deadline was ten hours later on 19:00 (14:30 UTC), the deadline was extended three times by the Ministry of Interior, finally until 23:00 (18:30 UTC). Outside Iran, different times are used as the opening and closing hours for the polling offices. On the same date, mid-term Majlis elections for Gachsaran, Garmsar, Ghazvin, Ilam, Iranshahr, Jolfa, Marand, Sarbaz, and Shiraz took place together with the runoff elections of Tehran for the Iranian Majlis election of 2004.
The first three suggestions by the Ministry, for 13 May, 20 May and 10 June 2005, had been rejected by the council. The Ministry had mentioned that it is concerned that an election later than 20 May may collide with the final exams of the elementary schools and high schools.
The second round of the election occurred on 24 June and Iranian nationals born on or before 24 June 1990 were able to vote. The election in Iran began at 09:00 local time (04:30 UTC) and the closing time of the voting polls was at 19:00 (14:30 UTC), but was subject to extension by the Ministry of Interior.
Candidates
The registration of the candidates finished on 14 May 2005 and 1014 candidates had registered to run, including many people who did not have the qualifications required in the law. More than 90% of the candidates were men, and there were about ninety female candidates. The law about the election process does not include any requirements for people who want to register to run: it only provides qualifications that are to be checked by the Guardian Council.
The candidates must have first be approved by the Guardian Council before being put to public vote and it could be predicted that some of the candidates would not win the approval, especially Ebrahim Asgharzadeh and Ebrahim Yazdi, who were rejected by the Council in the parliamentary elections of 2004 and/or the presidential elections of 2001. There were also some people who expected Mostafa Moeen, the most controversial reformist candidate, to be disqualified as well. But the most unpredictable was the disqualification of conservative Reza Zavare'i, a former member of the Guardian Council and an approved presidential candidate for two previous elections.
Also, there was a high probability of rejection of women, because of an ambiguous term ("rejāl", رجال) in the Constitution of Iran, a requirement for presidential candidates, which may be interpreted as either "men" or "nobles". The Guardian Council, who is also the official interpreter of the constitution, has mentioned on previous elections that the restriction has not been considered in depth yet, since according to the council's opinion there were no women registered to run for presidency who fulfilled the other requirements of the constitution; but still, the Council believes that the requirement of rejal would not match women.
There had also been discussions for a new law proposed in the Majlis, restricting the maximum age of the candidates for the presidential elections. This was widely seen as an attempt to limit the participation of Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and Mehdi Karroubi. The attempt failed with no proposal appearing.
Approved candidates
The list of all the people who have officially registered to run for the post is not available to the public, but the Guardian Council published a final list of six approved candidates on 22 May rejecting all independent candidates and some candidates from the both wings, specially the reformist candidates Mostafa Moeen and Mohsen Mehralizadeh. This raised many objections among the general public and the political parties, including student protests in the Tehran University, among other universities. This, and the objections of some of the approved candidates, led to a letter from Ayatollah Khamenei, the Supreme Leader, to the Guardian Council asking for the approval of Moeen and Mehralizadeh (this had apparently been because of a request by Haddad-Adel, the conservative Speaker of the Parliament). It is unknown if that letter meant that the Guardian Council must have approved these two, or it should have only reconsidered their case. The next day, on 23 May, the Guardian Council announced the approval of Moeen and Mehralizadeh.
Mohsen Rezaee, one of the approved conservative candidates, who is the Secretary of Expediency Discernment Council and a previous commander of the Iran–Iraq War, withdrew in the evening of 15 June.
These were the candidates approved by the Council of Guardians:
Trans-party
Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, Chairman of the Expediency Discernment Council and a former President of Iran, who has won the support of several parties from both of the wings (and may still win more support), but is considered to lean towards the conservatives more than towards the reformists. Ironically, the reformist alliance considered him as a possible candidate of theirs more than the conservative alliance. He was invited to run for president by Executives of Construction Party (reformist), Combatant Clergy Association (conservative), Islamic Labour Party (conservative), and Workers' House (reformist), as well as several other parties across the whole spectrum of positions. Rafsanjani confirmed he is running for the election on 10 May after much speculation.
Reformists
Mehdi Karroubi, former Majlis Speaker, Secretary General of Association of Combatant Clerics (MCS), supported by MCS, Islamic Association of Engineers, Majma'-e Gorooh-haa-ye Khat-te Emam, and Democracy Party of Iran.
Mohsen Mehralizadeh, Vice-President and Head of National Sports Organization, member of IIPF. Mehralizadeh has first announced that he would be running for the post on behalf of the Iranian younger generation, but not if the reformist alliance reached consensus on another candidate, but during the registration mentioned that he would remain in the race until the end.
Mostafa Moeen, former Minister of Science, Research and Technology, supported by Islamic Iran Participation Front (IIPF) and Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution Organization (MIRO). Confirmed to run on 29 December 2004. IIPF, an influential reformist party in Iran, has mentioned that they won't support any presidential candidate outside the party, except Mousavi and Moeen. Since Mousavi has declined to run, they supported Moeen, whom they claimed to be the most probable candidate to win the approval of other parties in the reformist alliance. Some conservative Majlis representatives had asked for the Guardian Council's rejection of Moeen, which happened finally but was reversed after a letter by Ayatollah Khamenei. Moeen had announced that he would choose Mohammad Reza Khatami as his First Vice President if he was elected, and had already chosen Elaheh Koulaee, a female representative of the sixth Islamic Assembly, as his spokeswoman.
Conservatives
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, Mayor of Tehran, member of Islamic Society of Engineers (ISE), supported by some parts of Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran (ABII). Although Ahmadinejad said he would not seek nomination on 2 February 2005, he returned to the scene later.
Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf, former Commander of Police (niroo-ye entezaami), partially supported by the Alliance of Builders. Contrary to the public announcement of Ayatollah Khamenei, the Supreme Leader of Iran, that nobody knows who he will personally vote for, Ghalibaf had claimed privately that he is the person Khamenei will vote for.
Ali Larijani, Supreme Leader's representative in National Security Council and a former director of IRIB, who was supposed to be the major conservative candidate, as chosen by his party, the Islamic Society of Engineers, as well as the "Council for Coordinating the Revolution Forces" (showrā-ye hamāhangi-e nirūhā-ye enǧelāb), a council of some older and very influential leaders of the conservative alliance.
Rejected candidates
Reformists
Akbar A'lami, Majlis representative of Tabriz.
Ebrahim Asgharzadeh, former member of Tehran city council, Secretary General of Islamic Iran Solidarity Party (Hezb-e Hambastegi-e Irān-e Eslāmi), and one of the hostage-takers in Iran hostage crisis. Asgharzadeh was even not supported by his own party (Islamic Iran Solidarity Party). Asgharzadeh was rejected by the Guardian Council to run as a candidate in the 2001 presidential elections, which had made him unlikely to be approved this time.
Mostafa Kavakebian, secretary-general of Democracy Party (hezb-e mardomsālāri). Kavakebian supported Karroubi after he himself was rejected.
Conservatives
Zabihollah Bakhshi, commonly known as Haji Bakhshi, militia leader
Rafat Bayat, Majlis representative from Zanjan, a member of conservative caucus in parliament. On 30 March, she stated that she would run independently, not supported by any significant party in the conservative alliance. It was assumed by some people that she would probably get rejected by the Guardian Council, because of the rejāl requirement (see above).
Reza Zavare'i, former member of Guardian Council, invited to run by Chekaad-e Daaneshjooyaan-e Mosalmaan
Independents
Nasser Hejazi, former goalkeeper of the national football team and former coach of the Esteghlal football club. After his rejection, Hejazi supported Hashemi Rafsanjani as president.
Mohammad Hossein Pahlevan, known as Arshia, pop singer
Azam Taleghani, daughter of Ayatollah Mahmoud Taleghani.
Ebrahim Yazdi, former Minister of Foreign affairs in the Interim Government of 1979, secretary general of Freedom Movement Party. After being rejected by the Guardian Council, Yazdi is supporting Moeen for the presidency.
Unknown affiliation
Ayatollah Mohammad Sajjadi
Declinations and withdrawals
The most important withdrawal was that of Mohsen Rezaee, one of the candidates who was approved by the Guardian Council and participated in the race until the evening of 15 June 2005, two days before the election and only a few hours before the final deadline allowed for advertisements. Rezaee mentioned he was withdrawing from the race for "the integration of the votes of the nation" and "their effectiveness". He did not endorse any candidate.
Also, several people were considered possible candidates for the post, who later declined to run early in the race or at the final moments before registration. A list of the ones considered seriously in the media includes:
Reformists
Safdar Hosseini, Minister of Economy and Finance Affair, member of IIPF
Hadi Khamenei, member of Society of Forces Following the Line of the Imam, declined on 6 December 2004
Mohammad Reza Khatami, former Majlis Vice Speaker, Secretary General of IIPF
Hassan Khomeini, grandson of Ruhollah Khomeini
Mir-Hossein Mousavi, former Prime Minister, declined on 12 October 2004
Mohammad Mousavi-Khoiniha, member of MCS, declined on 21 November 2004
Behzad Nabavi, former Majlis Vice Speaker, member of MIRO
Mohammad Ali Najafi, former Minister of Education
Abdollah Ramezanzadeh, Spokesman of Government, member of IIPF
Conservatives
Gholam Ali Haddad-Adel, Speaker of Majlis, he declined his activities for election and said that he will try to re-ally conservatives for election.
Abdollah Jasbi, President of Islamic Azad University. Jasbi withdrew in favor of Hashemi Rafsanjani.
Mohammad Javad Larijani, Director of IPM. He strongly endorses his brother Ali Larijani for presidency.
Hossein Mirmohammad-Sadeghi, former speaker of Judiciary Branch
Ahmad Tavakkoli, Majlis representative and Director of Majlis Research Center and former presidential candidate. Tavakkoli resigned from the race on 1 May 2005, telling that he is doing this to help minimize the diversity in the conservative camp. He is supporting Ghalibaf in the elections.
Ali Akbar Velayati, an Adviser to the Supreme Leader for foreign affairs, and a former Minister of Foreign Affairs. Velayati was supported inside the conservative alliance by Islamic Coalition Party (ICP). Valayati had confirmed that he does not accept the support of the Council for Coordination and will run independently, unless Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, who was the President of Iran during Velayati's ministership, runs. On 14 May, Velayati did not register to run until the official deadline, and then announced that he is supporting Rafsanjani in the elections.
Independents
Shirin Ebadi, winner of Nobel Peace Prize in 2003, declined on 2 January 2005, despite support among some independent groups and parties, which are usually called pro-Human rights
General election
Campaign
The best financed candidate, Rafsanjani, campaigned with an entourage of bullet-proof Mercedes limousines. While he usually did not emphasize issues in his campaign Rafsanjani did tell voters that "there is no use imposing tastes, being strict, and going backward. ... Whoever becomes president cannot work without considering the demands and conditions of society." He also indicated a liberalizing in his views on proper Islamic dress. Where in 2002 he had said that exposing a single strand of a woman's hair from behind hejab was "a dagger drawn toward the heart of Islam," in 2005 he described his red line as "no nudity," in a campaign meeting with Iranian youth.
Ahmadinejad used mosque networks and his personal ties to the Revolutionary Guards and Basij for his campaign. In TV advertisements he was shown praying and praising veterans of the Iran–Iraq War for their sacrifices. He campaigned in an old 1977 Peugeot 504 car.
Endorsements
First round
Polling
Results
The first round of the election was a very close race with minor differences in the number of votes won by each candidate which led to a run-off a week later with Ahmadinejad and ex-president Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani participating. There were seven people running for the post out of more than a thousand initial candidates, most of whom were disqualified by the Guardian Council, which is responsible for vetting by constitution for election. Rafsanjani, who had been regarded as the front-runner and had positioned himself as a centrist, was defeated by Ahmadinejad in the run-off, while reformist candidate Mostafa Moeen fared poorly and finished only fifth in the first round.
This was the first presidential runoff in the history of Iran. Before the run-off took place, it was compared to the 2002 French presidential election, where the splintering of the left-wing vote similarly led to a run-off between the moderate Jacques Chirac and the far-right Jean-Marie Le Pen. The comparison was made because of the unexpected votes in favor of Ahmadinejad, the very close race, and the comparability of the political standings of Rafsanjani and Ahmadinejad to those of Chirac and Le Pen. But after the results for the run-off were made public, the comparison was considered void due to the loss of the moderate candidate Rafsanjani, although Ahmadinejad's opponents formed an alliance against him.
There was a total of 27,959,253 votes in the second round, slightly lower than the first round. Considering that the number of eligible votes was raised by about 150,000 people, the turnout was about 59.6%.
The tabulated results follow:
|-
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;" rowspan=2|Candidate
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;" colspan=2|1st round
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;" colspan=2|2nd round
|-
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Votes
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |%
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Votes
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |%
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
| style="text-align:right;" | 5,711,696
| style="text-align:right;" | 19.43
| style="text-align:right;" | 17,284,782
| style="text-align:right;" | 61.69
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani
| style="text-align:right;" | 6,211,937
| style="text-align:right;" | 21.13
| style="text-align:right;" | 10,046,701
| style="text-align:right;" | 35.93
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Mehdi Karroubi
| style="text-align:right;" | 5,070,114
| style="text-align:right;" | 17.24
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#F4F4F4" colspan=2 rowspan=5|
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf
| style="text-align:right;" | 4,095,827
| style="text-align:right;" | 13.93
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Mostafa Moeen
| style="text-align:right;" | 4,083,951
| style="text-align:right;" | 13.89
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Ali Larijani
| style="text-align:right;" | 1,713,810
| style="text-align:right;" | 5.83
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |Mohsen Mehralizadeh
| style="text-align:right;" | 1,288,640
| style="text-align:right;" | 4.38
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | Blank or invalid votes
| style="text-align:right;" | 1,224,882
| style="text-align:right;" | 4.17
| style="text-align:right;" | 663,770
| style="text-align:right;" | 2.37
|-
|style="text-align:left;background-color:#E9E9E9"|Total (turnout 62.66% and 59.6%)
|width="75" style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"| 29,400,857
|width="30" style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"|100
|width="75" style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"| 27,959,253
|width="30" style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"|100
|}
Results Per Province
First round
The results of the first round, per Province:
Second round
Turnout
The Islamic Republic government of Iran, especially the Supreme Leader and the higher offices, publicly considers the turnout of the voters, which was about 64% in the first round, to resemble the support of the population for the regime, while some voters consider voting for the candidates less aligned with the supreme leader as a vote against the current practices of the regime.
Also, some voters, including exiled citizens belonging to opposition political groups or monarchists (both living outside Iran), some parts of the intellectual community living in Iran, and even a few reformists, had boycotted the election as a symbol of not supporting the current regime and its practices. The boycotters' reasons included the massive rejection of registered candidates, that they believed that the role of the Iranian president is insignificant in the power structure and overshadowed by those of the supreme leader who is practically elected for life, and that they believed that all the candidates had already helped the regime in the oppression of its political opposition or would do so if elected. The most famous boycott leader was Akbar Ganji, imprisoned in Evin prison for his journalism and in a hunger strike.
While some members of the intellectual community in Iran supported the boycott, some key figures, residing inside Iran or exiled to Europe or North America, had asked their readers and the general population to vote in the election, reasoning that not voting in the election would result in the election of one of the three conservative candidates, who were all military people with a background in Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps. The most famous supporters of voting in the intellectual community included Ebrahim Nabavi, Masoud Behnoud, and Khashayar Deyhimi. These people were mostly supporting Moeen as their preferred candidate who is considered to be the least aligned with Ayatollah Khamenei, but a few have also talked or written in support of Rafsanjani or Karroubi.
After the results of the first round, many of the supporters of the boycott are now supporting Hashemi Rafsanjani, and many of the supporters of the reformist candidates, including many supporters of Moeen, are doing the same. Islamic Iran Participation Front (IIPF) and Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution Organization (MIRO), as the two main parties who supported Moeen, are included, with IIPF asking for "uniting against the rise of religious fascism" and MIRO telling about the rival "Führer-istic mindset". Moeen himself has mentioned that he will not personally vote in the second round, but that his supporters "should take the danger of fascism seriously" and should not think about a boycott in the second round.
Also, Emadeddin Baghi, the President of the Iranian Association for Supporting Prisoners' Rights and one of the boycotters, has also spoken in support of Rafsanjani and mentioned that while he still considers Rafsanjani a conservative, he prefers his traditional conservatism to Ahmadinejad's fundamentalism.
Comparative to other elections, there does not seem to be any major drop in number of votes caused by boycott. The turnout in the previous election, i.e. Khatami's second term, was at 67%.
Election controversies
After the first round of the election, some people, including Mehdi Karroubi, the pragmatic reformist candidate who ranked third in the first round but was the first when partial results were first published, have alleged that a network of mosques, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps military forces, and Basij militia forces have been illegally used to generate and mobilize support for Ahmadinejad. Karroubi has explicitly alleged that Mojtaba Khamenei, a son of the Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamenei, was involved. Ayatollah Khamenei then wrote to Karroubi and mentioned that these allegations are below his dignity and will result in a crisis in Iran, which he will not allow. As a reply, Karroubi resigned from all his political posts, including an Advisor to the Supreme Leader and a member of Expediency Discernment Council, on both of which he had been installed by Khamenei. The day after, on 20 June, a few reformist morning newspapers, Eghbal, Hayat-e No, Aftab-e Yazd, and Etemaad were stopped from distribution by the general prosecutor of Tehran, Saeed Mortazavi, for publishing Karroubi's letter.
Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, the leading candidate, has also pointed to organized and unjust interventions by "guiding" the votes, and has supported Karroubi's complaint.
A suspicious election result pointed out by Western journalist Christopher de Bellaigue was a 95% voter turnout and first-place result for Ahmadinejad in the province of South Khorasan. This despite that region's large numbers of disgruntled Sunni Muslims, and Ahmadinejad's association with "intrusive Shia Islamism."
Also, some political groups, including the reformist party Islamic Iran Participation Front, have alleged that Ahmadinejad had only ranked second because of the illegal support and advertising activities for him during the voting by the supervisors selected by the Guardian Council, while the supervisors should have remained impartisan according to the election law. Also, the reformist newspaper Shargh has pointed to an announcement by Movahhedi Kermani, the official representative of the supreme leader in Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps, mentioning "vote for a person who keeps to the minimum in his advertisements and doesn't lavish", which uniquely pointed to Ahmadinejad.
Some of the controversies involve activities of the Guardian Council such as the publishing an opinion poll before the election giving Ahmadinejad front-runner status. It also announced the partial results of the election on the day after the election, putting Ahmadinejad on the second rank while he was still in the third rank in the partial statistics published by the Ministry of Interior, which led to President Khatami going to the Ministry several times and explicitly asking the council to not announce any more partial results.
References
External links
Guide to Iran's presidential polls, from BBC News
Angus Reid Consultants - Election Tracker
The text of the Iranian law for presidential elections (in Persian)
ISNA report on Mousavi's declination, reported by Karroubi (in Persian)
Situation on 6 December (in Persian)
Run off results from the BBC
Electoral Geography of Iranian presidential election, 2005
Iran newspaper on the elections atmosphere after Mousavi'e declination (in Persian)
2005
2005 elections in Iran
June 2005 events in Asia
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This is a list of multiple births, consisting of notable higher order (4+) multiple births and pregnancies. Twins and triplets are sufficiently common to have their own separate articles. With the use of reproductive technology such as fertility drugs and in vitro fertilization (IVF) such births have become increasingly common. This list contains only multiple births which have some claim to notability, such as being the first recorded in a country, the first to survive to adulthood in a country, the heaviest, lightest or longest lived (globally), or having had substantial media coverage.
Cases by number
Twins (2)
Triplets (3)
Quadruplets (4)
The Smith quadruplets, born 1750 in Kinsale, to a fisherman's wife.
The Fisk quadruplets (born 26 August 1783), in Killingly, Connecticut, United States. Two boys (Ephraim and Joseph) and two girls (Keziah and Mary) all survived to adulthood.
Dominica, 1790: According to The Times, a Dr. Giuseppe of Dominica reported that an unnamed Afro-Dominican woman (enslaved servant) living on the estate of Thomas Jemmitt gave birth to four girls, three of them almost eighteen hours after the first was born. All survived birth.
The Rigby quadruplets (born 15 August 1817 in Norwich, Norfolk). The babies were named Primus John, Secundus Charles Henry, Tertius Robert Palgrave and Quarta Caroline Susan. All died young, Secundus on 2 September 1817, Tertius on 11 September 1817, Primus on 3 November 1817, and Quarta on 5 November 1817. On 24 December 1817, the Court of Aldermen presented their parents, Dr Edward Rigby and Mrs Anne Rigby (nee Palgrave), with a silver bread basket with the children's names engraved on it.
The Gehri quadruplets (born 26 September 1880, in Switzerland) were the first recorded to have survived to adulthood. There were two boys (Oskar and Arthur) and two girls (Bertha and Rosa).
The Page quadruplets (born 8 January 1890, in Redwater, Texas) were the first recorded quadruplets born in the United States.
The Keys quadruplets (born 4 June 1915, in Hollis, Oklahoma) were the first same-sex quadruplets known to survive to adulthood. They attended Baylor University on scholarships and graduated in 1937. Roberta Keys Torn, the last surviving sister, died at 96 years in August 2011.
The Mahaney quadruplets (born 25 December 1923, in Saint John, New Brunswick) were the first quadruplets born in Canada known to survive to adulthood.
The Johnson quadruplets (born in 1935 in Dunedin, New Zealand) were the first surviving set of quadruplets in Australasia.
The Miles quadruplets (born on 28 November 1935 in St Neots, United Kingdom) are the oldest living quadruplets in the world; they became known as the St Neots Quads. All were still alive past their 85th birthday.
The Badgett quadruplets (born 1 February 1939, in Galveston, Texas) were the second surviving set of quadruplets in the United States. The four girls, Geraldine, Joan, Jeanette, and Joyce, were minor celebrities in the 1940s and 1950s.
The Fultz quadruplets (born 23 May 1946, in Rockingham County, North Carolina) were the first identical African-American quadruplets on record.
The Sara quadruplets (born 17 August 1950, in Bellingen, New South Wales) were the first surviving quadruplets in Australia. There were two boys, Mark and Philip, and two girls, Alison and Judith.
The Alexander quadruplets (born 2 September 1967, in Auckland, New Zealand) were the first set of identical quadruplets born in New Zealand.
The Steeves quadruplets (Carrie Dawn, Jennie Lee, Mary Beth, and Patty Ann, born 17 December 1982, in Calgary, Alberta) were the first identical set of quadruplets to be born in Canada.
The Durst quadruplets (Calli, Kendra, Megan, and Sarah) are identical quadruplets born 10 February 1993, in Robbinsdale, Minnesota. They appeared on the reality television series Four of a Kind.
The Brino quadruplets (born 21 September 1998, in Woodland Hills, California) played the twins Sam and David Camden on the television series 7th Heaven. When they all started to look different, the only girl, Myrinda, stopped appearing on the show. Only Nikolas and Lorenzo starred on the show until the series ended in 2007.
The Mathias quadruplets (born 16 February 2000, in Lexington, South Carolina) are Grace, Emily, Mary Claire, and Anna. A home-movie of the girls laughing in unison was featured on America's Funniest Home Videos and won them over $250,000 as a result. The girls were featured in three 1-hour episodes of a documentary called "Super Quads" in the Discovery Health Channel.
The Aberdeen / Edwards quadruplets (born 7 November 2006, in San Juan, Trinidad and Tobago) are four girls, born to Lystra Aberdeen (aged 27 and mother to a 10-year-old girl, an 8-year-old boy, and a 4-year-old boy) and her common-law husband Anderson Edwards (aged 33). This was the first confirmed case in Trinidad.
The Yarns quadruplets were featured on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, featuring John Travolta (Season 11, Episode 97) on their birthday, 20 February 2003. They are Rhys, Trey, Chase, and Tiana.
Adhiti, Aakrithi, Akshathy and Aapthi are quadruplets born in Chennai, Tamil Nadu. They appeared in the Tamil film Enna Satham Indha Neram (2014).
Quintuplets (5)
The Lyon quintuplets (born 29 April 1896) were the first American quintuplets who were all born alive. The last survivor died on 14 May 1896.
The Dionne quintuplets (born 28 May 1934, near Corbeil, Ontario, Canada) were the first quintuplets known to survive infancy. The five girls (Yvonne, Annette, Cecile, Emilie and Marie) were also the only set of identical quintuplets known to live into adulthood.
The Diligenti quintuplets were born to Franco (or Jaime) and Ana Diligenti on 15 July 1943, in Argentina and were the second quintuplets to survive infancy and the first ever in South America. They included three girls, Maria Esther, Maria Fernanda, and Maria Christina, and two boys, Carlos and Franco.
The Prieto quintuplets, all boys, were born 7 September 1963, in Maracaibo, Venezuela, to Ines and Efren Prieto.
The Fischer quintuplets (born 14 September 1963, in Aberdeen, South Dakota) were the first known surviving set of American quintuplets. They consisted of one boy and four girls. 3 of the 4 girls are identical: Magdalene, Margaret, and Catherine.
The Lawson quintuplets (born 27 July 1965, in Auckland, New Zealand) were the first set of surviving quintuplets conceived through the use of fertility medication and are the only known New Zealand quintuplets: They were one boy (Samuel) and four girls (Deborah, Lisa, Shirlene and Selina). Shirlene (later Colcord), was the first of the quintuplets to marry. She was also the first to die, on 18 June 2019, aged 53.
The Braham quintuplets (born 31 December 1967) were the first quintuplets to be born in Australia. They were conceived naturally and born to Pat and Roger Braham of Tenterfield, New South Wales. In birth order they were Annabel Dorothy, Richard Gibson, Faith Elizabeth, Caroline, and Geoffrey Raymond. Geoffrey died at 4 days old; the others are still living.
The Hanson quintuplets (born 13 November 1969, in London) were the first set to survive in the United Kingdom, as well as the second surviving set of all-girl quintuplets after the Dionne quintuplets.
The Kienast quintuplets (born 24 February 1970, in Liberty Corners, New Jersey) were the first surviving set of American quintuplets conceived through fertility medication.
The Rychert quintuplets (born 15 May 1971, in Gdańsk) were the first surviving set born in Poland.
The Brunner quintuplets (born 9 June 1978, in Nancy) were the first surviving set born in France. Marc, Luc, Gilles, Maud, and Anne were nicknamed "Paris Match quintuplets," and clothed by designer Pierre Cardin, in 17 articles written from 1978 to 1984. For each article, they were clothed by the couturier Pierre Cardin.
The Granata quintuplets (born 1 June 1981, in Toledo, Ohio) were three boys and two girls conceived through the use of fertility medication and born at 28 weeks to Janice and George Granata. They were named (in birth order) Britton, Nathan, Amanda, Heather, and Eric. Britton died of lung failure on June 3, 1981. In 1983, the surviving four appeared with Oprah Winfrey on her show, People are Talking, along with their mother and their older sister Jenny. At age 15, the four appeared on The Jenny Jones Show.
The Gaither quintuplets (born 3 August 1983, in Indianapolis, Indiana) were the first surviving African-American quintuplets and were one of only three naturally-conceived American sets in 1983.
The Al-Ghamdi quintuplets (born 2 February 1988, in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia) were the first set to be born in Saudi Arabia. The 5 boys were born to Salha and Saeed Al-Ghamdi.
The Chapman-Burgess quintuplets (born 13 May 1992 in Brisbane, Australia) are the only known set of Indigenous Australian quintuplets. Born to Adele and Ian Chapman-Burgess, they grew up in the regional town of Glen Innes, New South Wales. They consist of 2 boys and 3 girls (Jack, Louis, Erika, India and Georgia).
The Nur Adlan quintuplets were born in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia on 20 May 1996. The three girls and two boys were the first set of Malaysian quintuplets to survive infancy.
The Chin quintuplets were born in Singapore on 1 April 1997. The two boys and three girls (Adriel, Alicia, Amanda, Annabelle and Andre) were the first quintuplets to be born in Singapore.
The Cassidy quintuplets were born in Dublin, Ireland on 16 August 2001, to Veronica and Kevin Cassidy of Wexford. The three boys (Conor James, Cian Richard, and Rory Kevin) and two girls (Amy Dorothy and Dearbhail Mary) were the first quintuplets to be born in Ireland.
The Gonzalez-Moreno quintuplets were born in Phoenix, Arizona on 26 April 2005, to Luisa Gonzalez and Enrique Moreno via surrogate mother, Teresa Anderson. The five boys are the first set of quintuplets born via surrogate. The boys, in order of birth, are; Enrique, Jorge, Gabriel, Javier, Victor and weighed between 3 lb 7oz and 3 lb 15oz.
The Artamkin quintuplets were born in Oxford, England on 10 November 2007, to Dimitri and Varvara Artamkin via Cesarean section. They were the first set of quintuplets born to Russian parents.
The Jones quintuplets were born in Austin, Texas on 16 January 2009 to Casey and Ethan Jones. They are four girls and one boy (Brooklyn, Britton, Jack, Lila and Ryan) and known for their reality show Quints by Surprise on TLC.
The Kroščen quintuplets were born in Prague, Czech Republic on 2 June 2013, to Alexandra Kiňová and Antonín Kroščen of Milovice. The four boys (Michael, Deniel, Martin, and Alex) and one girl (Tereza) were the first recorded quintuplets to be born in the Czech Republic. They have one older brother, Antonio.
The Busby quintuplets were born on 8 April 2015, in Houston, Texas, to Adam and Danielle Busby. The five girls (Ava Lane, Olivia Marie, Hazel Grace, Riley Paige, and Parker Kate) are the first set of all female quintuplets born in the United States. Ava and Olivia are identical twins. They have an older sister, Blayke. The Busby quintuplets and their family are featured on the TLC reality series OutDaughtered, which premiered on 10 May 2016.
Sextuplets (6)
The Bushnell sextuplets (born 8 September 1866 in Chicago, Illinois) were born to Winnie and James Bushnell. They are the first documented sextuplets born in the USA. Two died within a year, but the other four survived into adulthood.
The Thorns sextuplets (born 2 October 1968, in Birmingham, England) were born to Sheila and Barry Thorns. They were the first sextuplets known to have been born alive in the United Kingdom, but one baby died shortly after birth, and another two died within the next two weeks.
The Letts sextuplets (born 15 December 1969, in London, England) were born to Rosemary and John Letts two months prematurely at University College Hospital. One boy and four girls survived, (Cara Dawn, Sharon Marie, Joanne Nadine, Gary John, and Tanya Odile) one female was stillborn. This was the second case of surviving quintuplets in the United Kingdom. The family immigrated to Canada in 1974.
The Rosenkowitz sextuplets (born 11 January 1974, in Cape Town, South Africa) were the first sextuplets known to survive their infancy. They were conceived using fertility drugs.
The Nijssen sextuplets (born 21 September 1977, in the Netherlands) were born to Corry and Sien Nijssen two months prematurely. There were four girls (Patricia, Priscilla, Mirella, and Ramona) and two boys (Ivo and Dennis). Dennis died on 9 November 1977. They are the only set in the Netherlands.
The Giannini sextuplets (born on 11 January 1980, in Italy) were the second sextuplets known to survive their infancy. They were born on the same date as the Rosenkowitz sextuplets, six years later.
The Vanhove Gadeyne sextuplets (born on 17 August 1983, in Blankenberge, Belgium) were the first set of sextuplets to have been born in Belgium. The five boys (Bruno, Jelle, Tom, Lode, Arne) and one girl (Veerle) weighed between 2 lbs 9oz and 3 lbs 3oz at birth.
The Walton sextuplets (born on 18 November 1983, in Liverpool) were the first sextuplets born in the United Kingdom known to survive their infancy, and the world's first all-female sextuplets. They were delivered by Caesarean section at 31 and a half weeks.
The Dilley sextuplets (born on 25 May 1993, in Indianapolis) were the first surviving set of sextuplets in the United States. They are two girls (Brenna Rose and Claire Diane) and four boys (Julian Emerson, Quinn Everett, Ian Michael, and Adrian Reed).
The Boniello sextuplets (born 24 March 1997, in Stony Brook, New York) set a record for the longest gestation of a sextuplet pregnancy in the United States at 29 weeks and one day. They have a younger sister Nadia. This record was broken almost two months later by the Thompson sextuplets.
The Thompson sextuplets (born 8 May 1997, in Washington, D.C.) were born to Jacqueline and Linden Thompson. Mrs. Thompson set a record for the longest sextuplet pregnancy in the United States at 29 weeks and six days. One girl was stillborn; the five survivors are four girls (Octavia Daniela, Stella Kimberly, Ann Marie Amanda, and Emily Elizabeth) and one boy (Richard Linden). They are the first African-American sextuplets. They each weighed between 2 lbs 2oz and 2 lbs 6oz.
The Harris sextuplets (born 7 July 2002, in Alabama) are two girls (Kiera Christine and Kalynne Antoinett) and four boys (Kaleb Reddrick, Kobe Byshari, Kieran Anthony, and Kyle Jacob). They are Alabama's first set of sextuplets and were the first recorded set of surviving African-American sextuplets. Kaleb has nerve damage; while Kiera and Kyle have autism. The Harris family received a new home in a 2005 episode of Extreme Makeover: Home Edition. The Harris' original three-bedroom, three-bath house was razed and a two-story, home was built.
The Gosselin sextuplets (born 10 May 2004, in Hershey, Pennsylvania) were born just shy of 30 weeks gestation to parents Jon and Kate Gosselin. The set has three girls (Alexis Faith, Hannah Joy, and Leah Hope) and three boys (Aaden Jonathan, Collin Thomas, Joel Kevin). The parents also have twin girls, Madelyn Kate and Cara Nicole, who were three years old at the time of the sextuplets' birth. The family was the subject of a reality television show, originally titled Jon & Kate Plus 8, that aired on TLC in the United States and Canada. The show was initially canceled after Jon and Kate's divorce, but was revived as Kate Plus 8 after viewer complaints. The series ended in 2011, with the last episode airing on 12 September of that year, then resumed with a new season in January 2015.
The Hayes sextuplets (born 14 September 2004, in Long Branch, New Jersey) are the first surviving sextuplets to be born in New Jersey. The six children, three girls (Tara Rose, Rachel Ann, Rebecca Mary) and three boys (Ryan Peter, Connor James, Eric John Jr.), weighed a total of 24 lbs. and 14 oz., setting a world record for the heaviest set of sextuplets. The Hayes also have two sets of twins, Kevin and Kyle (eight years old at the time of the sextuplets' birth) and Kieran and Meghan (five years old). They are the only family in the United States to have two sets of twins and a set of sextuplets. The family were the subject of a reality television show, Table for 12, on TLC in the U.S.
Canada's first sextuplets (born 6–7 January 2007 in Vancouver) were born at 25 weeks gestation. Two of them died shortly after birth.
The Carpio sextuplets (born 6 October 2008, in the New York City borough of Queens) are the first Hispanic sextuplets to be born in America. It is not known if their parents, Victor and Digna Carpio, conceived using fertility treatments. The babies (Justin, Jadon, Jezreel, Danelia, Genesis, and Joel) were delivered by Caesarean section at 25 weeks. They were the subject of a reality television show, Sextuplets Take New York.
The Conway sextuplets (born on 22 May 2009) in Dunmore in County Tyrone, Northern Ireland were the first recorded sextuplets in Ireland. The four girls and two boys weighed between 1 lb., 7 oz. and 2 lb., 2 oz. were fourteen weeks premature and were named Ursula, Shannon, Karla, Kerrie (died 20 July 2009), Austin and Eoghan.
On 4 March 2013, the first sextuplets in Trinidad and Tobago and the Caribbean were born at the Maternity Hospital of the Eric Williams Medical Sciences Complex at Mount Hope, Trinidad and Tobago to an anonymous Trinidadian couple. Two of them died a few weeks later.
On 21 October 2021 the first ever sextuplet birth was reported in Sri Lanka. A 31 year old mother from the Angoda area gave birth to 3 boys and 3 girls at Ninewells hospital in Colombo.
Septuplets (7)
The Frustaci septuplets (born 21 May 1985, in Orange, California) are the first septuplets to be born in the United States. Born at 28 weeks, only two boys and one girl survived; one daughter was stillborn and three died within 19 days of birth.
The McCaughey septuplets (born 19 November 1997, in Des Moines, Iowa) are the world's first surviving set of septuplets. The four boys (Kenneth Jr., Brandon, Nathan, and Joel) and three girls (Alexis, Natalie, and Kelsey) were born at 31 weeks, weighing between 2 lbs. 5 oz. and 3 lbs 4 oz. In 2015, they became the first set of septuplets to reach the age of majority.
The Humair septuplets (born 14 January 1998, in Abha, Saudi Arabia) were the world's second surviving set of septuplets. They were born at 32 weeks to 40-year-old Hasna Mohammed Humair and her husband, Abdullah Mohammed Ali. They had been told to expect four babies.
The Qahtani septuplets (born 12 July 2001, in Washington, D.C.) are the third set of septuplets to live past the day of their birth. In December 2001, it was reported that one of the septuplets had died of liver failure and three were still hospitalized.
A set of septuplets were born on 18 April 2007, in a suburb of Algiers, Algeria to Farhat and Souhila Touile. One of the babies, a boy, was stillborn; the remaining six are girls.
The Khamis septuplets (born 16 August 2008, in Alexandria, Egypt) were born to 27-year-old Ghazala Khamis. They were the fifth set of septuplets to all survive. The newborns, four boys and three girls, had been placed in incubators in four different hospitals since they were premature. The babies' weights ranged from . The mother took fertility drugs in order to produce a son, since she already had three daughters.
The McGhee septuplets (born 9 June 2010, in Columbus, Ohio) were born to Mia and Rozonno McGhee at 27 weeks. One girl was stillborn. The other two girls (Olivia and Madison) and the four boys (Rozonno Jr., Elijah, Isaac, and Josiah) had birthweights ranging from 1.5 lb. to a fraction over 2 lbs.
Octuplets (8)
The first confirmed birth of octuplets occurred on 10 March 1967, in Mexico City, Mexico to Maria Teresa López de Sepúlveda. All four boys and four girls died within 13 hours.
A set of octuplets were born on 16 August 1979, to Pasqualina and Stefano Chianese in Naples, Italy. Six of the babies died and two survived. The couple had previously lost a set of sextuplets in 1976.
A set of octuplets were born on 20 December 1985, to Sevil Capan of İzmir, Turkey. Born prematurely at 28 weeks, six of the octuplets died within 12 hours of birth, and the remaining two died within three days.
A set of octuplets were born between 30 September – 2 October 1996, in a hospital in South London, United Kingdom to Mandy Allwood of Solihull. Allwood was only 19 weeks pregnant when she went into pre-term labor with her six boys (Adam, Cassius, Donald, Kypros, Martyn, and Nelson) and two girls (Layne and Kitali). All babies died after a few days. She had refused selective reduction and her case provoked a media storm in the UK. Allwood died of cancer in February 2022, aged 56.
A set of octuplets were born on 5 December 1996, in Huelva, Spain to Rosario Clavijo. Two of them were stillborn and six survived.
The Chukwu octuplets were born in December 1998 in Houston, Texas, United States. The smallest of the octuplets, Odera, died a week after birth.
A set of octuplets were born between 13 September – 16 September 2000, in Milan, Italy to Mariella Mazzara and Giovanni Pierrera of Trapani. One died immediately after birth, two within a few days of birth, and the oldest, Margherita, died a month later on 10 October.
The Suleman octuplets (born 26 January 2009, in Bellflower, California, United States) were the world's first set of octuplets to survive infancy. One week after birth, the Suleman octuplets became the longest-living octuplets in known history. They were conceived through IVF. The children, named Noah, Maliyah, Isaiah, Nariyah, Makai, Josiah, Jeremiah and Jonah, have six older siblings, including a set of fraternal twins.
Nonuplets (9)
A set of nonuplets were born on 13 June 1971, in Sydney, Australia to Geraldine Brodrick and her husband Leonard. They were five boys and four girls; two of the boys were stillborn and the last surviving of the babies, named Richard, died six days after birth. Mrs Brodrick had two older daughters, Belinda and Jacqueline, both single births.
A set of nonuplets were born on 26 March 1999, in Malaysia to Zurina Mat Saad. She had five boys and four girls (Adam, Nuh, Idris, Soleh, Hud, Aishah, Khadijah, Fatimah, and Umi Kalsom), but none of them survived more than 6 hours.
A set of nonuplets were born on 4 May 2021, in Morocco to Malian woman Halima Cisse. She had five girls and four boys, all of whom initially appeared to be healthy.
See also
List of people with the most children
References
Multiple births
Family-related lists
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Michael Moon is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders, played by Steve John Shepherd. The character is a second cousin once removed of Alfie Moon (Shane Richie), and first appears on 1 October 2010 after Alfie's return. He is also the father to Tommy Moon, whose mother is Alfie's wife Kat Moon (Jessie Wallace). Michael is later joined by his father Eddie Moon (David Essex) and half brothers Tyler Moon (Tony Discipline) and Anthony Moon (Matt Lapinskas).
A psychopath, Michael is described as a competitive and manipulative risk-taker who lives dangerously. He is a charmer with an eye for the ladies, but is willing to stab anyone in the back. He has a relationship with Roxy Mitchell (Rita Simons), which is disliked by Roxy's sister Ronnie (Samantha Womack), and marries Janine Butcher (Charlie Brooks). In March 2013, it was announced that Shepherd decided to leave the role. Michael's last episode is on 1 November 2013, when Michael is murdered by Janine. Shepherd quit to explore new roles.
Storylines
Michael arrives in Albert Square to lend money to his cousin Alfie Moon (Shane Richie) for the lease of The Queen Victoria public house. Alfie's wife, Kat (Jessie Wallace), is not pleased to see him as she is carrying his baby. Kat agrees to go to Spain with him, but then decides to stay with Alfie so Michael leaves for Spain alone. He returns a few months later, wanting to see his son, Tommy, but Alfie has to break the news that Tommy died from cot death. Michael leaves and is reunited with Max Branning (Jake Wood) and Jack Branning (Scott Maslen), with whom he went to school. He stays with Jack and meets his wife, Ronnie Branning (Samantha Womack) and her sister, Roxy Mitchell (Rita Simons), who shows an interest in Michael. Kat, who is still grieving for baby Tommy, tries to get Michael to show his feelings and desperately kisses him, but he rejects her and leaves. Jack and Michael set up a boxing club. Ronnie is paranoid that because Michael is Tommy's biological father, as the baby grows up there will be similarities in their appearances, so she attempts to get rid of Michael by falsely claiming that he kissed her. Her plan fails, however, and Michael and Jack open the boxing club. Ronnie tries again to get rid of Michael by asking Phil Mitchell (Steve McFadden) for help but is unsuccessful. Michael starts dating Roxy and helps Kat and Alfie reunite when their relationship breaks down. After Ronnie reveals that she swapped her and Kat's babies and Tommy is alive, Michael shows little interest. His relationship with Roxy suffers but they soon reconcile. Michael's father, Eddie Moon (David Essex), visits Alfie, much to Michael's disgust. Michael repeatedly tells his father to leave Walford and to stay away from him. Michael calls Eddie a murderer; Eddie allegedly killed Michael's mother, and Michael rejects his half-brother Tyler Moon (Tony Discipline) when he arrives.
Michael sees Jay Mitchell (Jamie Borthwick) and Abi Branning (Lorna Fitzgerald) leaving The Queen Vic after breaking into it, but tells Kat, Alfie and Eddie that he saw Ronnie running from the scene. Everyone believes Michael and he sets Ronnie up repeatedly. Roxy refuses to believe Ronnie until she sees a text message on Ronnie's phone sent by Michael and Roxy ends the relationship. Eddie and Michael seem to make amends, but Eddie is unaware that it is part of a scheme, which includes paying a boxer to allow Tyler to believe he is a talented boxer and paying Vanessa Gold (Zöe Lucker) to break Eddie's heart. Michael also sets up an unlicensed boxing match between an ambitious Tyler and a superior boxer, Artie Stiller (Maurice Lee). Tyler wins but suffers a seizure afterwards. At the hospital, Eddie reveals Michael has a brother, Craig Moon (Elliott Rosen), who has Down's syndrome. He takes Michael to meet Craig and Eddie reveals that Craig is his full brother, who he placed in a care home. After talking with Craig, Michael accuses Eddie of rejecting him, but Eddie reveals that his mother committed suicide and that she used Michael to get back at Eddie. Michael apologises to Eddie and the two reconcile. Vanessa asks Michael for her money but he says the deal is off, so Vanessa tells Eddie about Michael's scheme. Eddie tells Tyler and Michael's other half-brother Anthony Moon (Matt Lapinskas) what Michael was doing before leaving Walford, leaving Michael rejected by his family. Michael starts a relationship with Janine Butcher (Charlie Brooks). When Max and Jack's brother, Derek Branning (Jamie Foreman) arrives in Walford, Michael is fearful of him as Derek had bullied him when they were younger. Janine later discovers she is pregnant and the couple decide to keep the baby. Michael suggests to David Wicks (Michael French) that they should team up to get Derek arrested and David agrees. Michael plants stolen goods in Derek's home but Derek catches Michael in the act, and Michael says it was David's plan. Derek uses Michael to lure David to meet him, and Derek forces David to leave Walford. When Tyler and Anthony are in debt to Derek, Anthony asks Michael for help but Michael locks Anthony in his office and calls the police on Derek. Derek threatens to kill Anthony and Tyler, and Michael suggests they leave. They soon discover he called the police and confront him. Janine hears about the trouble and pays the debt. Michael allows Derek to beat him up hoping it will help, but then discovers the debt was already paid.
Michael is surprised to find a baby scan photo and annoyed that Janine insists their child will be called Butcher, not Moon. He ends their relationship as he feels she does not trust him and she refuses to let him to be part of the child's life, insisting the child is raised by a nanny. Janine is distraught by this. Michael lures her to a "business meeting" where he proposes. She accepts on the condition that he signs a prenuptial agreement, which he does. He then cons Jean Slater (Gillian Wright) out of her lottery winnings in order to pay for the wedding so Janine cannot make all the decisions. He persuades Jean to give him more money, promising he will invest it for her. Michael then moves in with Janine.
As Jean is working for Janine, Michael worries Janine will find out where his money is coming from and tries to convince Jean to leave her job as the investment will do well. Janine grows suspicious of Michael and Jean's friendship and is angered when Jean tells her that Michael has actually confided in her about his mother's suicide. She then goes to Michael to see if she was telling the truth but he claims that Jean is lying. Jean then invests more money but Michael tries to put her off as it is for The Queen Vic's VAT bill. She soon regrets giving him the money and asks for it back but he ignores her message and claims he does not know what she is talking about. Jean is forced to tell Janine what Michael has done but Michael claims that Jean is obsessed with him and Janine's unborn baby. He attempts to turn everyone against Jean by saying she is obsessed with Roxy's daughter, Amy Mitchell (Amelie Conway), and sets up a bed containing Amy's things in Jean's bedroom. Kat believes Jean over Michael and tries to help her find proof. The day before Michael and Janine's wedding, Michael is arrested for the alleged fraud and released on bail. The truth emerges on the wedding day, when Kat tells Michael that Jean threatened to kill herself if she is sectioned because of him, leading Michael to admit to Kat that he took the money. Michael then confesses to Janine and convinces her to destroy the prenuptial agreement. They marry and Janine then suffers a placental abruption. She is taken to hospital and has the baby by emergency caesarean section. Their daughter is put on a ventilator and Michael struggles to bond with her as she fights for life; he abandons her and Janine at the hospital. However, he soon returns and assures Janine that he will stay. They name the baby Scarlett Moon and they decide to have her christened as she is in a stable condition. Even though Kat understands what he is going through, she insists he repay Jean, which he does, plus £1000 from Janine.
Michael begins running Janine's businesses while she in hospital, and becomes a signatory on her bank accounts, which she resents. Janine's lack of trust for Michael is evident and she cannot accept that he is interested in her, not her money. She thinks his behaviour is suspicious, and eventually offers him £450,000 cash, giving him the choice of taking the money or staying, proving that he loves her. Michael does not take the money but calls Janine twisted, saying she will leave their daughter twisted too. Janine begins to doubt herself as a mother and decides to leave Michael and Scarlett. Michael struggles to cope with his daughter and the business, but later discovers Janine has shut the business down and ceased trading. Michael bonds with Scarlett and is a responsible father, hiring Alice Branning (Jasmyn Banks) as a babysitter. Alice develops an attraction to Michael, and Janine returns several months later, saying she wants sole custody of Scarlett. She manipulates Michael into giving her custody and refuses to let him see Scarlett. Alice works for Janine as Scarlett's nanny, and Michael uses Alice's attraction to manipulate her into letting him see Scarlett. Janine finds out and leaves Walford with Scarlett, so Michael angrily blames Alice but when she states that he is angry because he has no control over anything or anyone, he once again manipulates Alice by kissing her. They have sex after she reveals she is a virgin. However, the next day he coldly tells Alice that he does not love her and that their fling meant nothing, deeply hurting Alice's feelings. This leads to Alice's brother Joey (David Witts) punching Michael in The Queen Vic. Michael then has a one-night stand with Kat, who is vulnerable after Alfie tells her he wants a divorce.
Janine returns to Walford with Scarlett and she and Michael agree to be civil when Scarlett is nearly injured while they are arguing. When Janine tells Michael she wants to change Scarlett's last name to Butcher, he pins her up against the wall and puts his hands around her neck, so she has an injunction taken out, stopping him from seeing Scarlett. Michael manipulates Alice, who is Scarlett's nanny again, telling her that he loves her, and they have sex again. He persuades her to carry on as normal when they are not alone, including continuing her relationship with Tamwar Masood (Himesh Patel). He decides to kill Janine, so steals her credit card and orders sleeping tablets from the internet, planning to crush them up to put in her drink, telling Alice that they can be a family with Scarlett in Morocco. Alice decides to drug Janine's drink for Michael so he does not break his injunction, but realises that Michael has given a lethal dosage, so does not go through with it and confronts Michael, kneeing him in the groin. When she returns, she says she contemplated telling the police but instead vows to help Michael kill Janine. The next day, Michael invites Janine to meet him at The Queen Vic, so that Alice can babysit, and plant the pills. Alice goes to Janine's, and later Michael finds her at home with blood on her hands. He goes to Janine's house but finds her alive. She reveals that she and Alice have lured him into a trap where he will be framed for attempting to kill Janine. She calls the police and following several arguments, Alice arrives. Michael tries to manipulate Alice further, who tells him to run away, but when he discovers that Scarlett is locked in her room so he cannot see her, he tries to throttle Janine again. Alice stabs Michael in the back to stop him, and then she answers the door to the police. Michael and Janine both try to grab the knife, but Janine gets it first and stabs Michael again, killing him. However, Alice believes she killed him. Janine lies in her police statement, saying that Alice attacked both her and Michael, and Alice is charged with murder. Eventually, Janine is arrested, but she and Alice are both found not guilty of murder.
Casting and characterisation
Shepherd's casting in the role of Michael was announced on 28 July 2010. Shepherd said of his casting: "I can vividly remember watching the first ever episode of EastEnders and I'm very excited to be joining such a fantastic and iconic programme. Michael Moon will be an exciting character to play". Executive producer Bryan Kirkwood explained that he had been a fan of Shepherd for many years, adding: "He's a fantastic signing for EastEnders, an exciting addition to the Moon family, and is set to cause a big splash in Albert Square from the moment he arrives." Shepherd's contract was a long-running negotiation and he received confirmation whilst filming Waking the Dead. His first appearance on screen was on 1 October 2010.
Michael is described as a competitive and manipulative risk-taker who lives dangerously, and a charmer with an eye for the ladies, but he is willing to stab anyone in the back. Shepherd said that "on the surface he's a loveable, cheeky chappy, but underneath he has hidden depths which will be exciting to explore." Shepherd opined that viewers would be unlikely to vote for him in polls such as 'sexiest male' because his character is "duplicitous": "I think viewers tend to fall in love with the character you play, and if they go for a duplicitous rogue, I'd be very surprised!" He told What's on TV that Michael can be mercenary and has a cruel streak, but "there's darkness and light to him, really. Some moments you can see him being really quite cruel and then the next he can be quite compassionate and thoughtful." He told We Love Telly that "[Michael] takes pride in the way he dresses and he's always been quite successful with the ladies." Daniel Kileklly from Digital Spy called Michael "enigmatic", and said he has a nasty side. Kirkwood compared Michael to Ronnie and Roxy's father, Archie Mitchell (Larry Lamb), saying they approach life and treat people in similar ways. The EastEnders website additionally calls Michael a "sinister", "flashy" and "jealous" man who "wouldn't think twice about screwing people over—even those he loves". It continues to read: "Michael possesses all the charming characteristics of his loveable rogue of a cousin Alfie, a cheeky-chappy with a silver tongue and an eye for the ladies, but with a more sinister and cruel streak. Michael is a serial womaniser and with a string of broken hearts and failed marriages behind him, he’s got the track record to prove it. Whenever he needs a port in a storm, there’s a girl he knows that will put him up for a night, a week or more." The London Evening Standard dubbed Moon as the "Albert Square psychopath"; Shepherd has described the character as a "functioning psychopath".
Storyline development
Michael leaves Walford when he is rejected by Kat. When Alfie sees Kat kissing Michael, he feels embarrassed and shocked, but also concerned about Alfie and Kat's marriage, which Shepherd said shows a new side to Michael. After going on a date with Roxy, Shepherd said that Michael likes her no-nonsense, feisty nature and her wild side, adding that they make a good couple. Kirkwood said that "Roxy's a little girl lost and Michael could be the worst possible man for her. But how long will it take her to realise that?"
On 24 January 2011, it was announced that David Essex had joined the cast as Michael's father, Eddie, with whom Michael has a "fractured relationship". Shepherd said that Eddie's arrival will allow the reasons behind Michael's behaviour and his personality to be explored. Shepherd explained that animosity between Michael and Eddie exists because of "something dark and it's still very raw for Michael. It's made him the person he is today. It's why he is so damaged. And dangerous." He added that Eddie's return would stir up bad memories which could have a "damaging effect on Michael's relationships with the people around him". It was announced on the 10 May 2011 that Michael's half brothers were being introduced; Tony Discipline playing Tyler Moon, and Matt Lapinskas playing Anthony Moon. Kirkwood said, "The Moon clan are on their way to becoming an established family in the Square." It was revealed by Inside Soap that the rift between the two is because Michael's mother committed suicide and Michael found her body but he is convinced that Eddie killed her.
In May 2011, it was reported that Michael would develop an obsession with Ronnie Branning (Samantha Womack) and start to stalk her, with scenes including him sneaking into her bedroom to watch her sleep and going through her underwear drawer. It was also reported that Michael would spread lies about Ronnie, and ask Roxy to wear the same perfume as her sister. A source told the Daily Star, "Everyone knows Michael has a mean streak but he is set to get a whole lot worse. He's trying to meddle in as many people's lives as possible. It seems he wants Ronnie all to himself. But what exactly is he up to?" The storyline was reportedly filmed in May 2011. Speaking of Ronnie's dislike of Michael, Shepherd said "He can't work out why Ronnie doesn't like him, so he assumes she must fancy him."
Upon the reintroduction of Derek Branning, it is revealed that Michael and Derek have clashed in the past. Speaking to Inside Soap, Shepherd promised that he will continue to "oppose" Derek. He commented: "It's already been alluded to that Derek and Michael didn't get along in the past. The true extent of Derek's emotional and physical bullying of Michael still hasn't been revealed, but Michael's well aware of how unpleasant he is. Derek's a nasty piece of work." Asked whether Michael will "settle the score" with Derek, Shepherd replied: "Absolutely! Michael holds grudges and doesn't forget anything. He has a bad feeling that the Brannings will become too powerful in Walford if Derek continues to ride roughshod over everyone, so he's definitely in Michael's sights. We can expect these two to clash, that's for sure."
After Janine becomes pregnant with Michael's child, their relationship has seemed to be smoother. Shepherd revealed to Inside Soap that their relationship is set to get "rockier" in the coming weeks. He commented: "The relationship is going to get very fraught and rocky—mountainous, actually. I gather that Janine has made a habit of killing off her husbands, so Michael will have to keep one eye open where she's concerned!" Discussing Michael and Janine's connection, he continued: "They both have this 'black dog' that follows them around—it's a darkness. They share similar histories with family dysfunction, so he knows why Janine is so unpredictable and uneven. He sees himself in Janine." Shepherd also joked about how Michael and Janine's child might cope with having such twisted parents. He added: "I pity Michael and Janine's baby! How would I rate his skills as a father? Quite low. Imagine Michael changing a nappy! But he sees this as a chance to redeem himself."
Shepherd explained why his character starts to turn against his friend Jack Branning in early 2012. It was earlier reported that Michael will discover that Jack has forged Roxy's signature in order to get their daughter Amy and then shares this information with Roxy. Asked whether Michael is worried about betraying Jack, Shepherd commented: "No, as Michael doesn't like Jack's attitude towards Derek. Derek has come in and assumed the role as head of the Branning family. He's bossing everyone around and he's committing all sorts of low-level crime. Michael is galled by this. He also doesn't want the Brannings to be too powerful on the Square." Discussing his character's twisted personality, he continued: "I like his complexity and I do enjoy playing him. I feel very fortunate to be able to explore his darkness. There's a lot more territory to cover too, so I'm looking forward to that. People have taken to him as well—but one woman I met once did scream at me!" Even though Janine's pregnancy has brought Janine and Michael closer, Shepherd had revealed that it will not last.
Investment fraud
In April 2012, it was announced that Jean Slater (Gillian Wright) would form an unlikely relationship with Michael. Michael seizes this opportunity to trick Jean into giving him a large sum of money. Michael tells Jean, that because one of the suspects for the murder of Heather Trott (Cheryl Fergison) had a large sum of money, the police could easily target Jean as an additional suspect. Jean gives her scratch card winnings consisting of £8000 to Michael so he can invest it into his gym, but in fact Michael plans to use it to pay for his wedding to Janine Butcher (Charlie Brooks). Michael, seeing that Jean is an easy target, decides to con her again by asking her for a second investment by "lending" him Alfie Moon's (Shane Richie) savings. Even though Jean is initially reluctant at first, she hands over the VAT money for The Queen Victoria. Shepherd expressed his excitement for forthcoming storylines for his character Michael and Wright's character Jean. Speaking to All About Soap, Shepherd said: "We are building up to something, but I don't know what the pay-off is. It'll be a real crescendo and the thing with Jean becomes extremely intense. It's a bubbling cauldron." Shepherd later confessed that Michael doesn't care if Janine finds out where the money is coming from. He added: "He balances the risk he might be thrown out of the relationship against the benefits and decides it's worth the gamble."
Wright has said that viewers are "protective" of Jean and that Michael's scam against Jean has led to people supporting her. Wright told Inside Soap: "It's funny how protective the viewers are of Jean," she said. "The other night, I was putting the bins out and a woman screeched up in her car, wound the window down and said, 'Don't give him the money! He's a git!' I thought that was very sweet." Shepherd later said on 24 May 2012 that Michael is playing a "dangerous game" as his scam intensifies. Wright later reassured viewers that Jean will fight back against Michael and will not remain a victim. Wright commented: "This [story is] quite special, I think - it's the longest one I've ever had, but also it's taking advantage of someone with bipolar and making them feel like they are losing the plot - that's a tough story." Wright also said that the storyline is a "huge responsibility". It was later revealed in 2012 that Jean will become an unlikely Ally to Michael after she urges him not to make a terrible mistake. Wright said that she is thrilled that Jean is standing up for herself as the storyline continues. Speaking on This Morning, Wright said: "Jean is a victim and the storyline is about a victim, I suppose. [But] I didn't want it to be played as a victim. So I'm looking for any opportunity for her to seize her own power. Sometimes that might be the smallest thing, like breaking into somebody's house and searching. That's a big thing - hiding under a table is a big thing!"
Departure
In March 2013, it was announced that Shepherd had decided to leave EastEnders after three years. The actor explained that he felt it was time to move on from the show and that he had "relished every minute" of exploring Michael. He added "I feel extremely privileged to have had this amazing experience and want to thank everybody — most importantly the fans of the show — for taking Michael and his numerous flaws into their hearts." Shepherd filmed his final scenes the following month. On 25 August 2013, Susan Hill from the Daily Star reported that Michael would be killed off, following "a bitter custody battle" with Janine.
Reception
Michael was called "creepy and a bit slimy" by a writer for website Holy Soap. In May 2011, Shepherd was nominated in the Best Soap Newcomer category at the 2011 TV Choice Awards for his portrayal of Michael. Kate White of Inside Soap praised the character, saying "Darling 'Midnight Michael'...how we love your crazy schemes, oddball ways and eccentric comments. And now you've knocked up Janine, the possibilities are endless. Lots, lots more in 2012, please!" Shepherd admitted that playing a villain has made him unpopular with viewers. He said that one woman screamed at him and a child hid behind her mother and would not speak. He commented: "It was quite upsetting, but the flip side is that they clearly believe in the drama."
See also
List of EastEnders characters (2010)
"Who's Been Sleeping with Kat?"
List of soap opera villains
Fictional portrayals of psychopaths
References
External links
EastEnders characters
Television characters introduced in 2010
Fictional businesspeople
Fictional con artists
Fictional murdered people
Fictional stalkers
Male villains
Fictional criminals in soap operas
Male characters in television
Fictional characters with psychiatric disorders
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The Second Opium War (), also known as the Second Anglo-Chinese War, the Second China War, the Arrow War, or the Anglo-French expedition to China, was a war pitting the British Empire and the French Empire against the Qing dynasty of China that lasted from 1856 to 1860.
In 1860, British and French troops landed near Beijing and fought their way into the city. Negotiations quickly broke down and the British High Commissioner to China ordered the troops to loot and destroy the Imperial Summer Palace, a complex and garden where Qing Dynasty emperors had traditionally handled the country’s official matters.
The second Opium War forced the Qing government to sign peace treaties between China and Russia such Tianjin Treaty and Beijing Treaty. As a result, China lost more than 1.5 million square kilometers of territory in northeast and northwest China. After the war, the Qing government was able to concentrate on the Taiping Rebellion and maintaining its rule. The agreements of the Convention of Peking led to the ceding of Kowloon Peninsula as part of Hong Kong.
It was the second major war in the Opium Wars, fought over issues relating to the exportation of opium to China, and resulted in a second defeat for the Qing dynasty. The war caused many Chinese officials to believe that conflicts with the Western powers were no longer traditional affairs, but part of a looming national crisis.
Names
The terms "Second War" and "Arrow War" are both used in literature. "Second Opium War" refers to one of the British strategic objectives: legalizing the opium trade, expanding trade, opening all of China to British merchants, and exempting foreign imports from internal transit duties. The "Arrow War" refers to the name of a vessel which became the starting point of the conflict.
Origins of the war
The war followed on from the First Opium War. In 1842, the Treaty of Nanking—the first of what the Chinese later called the unequal treaties—granted an indemnity and extraterritoriality to Britain, the opening of five treaty ports, and the cession of Hong Kong Island. The failure of the treaty to satisfy British goals of improved trade and diplomatic relations led to the Second Opium War (1856–60). In China, the First Opium War is considered to have been the beginning of modern Chinese history.
Between the two wars, repeated acts of aggression against British subjects led in 1847 to the Expedition to Canton which assaulted and took, by a coup de main, the forts of the Bocca Tigris resulting in the spiking of 879 guns.
Outbreak
The 1850s saw the rapid growth of Western imperialism. Some of the shared goals of the western powers were the expansion of their overseas markets and the establishment of new ports of call. The French Treaty of Huangpu and the American Wangxia Treaty both contained clauses allowing renegotiation of the treaties after 12 years of being in effect. In an effort to expand their privileges in China, Britain demanded the Qing authorities renegotiate the Treaty of Nanjing (signed in 1842), citing their most favoured nation status. The British demands included opening all of China to British merchant companies, legalising the opium trade, exempting foreign imports from internal transit duties, suppression of piracy, regulation of the coolie trade, permission for a British ambassador to reside in Beijing and for the English-language version of all treaties to take precedence over the Chinese language.
To give Chinese merchant vessels operating around treaty ports the same privileges accorded to British ships by the Treaty of Nanjing, British authorities granted these vessels British registration in Hong Kong. In October 1856, Chinese marines in Canton seized a cargo ship called the Arrow on suspicion of piracy, arresting twelve of its fourteen Chinese crew members. The Arrow had previously been used by pirates, captured by the Chinese government, and subsequently resold. It was then registered as a British ship and still flew the British flag at the time of its detainment, though its registration had expired. Its captain, Thomas Kennedy, who was aboard a nearby vessel at the time, reported seeing Chinese marines pull the British flag down from the ship. The British consul in Canton, Harry Parkes, contacted Ye Mingchen, imperial commissioner and Viceroy of Liangguang, to demand the immediate release of the crew, and an apology for the alleged insult to the flag. Ye released nine of the crew members but refused to release the last three.
On 23 October the British destroyed four barrier forts. On 25 October a demand was made for the British to be allowed to enter the city. The next day, the British started to bombard the city, firing one shot every 10 minutes. Ye Mingchen issued a bounty on every British head taken. On 29 October, the Royal Navy blasted a hole in the poorly defended and inadequate city walls. The troops entered with a flag of the United States being planted by James Keenan (U.S. Consul) on the walls and residence of Ye Mingchen. Losses were 3 killed and 12 wounded. Negotiations failed and the city was bombarded. On 6 November 23 war junks attacked and were destroyed. There were pauses for talks, with the British bombarding at intervals, fires were caused, then on 5 January 1857, the British returned to Hong Kong.
British delays
The British government lost a Parliamentary vote regarding the Arrow incident and what had taken place at Canton to the end of the year on 3 March 1857. Then there was a general election in April 1857 which increased the government majority.
In April, the British government asked the United States of America and Russia if they were interested in alliances, but both parties rejected the offer. In May 1857, the Indian Mutiny became serious. British troops destined for China were diverted to India, which was considered the priority issue.
Intervention of France
France joined the British action against China, prompted by complaints from their envoy, Baron Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros, over the execution of a French missionary, Father Auguste Chapdelaine, by Chinese local authorities in Guangxi province, which at that time was not open to foreigners.
The British and the French joined forces under Admiral Sir Michael Seymour. The British army, which was led by Lord Elgin, and the French army, which was led by Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros, jointly attacked and occupied Canton (now known as Guangzhou) in late 1857. A joint committee of the Alliance was formed. The Allies left the city governor at his original post in order to maintain order on behalf of the victors. The British-French alliance maintained control of Canton for nearly four years.
The coalition then cruised north to briefly capture the Taku Forts near Tientsin (now known as Tianjin) in May 1858.
Intervention by other states
The United States and Russia sent envoys to Hong Kong to offer military help to the British and French, though in the end Russia sent no military aid.
The U.S. was involved in a minor concurrent conflict during the war, although they ignored the UK's offer of alliance and did not coordinate with the Anglo-French forces. In 1856, the Chinese garrison at Canton shelled a United States Navy steamer; the U.S. Navy retaliated in the Battle of the Pearl River Forts. The ships bombarded then attacked the river forts near Canton, taking them. Diplomatic efforts were renewed afterward, and the American and Chinese governments signed an agreement for U.S. neutrality in the Second Opium War.
Despite the U.S. government's promise of neutrality, the aided the Anglo-French alliance in the bombardment of the Taku Forts in 1859.
Battle of Canton
Through 1857, British forces began to assemble in Hong Kong, joined by a French force. In December 1857 they had sufficient ships and men to raise the issue of the non-fulfilment of the treaty obligations by which the right of entry into Canton had been accorded. Parkes delivered an ultimatum, supported by Hong Kong governor Sir John Bowring and Admiral Sir Michael Seymour, threatening on 14 December to bombard Canton if the men were not released within 24 hours.
The remaining crew of the Arrow were then released, with no apology from Viceroy Ye Mingchen who also refused to honour the treaty terms. Seymour, Major General van Straubenzee and Admiral de Genouilly agreed the plan to attack Canton as ordered. This event came to be known as the Arrow Incident and provided the alternative name of the ensuing conflict.
The capture of Canton, on 1 January 1858, a city with a population of over 1,000,000 by less than 6,000 troops, resulted in the British and French forces suffering 15 killed and 113 wounded. 200–650 of the defenders and inhabitants became casualties. Ye Mingchen was captured and exiled to Calcutta, India, where he starved himself to death.
British attacks
Although the British were delayed by the Indian Rebellion of 1857, they followed up the Arrow Incident in 1856 and attacked Guangzhou from the Pearl River. Viceroy Ye Mingchen ordered all Chinese soldiers manning the forts not to resist the British incursion. After taking the fort near Guangzhou with little effort, the British Army attacked Guangzhou.
Meanwhile, in Hong Kong, there was a possible attempt to poison John Bowring and his family in January, known as the Esing Bakery incident. However, if it was deliberate, the baker who had been charged with lacing bread with arsenic bungled the attempt by putting an excess of the poison into the dough, such that his victims vomited sufficient quantities of the poison that they had only a non-lethal dose left in their system. Criers were sent out with an alert, preventing further injury.
When known in Britain, the Arrow incident (and the British military response) became the subject of controversy. The British House of Commons on 3 March passed a resolution by 263 to 249 against the Government saying:
In response, Lord Palmerston attacked the patriotism of the Whigs who sponsored the resolution, and Parliament was dissolved, causing the British general election of March 1857.
The Chinese issue figured prominently in the election, and Palmerston won with an increased majority, silencing the voices within the Whig faction who supported China. The new parliament decided to seek redress from China based on the report about the Arrow Incident submitted by Harry Parkes. The French Empire, the United States, and the Russian Empire received requests from Britain to form an alliance.
Interlude
Treaties of Tianjin
In June 1858, the first part of the war ended with the four Treaties of Tientsin, to which Britain, France, Russia, and the U.S. were parties. These treaties opened 11 more ports to Western trade. The Chinese initially refused to ratify the treaties.
The major points of the treaty were:
Britain, France, Russia, and the U.S. would have the right to establish diplomatic legations (small embassies) in Peking (a closed city at the time)
Ten more Chinese ports would be opened for foreign trade, including Niuzhuang, Tamsui, Hankou, and Nanjing
The right of all foreign vessels including commercial ships to navigate freely on the Yangtze River
The right of foreigners to travel in the internal regions of China, which had been formerly banned
China was to pay an indemnity of four million taels of silver to Britain and two million to France.
Treaty of Aigun
On 28 May 1858, the separate Treaty of Aigun was signed with Russia to revise the Chinese and Russian border as determined by the Nerchinsk Treaty in 1689. Russia gained the left bank of the Amur River, pushing the border south from the Stanovoy mountains. A later treaty, the Convention of Peking in 1860, gave Russia control over a non-freezing area on the Pacific coast, where Russia founded the city of Vladivostok in 1860.
In August 1860, the Anglo-French army reorganized 18,000 men and captured Tianjin first. In September 1860, more than 8,000 British and French allied forces invaded Beijing. The Commander of the Qing Army, Senglingqin, led 30,000 men in a fierce battle with the British and French allied forces near Baliqiao. This is a dialogue between an army dominated by cold weapons and an army that was already well equipped. As a result, the Qing army suffered a crushing defeat, with more than half of its 30,000 troops killed and wounded. The British suffered 2 dead and 29 wounded, while the French suffered 3 dead and 18 wounded. It was a pitiful battle. Although the Qing army had firearms, they were useless. It was all suicide charges by cavalry infantry with cold weapons against the enemy's gun positions. To put it bluntly, this was completely caused by the incompetence of the Qing government at that time. It's been 20 years since the first Opium War. The Qing government had been well aware of the power of modern armies in capitalist countries, but the Qing army remained largely stagnant, without upgrading equipment or training. Thirty thousand Mangan elite soldiers, so confused sent on the battlefield, was the enemy as a living target.
Second phase
Three battles of Taku Forts
On 20 May, the British were successful at the First Battle of Taku Forts, but the peace treaty returned the forts to the Qing army.
In June 1858, shortly after the Qing imperial court agreed to the disadvantageous treaties, hawkish ministers prevailed upon the Xianfeng Emperor to resist Western encroachment. On 2 June 1858, the Xianfeng Emperor ordered the Mongol general Sengge Rinchen to guard the Taku Forts (also romanized as Ta-ku Forts and also called Daku Forts) near Tianjin. Sengge Rinchen reinforced the forts with additional artillery pieces. He also brought 4,000 Mongol cavalry from Chahar and Suiyuan.
The Second Battle of Taku Forts took place in June 1859. A British naval force with 2,200 troops and 21 ships, under the command of Admiral Sir James Hope, sailed north from Shanghai to Tianjin with newly appointed Anglo-French envoys for the embassies in Beijing. They sailed to the mouth of the Hai River guarded by the Taku Forts near Tianjin and demanded to continue inland to Beijing. Sengge Rinchen replied that the Anglo-French envoys might land up the coast at Beitang and proceed to Beijing but he refused to allow armed troops to accompany them to the Chinese capital. The Anglo-French forces insisted on landing at Taku instead of Beitang and escorting the diplomats to Beijing. On the night of 24 June 1859, a small group of British forces blew up the iron obstacles that the Chinese had placed in the Baihe River. The next day, the British forces sought to forcibly sail into the river, and shelled the Taku Forts. Low tide and soft mud prevented their landing, however, and accurate fire from Sengge Rinchen's cannons sank four gunboats and severely damaged two others. American Commodore Josiah Tattnall III, although under orders to maintain neutrality, declared "blood is thicker than water", and provided covering fire to protect the British convoy's retreat. The failure to take the Taku Forts was a blow to British prestige, and anti-foreign resistance reached a crescendo within the Qing imperial court.
Once the Indian Mutiny was finally quelled, Sir Colin Campbell, commander-in-chief in India, was free to amass troops and supplies for another offensive in China. A 'soldiers' general', Campbell's experience of casualties from disease in the First Opium War led him to provide the British forces with more than enough materiel and supplies, and casualties were light.
The Third Battle of Taku Forts took place in the summer of 1860. London once more dispatched Lord Elgin with an Anglo-French force of 11,000 British troops under General James Hope Grant and 6,700 French troops under General Cousin-Montauban. They pushed north with 173 ships from Hong Kong and captured the port cities of Yantai and Dalian to seal the Bohai Gulf. On 3 August they carried out a landing near Beitang (also romanized as "Pei-t'ang"), some from the Taku Forts, which they captured after three weeks on 21 August.
Southern Chinese laborers served with the French and British forces. One observer reported that the "Chinese coolies", as he called them, "renegades though they were, served the British faithfully and cheerfully... At the assault of the Peiho Forts in 1860 they carried the French ladders to the ditch, and, standing in the water up to their necks, supported them with their hands to enable the storming party to cross. It was not usual to take them into action; they, however, bore the dangers of a distant fire with great composure, evincing a strong desire to close with their compatriots, and engage them in mortal combat with their bamboos."
Diplomatic incident
After taking Tianjin on 23 August, the Anglo-French forces marched inland toward Beijing. The Xianfeng Emperor then dispatched ministers for peace talks, but the British diplomatic envoy, Harry Parkes, insulted the imperial emissary and word arrived that the British had kidnapped the prefect of Tianjin. Parkes was arrested in retaliation on 18 September. Also captured were a number of British and French officers, Sikh soldiers, and a journalist from The Times. Parkes and the others were imprisoned, tortured, and interrogated.
The prisoners had been tortured by having their limbs bound with rope until their flesh was lacerated and became infected with maggots, and by having dung and dirt forced into their throats. Several were executed by beheading, their corpses fed to animals. Captured coolies who had worked for the allies were buried up to their necks and left to dogs.
Burning of the Summer Palaces
The Anglo-French forces clashed with Sengge Rinchen's Mongol cavalry on 18 September at the battle of Zhangjiawan before proceeding toward the outskirts of Beijing for a decisive battle in Tongzhou (also romanized as Tungchow). On 21 September, at Baliqiao (Eight Mile Bridge), Sengge Rinchen's 10,000 troops, including the elite Mongol cavalry, were annihilated after doomed frontal charges against concentrated firepower of the Anglo-French forces. The French army arrived at the Summer Palace outside Beijing on 6 October, followed by the British a day later.
With the Qing army devastated, the Xianfeng Emperor fled the capital and left behind his brother, Prince Gong, to take charge of peace negotiations. Xianfeng first fled to the Chengde Summer Palace and then to Rehe Province. Anglo-French troops began looting the Summer Palace (Yiheyuan) and Old Summer Palace (Yuanmingyuan) immediately (as they were full of valuable artwork).
After the release of Parkes and the surviving prisoners on 8 October, the extent of their mistreatment became apparent. The destruction of the Forbidden City was discussed, as proposed by Lord Elgin to discourage the Qing Empire from using kidnapping as a bargaining tool, and to exact revenge on the mistreatment of their prisoners. However, an attack on Beijing was ruled out, as this had already been presented as threat for other terms. Elgin decided on burning the Summer Palace. In a letter, he explained that the burning of the palace was the punishment "which would fall, not on the people, who may be comparatively innocent, but exclusively on the Emperor, whose direct personal responsibility for the crime committed is established"
On 18 October, British soldiers burnt the Summer Palace, the French refusing to assist. The razing of the buildings took two days, with imperial property in the vicinity also destroyed.
Awards
Both Britain (Second China War Medal) and France (Commemorative medal of the 1860 China Expedition) issued campaign medals.
The British medal had the following clasps: China 1842, Fatshan 1857, Canton 1857, Taku Forts 1858, Taku Forts 1860, Peking 1860.
7 awards were made of the Victoria Cross, all for Gallantry shown on 21 August 1860 by soldiers of the 44th Regiment of Foot and the 67th Regiment of Foot at the Battle of Taku Forts (1860) (see List of Victoria Cross recipients by campaign)
Battle honours
The following regiments fought in the campaign:
British and Empire
Cavalry Brigade
1st King's Dragoon Guards
Probyn's Sikh Horse (5th Horse – Pakistan)
Fane's Mahratta Cavalry (19th Lancers – Pakistan)
Infantry
1st Regiment of Foot (Scots – 2nd Battalion)
2nd Regiment of Foot (Queen's)
3rd Regiment of Foot (Buffs)
8th Regiment of Punjab Infantry (Punjab Regiment – 6th Battalion – Pakistan)
15th Ludhiana Sikhs (Sikh Regiment – 2nd Battalion – India)
19th Punjaub Infantry (Punjab Regiment – 5th Battalion – Pakistan)
23rd Punjab Pioneers (Sikh Light Infantry – India)
31st Regiment of Foot (Huntingdonshire)
44th Regiment of Foot (East Essex)
60th Regiment of Foot (King's Royal Rifles)
67th Regiment of Foot (South Hampshire)
99th Regiment of Foot (Lanarkshire)
Royal Marines
Artillery
Royal Artillery
Engineers
Royal Engineers, no. 8 company
Madras Sappers and Miners (Indian Army Corps of Engineers)
French
Cavalry
Spahis
Infantry
:fr:101e régiment d'infanterie
102e Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne
US
Naval
Aftermath
On 24 October, the emperor's brother, Prince Gong, conceded to the allied demands, the emperor having fled to Chengde on 22 September. British and French troops entered Beijing, where the Treaty of Tientsin was ratified in the Convention of Peking.
At the time, the largest encyclopedia ever compiled in world history was the 1408 Ming Dynasty Yongle Encyclopedia, most of which was looted or destroyed by foreign soldiers during the sack of Beijing, leaving only 3.5 percent surviving volumes today. The British, French and—thanks to the schemes of Ignatiev—the Russians were all granted a permanent diplomatic presence in Beijing (something the Qing Empire resisted to the very end as it suggested equality between China and the European powers). The Chinese had to pay 8 million taels to Britain and France. Kowloon was ceded to British owned Hong Kong. The opium trade was legalized and Christians were granted full civil rights, including the right to own property, and the right to evangelize.
The content of the Convention of Beijing included:
China's signing of the Treaty of Tianjin
Opening Tianjin as a trade port
Cede No.1 District of Kowloon (south of present-day Boundary Street) to Britain
Freedom of religion established in China
British ships were allowed to carry indentured Chinese to the Americas
Indemnity to Britain and France increasing to 8 million taels of silver apiece
Legalization of the opium trade
Two weeks later, Ignatiev forced the Qing government to sign a "Supplementary Treaty of Peking", which ceded the Maritime Provinces east of the Ussuri River (forming part of Outer Manchuria) to the Russians, who went on to found the port of Vladivostok between 1860–61.
The Anglo-French victory was heralded in the British press as a triumph for British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, which made his popularity rise to new heights. British merchants were delighted at the prospects of the expansion of trade in the Far East. Other foreign powers were pleased with the outcome too, since they hoped to take advantage of the opening-up of China.
The defeat of the Qing army by a relatively small Anglo-French military force (outnumbered at least 10 to 1 by the Qing army) coupled with the flight (and subsequent death) of the Xianfeng Emperor and the burning of the Summer Palaces was a shocking blow to the once powerful Qing Empire. "Beyond a doubt, by 1860 the ancient civilization that was China had been thoroughly defeated and humiliated by the West." After the war, a major modernization movement, known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, began in China in the 1860s and several institutional reforms were initiated.
The opium trade incurred intense enmity from the later British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone. As a member of Parliament, Gladstone called it "most infamous and atrocious", referring to the opium trade between China and British India in particular. Gladstone was fiercely against both of the Opium Wars, was ardently opposed to the British trade in opium to China, and denounced British violence against Chinese. Gladstone lambasted it as "Palmerston's Opium War" and said that he felt "in dread of the judgments of God upon England for our national iniquity towards China" in May 1840. A famous speech was made by Gladstone in Parliament against the First Opium War. Gladstone criticized it as "a war more unjust in its origin, a war more calculated in its progress to cover this country with permanent disgrace". His hostility to opium stemmed from the effects of the drug upon his sister Helen. Due to the First Opium war brought on by Palmerston, Gladstone was initially reluctant to join the government of Peel before 1841.
See also
China–United Kingdom relations
Imperialism in Asia
Nian Rebellion
Miao Rebellion (1854–73)
Dungan Revolt (1862–77)
Panthay Rebellion
History of Beijing
History of opium in China
Taiping Rebellion
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Beeching, Jack. The Chinese Opium Wars (1975),
Chan, May Caroline. "Canton, 1857." Victorian Review 36.1 (2010): 31–35.
Leavenworth, Charles S. The Arrow War with China (1901) online free.
Henry Loch, Personal narrative of occurrences during Lord Elgin's second embassy to China 1860, 1869.
Wong, J. Y. "Harry Parkes and the 'Arrow War' in China," Modern Asian Studies (1975) 9#3 pp. 303–320.
Wong, John Yue-wo. Deadly dreams: Opium and the Arrow war (1856–1860) in China (Cambridge UP, 2002).
External links
1856 in China
1857 in China
1858 in China
1859 in China
1860 in China
Kowloon
Organized crime conflicts
Eight Banners
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Tefillin (; Israeli Hebrew: / ; Askhenazic pronunciation: ) or phylacteries, are a set of small black leather boxes with leather straps containing scrolls of parchment inscribed with verses from the Torah. Tefillin are worn by adult Jews during weekday morning prayers. In Orthodox and traditional communities, they are worn solely by men, while some Reform and Conservative (Masorti) communities allow for them to be worn by both men and women. By traditional Jewish Law (halacha), women are exempt from most time-dependent positive commandments.
Although "tefillin" is technically the plural form (the singular being "tefillah"), it is often used as a singular as well. The arm-tefillah (or shel yad [literally "of the hand"]) is placed on the upper (non-dominant) arm, and the strap wrapped around the forelimb, hand and middle finger; while the head-tefillah (or shel rosh [literally "of the head"]) is placed between the eyes at the boundary of the forehead and hair. They are intended to fulfill the Torah's instructions to maintain a continuous "sign" and "remembrance" of the Exodus from Egypt, as they were originally worn all day, from sunrise to sunset.
The biblical verses often cited as referring to tefillin are obscure. Deuteronomy , for instance, does not designate explicitly what specifically to "bind upon your arm", and the definition of "totafot between your eyes" is not obvious. These details are delineated in the Oral Torah. At least as early as the , many Jews understood the verses literally and wore physical tefillin, as shown by archaeological finds at Qumran and a reference in the New Testament. However, Karaite Judaism understands the verses to be metaphorical.
Biblical source
The obligation of tefillin is mentioned four times in the Torah:
twice when recalling The Exodus from Egypt:
and twice in the shema passages:
Etymology
The ultimate origin of Hebrew "tefillin" is uncertain. The word "tefillin" is not found in the Bible, which calls them (, "sign"), (, "memorial"), or (). The Septuagint renders "" as (, "something immovable"). Some believe it refers to a charm, similar to the Hebrew , "round jewel". The Talmud explains that the word is combination of two foreign words: means "two" in the "Katpi" language (Jastrow proposes: Coptic) and means "two" in the "Afriki" language, hence, and means "two and two", corresponding to the four compartments of the head-tefillin. Menahem ben Saruq explains that the word is derived from the Hebrew and , both expressions meaning "speech", "for when one sees the tefillin it causes him to remember and speak about the Exodus from Egypt".
The first texts to use "tefillin" are the Targumim and Peshitta and it is also used in subsequent Talmudic literature, although the word "ṭoṭafah" was still current, being used with the meaning of "frontlet". "Tefillin" may have derived from the Aramaic , "to plead, pray", a word closely related to the Hebrew , "prayer". Jacob ben Asher (14th century) suggests that "tefillin" is derived from the Hebrew , "justice, evidence", for tefillin act as a sign and proof of God's presence among the Jewish people.
The English word "phylactery" ("phylacteries" in the plural) derives from Ancient Greek ( in the plural), meaning "guarded post, safeguard, security", and in later Greek, "amulet" or "charm". The word "phylactery" occurs once (in ACC PL) in the Greek New Testament, whence it has passed into the languages of Europe. Neither Aquila nor Symmachus use "phylacteries" in their translations. The choice of this particular Greek equivalent to render the Heb. tefillin bears witness to the ancient functional interpretation of the said device as a kind of an amulet. The other Greek words for "amulet" are or , which literally signifies "things tied around", analogously to the Hebrew derived from the root meaning "to bind".
Purpose
The tefillin are to serve as a reminder of God's intervention at the time of the Exodus from Egypt. Maimonides details of the sanctity of tefillin and writes that "as long as the tefillin are on the head and on the arm of a man, he is modest and God-fearing and will not be attracted by hilarity or idle talk; he will have no evil thoughts, but will devote all his thoughts to truth and righteousness". The Sefer ha-Chinuch (14th century) adds that the purpose of tefillin is to help subjugate a person's worldly desires and encourage spiritual development. Joseph Caro (16th century) explains that tefillin are placed on the arm adjacent to the heart and on the head above the brain to demonstrate that these two major organs are willing to perform the service of God.
Many have the custom to have high-quality tefillin and beautiful tefillin bags as a Hiddur Mitzvah. This idea comes from the verse "This is my God and I will glorify Him" (). The Jewish Sages explain: "Is it possible for a human being to add glory to his Creator? What this really means is: I shall glorify Him in the way I perform mitzvot. I shall prepare before Him a beautiful lulav, beautiful sukkah, beautiful fringes (Tsitsit), and beautiful phylacteries (Tefilin)."
Some non-Orthodox scholars think that tefillin may play an apotropaic function. For instance, Yehudah B. Cohn argues that the tefillin should be perceived as an invented tradition aimed at counteracting the popularity of the Greek amulets with an "original" Jewish one. Joshua Trachtenberg considered every ornament worn on the body (whatever its declared function) as initially serving the purpose of an amulet. In addition, the early Rabbinic sources furnish more or less explicit examples of the apotropaic qualities of tefillin. For instance, Numbers Rabbah 12:3 presents tefillin as capable of defeating "a thousand demons" emerging on "the left side", rabbis Yohanan and Nahman used their sets to repel the demons inhabiting privies, whereas Elisha the Winged, who was scrupulous in performing this mitzvah, was miraculously saved from the Roman persecution. Also, tefillin are believed to possess life-lengthening qualities, and they are often listed in one breath among various items which are considered amuletic in nature.
Manufacture and contents
The manufacturing processes of tefillin are intricate and governed by hundreds of detailed rules.
Boxes
In earlier Talmudic times, tefillin were either cylindrical or cubical, but later the cylindrical form became obsolete. Nowadays the boxes should be fashioned from a single piece of animal hide and form a base with an upper compartment to contain the parchment scrolls. They are made in varying levels of quality. The most basic form, called peshutim ("simple"), are made using several pieces of parchment to form the inner walls of the head tefillin. The higher quality tefillin, namely dakkot ("thin"), made by stretching a thin piece of leather, and the more durable gassot ("thick") are both fashioned from the single piece of hide.
The main box which holds the tefillin scrolls, known as ketzitzah (קציצה), is cubical. Below it is a wider base known as the titura (תיתורא). At the back of the titura is a passageway (ma'avarta, מעברתא) through which the tefillin strap is threaded, to tie the tefillin in place.
On both sides of the head-tefillin, the Hebrew letter shin () is moulded; the shin on the wearer's left side has four branches instead of three.
Straps
Black leather straps (retsu'ot) pass through the rear of the base and are used to secure the tefillin onto the body. The knot of the head-tefillin strap forms the letter dalet () or double dalet (known as the square-knot) while the strap that is passed through the arm-tefillin is formed into a knot in the shape of the letter yud (). Together with the shin on the head-tefillin box, these three letters spell Shaddai (), one of the names of God.
The straps must be black on their outer side, but may be any color except red on their inner side. A stringent opinion requires them to be black on the inner side too, but more commonly the inner side is left the color of leather.
The Talmud specifies that tefillin straps must be long enough to reach one's middle finger, and records the practice of Rav Aha bar Jacob to tie and then "matleit" (plait? wind three times?) them. However, the passage leaves unclear where the measuring is done from, whether the reference is to hand- or head-tefillin, and what exactly the meaning of "matleit" is. Combining and interpreting the Talmud's statements, Maimonides, Tur, and Shulchan Aruch ruled that the strap of hand-tefillin must reach from where the tefillin is placed on the arm, as far as the middle finger, where it must be wound three times around the middle finger. Rema wrote that it is not necessary to wind around the finger (rather, the straps must be long enough that one could wind around the finger); however, this leniency does not appear in his comments to the Shulchan Aruch. In addition to the windings around the finger, the Shulchan Aruch states that the custom is to wind six or seven times around the forearm.
Parchment scrolls
The four biblical passages which refer to the tefillin, mentioned above, are written on scrolls and placed inside the leather boxes. The arm-tefillin has one large compartment, which contains all four biblical passages written upon a single strip of parchment; the head-tefillin has four separate compartments in each of which one scroll of parchment is placed. This is because the verses describe the hand-tefillin in the singular ("sign"), while in three of four verses, the head-tefillin is described in the plural ("totafot").
The passages are written by a scribe with special ink on parchment scrolls (klaf). These are: "Sanctify to me ..." (Exodus 13:1–10); "When YHWH brings you ..." (Exodus 13:11–16); "Hear, O Israel ..." (Deuteronomy 6:4–9); and "If you observe My Commandments ..." (Deuteronomy 11:13-21). The Hebrew Ashuri script must be used and there are three main styles of lettering used: Beis Yosef – generally used by Ashkenazim; Arizal – generally used by Hasidim; Velish – used by Sefardim. The passages contain 3,188 letters, which take a sofer (scribe) between 10 and 15 hours to complete.
The texts have to be written with halachically acceptable (acceptable according to Jewish law) ink on halachically acceptable parchment. There are precise rules for writing the texts and any error invalidates it. For example, the letters of the text must be written in order - if a mistake is found later, it can't be corrected as the replacement letter would have been written out of sequence. There are 3188 letters on the parchments, and it can take a scribe as long as 15 hours to write a complete set. The scribe is required to purify himself in the mikvah (ritual bath) before he starts work.
Ordering of scrolls (Rashi and Rabbeinu Tam tefillin)
Talmudic commentators debated the order in which scrolls should be inserted into the four compartments of the head-tefillin. Rashi held that the passages are placed according to the chronological order as they appear in the Torah (Kadesh Li, Ve-haya Ki Yeviehcha, Shema, Ve-haya Im Shemoa), while according to Rabbeinu Tam, the last two passages are switched around. It is often claimed that of the tefillin dating from the 1st-century CE discovered at Qumran in the Judean Desert, some were made according to the order understood by Rashi and others in the order of Rabbeinu Tam; however, they in fact do not follow either opinion.
Nowadays, the prevailing custom is to arrange the scrolls according to Rashi's view, but some pious Jews are also accustomed to briefly lay the tefillin of Rabbeinu Tam as well, a custom of the Ari adopted by the Hasidim. The Vilna Gaon, who wore the tefillin of Rashi, rejected the stringency of also laying Rabbeinu Tam, pointing out that there were 64 possible arrangements of the tefillin scrolls, and it would not be practical to put on 64 different sets of tefillin to account for all possibilities. The Shulchan Aruch rules that only "one who is known and famous for his piety" should put on Rabbeinu Tam tefillin, while the Mishnah Brurah explains that if any other person puts on Rabbeinu Tam tefillin, it is a sign of arrogance.
The placement of the protrusion of a tuft of calf hairs (se'ar eigel) identifies as to which opinion the tefillin were written.
Obligation and gender
The duty of laying tefillin rests upon Jews after the age of thirteen years. Women were traditionally exempt from the obligation; the Rema (Rav Moses Isserles, 16th century), a major codifier of the Jewish law, strongly discourages it.
Historically, the mitzvah of tefillin was not performed by women, but the ritual was apparently kept by some women in medieval France and Germany. It has been claimed Rashi's daughters and the wife of Chaim ibn Attar wore tefillin, but there is no historical evidence for these claims.
In modern times, people of all genders choose to wear tefillin, and are encouraged to do so by some. In 2018, a group of students from Hebrew College, a non-denominational rabbinical school in Boston, created a series of YouTube videos to help people of all genders learn how to wrap tefillin. Within the Orthodox movement, it remains a male-only obligation, but in egalitarian movements, others may observe this practice. Women affiliated with the Conservative movement wrap tefillin. Since 2013, SAR High School in Riverdale, New York, has allowed girls to wrap tefillin during morning prayer; it is probably the first Modern Orthodox high school in the U.S. to do so. The wearing of tefillin by members of Women of the Wall at the Western Wall caused consternation from the rabbi in charge of the site until a Jerusalem District Court judge ruled in 2013 that doing so was not a violation of "local custom".
A mourner during the first day of his mourning period is exempt from wrapping tefillin as is a bridegroom on his wedding-day. A sufferer from stomach-trouble or one who is otherwise in pain and cannot concentrate his mind is also exempt. One who is engaged in the study of the Law and scribes of and dealers in tefillin and mezuzahs while engaged in their work if it cannot be postponed, are also free from this obligation.
The codes view the commandment of tefillin as important, and call those who neglect to observe it "transgressors". Maimonides counts the commandment of laying the arm-tefillin and head-tefillin as two separate positive mitzvot. The Talmud cites Rav Sheshet, who said that by neglecting the precept, one transgresses eight positive commandments. A report of widespread laxity in its observance is reported by Moses of Coucy in 13th-century Spain. It may have arisen from the fear of persecution, similar to what had occurred to the Jews living in the Land of Israel under Roman rule in the second century.
Use
Originally tefillin were worn all day, but not during the night. Nowadays the prevailing custom is to wear them only during the weekday morning service, although some individuals wear them at other times during the day as well.
Tefillin are not donned on Shabbat and the major festivals because these holy days are themselves considered "signs" which render the need of the "sign" of tefillin superfluous.
On the fast day of Tisha B'Av, tefillin are not worn in the morning, as tefillin are considered an "adornment", symbols of beauty, which is deemed inappropriate for a day of mourning. They are worn instead at the afternoon Mincha service. There are those however who have a custom (Jews from Aleppo, Syria) on Tisha B'Av to privately put on tefillin at home and pray privately, say the Amidah and take off the tefillin and go to synagogue to finish the prayers.
Chol HaMoed
On Chol HaMoed (intermediate days) of Pesach and Sukkot, there is a great debate among the early halachic authorities as to whether tefillin should be worn or not. Those who forbid it consider the "sign" of intermediate days as having the same status as the festival itself, making the ritual of tefillin redundant. Others argue and hold that Chol HaMoed does not constitute a "sign" in which case tefillin must be laid. Three customs evolved resulting from the dispute:
To refrain from wearing tefillin: This ruling of the Shulchan Aruch is based on kabbalah and the Zohar which strongly advocate refraining from laying tefillin on Chol HaMoed. This position is maintained by Sephardic Jews and is also the opinion of the Vilna Gaon whose ruling has been universally accepted in Israel.
To wear tefillin without reciting the blessings: This is the opinion of, among others, Rabbi Jacob ben Asher (Ba'al ha-Turim), Rabbi Moses of Coucy (Semag) and Rabbi David HaLevi Segal (Turei Zahav). The advantage of this compromise is that one avoids the transgressions of either not donning tefillin or making a blessing in vain.
To wear tefillin and recite the blessings in an undertone: This opinion, based on Maimonides, is the ruling of Moses Isserles who writes that this is the universally accepted practice among Ashkenazic Jews. However it may have been in his time, this is no longer universally the case, since many Ashkenazim refrain from wearing it or wear it without a blessing during Chol HaMoed.
In light of the conflicting opinions, the Mishna Berura (20th-century) recommends Ashkenazim make the following stipulation before donning tefillin: "If I am obligated to don tefillin I intend to fulfill my obligation and if I am not obligated to don tefillin, my doing so should not be considered as fulfilling any obligation" and that the blessing not be recited.
Laws and customs regarding putting on tefillin
Ashkenazi practice is to put on and remove the arm tefillin while standing in accordance to the Shulchan Aruch, while most Sephardim do so while sitting in accordance with the Ari. All, however, put on and remove the head tefillin while standing. Halacha forbids speaking or being distracted while putting on the tefillin. An Ashkenazi says two blessings when laying tefillin, the first before he ties the arm-tefillin: ...lehani'ach tefillin ("to bind tefillin"), and the second after placing the head tefillin: ...al mitzvat tefillin ("as to the commandment of tefillin"); thereafter, he tightens the head straps and says "Baruch Shem Kovod..." ("blessed be the holy name"). The Sephardic custom is that no blessing is said for the head-tefillin, the first blessing sufficing for both. Sephardim and many members of the Chabad Orthodox movement only recite the blessing on the head-tefillah if they spoke about something not related to tefillin since reciting the blessing on the arm-tefillah.
The arm-tefillin is laid on the inner side of the bare left arm, right arm if one is left handed, two finger breadths above the elbow, so that when the arm is bent the tefillin faces towards the heart. The arm-tefillin is tightened with the thumb, the blessing is said, and the strap is immediately wrapped around the upper arm in the opposite direction it came from in order to keep the knot tight without having to hold it. Some wrap it around the upper arm for less than a full revolution (the bare minimum to keep the knot tight) and then wrap it around the forearm seven times, while others wrap it around the upper arm an additional time before wrapping it around the forearm. Many Ashkenazim wear the knot to be tightened (not to be confused with the knot on the base which is permanently tied and always worn on the inside, facing the heart) on the inside and wrap inward, while Nusach Sephard Ashkenazim and all Sephardim wear it on the outside and wrap outward.
Then the head-tefillin is placed on the middle of the head just above the forehead, so that no part rests below the hairline. A bald or partially bald person's original hairline is used. The knot of the head-tefillin sits at the back of the head, upon the part of the occipital bone that protrudes just above the nape. The two straps of the head-tefillin are brought in front of the shoulders, with their blackened side facing outwards. Now the remainder of the arm-tefillin straps are wound three times around the middle finger and around the hand to form the shape of the Hebrew letter of either a shin () according to Ashkenazim, or a dalet () according to Sephardim. There are various customs regarding winding the strap on the arm and hand. In fact, the arm strap is looped for counter-clockwise wrapping with Ashkenazi tefillin while it is knotted for clockwise wrapping with Sephardic and Hasidic tefillin. On removing the tefillin, the steps are reversed.
Earlier, Yemenite Jews' custom was to put on arm-Tefillah and wind forearm with strap, making knot on wrist not winding a finger, and then put on head-Tefillah all made in sitting position. Later, Yemenite Jews followed by Shulchan Aruch and put on arm-Tefillah, making seven windings on forearm and three on a finger, and then put on head-Tefillah. Because according to the Shulchan Aruch head-Tefillah and arm-Tefillah are two different commandments, if both Tefillin aren’t available, then one can wear the available one alone.
German Jews also did not tie a finger earlier. But later they put on arm-Tefillah with a knot on biceps while standing, then put on head-Tefillah, and after that they wind seven wraps around forearm (counting by the seven Hebrew words of ), and three wraps around a finger.
The newest is Kabbalistic custom of Arizal, to put on arm-Tefillah and wind seven wraps on forearm while sitting, then head-Tefillah standing, after that three wraps around a finger. That is modern day common custom.
Some Western Sephardic families such as the Rodrigues-Pereira family have developed a personalized family wrapping method.
Biblical commandments
See also
Ktav Stam
Tefillin Campaign
References
Further reading
Eider, Shimon D Halachos of Tefillin, Feldheim Publishers (2001)
Emanuel, Moshe Shlomo Tefillin: The Inside Story, Targum Press (1995)
Neiman, Moshe Chanina Tefillin: An Illustrated Guide, Feldheim Publishers (1995)
Rav Pinson, DovBer: Tefillin: Wrapped in Majesty (2013)
External links
Halachic sources and diagrams on Tefillin on a commercial site
Many pictures and explanations about Tefillin, the parshiyot and batim
Educational information and diagrams of tefillin on a commercial site
Short movie about Tefillin producing process
How to Guide to Putting on Tefillin
One who performs all labor and activities with his left hand except for writing, should he be wearing the tefillin shel yad on his right hand?
Illustrations on how to tie the knot (kesher) in the head phylactery, Ashkenazi and Sephardic methods, pp. 627–630 in PDF.
Enhance your knowledge regarding Tefillin at Vaad Meleches HaKodesh
Armwear
Book of Deuteronomy
Book of Exodus
Hebrew calligraphy
Jewish life cycle
Jewish ritual objects
Leather clothing
Positive Mitzvoth
Religious headgear
Uses of leather in Judaism
Hebrew words and phrases in the Hebrew Bible
Hebrew words and phrases in Jewish law
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Civil Affairs (CA) is a term used by both the United Nations and by military institutions (such as the US military), but for different purposes in each case.
Civil Affairs in United Nations Peace Operations
Civil affairs officers in UN peace operations are civilian staff members who are often at the forefront of a mission's interaction with local government officials, civil society, and other civilian partners in the international community. "Civil Affairs components work at the social, administrative and sub-national political levels to facilitate the countrywide implementation of peacekeeping mandates and to support the population and government in strengthening conditions and structures conducive to sustainable peace.",
Civil affairs components are deployed in most peacekeeping missions led by the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations and are also a feature of many special political missions led by the Department of Political Affairs. Civil Affairs
Officers are usually deployed at the local level, where they serve as the link between the UN mission and local authorities and communities. Civil affairs components work countrywide to strengthen the social and civic conditions necessary to consolidate peace processes and are a core function of multi-dimensional peacekeeping operations. As of mid-2013, there were approximately 700 Civil Affairs Officers in 13 UN Peacekeeping Operations worldwide.
Civil Affairs components perform one or more of three core roles, depending on the UN Security Council mandate given to a particular peacekeeping mission. In each role the work of Civil Affairs intersects with, supports and draws upon the work of a variety of other actors. Depending on the mandate, the three core roles are 1) Cross-mission representation, monitoring and facilitation at the local level; 2) Confidence-building, conflict management and support to reconciliation; and 3) Support to the restoration and extension of state authority.
The roots of Civil Affairs in UN Peace Operations
There were precursors for what was later termed civil affairs in Central America and in Cambodia during the 1991 to 1993 period. For example, the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC)’s civil administration component was responsible for the supervision of administrative structures in Cambodia, ranging from public security to finance and information. However, the first component known officially as ”civil affairs” was formed in 1992, with the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR)’s mandate in the former Yugoslavia.
The development and growth of civil affairs work has been a critical element of the development and growth of multidimensional peace operations. With the end of the cold war and the increase in peace operations required to respond to intra-state
conflict, the UN was increasingly asked to tackle complex civilian tasks. These went beyond the quite limited role of liaising with political actors and the “good offices” work that had characterized civilian peacekeepers until that point. Cedric Thornberry, the first Director of Civil Affairs in a UN mission (UNPROFOR in 1992), described this new broader role as follows:
To fully understand the UN’s meaning of “civil affairs” it is first important to appreciate that most of the missions created between 1989 and 1992, especially, were qualitatively different from those which had preceded. It is not just that most were a lot bigger … they were to fulfil many roles additional to the archetypal ones of the 1947-1988 period. The task of the UN
became, not merely to observe, but actively, itself, to bring about peace […] In a rapid sequence of major operations – principally in Namibia, Central America and Cambodia – the UN was required not only to make peace, but to conduct nationwide processes of reconstruction and national reconciliation. Their task was, in broad terms, to harmonize or unify deeply divided societies, long racked by war, and to establish democracy where previously there had been tyranny.
These key themes of helping to unify divided societies and helping states to exert legitimate authority are central to the continuing role of civil affairs today.
During the 1990s small civil affairs components were included in a number of missions, including those in Cyprus, Tajikistan and Georgia. At the end of that decade, major civil affairs components were deployed to Kosovo and East Timor, to implement the
executive mandates that were given to peacekeeping operations at that time. In these cases civil affairs components found themselves mandated to establish effective administrations and to support capacity-building for self-government.
The start of the 2000s saw a surge in the deployment of large civil affairs components to peacekeeping missions. Each one had its own unique focus and contribution to make in implementing peace mandates at the local level, but each was there to
strengthen links to ordinary citizens, as well as to support the development of social conditions conducive to peace and provide an overall facilitation role locally.
Civil Affairs into the Next Decade
In 2008, for the first time, the UN Departments of Peacekeeping Operations and Field Support developed and disseminated a policy directive that defines and conceptualizes the diverse work of civil affairs. This has provided the foundation for the development of this Handbook, as well as training and recruitment profiles to ensure that civil affairs components are strong, well-trained and well planned, ready to address the challenges ahead.
This institutional framework will need to continue to evolve and develop in response to analysis of the ongoing shifts in the global security environment. The World Bank's World Development Report 2011, for example, found that many countries are caught in a mutually reinforcing cycle of violence and poverty. It also found that more and more people are suffering from violence that is linked to lack of governance and rule of law, rather than to outright war. These changes in the global security environment have resulted in mandates increasingly requiring higher levels of civilian engagement on a wide variety of thematic and cross-cutting issues, ranging from governance, rule
of law and institution-building through to early peacebuilding and protection of civilians from threats of violence.
For peacekeeping, of particular note among these emerging issues is the protection of civilians, which has increasingly become a major part of the international discourse around intervention. This was demonstrated in the international dialogue on both
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and Côte d'Ivoire in early 2011 and earlier in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Darfur. Protection of civilians has also increasingly become a specific mandated task, after inclusion in eight UN peacekeeping mandates by the Security Council. It can be expected that civil affairs will be at the forefront of an integrated and coordinated approach to mandate delivery on this issue, in terms of civilian and government engagement on the ground.
Meanwhile, as many peacekeeping operations mandated as part of a surge during the 2000s are starting to draw down their military presence, the UN continues to evolve, transitioning towards an increased focus on the civilian dimension of ”peacebuilding” and its role in avoidance of a return to conflict. Here, civil affairs has a key role to play –
within both peacekeeping and political missions – by ensuring that efforts to mitigate conflict drivers and to engage and support local government and communities have meaning on the ground outside the capitals in which the UN is deployed. A continued focus on local presence in these contexts is key if the UN is to ensure that its work genuinely responds to the priorities and concerns of ordinary citizens within postconflict countries, thereby helping to ensure their consent and to create durable conditions for peace.
These evolving roles, and the range of partners working in related fields and capacities, all create the need – and potential – for increased partnership and cooperation, to ensure that mandate aims progress effectively. Similarly, as these complex and
multidimensional trends for the UN response to conflict emerge, the identification and provision of appropriate and available resources to respond to them effectively must also evolve. As indicated in the report of the Senior Advisory Group on Civilian
capacity in the aftermath of conflict, these challenges will require a nimble, harmonized and, where necessary, specialized civilian response, as well as a focus on partnership across organizations such as the World Bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and regional organizations such as the African Union (AU).
One of the major issues identified in the review of civilian capacities is the need to be able to better identify and support national capacities. As the review states: “The United Nations has seen success in humanitarian operations and peacekeeping, built on a strong partnership with Member States. But the international community has had less success in supporting and enabling the national capacities that are essential for an enduring peace.”19 Civil affairs components have a key role to play in identifying and supporting national capacities, within civil society and local government, including through helping to ensure that voices from the local level are heard in nationally led peacebuilding processes.
Overall, in the evolving environment of international peace and security, a key asset of civil affairs components is their agility and their capacity to respond flexibly to the wide range of demands and expectations within Security Council mandates.
One aspect of this flexibility is their ability to direct their focus depending on the availability and presence of other international partners at the local level, particularly those with expertise in highly specialized areas. Civil affairs can play an important role in mobilizing these partners in places and at times where they are most needed. This is a cost-efficient model, given the prohibitive and unnecessary expense of having a full complement of specialized expertise available in each locality around the country at all times. It also helps to ensure that local-level support is need-driven, rather than simply
provided because a particular service or resource happens to be available.
Civil affairs can be expected to remain at the forefront of the UN response to conflict, and to building the processes, structures, relationships and trust required to assist countries and communities to break the cycle of violence.
Core Role 1: Cross-mission representation, monitoring and facilitation at the local level
Cross-mission representation, monitoring and facilitation are performed in most missions and usually throughout the life cycle of the mission. In many situations civil affairs is the most important interface between the UN mission and the community,
not just in terms of the local/regional authorities but also civil society in its broadest sense. Through its multiple interactions with the local population, civil affairs provides the mission with the pulse of the nation beyond the high-level contacts with government and political party leadership. This helps to nuance the mission's understanding of the sociopolitical climate, allowing analysis to move beyond the carefully articulated positions of national spokespeople and representatives, and to ensure that regional and local considerations are integrated into national negotiations or priority-setting processes.
In return, local communities and groups have an opportunity through civil affairs to access the mission, which they may perceive as distant and militarized. Civil affairs can be a bridge, which means that groups who previously would not have dared to approach the heavily guarded mission gates and ask for a discussion with the mission field leadership, civilian or military, can now approach the UN as guests rather than supplicants. The mission is inevitably enriched by this kind of dialogue and Civil Affairs Officers are often the best facilitators of it.
Core Role 2: Conflict management, confidence-building and support to the development of political space
Conflict management, confidence-building and supporting the development of political space are integral to UN peacekeeping and central to civil affairs work. Through this role, civil affairs actively supports the development of social and civic
conditions conducive to sustainable peace, and promotes popular engagement and confidence in the peace process. While often the lead component in this area of work, civil affairs usually undertakes these activities in partnership with other mission components, as well as UN agencies and local and international partners. Within the mission, police and military components and other civilian components, such as political affairs, public information and human rights, may all contribute in one way or another to objectives in this area.
Core Role 3: Support to the restoration and extension of state authority
Restoration of state authority is increasingly recognized as a key element of the stabilization of fragile states and a critical requirement for keeping and building peace. This is clearly reflected in many of the recent UN Security Council resolutions including, for example, Security Council resolution 1974 (2011), which calls for the Government of Afghanistan “to improve governance” and “to pursue continued legislative and public administration reform in order to ensure good governance”. In the case of Haiti, meanwhile, Security Council resolution 1892 (2009) “calls upon MINUSTAH, consistent with its mandate, to continue such support to strengthen self-sustaining state institutions, especially outside Port-au-Prince, including through the provision of specialized expertise to key ministries and institutions”.
In exceptional circumstances, the Security Council has also authorized peacekeeping missions to temporarily assume the administrative and legislative functions of the state through provision of a transitional administration, as was the case in Kosovo and TimorLeste. However, it is important to emphasize the specificity of the circumstances under which these two missions were established and the fact that executive mandates are generally seen as a last resort in situations where a territory is virtually deprived of any functioning state institutions.
U.S. Military Civil Affairs
According to the U.S. Army, "The force that the Army employs to compete and win within the population is Civil Affairs." With their knowledge of governance and diplomacy, Civil Affairs soldiers are the principal experts in assisting a commander on the conduct of civil-military operations, and the sole force trained and tasked to conduct Civil Affairs Operations.
All Active Component Army Civil Affairs personnel undergo rigorous assessment and selection, followed by extensive training in foreign languages, advanced survivability skills, and negotiations techniques in order to operate autonomously as a small team, in any kind of environment, to achieve strategic end states. A Civil Affairs Team of 2 to 4 soldiers will often be the only U.S. military personnel in an entire country, working for the U.S. ambassador as well as their military chain of command.
Reserve Component Civil Affairs personnel support the conventional military in post-conflict stabilization.
The fundamental role of Civil Affairs forces is to build networks of formal and informal leaders to accomplish important missions in diplomatically or politically sensitive areas. SOF Civil Affairs operate as reconnaissance elements within the population, performing their core task of Civil Reconnaissance. Civil Information Management, Helping to provide Foreign Humanitarian Assistance, and Nation Assistance. They achieve effects by conducting Civil Engagements, applying knowledge of governance, economics, and politics to affect human behavior in the context of military operations or in support of strategic objectives.
History of US Military Civil Affairs
Throughout U.S. history the U.S. Army was involved in Civil Affairs and civic action. Civil Affairs has its organizational origins in military governments that were and are established when a country is occupied during war, but also encompasses the wide variety of mission sets focused on or leveraging the broader population of a given area in times of peace or war.
United States Army
Civil Affairs has a lineage that traces back to Lewis and Clark's Corps of Discovery. U.S. Army Civil Affairs forces are split between the Active and Reserve components.
Active Component Civil Affairs
Approximately 10% of Army Civil Affairs personnel are active component soldiers assigned to the 95th Civil Affairs Brigade, the 83rd Civil Affairs Battalion or a variety of Special Operations, Joint, diplomatic, or conventional Army staff, planning, and policy positions. Active Component Civil Affairs soldiers are assessed, selected, and trained to conduct Civil Affairs Operations in hostile or austere environments in any stage of conflict.
The 95th Civil Affairs Brigade and its five subordinate battalions are all stationed at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, which is a rapidly deployable unit that only supports the Army Special Operations Command. Each of the five battalions is regionally aligned to one of the five U.S. combatant commands; SOUTHCOM, CENTCOM, EUCOM, AFRICOM and INDOPACOM. The Civil Affairs soldiers in these units receive extensive language and regional instruction as part of their training pathway and are assigned to the battalion affiliated with the respective region they are trained for. Once these soldiers arrive to their assigned units they receive advanced training in a variety of fields, preparing them for the enhanced level of responsibility that they will have working on small, autonomous teams.
The 83rd Civil Affairs Battalion is one of the few battalions in the Army with a global mission set. Falling under the command of the U.S.Army XVIII Airborne Corps and located at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, the 83rd Civil Affairs Battalion provides support to special operations and conventional military missions in all five combatant commands, as well as diplomatic, interagency, and foreign partner organizations. As Active Component Civil Affairs soldiers, personnel assigned to the 83rd Civil Affairs Battalion undergo the same rigorous selection and advanced training as those in the 95th Civil Affairs Brigade, and individuals will often rotate between both units.
Reserve Component Civil Affairs
Approximately 70% of the Civil Affairs personnel come from the United States Army Reserve and usually support active duty Army units. Using reservists allows military commanders to utilize skills of soldiers with experience in professions needed to manage and restore civilian areas impacted by military operations. This includes lawyers, city managers, economists, veterinarians, teachers, policemen, and other occupations who have valuable skills in restoration of governance and essential services in a war torn area. As a result, they deploy with certifications and experiences that become difficult to duplicate by the active duty forces. Additionally, reserve civil affairs planners attend the stability, security, and development in complex operations course taught at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, California.
Reserve Civil Affairs units assigned to United States Army Civil Affairs and Psychological Operations Command (Airborne) are task organized in four reserve Civil Affairs Commands (CACOMs) which integrate at the strategic and operational level with theater commands and joint/combined task forces. Civil Affairs brigades comprise these CACOMS and integrate at the corps. At the tactical level, maneuver divisions are augmented by the Civil Affairs battalions. The four CACOMs are the 350th CACOM, the 351st CACOM, the 352nd CACOM, and the 353rd CACOM.
Two other Army Reserve Civil Affairs units are assigned to other theaters of operation. The 322nd Civil Affairs Brigade is based in Hawaii and falls under operational control of United States Army Pacific Command and the 9th Mission Support Command. The 361st Civil Affairs Brigade is based in Germany and falls under operational control of United States Army Europe and the 7th Civil Support Command.
Within the United States Army, reserve civil affairs units are administered through United States Army Civil Affairs and Psychological Operations Command (Airborne), or USACAPOC(A), a subordinate of U.S. Army Reserve Command. USACAPOC(A) contains Psychological Operations (PO) and Civil Affairs (CA) units, consisting of Army Reserve elements. USACAPOC(A) was founded in 1985. It is headquartered at Fort Bragg, North Carolina.
On 1 October 2006, USACAPOC(A) realigned from the United States Army Special Operations Command (USASOC) to the United States Army Reserve Command (USARC). Training and doctrine relating to USACAPOC(A) is provided by the United States Army John Fitzgerald Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School (USAJFKSWCS) at Fort Bragg, NC.
U.S. Army Civil Affairs training
Reserve Civil Affairs
Initial Entry Training (IET)
Upon completion of basic training, a Soldier slotted in a Civil Affairs Unit will attend the 10-week Civil Affairs Advanced Individual Training (AIT) course. The 5th Battalion of the 1st Special Warfare Training Group (Airborne) is responsible for the training. Both Civil Affairs and Psychological Operations trainees are assigned to Alpha Company. Upon completion of the 10-week course, (the original 13-week course was lengthened to 15 weeks in 2008, then shortened to 10 weeks in 2010) the student will be able to interpret U.S. and foreign maps; conduct civil, governmental, humanitarian, and defense assistance; apply organizational and leadership skills required in field operations; and conduct research on documents and other aspects of urban and regional studies. The instruction is conducted by lecture, discussion, and practical exercises such as map reading, land navigation, communications, and civil affairs planning.
Reserve enlisted soldiers who reclassify to Civil Affairs must attend the Civil Affairs Reclassification Course which is offered at several posts throughout the country. Currently, training for combat, combat support, and combat service support is organized through regional training commands. The six Civil Affairs schoolhouses report to the 3rd Brigade (CA/PO) 100th Division, located at Fort Totten, New York. These units are the 5th Battalion (CA), 95th Regiment, of Lubbock, Texas; 5th Battalion (CA), 98th Regiment of Fort Dix, New Jersey; the 12th Battalion (CA), 100th Regiment of Fort Knox, Kentucky; the 4th Battalion (CA), 104th Regiment, of Mountain View, California; 108th Regiment of Fort Bragg, North Carolina.
The American Council on Education recommends college credit be awarded in the lower-division baccalaureate or associate's degree category two semester hours in map-reading, three in public administration, and one in military science for this training. The soldier is awarded the Military Occupational Specialty designation of 38B10. All Active Component enlisted will attend airborne school and language school, while Reservists may attend these courses at a later date through their units.
Active Component Civil Affairs
Active Component enlisted Soldiers and officers in the rank of specialist, sergeant, and staff sergeant or 1LT and CPT who have a valid security clearance must attend and pass a rigorous selection and assessment course at Camp MacKall, NC. Those soldiers selected for Civil Affairs must attend the 48-week Qualification Course. During this course, Soldiers received advanced training in reconnaissance, diplomacy, foreign languages, and survival, with the option of attending the Special Operations Medic Course, culminating in a large-scale training exercise that exposes students to realistic operational situations and environmental elements. Upon graduating into the operating force, Civil Affairs soldiers continue their advanced training between missions, advanced survival courses, higher-level planning courses, enhanced language training, non-standard weapons courses, off-road mobility and evasive driving courses, and many others from within the Special Operations community and across the interagency field of government.
United States Marine Corps
The Marine Corps currently has four permanent CA units: 1st Civil Affairs Group (1st CAG), 2nd CAG, 3d CAG and 4th CAG, all in the Force Headquarters Group of the Marine Forces Reserve. The 5th Civil Affairs Group and 6th CAG were created provisionally in 2005-06 for Operation Iraqi Freedom, but each were stood down after one deployment to Iraq. Artillery units augmented by Marines from the CAGs also deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan in 2006-07 to serve in a civil affairs capacity. In 2010, the Marine Corps added an active duty civil affairs detachment at each of the three Marine Expeditionary Forces. The Marine Corps assigns civil affairs as a primary military specialty for enlisted and additional specialty for officers. The Marine Corps uses its own civil affairs doctrine and runs the Marine Corps Civil-Military Operations School (MCCMOS) at Marine Corps Base Quantico to train civil affairs Marines. MCCMOS also has career progression courses and MOSs for CMO Planners (officers) and CMO Chiefs (SNCOs). Additionally MCCMOS has a Stability Assessment Framework Course and a Civil Affairs Integration Course.
There is some history to the Corps and Civil Affairs. "During WWII the Civil Affairs people of the 2nd Marine Division were behind the construction of Camp Churo on Tinian. They had the 18th Seabees build the camp for the 11,000 Japanese and Korean civilians that were on the island when it was taken".
United States Navy
The Navy Expeditionary Combat Command (NECC) officially established its newest command, Maritime Civil Affairs Group (MCAG) during a ceremony at Naval Amphibious Base Little Creek on 30 March 2007. In an effort to consolidate staffs and resources, CNO Notice 5400 of 9 July 2009 redesignated MCAG and Expeditionary Training Groups as Maritime Civil Affairs and Security Training (MCAST) Command and relocated the command to Virginia Beach. MCAST Command officially stood up 1 October 2009.
Maritime Civil Affairs Teams (MCATs) lessen the impact of military operations imposed during peace and periods of declared war, and increase the impact of humanitarian civil assistance (HCA) and contingency operations in support of theater security cooperation plans.
MCA forces provide assistance with the restoration of local infrastructure in the aftermath of military operations, natural and man-made disasters and regional engagement activities in order to achieve shared mutual interests.
In order to maximize its effectiveness, each deployed MCAT is regionally focused and trained with the necessary language skills and cultural awareness. The teams are responsible for streamlining and coordinating the efforts of the Department of Defense, Department of State, and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).
Each Maritime Civil Affairs sailor is responsible for shaping the regional perception of the U.S. and gaining the support of the local populace, preventing it from being influenced by forces of instability, such as terrorism, piracy, crime and natural disaster.
MCASTC has been disestablished.
United States Air Force
The Air Force has deployed units in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom that have directly integrated into Army Civil Affairs Battalions. Such units include the 16th Squadron, 732nd Expeditionary Air Wing (Civil Affairs/Public Works) which was assigned to the 411th Civil Affairs Battalion. During the 402nd Civil Affairs Battalion deployment to Iraq in April 2006 to April 2007, members of the United States Air Force provided Airmen for logistical support for Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC) and for the Provincial Reconstruction Teams throughout their area of operations.
Other organizations
New York State Guard
In the New York State Guard, one of approximately 25 states with state defense forces, (not to be confused with the New York Army National Guard), the term 'Civil Affairs' has a slightly different connotation. The Civil Affairs units include lawyers, judges, engineers, doctors and other professionals and paraprofessionals committed to voluntary, part-time military service in support of the New York National Guard and U.S. Military Reserve Units from all branches. When soldiers are called up for duty, the New York Guard makes sure their legal needs are attended to so that they can serve with the peace of mind of knowing that their affairs are in order. Civil Affairs soldiers draft their wills, prepare powers of attorney and other necessary documents, and advise them of their rights as soldiers under federal law and as citizens of the United States. There are five units, one in each brigade of the Guard, including the 5th Civil Affairs Regiment, Yonkers, New York; 7th Civil Affairs Regiment, New York City; 13th Civil Affairs Regiment, Garden City, New York; 23rd Civil Affairs Regiment, Latham, New York; and the 209th Civil Affairs Regiment, Buffalo, New York.
Civil affairs worldwide
United Kingdom
The British Army has a Civil Affairs Group, formed in 1997 and consisting primarily of Territorial Army personnel. Most personnel are members of the Royal Engineers and the group is administered by the Central Volunteer Headquarters Royal Engineers (CVHQ RE), based at Gibraltar Barracks, in Minley, Surrey. Members of the group have been deployed operationally in Bosnia, Kosovo, Albania, Macedonia, East Timor, Sierra Leone, Afghanistan and Iraq. In Afghanistan, the tactical level unit was called Military Stabilisation Support Team, and they usually worked for the Provincial Reconstruction Team.
The British Army first formed CA units in 1943, and by August 1944 there were 3,600 CA personnel in France with the 21st Army Group.
The Netherlands
The Royal Netherlands Army's Civil Affairs unit is 1 CIMIC Battalion. The staff consist of regular soldiers. Other personnel are reservists with a civilian occupation. Members of the battalion have been deployed to Bosnia; Macedonia; Africa and Afghanistan. The unit is, as of early 2009, based in Apeldoorn.
Civil affairs in popular media
A Bell for Adano (movie) and A Bell for Adano (Pulitzer Prize winning novel by John Hersey) depict a U.S. military government officer in occupied Italy during World War II.
The Teahouse of the August Moon (play), The Teahouse of the August Moon (novel), and The Teahouse of the August Moon (film) depict U.S. military government personnel in occupied Okinawa during World War II. These were also adapted into the 1970 musical Lovely Ladies, Kind Gentlemen.
Three Kings (1999 film) the characters Barlow, Vig, and Elgin wear the USACAPOC patch, and Barlow identifies himself as a Civil Affairs Reservist.
Footnotes
References
Sorley, Lewis, A Better War: The Unexamined Victories and Final Tragedy of America's Last Years in Vietnam,
King, R. Alan, Twice Armed: an American soldier's battle for hearts and minds in Iraq St. Paul, MN : Zenith Press, 2006. plus Book Lecture at the Pritzker Military Library on June 12, 2008
Cleveland, Charles T., Benjamin Jensen, Susan Bryant, and Arnel P. David, Military Strategy in the 21st Century: People, Connectivity, and Competition New York, NY : Cambria Press, 2018. Book Site
External links
U.S. Army Civil Affairs & Psychological Operations Command (Airborne), U.S. Army Reserve Official Website
Civil Affairs Association
US Army Field Manual 41-10 Civil Affairs Operations
Friends Of Civil Affairs (FOCA) – a non-profit organization dedicated to the soldiers and families of 95th Civil Affairs Brigade (Airborne), United States Army Special Operations Command (USASOC).
Military science
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Terengganu (; Terengganu Malay: Tranung, Jawi: ترڠݢانو), formerly spelled Trengganu or Tringganu, is a sultanate and constitutive state of federal Malaysia. The state is also known by its Arabic honorific, Dāru l-Īmān ("Abode of Faith"). The coastal city of Kuala Terengganu which stands at the mouth of the broad Terengganu River is both the state and royal capital as well as the largest city in Terengganu. There are many islands located close to the coast of Terengganu state, such as Perhentian Islands and Redang Island.
Etymology
There are several theories on the origin of the name "Terengganu". One theory attributes the name's origin to terang ganu, Malay for 'bright rainbow'. Another story, said to have been originally narrated by the ninth Sultan of Terengganu, Baginda Omar, tells of a party of hunters from Pahang roving and hunting in the area of what is now southern Terengganu. One of the hunters spotted a big animal fang lying on the ground. A fellow party member asked to which animal did the fang belong. The hunter, not knowing which animal, simply answered taring anu (Malay: 'fang of something'). The party later returned to Pahang with a rich hoard of game, fur and sandalwood, which impressed their neighbours. They asked the hunters where did they source their riches, to which they replied, from the land of taring anu, which later evolved into Terengganu. Terengganu was called Trangkanu () by the Siamese when it was under their influence. Terengganuans usually pronounce Terengganu as Tranung or Ganu with the G often being emphasized.
Chinese naming
The traditional Chinese name for Terengganu has been "丁加奴" (Pinyin: dīngjiānú), which is a direct transcription of the Malay name. However, in recent years, the Chinese community in Terengganu has raised objections to the name, citing that the characters used loosely translate to "giving birth to a child who will become a slave" (Chinese: 添丁加做奴). Therefore, they successfully petitioned the regulatory commission for Chinese language in Malaysia to change the Chinese name for the state to "登嘉楼" (Pinyin: dēngjiālóu), which can be loosely translated to "aspiring/stepping up to a higher level", in September 2004. It is worth noting, however, that the new name was in unofficial use by the state's Chinese community for at least 30 years before its official adoption.
Certain segments of the Chinese community opposed the name change, citing the fact that the new name contains too many character strokes, making it much more difficult to write. They have proposed to revert the name to the version used before 2004, but with the word "奴" (slave, which was mainly the cause of the controversy) to the similar sounding, but more positive "努" (perseverance).
History
Terengganu's location by the South China Sea ensured that it was on trade routes since ancient times. The earliest written reports on the area that is now Terengganu were by Chinese merchants and seafarers in the early 6th century A.D. Like other Malay states, Terengganu practised a Hindu–Buddhist culture combined with animist traditional beliefs for hundreds of years before the arrival of Islam. Under the influence of Srivijaya, Terengganu traded extensively with the Majapahit Empire, the Khmer Empire and especially the Chinese.
Terengganu was the first Malay state to receive Islam, as attested to by the Terengganu Inscription Stone with Arabic inscriptions found in Kuala Berang, the capital of the district of Hulu Terengganu. The inscribed date which is incomplete due to damage can be read as various dates from 702 to 789 AH (1303 to 1387 CE). Terengganu became a vassal state of Malacca, but retained considerable autonomy with the emergence of Johor Sultanate.
Terengganu emerged as an independent sultanate in 1724. The first sultan was Tun Zainal Abidin, the younger brother of a former sultan of Johor, and Johor strongly influenced Terengganu politics through the 18th century. However, in the book Tuhfat al-Nafis, the author, Raja Ali Haji, mentions that in the year 1708, Tun Zainal Abidin was installed as the Sultan of Terengganu by Daeng Menampuk - also known as Raja Tua - under the rule of Sultan Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah.
In the 19th century, Terengganu became a vassal state of the Thai Rattanakosin Kingdom, and sent tribute every year called bunga mas. Under Thai rule, Terengganu prospered, and was largely left alone by the authorities in Bangkok. The period also witnessed the existence of a Terengganuan Vassal of Besut Darul Iman.
The terms of the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 saw power over Terengganu transferred from Siam to Great Britain. A British advisor was appointed to the sultan in 1919, and Terengganu become one of the Unfederated Malay States. The move was highly unpopular locally, and in 1928 the British used military force to suppress a popular uprising.
During World War II, Japan occupied Terengganu and transferred sovereignty over the state back to Siam, which had been renamed Thailand in 1939, along with Kelantan, Kedah, and Perlis. After the defeat of Japan, British control over these Malay states was reestablished. Terengganu became a member of the Federation of Malaya in 1948, then a state of a sovereign Malaya in 1957, which became Malaysia in 1963.
Following decades of rule by the Barisan Nasional coalition, the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) came to power in 1999, making Terengganu the second state in Malaysia to be ruled by the Islamist party (the first being neighbouring Kelantan). Terengganu was recaptured in the 2004 Malaysian general election by the Barisan Nasional, which continued to govern it until the 2018 Malaysian general election.
Geography
Terengganu is situated in eastern Peninsular Malaysia, and is bordered in the northwest by Kelantan, the southwest by Pahang, and the east by the South China Sea. Several outlying islands, including Pulau Perhentian, Pulau Kapas and Pulau Redang, are also a part of the state. The state has a total area of .
Demographics
Terengganu has a population of 1,015,776 , which increase to 1,153,500 in 2015. In 2006, Malays make up 94.7% of the population and Chinese, 2.6%, while Indians 0.2% and other ethnic groups comprise the remainder, 2.4%. According to the 2010 census, the ethnic composition of Terengganu is 97% Bumiputras, 2.6% Chinese, 0.2% Indian, and 0.1% others.
In 2000, the state's population was only 48.7% urban; the majority lived in rural areas. By the 2005 census, the proportions had changed significantly, with 51% of the population living in urban areas and 49% in the rural areas.
Ethnic groups
Terengganu is one of Malaysia's most homogeneous states along with Kelantan. More than 95% of the population is ethnically Malay, but there are other ethnic groups that live in the state as well including Chinese (mostly Hoklo), Indians (mostly Tamils), Siamese and Orang Aslis (Batek and Semaq Beri).
Malays
Malays are the largest ethnic group in the state with more than 94% of the population. The Malays in Terengganu are distinct from Malays of other parts of the country, they have unique cultures, traditions and spoken language. There are two sub-groups of Malays in the state:
Terengganu Malays
Terengganu Malays are the majority Malay sub-group in the state. They are the dominant Malay sub-group in all districts of Terengganu except for Besut and northern Setiu. They habitually speak Terengganu Malay language which is distinct but closely related to Kelantanese variety in the north. Terengganu Malays are also known for their rich cultures and traditions, one of the most well known is the Ulek Mayang.
Besut Malays
Besut Malays are predominantly found in the district of Besut and northern Setiu. Despite being Terengganu citizens, they are ethnically, linguistically and culturally closer to, and still maintain strong ties with, Kelantan. Most Malays in Besut and northern Setiu speaks only Kelantanese, although those who have long been exposed to other districts of Terengganu can speak Terengganuan as well.
Chinese
The Chinese Terengganuan form the largest minority ethnic group in the state. They are mostly Hoklo by ancestry and speak a dialect of Hokkien. Unlike other parts of Malaysia, the Chinese in Terengganu are much more assimilated; they speak fluent local Malay (Terengganuan in most parts of Terengganu and Kelantanese in Besut) and also share a similar lifestyle. They also have a local Peranakan culture known as "Mek Awang" which is a mixture of Chinese (mostly Hoklo) and Malay (Terengganu Malay) cultures, which can be seen in their cuisine and clothing and their language as well.
Indian
Indians in Terengganu are mostly Tamils and the majority are adherents of Hinduism, although a minority follow Islam. Like their Chinese counterparts, the Indian community in Terengganu are highly assimilated, with many fluent in Terengganu Malay along with Tamil, Standard Malay and English. There is one major Hindu temple in Kuala Terengganu. Most Indians in Terengganu live in urban areas like Kuala Terengganu. A very small number of Malayalee community exist in Terengganu.
Siamese
The Siamese in Terengganu maintain a small but well-organised community. They can be found in Besut and few in Setiu and Kuala Terengganu. Physically, there is little difference between Malays and Siamese other than their name and religion. Their native language is Southern Thai language but most speak Kelantanese as large numbers of them live in Besut. One of the most well known Terengganuan Siamese is Siri Neng Buah, currently the president of the Malaysian Siamese Association.
Orang Asli
The Orang Aslis are the indigenous peoples of Peninsular Malaysia. In Terengganu they can be found mostly in Hulu Terengganu and Besut districts. There are two Orang Asli ethnic groups in Terengganu, the Semaq Beris lives near Lake Kenyir or other parts of the district, they belong to Senoi group. Besides the Semaq Beris, there are also Batek people, a Semang ethnic group mostly found in interior parts of Terengganu, especially in Taman Negara area or in other parts of Terengganu. Both Semaq Beris and Bateks still maintain their semi-nomadic lifestyle although some now lives in permanent homes. Both are also speakers of Austroasiatic languages.
Languages
The people of Terengganu generally speak Coastal Terengganu Malay, which is distinct from standard Malay and Kelantan-Pattani Malay, except for those in Besut district, Perhentian Islands and some parts of Setiu where Kelantanese are more dominant. Those that live in Hulu Terengganu had their own distinct variant but closely related to Coastal Terengganu Malay. Chinese Terengganuans are predominantly Hoklo people and thus mostly speak Hokkien as their first language, although a number of Mandarin speakers are increasing. Indians in Terengganu mostly speak Malaysian Tamil. There is also an Orang Asli languages such as Batek and Semaq Beri, spoken in inland parts of Terengganu and is part of the Austroasiatic language family.
Religion
According to the 2010 Census, the population of Terengganu is 96.9% Muslim, 2.5% Buddhist, 0.2% Hindu, 0.2% Christian, and 0.2% follower of Chinese folk religions or unknown affiliation.
Statistics from the 2010 Census indicate that 91.4% of the Chinese population are identified as Buddhists, with significant minorities of adherents identifying as Christians (4.7%), Chinese folk religions (1.6%) and Muslims (1.4%). The majority of the Indian population are Hindus (69.8%), with a significant minorities of numbers identifying as Muslims (18.1%), Christians (5.3%) and Buddhists (4.9%). The non-Malay bumiputera community are predominantly Muslims (56.8%), with significant minorities identifying as Christians (33.2%) and Buddhists (5.6%). All Malays are Muslims.
Politics and government
Constitution
The Constitution of Terengganu came into force in 1911. It has a supplement that came into force in 1959. The official English title for the 1911 constitution is "The Constitution of the Way of Illustrious Sovereignty". The 1959 constitutional supplement is divided into two sections. The sections' official English language titles are "The Laws of the Constitution of Terengganu (First Part)" and "The Laws of the Constitution of Terengganu (Second Part)"
The Sultan of Terengganu
The Sultan is the constitutional ruler of the state of Terengganu. The State Constitution proclaims that the Sultan is "the Ruler and fountain head of all authority of government in the State and Territory of Terengganu", the Head of the Religion of Islam in the state and the source of all titles, honours and dignities in the state. He is also vested with the Executive Power of the State. The hereditary Sultan of Terengganu since 1998 has been Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin.
Regency
As per both the Malaysian and state constitutions, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong or King of Malaysia cannot simultaneously reign as federal Head of State and ruler of his own state. This means that a state ruler must appoint a regent to govern in his absence. Between 2006 and 2011, the current Sultan served as the 13th King of Malaysia, naming his eldest son and heir apparent, Tengku Muhammad Ismail, as Regent (Pemangku Raja) of Terengganu. As he was only eight years old upon his father's election, the young Prince co-reigned with a three-member Regency Advisory Council (Majlis Penasihat Pemangku Raja) headed by Raja Tengku Baderulzaman (the King's younger brother) as dictated by syarat (2) Fasal 16 AA Undang-Undang Bagi Diri Kerajaan Terengganu (Bab Yang Kedua) of the Terengganu State Constitution.
Chief Ministers
When Terengganu was an absolute monarchy, the Chief Minister was selected by the Sultan. Since the declaration of independence of Malaysia (then called Tanah Melayu) and the first general election, the Chief Minister has been the State Assembly (ADUN) member elected by a majority of all State Assembly members, who are themselves elected by universal adult suffrage of the citizens of their constituencies. Below is the list of the Chief Ministers of Terengganu from 1925.
Note:* The state Government formed by PAS after the general election in 1959 was turned over to Perikatan in Nov 1961, due to a vote of no confidence in the State Assembly and the fact that two PAS assemblymen switched parties
2008 Menteri Besar appointment crisis
Following the ruling party UMNO's return to power over Terengganu after winning 24 out of 32 seats in the 2008 general elections, Prime Minister (PM) Abdullah Ahmad Badawi put forth the reappointment of Datuk Seri Idris Jusoh to a second term as Menteri Besar. In what political analysts described as a possible constitutional crisis, trouble began to precipitate after the Sultan of Terengganu, Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin, who is also the then Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King) of Malaysia refused to re-appoint and swear in Idris as Menteri Besar. Similar problems occurred in the state of Perlis where the PM's choice was also rejected, in which the latter eventually gave in to its Sultan.
The Sultan of Terengganu appointed Ahmad Said instead for the job, with the Regency Advisory Council handing him the letter of appointment. The PM claimed that the appointment of Ahmad Said was unconstitutional as it went against the wishes of the assemblymen and the Prime Minister's office who have supported Idris Jusoh candidacy for Menteri Besar.
In spite of threats to strip Ahmad Said of his party membership "for disobeying the leadership", he went to the office in Wisma Darul Iman to begin the first day of his new appointment on 25 March 2008. The party announced earlier that they made good on their promise to remove his membership, which technically disqualifies him to be appointed as Menteri Besar in the first place. The ruling also planned to vote down the sultan's choice through a motion of no-confidence by 22 UMNO state assemblymen.
The opposition party Parti Islam SeMalaysia in the meantime promised that its assemblymen would support Ahmad Said as Menteri Besar.
On 26 March 2008 however, PM Abdullah Ahmad Badawi and Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin met at Istana Negara to resolve the deadlock. The Prime Minister reversed his stance and decided to accept the King's appointment of Ahmad Said as Chief Minister of Terengganu. He also apologised to the King for the public spat over the appointment of the Menteri Besar, explaining that there was no intention to disparage or humiliate the royal household.
The apparent backdown was due to threat that the royal household would be prepared to dissolve the state assembly if the motion of no-confidence was initiated against Ahmad Said, which would trigger another election in what is already a climate of discontent towards the ruling party and the possibility of dissenting assemblymen defecting to the opposition.
The UMNO Supreme Council proceeded to endorse Ahmad Said as the new Menteri Besar of Terengganu. With the resolution of the impasse, Ahmad Said expressed his gratefulness on his appointment and paid tribute to Idris, an old friend he has known since university, for the work he has done for the Terengganu people so far and to seek his advice. After the swearing in ceremony where the duties are handed over from Idris, he also expressed hopes in moving on to discharge his responsibility to the people and eradicate poverty within the state.
Administrative divisions
Terengganu is divided into 8 districts (daerah), 99 mukims, and 7 local governments.
On 18 September 2014, it was announced that the Kuala Terengganu District sub-district of Kuala Nerus would become Terengganu's 8th district, to be called Kuala Nerus by former Prime Minister Najib Razak.
Economy
Terengganu used to be Malaysia's poorest state until oil and gas were discovered off its coastline not too long ago. Terengganu's main industry now is petroleum and gas. There are huge petrochemical complexes near Paka and Kerteh, involving many joint ventures between the Malaysian national oil company, Petronas, and foreign multinationals. Tourism and fishing are also major industries in Terengganu, a state with a long coastline. Agriculture also remains important, with banana, rambutan, durian, watermelon, and various other fruits and vegetables available in season. Terengganu was traditionally famous for boat-building, with highly decorated carved wooden boats called bangau to be found in the harbour of every village and town in days not so long gone by, before electric motorboats became standard equipment for the state's fishermen.
Culture and attractions
Terengganu did not receive many Indian or Chinese migrants, and therefore Malay cultural influences predominate. Traditional pursuits such as kite-flying contests, top-spinning contests, and traditional arts & crafts, such as batik and songket are still very much alive. The people of Terengganu have always had a reputation for being socially conservative and devout Muslims.
The major tourist attractions in the state include: Kuala Terengganu, the capital; Islamic Heritage Park, Tasik Kenyir, a large artificial lake; Sekayu Waterfalls; Kuala Ibai Lagoons; Batu Burok Beach, Kemasik Beach, Rantau Abang, Setiu Wetlands, Marang, Chukai town and several offshore islands such as Pulau Redang, Pulau Lang Tengah, and Pulau Kapas, and the Pulau Perhentian, which attract beachgoers and snorkelers because of their picture perfect beaches. Many travellers find the relatively rural and tranquil atmosphere in the state conducive to a relaxing holiday.
Terengganu has recently been known internationally as the host of Monsoon Cup, which was first held in 2005 and then became an annual national sporting event. The event brought millions of ringgit of investment into the state from the private sectors and Malaysian Government. Tourists flocked to Kuala Terengganu and Duyong to witness this event, held during the monsoon season, which had previously been low season for tourism in Terengganu.
Culture
Terengganu, along with Kelantan, is known as the cradle of the Malay civilization in Peninsular Malaysia. There are various traditional dances in the state such as the Ulek Mayang, Rodat, Saba, Balai, and Nur Sakti; some even predate the arrival of Islam in the region. Terengganu is also one of few states to adopt the gamelan as part of their traditional theatre (after Riau and Pahang); the Terengganu gamelan has developed a distinct identity from Sundanese and Javanese gamelan. The gamelan was originally brought to Pahang and later to Terengganu, and was played only during royal occasions. Today the gamelan is part of the state's cultural heritage.
Events
2008 National Horse Show at Terengganu Equestrian Resort 31 October to 2 November
Monsoon Cup- international sailing event
Sultan's Cup Terengganu Endurance Challenge - Horse Endurance Race
Formula Future- speed boat racing for under 15
Kapas-Marang International Swimathon- International swimming event
Kenyir Motocross Championship
Terengganu Masters- Golf
Kenyir International Mountain Bike Challenge
'Candat Sotong' Fiesta - fishing competition
Kenyir Lake International Triathlon
Terengganu Starhill Tasik Kenyir 4x4 Challenge
Tasik Puteri Water Festival
Terengganu Traditional Games Competition
Terengganu International 4WD Rainforest Challenge 2007
FEI World Endurance Championship 2008
Le Tour de Langkawi 2012
Terengganu International Squid Jigging Festival
Cuisine
The most famous local food is Keropok Lekor, which is made primarily from a combination of dough (sago flour) and pounded fish mainly from mackerel and sardines, fried and served with hot chilli sauce for afternoon tea. Keropok Keping (fish crackers) are made from sun-dried slices of Keropok Lekor. Numerous keropok stalls are to be found on the side of the highway that passes through coastal communities. Keropok lekor is best eaten with local chili sauce, made from dried chili, tamarind, sugar and vinegar.
Budu, a very pungent and salty anchovy sauce is also popular among the locals. It is often mixed with sliced onions and chillies as condiments. Budu made from ikan bilis fermented with salt. There are other version of budu, known as Pelara were made by using mackerel were popular among the older generation, can be found in traditional market sold in bottles.
Laksam (or laksang in Terengganu Malay), a modified version of laksa, is made from rice flour (thick and soft slices). It is served in a bowl of light fresh coconut milk mixed with boiled fish flesh (mainly mackerel), finely chopped cucumbers, chillies, onions and long beans. It is eaten cold at breakfast.
Another Terengganu speciality is sata, a type of otak-otak or fish cake wrapped in banana leaves and cooked over a grill. Sata made from combination of fish and grated coconut, with some portion of spice.
Nasi dagang is also popular.
Education
There are several institutes of higher learning in Terengganu. They are either categorised as Institut Pengajian Tinggi Awam (IPTA); public university or Institut Pengajian Tinggi Swasta (IPTS); private university. Among public universities which have campus in Terengganu is the Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin and Universiti Malaysia Terengganu. Both universities have campus in Gong Badak, in north Kuala Terengganu.
Beside that, Terengganu also had 3 Universiti Teknologi MARA branches, in Kuala Terengganu, Dungun and Bukit Besi. Also, Terengganu host several private university and college, such as TATI University College in Kemaman, UCSI Terengganu campus in Marang, Institut Teknologi Petroleum PETRONAS (INSTEP) in Batu Rakit, Kuala Terengganu and Kolej Teknologi Bestari in Setiu, Politechnics Sultan Zainal Abidin, among others.
List of Tertiary Institutes (public and private)
Politeknik Kuala Terengganu
Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
Universiti Teknologi MARA (3 branches)
Institut Teknologi Petroleum PETRONAS (INSTEP)
Politeknik Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin
Kolej PTPL
Kolej Teknologi & Inovasi KRIM
Institut Teknologi Petronas
Kolej Seri Iman
Kolej Ketengah
RANACO Education and Training Institute (RETI)
Kolej Teras Timur
Kolej Islam Sains Teknologi (KIST)
TATI University College(TATIUC)
MARA KETENGAH International College (MKIC)
Secondary school (high school) education is provided by Sekolah Kebangsaan (National School, e.g.: Sekolah Kebangsaan Sultan Sulaiman), Sekolah Jenis Kebangsaan (National-type School) Chinese primary schools, and Sekolah Ugama (Religious schools, e.g.: SMA Sultan Zainal Abidin Ladang). All of them follow the syllabus and curriculum provided and regulated by the Malaysian Ministry of Education (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia). Every year the state government spends RM34 million to develop education in Terengganu. Part of these grants ensures that every eligible primary school student in Terengganu is able to get a Netbook worth RM1000 to help in their studies.
Transportation
Air
There are three airports located in Terengganu, of which two of them are open to the public. Sultan Mahmud Airport located in Gong Badak, Kuala Nerus is the state's main airport and serves as a main gateway by air to and from Terengganu. Other public airport is the Redang Airport, located in Redang Island off the coast of Terengganu.
Kerteh Airport, located in the town of Kerteh, Kemaman is the state's second largest airport but is not open to public because the airport is owned and operated by Petroliam Nasional Berhad or Petronas via its East Coast Regional Office (ECRO), and was built to serve the purpose of airlifting its employees and ExxonMobil employees to their various oil platforms located 100–200 km offshore South China Sea. The airport although small, has a single 1,362 m (4,469 ft) long runway which can accommodate a Boeing 737-400 aircraft.
A military air force base, RMAF Gong Kedak is located between the borders of Kelantan (Pasir Puteh) and Terengganu (Besut) and has an airstrip which crosses the two state borders.
Sister states
Iowa, United States (1987)
Texas, United States
See also
Proclamation of Malaysia
In popular culture
Movies
Tukang Perahu Pulau Duyong (2013)
References
External links
Terengganu State Government Information Portal
Tourism Malaysia - Terengganu
Terengganu tourism page
States of Malaysia
Peninsular Malaysia
States and territories established in 1724
1724 establishments in Asia
British Malaya in World War II
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On 19 December 2016, a truck was deliberately driven into the Christmas market next to the Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church at Breitscheidplatz in Berlin, leaving 12 people dead and 56 others injured. One of the victims was the truck's original driver, Łukasz Urban, who was found shot dead in the passenger seat. The truck was eventually stopped by its automatic brakes. The perpetrator was Anis Amri, an unsuccessful asylum seeker from Tunisia. Four days after the attack, he was killed in a shootout with police near Milan in Italy. An initial suspect was arrested and later released due to lack of evidence. Nearly five years after the attack, a man who was critically injured during the attack died from complications related to his wounds, becoming the 13th victim.
The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant claimed responsibility for the attack and released a video of the perpetrator, Anis Amri, pledging allegiance to the terror group's leader, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi.
Background
The Berlin attack took place during a time of heightened Islamist terrorist activity in Europe. Several terrorist attacks in 2016, in Germany and in neighboring countries, have been linked to ISIS; some of them were similar to the truck attack on the Christmas market in Berlin (e.g. the 2014 Nantes attack and the 2016 Nice truck attack).
In March, 32 people were killed by three coordinated suicide bombings in the Belgian capital Brussels. On 14 July, a Tunisian man deliberately drove a truck into crowds celebrating Bastille Day in the French city of Nice, killing 86 people. Four days later, an Afghan asylum seeker stabbed five people on a train near Würzburg, Germany. On 24 July, a Syrian refugee blew himself up outside a music festival in the German city of Ansbach, wounding fifteen people. Two days later Islamists attacked Christians attending a church service in Normandy, killing an elderly priest. On 26 November a 12-year-old Iraqi-German boy planted a nail bomb at a Christmas market in Ludwigshafen, but it failed to detonate.
On 21 November, the United States Department of State warned that Americans "should exercise caution at holiday festivals, events, and outdoor markets" throughout Europe. This was in view of the threat from ISIL, Al-Qaeda and affiliated groups, including self-radicalized extremists. Going back to at least 2000, a Frankfurt-based Al-Qaeda plot to bomb the Strasbourg Christmas market was foiled by law enforcement.
Attack
Truck hijacking
The vehicle involved, a black Scania R 450 semi-trailer truck, bore Polish number plates and belongs to a Polish delivery company, Usługi Transportowe (Transport Services) Ariel Żurawski, based in Sobiemyśl. The truck was on its return leg to Poland, having started its trip in Turin, Italy, and was transporting steel beams to a Berlin warehouse owned by ThyssenKrupp.
The head of the delivery company, Ariel Żurawski, reported that his cousin Łukasz Robert Urban had been driving the truck to Berlin, but that he could not imagine him being responsible for the attack. Żurawski's company last contacted Urban between 15:00 and 16:00, when Urban reported that he had arrived a day early to the Berlin warehouse and that he had to wait there overnight to unload his truck the following morning. The last photo of Urban still alive was taken at a kebab shop near the ThyssenKrupp warehouse at about 14:00.
The family had been unable to contact Urban since 16:00. Żurawski suspected that the truck had been hijacked based on its GPS coordinates, as well as indications that the truck was being driven erratically. Żurawski later identified the victim found in the truck as his cousin Urban, the original driver of the semi-trailer; Urban was killed by the perpetrator of the attack. According to a post-mortem examination cited by the German media, Urban was shot in the head between 16:30 and 17:30.
Attack on Christmas market
On 19 December 2016, at 20:02 local time, the perpetrator drove the stolen truck through a Christmas market at Breitscheidplatz in the City West of Berlin, killing 11 people and injuring 56. The incident is the deadliest terrorist attack in Germany since an attack at Oktoberfest in Munich in 1980, which killed 13 people and injured 211 others. The truck came from the direction of Hardenbergstraße, drove about through the market, and destroyed several stalls before turning back onto Budapester Straße and coming to a stop level with the Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church.
Several witnesses saw the driver leave the truck and flee towards Tiergarten. One witness ran after him.
Łukasz Urban was found dead in the passenger seat of the truck cab; he had been stabbed and shot once in the head with a small-caliber firearm. Investigators initially believed that Urban might still have been alive when the truck reached Breitscheidplatz and might have been stabbed because he tried to stop the attack. Early media reports indicated that he grabbed the steering wheel, forcing the truck to veer left and crash to a stop, and was then shot at the scene of the crash. If this had been true, this act might have saved many lives. However, later media reports have indicated that the truck was brought to a stop by its automatic braking system and Urban was stabbed and shot hours before the attack. No weapons were found at the scene.
The Christmas market reopened on 22 December. Damaged stalls were removed and memorials were set up in their stead. Concrete barriers were placed along sides facing streets.
Victims
Twelve people died and at least forty-eight were injured throughout the attack. Many of those injured sustained serious injuries and broken bones from either being hit by the truck, or by the collapse of the wooden stalls that were damaged by the truck. Five years after the attack, a first responder to the attack died in 2021 due to injuries he sustained while responding to victims. It is believed that he was wounded by a beam, sustaining serious head injuries. Fabrizia Di Lorenzo of Italy, Dalia Elyakim of Israel, Łukasz Urban of Poland, Nada Cizmar of the Czech Republic, and Sascha Hüsges were among the victims.
Investigation
The police and public prosecutor investigated the incident as a terrorist attack. The Chancellor of Germany, Angela Merkel, said, "We must assume this was a terrorist attack." The German Minister of the Interior, Thomas de Maizière, described the incident as a brutal attack. The U.S. Department of State had previously warned of terrorist attacks on Christmas markets in Europe after ISIL took control of Raqqa and Mosul. ISIL claimed responsibility for the attack shortly after the release of a Pakistani suspect who was mistakenly detained.
Initial suspect
On the evening of 19 December, police arrested a suspect, believed to have driven the truck during the attack, near the Berlin Victory Column. He had aroused suspicion by running away from the scene of the attack out of fear that he would be considered a suspect. The arrested man, initially identified only as Naved B. (later said to be Naved Baloch by the British newspaper The Guardian), denied involvement and was later identified as a 23-year-old asylum seeker from Turbat, Pakistan. The Berlin SEK police tactical unit stormed the hangar at the former Berlin Tempelhof Airport, which is used as a refugee camp, where the arrested man lived with six others in a room. His mobile phone was seized and analyzed. Police sources later suggested that they might have arrested "the wrong man" because the individual in custody did not carry gunshot residue or any marks that would indicate that he had been in a fight. Furthermore, forensic tests did not indicate that the suspect was inside the cab of the truck. Police therefore believed that the attacker might still be at large.
German Public Prosecutor General Peter Frank said, "We have to get used to the idea that the man apprehended may not be the perpetrator or belong to the group of perpetrators." The man was released on the evening of 20 December due to lack of evidence.
In an interview with The Guardian on 29 December, he narrated the incident of his arrest on 19 December. According to him, after leaving a friend's house and crossing a road in central Berlin on the evening, a car started following him after which he walked faster. When he realised that it was a police car, he stopped when they asked him to and showed his identification documents to them. He was allowed to go, but was called back seconds later and arrested. He claimed that he was tied up, blindfolded and also slapped by the police after refusing to undress for photographs. He said in the interview that he had gone into hiding, fearing for his life. The Guardian also said he had applied for asylum in Germany as a member of a secular separatist movement in Balochistan province of Pakistan.
Anis Amri
On 21 December, police announced that investigators had found, under the truck's driver's seat, a suspension of deportation permit belonging to Anis Amri, a man who was born in Tataouine, Tunisia, on 22 December 1992. Authorities began a Europe-wide search for Amri. According to investigators, Amri entered Germany from Italy in 2015 and had contacts with the network of the recently arrested Salafist preacher Abu Walaa, a known ISIL recruiter in Germany. Amri was sought by the Federal Criminal Police Office. Officials called for a public manhunt, issuing a recent picture, and offering a reward of €100,000, warning that Amri might be armed and dangerous. He was described as being tall, weighing approximately , with dark hair and brown eyes.
Amri fled from Tunisia to escape imprisonment for stealing a truck and arrived for the first time in Europe in 2011 on a refugee raft at the island of Lampedusa. He lied about his age, pretending to be a minor, and was sent to the temporary migrants reception center on the island. At the center, according to Italian security officials, Amri "took part in a particularly violent riot, when the center was set on fire and several people were injured" and was sentenced for it and robbery to four years in prison, which he served in two jails in Sicily. Amri was released in 2015; according to Italian officials, the Tunisian authorities refused to accept his repatriation to Tunisia, and it is believed that he went to Germany around this time. Per an autopsy on his body, it was found that he frequently consumed drugs.
In Tunisia, Amri was sentenced in absentia to five years in prison, "reportedly for aggravated theft with violence". Prior to that he had been arrested several times for possession and use of drugs. According to his family, he drank alcohol, took drugs and was initially not religious, but had been radicalized in Italian jails. The man arrived in Germany in July 2015 and applied for asylum in April 2016. He used at least 14 different aliases and posed as a citizen of Syria, Egypt or Lebanon. He reportedly had tried to recruit participants for a terrorist attack since the spring, and once tried to buy a pistol from an undercover police officer. He had been overheard by the German intelligence offering to carry out a suicide attack, but the German authorities had decided not to arrest him because they deemed him a mere errand boy. The German CID warned in March 2016 that he was planning a suicide attack and recommended immediate deportation. However, the state government of North Rhine-Westphalia ruled he could not be deported. In Germany he was involved in a bar brawl and drug dealing; later he was involved in a knife attack over drugs in July 2016 and disappeared after police tried to question him. Three weeks before the attack, Moroccan intelligence warned Germany about the terrorist attack planned by him. He had started spending more time in Berlin before the attack and was being closely monitored, however showed no signs of planning a terrorist attack per a report submitted by the German Interior Minister to the state parliament of North Rhine-Westphalia. German authorities were seeking to deport him at the time of the attack, however the legal requirements hadn't been met because Tunisia initially denied that Amri was their citizen but documents confirming it arrived in Germany after the attack.
A few minutes after the attack, a surveillance camera spotted him at Berlin Zoologischer Garten railway station which is close to the Christmas market. At the station, he turned to the camera and raised a finger, a gesture commonly used by Islamists. He later left Germany, travelling to Netherlands, Belgium and France before reaching Italy. On 23 December at around 03:00 CET, Amri was killed in a shootout with police in front of the railway station in Sesto San Giovanni near Milan. He had just arrived by train from Chambéry, France (via Turin). During a routine patrol, two police officers asked to search his backpack after he said he did not have any identity documents. Amri pulled out a gun and shot one of the officers in the shoulder; the other officer shot Amri dead. The Italian Minister of the Interior, Marco Minniti, stated that a policeman had been hospitalized with a shoulder injury. On the same day, Amaq released a video of Amri pledging allegiance to Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, the leader of ISIL. German officials have confirmed that Amri's fingerprints matched those in the inside of the truck.
On 28 December, German prosecutors said they had detained a 40-year-old Tunisian man, who they thought may have been involved in the attack. Amri had saved the number of this man in his phone. Prosecutors stated on the next day that he was released after investigations revealed that he was not a suspected contact of Amri. They also confirmed that the attacker had sent a mobile phone voice message and a picture to a contact shortly before carrying out the attack. The German police raided the homes of two suspected associates on 3 January 2017, including a 26-year-old Tunisian man they suspected of being in contact with Amri and knowing about the attack as well as a former flatmate of Amri. The Tunisian suspect who was suspected of either planning the attack or knowing about it was detained with federal prosecutors stating that he had known Amri since the end of 2015, had met him a day before the attack and both had "very intense conversations". Amri's former flatmate was also being investigated and the attacker had tried to contact him twice on 19 December.
Italian police confirmed on 4 January that the gun used in the attack, a .22-caliber Erma Model EP552S pistol (Walther PPK clone), matched the one found on Amri. ZDF reported on 6 January that he might have acquired the gun in Switzerland and lived there for a prolonged period of time whose length investigators were trying to determine. Swiss prosecutors meanwhile opened a case related to the attack. The Office of the Attorney General of Switzerland later confirmed that he had spent some time in the country while the German police were investigating whether the gun was acquired by him there. Investigators stated on 18 January that the gun was imported legally into Switzerland in 1990s, but it remained unclear what happened to it afterwards as it didn't appear in the weapons registers of cantons of Switzerland and there was no national weapons register at the time.
On 24 December, Tunisian authorities arrested three men suspected of terrorist links including Amri's nephew. They stated that Amri had urged his nephew to join ISIL and had sent him money to travel to Europe. Tunisian Interior Ministry stated that he had also told him that he was the emir or leader of a German jihadist group called "Abu al-Walaa brigade". Another person was announced to have been arrested on 7 January in Tunisia in relation to the case. However all four were released on the next day as they weren't found to have links to the attack or any terrorist group.
Italy's Interior Ministry announced on 12 March that it had deported a 37-year-old Tunisian man whose telephone number was in Amri's contact list. The ministry stated that he had been in contact with the attacker and his number was also linked to a Facebook profile supporting jihadist ideology where he connected with supporters of ISIL. It added that he was living in Latina where he associated with fellow extremists who opposed a moderate imam at a local mosque. In late-March, Turkey arrested more than 6 men allegedly linked to Amri.
Amri's friends
Six individuals including some friends of Amri's were arrested on 8 April 2018 for planning a knife attack on a sports event in Berlin. The main suspect was under police surveillance. They were all released after no evidence was found that they were planning a terror attack.
Defective investigation and obstruction of justice
On 17 May 2017 the Interior Ministry of Berlin stated that already in November 2016 intelligence was given that Anis Amri was involved in criminal offenses concerning drug trafficking. On this basis authorities would have been able to apprehend Amri already at the time, however they did not. An investigation was launched trying to find out to what extent this information was withheld by the State Criminal Police Office of Berlin after the attack happened. Several days later, while the investigation for obstruction of justice was still going on, a speaker of the Interior Ministry said that manipulations of the file of Amri have been carried out by officers of the criminal investigation department after the attack. On 22 May 2017 a commission of inquiry was initiated starting in July. Meanwhile, a special prosecutor was appointed to the case. In addition to the ongoing investigation concerning manipulations of the file and withholding of information, national TV reported on 1 June, that officers who were ordered by an investigating judge in Berlin to observe Amri until October 2016 for criminal offenses and possible terrorist links did not do so and instead included untrue records regarding observing actions in his file.
Reactions
Many world leaders offered condolences to Germany and the victims of the attack.
National and international right-wing politicians and commentators blamed the attack partly on German Chancellor Angela Merkel and her policy of accepting an unlimited number of asylum seekers and migrants. Euroskeptic politicians also condemned the lack of border checks under the Schengen system for allowing the perpetrator to travel freely through several countries after the attack. By contrast, several other national and international political commentators praised what they described as the cool-headed reaction of the Merkel administration. The editorial board of The New York Times wrote that it was "dangerous" to blame German refugee policy without waiting for facts about the identity of the attacker to emerge.
A petition to award Urban the Bundesverdienstkreuz had gathered over 2,500 signatures by the afternoon of 22 December. A donation page to support his family was set up on GoFundMe and collected more than £110,000 by 23 December by British truck driver Dave Duncan. He was officially thanked by Polish Ambassador to the United Kingdom Arkady Rzegocki at a ceremony at Embassy of Poland, London on 9 January 2017. Polish authorities provided funds for the delivery of Urban to his family as well as the costs of the funeral and the family of Urban received a state pension. German authorities refused to reimburse the value of the destroyed truck which belonged to a company run by Urban's cousin.
Muslims and Christians in Berlin held a vigil in solidarity with the victims of the attack. The funeral of Urban was held on 30 December at the Polish village of Banie and was attended by hundreds of people including President of Poland Andrzej Duda.
The German government reformed its security rules in response to the attack. Among the proposals in the anti-terror plan were easing the deportations of rejected asylum seekers, increasing surveillance of those to be deported and those considered to be terror risks, limiting movement of some asylum seekers within Germany, using electronic tags on those deemed terror threats without a trial, lengthening the period suspects can be held in custody and limiting development aid to countries that don't cooperate in deportation processes. President of Tunisia Beji Caid Essebsi meanwhile stated that Europe "must be calm", vowing to take responsibility for the attacks, but insisted that it was necessary to verify citizenship before accepting deportations. The Bundestag passed a new surveillance law on 9 March in response to the attack as well as other attacks that occurred in Germany in 2016. The law gives priority to public safety when deciding on whether to permit installation of video surveillance in some locations and makes it easier for private companies to install these systems in public places. It also voted for allowing the Federal Police to install surveillance systems for reading and registering licence plate numbers.
Aftermath
In February 2017, the German Salafist mosque organisation Berliner Fussilet-Moscheeverein was banned by authorities. Amri was said to be among its visitors. In March 2017, the German Muslim community organisation Deutschsprachige Islamkreis Hildesheim was also banned after investigators found that its members were preparing to travel to the conflict zone in Syria to fight for the Islamic State. According to the Federal Agency for Civic Education, these examples show that Salafist mosques not only concern themselves with religious matters, but also prepare serious crimes and terrorist activities.
In preparation for the Christmas market 2018, the Breitscheidplatz square and its surrounding were fortified against further terrorist attacks.
On the fourth anniversary in December 2020, a ceremony, which was attended by survivors and relatives of the victims, was held at the Breitscheidplatz to commemorate those killed in the attack. The archbishop of Berlin Heiner Koch said in his prayers that Berlin "was not the same as before".
Timeline of events
19 December 2016 – Polish lorry driver Łukasz Urban, 37, has his vehicle hijacked in the heart of Berlin. Shortly after 20:00 local time – The hijacked truck veers into a traditional Christmas market in the shadow of the Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church. Eleven people are killed, Urban is found stabbed and shot dead in the cabin. Shortly after the attack, a 23-year-old Pakistani asylum-seeker is arrested nearby based on a description by a witness who had attempted to chase the attacker but lost sight of him.
20 December 2016 – Following 24 hours of confusion, the Pakistani suspect is released by police as no evidence could be found that would link the man to the attack. Police state they believe the actual attacker to still be at large, possibly armed and dangerous.
21 December 2016 – Anis Amri, a Tunisian man with connections to ISIL, whose asylum request to Germany had been rejected, is announced as the new chief suspect after his documents were reportedly found in the wreckage of the hijacked lorry. He is said to have been using six different names under three different nationalities. Later in the day, a reward of up to €100,000 (£85,000) is offered by German authorities for information leading to Amri's arrest. The country's security is placed under fresh scrutiny following revelations that covert surveillance of the 24-year-old Amri had been discontinued after more than six months, due to police finding nothing to substantiate an initial tip-off.
19–22 December 2016 – Amri likely travelled to Nijmegen, the Netherlands, where it is thought he took a bus to the Lyon-Part-Dieu train station in France. He then took a train from Lyon, via Chambéry, France, to Milan, Italy, via the Italian city of Turin.
22 December 2016 – Amri's brother Abdelkader urges Amri to turn himself in, adding that his family "dissociate" themselves from him. The spokeswoman for Germany's federal prosecutor office announces that the fingerprints of Amri had been discovered on the outside of the truck, the driver's door and the vertical support beam in its window area.
23 December 2016 – 1 am – Amri arrives at the Central Station of Milan, Italy, via Turin. 3 am – Italian Police on a routine patrol in Sesto San Giovanni spot a "very suspicious" male walking through the city center. After being approached by the officers and asked to provide identification documents, the man draws a fire-arm from his backpack and begins shooting. In the ensuing shootout one police officer is injured and the suspect, later identified as Amri, is killed. 10 am – Italian interior minister Marco Minniti holds a morning press conference to announce, with "no doubt", that Italian police had shot and killed the Berlin terrorism suspect. Amaq releases a video of Amri pledging allegiance to ISIL during the day.
29 December 2016 – Prosecutors confirm the attacker sent a voice message and a picture to a contact before the attack.
4 January 2017 – A 26-year-old Tunisian man who knew Amri since late 2015 and met him a day before the attack is detained. German police state they are investigating him as well as Amri's former flatmate. Italian police confirm gun used in attack matches the one on Amri.
10 March 2017 – Italian Interior Ministry announces that it has deported a 37-year-old Tunisian man linked to Amri.
19 September 2018 – Italian authorities deported a Tunisian imam who had been sentenced to jail for armed robbery and drug trafficking. He had spread radical propaganda in the prison and celebrated the actions of Amri in the prison located in Rebibbia. He was moved from the prison to a detention centre and then put on a plane to Cairo.
See also
List of Islamist terrorist attacks
List of massacres in Germany
List of terrorist incidents in December 2016
Terrorism in Europe
Terrorism in France
Terrorism in Germany
2018 Münster attack
2020 Trier attack
Notes
References
Truck attack
2016 murders in Germany
2016 road incidents in Europe
Charlottenburg
Christmas in Germany
December 2016 crimes in Europe
December 2016 events in Germany
Hijacking
Immigration to Germany
ISIL terrorist incidents in Germany
Islamic terrorist incidents in 2016
Islamist attack plots and attacks on Christmas markets
Mass murder in 2016
Massacres in 2016
Massacres in Germany
2016 truck attack
Murders by motor vehicle
2016 truck attack
Terrorist incidents in Germany in 2016
Terrorist incidents involving knife attacks
Terrorist incidents involving vehicular attacks
Vehicular rampage in Germany
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Reinhard F. Stocker (born 1944) is a Swiss biologist. He pioneered the analysis of the sense of smell and taste in higher animals, using the fly Drosophila melanogaster as a study case. He provided a detailed account of the anatomy and development of the olfactory system, in particular across metamorphosis, for which he received the Théodore-Ott-Prize of the Swiss Academy of Medical Sciences in 2007, and pioneered the use of larval Drosophila for the brain and behavioural sciences.
Life, education and scientific career
Reinhard Felix Stocker was born on March 12, 1944, in Basel, Switzerland as the middle of three sons to Heidi and Emil Stocker, a chemist with J.R. Geigy AG, Basel. He grew up in Riehen near Basel and received his Matura in 1963 at the Realgymnasium Basel.
In 1963 Stocker enrolled as student of Zoology at the University of Basel, Switzerland. He received his PhD with the grade summa cum laude in 1972 for a thesis featuring an electron-microscopy investigation of the development of the ventral nerve cord of the ant Myrmica laevinodis during metamorphosis, supervised by Hans Nüesch. There followed two studies with Hans Nüesch, likewise using electron microscopy, on how the nerve-muscle contacts develop in pupal and early adult stages of the butterfly Antheraea polyphemus. Inspired by breakthrough insights into how genes orchestrate development in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, Stocker turned his attention to the role of the Antennapedia gene in neurogenetic development. The Antennapedia gene is one of a family of homeotic genes that determine the identity of body segments. In 1971, Postlethwait and Schneiderman (Devel. Biol. 25, 606-640) had discovered that in mutants of this gene the appendages of one of the head segments develop not as an antenna, as in the wild-type fly, but as a thoracic leg. As a post-doc at the University of Washington, Seattle, USA (1974 to 1975), and mentored by John S. Edwards, Gerold Schubiger, John Palka and James W. Truman, Stocker revealed how this change in segment identity – or the surgical displacement of appendages – affects the connections of sensory neurons from the appendage towards the central brain. The developmental neurogenetics of the sensory systems in Drosophila melanogaster then emerged as Stocker's main research interest throughout his further career.
In 1976 Stocker returned to the University of Basel, and in 1978 accepted a position as post-doctoral researcher (Assistant docteur) at the Institute of Zoology (later Department of Biology) at the University of Fribourg, Switzerland, where he was tenured as post-doctoral fellow (Maître-assistant) in 1980. Summarized in his Habilitation at the University of Fribourg from 1985, Stocker's studies combined dye-filling of neurons, electron microscopy and the manipulation of the developmental fate of neurons by homeotic mutations. Adopting the Gal4-UAS method for the cell-type specific manipulation of neurons as established by Brand and Perrimon in 1993 (Development 118, 401-415), this allowed him and his co-workers to describe at unprecedented detail and completeness the first relay of the olfactory system, the antennal lobe, and how it develops during metamorphosis. These studies were instrumental to map the wiring of olfactory sensory neurons expressing different olfactory receptor genes to these glomeruli and to understand the functional significance of this wiring for the combinatorial coding of odours. They were also the basis for his promotion as Professor (Professeur associé) at the University of Fribourg in 1993, and were cited by the Swiss Academy of Medical Sciences in awarding him the Théodore-Ott-Prize in 2007.
Over the years the Stocker lab at Fribourg University provided early insight into the neurogenetic and developmental bases of chemosensation and sexual behaviour as well as into the origin of chemosensory neurons and their fate across metamorphosis. From the 1990s on, Stocker and his co-workers furthermore established larval D. melanogaster as a study case for research into the behavioural neurogenetics of chemosensation and chemosensory learning, and the central brain circuits serving these functions (see Scientific publications: 34., 39., 47., 48., 50., 51., 55.-57., 59.-78.).
Across his career, Stocker's scientific interests thus gradually shifted from the sensory periphery towards the central nervous system and behaviour. This ‘outside-in’ approach was grounded in a precise and complete description of the anatomy and development of the neuronal systems under study. Characteristic of his work furthermore is the pioneering, early-adopting use of new methods and technology, including electron microscopy, immunohistochemistry, cell-type specific transgene expression, and the use of larval Drosophila melanogaster as a study case for the brain and behavioural sciences.
After his retirement from the University of Fribourg in 2011, Stocker published a book of fiction.
Distinctions
2007: Théodore Ott Prize of the Swiss Academy of Medical Science
2008-today: Editorial board of The Journal of Comparative Neurology
Technical collaborators and mentees
Technical collaborators and lab management: Martine Schorderet, Nanaë Gendre
PhD students: Markus Lienhard, Madeleine Tissot, Klemens Störtkuhl, François Python, Julien Colomb, Mareike Selcho, Dennis Pauls
Post-docs: Hans Schmid, Klemens Störtkuhl, Gertrud Heimbeck, Bertram Gerber, Ariane Ramaekers, Nicola Grillenzoni, Andreas Thum
Congress organization and co-organization
2004: "Neurofly", Neuchâtel, Switzerland
2007: "Swiss Drosophila Meeting", Fribourg
2009: "Swiss Society of Neuroscience", Fribourg
2010: "Swiss Drosophila Meeting", Fribourg
2010: "Drosophila Maggot Meeting: Neural Circuits to Behavior", Bangalore, India
Scientific publications
78. Stocker RF (2017) Was uns Fliegen(maden) über den Geruchssinn lehren. From: Natura Obscura – 200 Jahre Naturforschende Gesellschaft Basel, p. 193; Schwabe-Verlag, Basel;
77. Michels B, Saumweber T, Biernacki R, Thum J, Glasgow RDV, Schleyer M, Chen YC, Eschbach C, Stocker RF, Toshima N, Tanimura T, Louis M, Arias-Gil G, Gerber B (2017) Pavlovian conditioning of larval Drosophila. Front. Behav. Neurosci., 19 April 2017 https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00045
76. Selcho M, Pauls D, Huser A, Stocker RF, Thum AS (2014) Characterization of the octopaminergic and tyraminergic neurons in the central brain of Drosophila larvae. J. Comp. Neurol. 522, 3485-3500. doi: 10.1002/cne.23616
75. Huser A, Rohwedder A, Apostolopoulou AA, Widmann A, Pfitzenmaier JE, Maiolo EM, Selcho M, Pauls D, von Essen E, Gupta T, Sprecher SG, Birman S, Riemensperger T, Stocker RF, Thum AS (2012) The serotonergic central nervous system of the Drosophila larva: Anatomy and behavioral function. PLoS ONE 7(10): e47518. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0047518
74. Selcho M, Pauls D, el Jundi B, Stocker RF, Thum AS (2012) The role of octopamine and tyramine in Drosophila larval locomotion. J. Comp. Neurol. 520, 3764-3785. doi: 10.1002/cne.23152
73. Stocker RF (2011) 30 Jahre Drosophila als weltweit etabliertes olfaktorisches Modellsystem. Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. Frib. 100, 42-74
72. Thum AS, Leisibach B, Gendre N, Selcho M, Stocker RF (2011) Diversity, variability, and suboesophageal connectivity of antennal lobe neurons in D. melanogaster larvae. J. Comp. Neurol. 519, 3415-3432. doi: 10.1002/cne.22713
71. Pauls D, Selcho M, Gendre N, Stocker RF, Thum AS (2010) Drosophila larvae establish appetitive olfactory memories via mushroom body neurons of embryonic origin. J. Neurosci. 30, 10655-10666
70. Pauls D, Pfitzenmaier JER, Krebs-Wheaton R, Selcho M, Stocker RF, Thum AS (2010) Electric shock-induced associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. Chem. Senses 35, 335-346
69. Selcho M, Pauls D, Han KA, Stocker RF, Thum AS (2009) The role of dopamine in Drosophila larval classical olfactory conditioning. PLoS ONE 4(6): e5897. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005897
68. Masuda-Nakagawa LM, Gendre N, O’Kane CJ, Stocker RF (2009) Localized representation of olfactory input in the mushroom bodies of Drosophila larvae. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106, 10314-10319
67. Gerber B, Stocker RF, Tanimura T, Thum AS (2009) Smelling, tasting, learning: Drosophila as a study case. In: "Chemosensory Systems in Mammals, Fishes, and Insects" (ed. S. Korsching & W. Meyerhof), pp. 139–185, Springer Review Series "Results and Problems in Cell Differentiation"
66. Stocker RF (2009) The olfactory pathway of adult and larval Drosophila: conservation or adaptation to stage-specific needs? Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1170, 482-486
65. Stocker RF (2008) Design of the larval chemosensory system. In: "Brain Development in Drosophila melanogaster" (ed. Gerhard M. Technau), Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, Vol 628. pp. 69–81. Landes Bioscience,
64. Colomb J, Stocker RF (2007) Combined rather than separate pathways for hedonic and sensory aspects of taste in fly larvae? (Extra view) Fly 1, 232-234
63. Vosshall LB, Stocker RF (2007) Molecular architecture of smell and taste in Drosophila. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 30, 505-533
62. Colomb J, Grillenzoni N, Stocker RF, Ramaekers A (2007) Complex behavioural changes after odour exposure in Drosophila larvae. Anim. Behav. 73, 587-594
61. Bader R, Colomb J, Pankratz B, Schröck A, Stocker RF, Pankratz MJ (2007) Genetic dissection of neural circuit anatomy underlying feeding behavior in Drosophila: distinct classes of hugin expressing neurons. J. Comp. Neurol. 502, 848-856
60. Colomb J, Grillenzoni N, Ramaekers A, Stocker RF (2007) Architecture of the primary taste center of Drosophila melanogaster larvae. J. Comp. Neurol. 502, 834-847
59. Grillenzoni N, de Vaux V, Meuwly J, Vuichard S, Jarman A, Holohan E, Gendre N, Stocker RF (2007) Role of proneural genes in the formation of the larval olfactory organ of Drosophila. Devel. Genes Evol. 217, 209-219
58. Krattinger A, Ramaekers A, Grillenzoni N, Gendre N, Stocker RF (2007) DmOAZ, the unique Drosophila melanogaster OAZ homologue is involved in posterior spiracle development. Devel. Genes Evol. 217, 197-208
57. Gerber B, Stocker RF (2007) The Drosophila larva as a model for studying chemosensation and chemosensory learning: a review. Chem. Senses 32, 65-89
56. Stocker RF (2006) Olfactory coding: Connecting odorant receptor expression and behavior in the Drosophila larva (Dispatch). Curr. Biol. 16, R16-R18
55. Ramaekers A, Magnenat E, Marin EC, Gendre N, Jefferis GSXE, Luo L, Stocker RF (2005) Glomerular maps without cellular redundancy at successive levels of the Drosophila larval olfactory circuit. Curr. Biol. 15, 982-992
54. Stocker RF (2004) Taste perception: Drosophila – A model of good taste (Dispatch). Curr. Biol. 14, R560-R561
53. Jefferis GSXE, Vyas RM, Berdnik D, Ramaekers A, Stocker RF, Tanaka NK, Ito K, Luo L (2004) Developmental origin of wiring specificity in the olfactory system of Drosophila. Development 131, 117-130
52. Gendre N, Lüer K, Friche S, Grillenzoni N, Ramaekers A, Technau GM, Stocker RF (2004) Integration of complex larval chemosensory organs into the adult nervous system of Drosophila. Development 131, 83-92
51. Gerber B, Scherer S, Neuser K, Michels B, Hendel T, Stocker RF, Heisenberg M (2004) Visual learning in individually assayed Drosophila larvae. J. Exp. Biol. 207, 179-188
50. Scherer S, Stocker RF, Gerber B (2003) Olfactory learning in individually assayed Drosophila larvae. Learning & Memory 10, 217-225
49. Bhalerao S, Sen A, Stocker RF, Rodrigues V (2003) Olfactory neurons expressing identified receptor genes project to subsets of glomeruli within the antennal lobe of Drosophila melanogaster. J. Neurobiol. 54, 577-592
48. Python F, Stocker RF (2002) Immunoreactivity against choline acetyltransferase, gamma-aminobutyric acid, histamine, octopamine, and serotonin in the larval chemosensory system of Drosophila melanogaster. J. Comp. Neurol. 453, 157-167
47. Python F, Stocker RF (2002) Adult-like complexity of the larval antennal lobe of D. melanogaster despite markedly low numbers of odorant receptor neurons. J. Comp. Neurol. 445, 374-387
46. Heimbeck G, Bugnon V, Gendre N, Keller A, Stocker RF (2001) A central neural circuit for experience-independent olfactory and courtship behavior in Drosophila melanogaster. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98, 15336-15341
45. Stocker RF (2001) Drosophila as a focus in olfactory research: mapping of olfactory sensilla by fine structure, odor specificity, odorant receptor expression and central connectivity. Micros. Res. Techn. 55, 284-296
44. Jefferis GSXE, Marin EC, Stocker RF, Luo LL (2001) Target neuron prespecification in the olfactory map of Drosophila. Nature 414, 204-208
43. Ottiger M, Soller M, Stocker RF, Kubli E (2000) Binding sites of Drosophila melanogaster sex-peptide pheromones. J. Neurobiol. 44, 57-71
42. Tissot M, Stocker RF (2000) Metamorphosis in Drosophila and other insects: the fate of neurons throughout the stages. Progr. Neurobiol. 62, 89-111
41. Balakireva M, Gendre N, Stocker RF, Ferveur JF (2000) The genetic variant Voila1 causes gustatory defects during Drosophila development. J. Neurosci. 20, 3425-3433 (joint first authors)
40. Stocker RF, Rodrigues V (1999) Olfactory Neurogenetics. In: B.S. Hansson (ed.) “Insect Olfaction”, Springer Verlag, Heidelberg-Berlin-New York, pp. 283–314
39. Heimbeck G, Bugnon V, Gendre N, Häberlin C, Stocker RF (1999) Smell and taste perception in D. melanogaster larva: toxin expression studies in chemosensory neurons. J. Neurosci. 19, 6599-6609
38. Laissue PP, Reiter C, Hiesinger PR, Halter S, Fischbach KF, Stocker RF (1999) Three-dimensional reconstruction of the antennal lobe in Drosophila melanogaster. J. Comp. Neurol. 405, 543-552
37. Tissot M, Gendre N, Stocker RF (1998) Drosophila P[Gal4] lines reveal persistence through metamorphosis of motor neurons involved in feeding. J. Neurobiol. 37, 237-250
36. Balakireva M, Stocker RF, Gendre N, Ferveur JF (1998) Voila: A new Drosophila courtship variant that affects the nervous system: Behavioral, neural and genetic characterization. J. Neurosci. 18, 4335-4343
35. Stocker RF, Heimbeck G, Gendre N, de Belle JS (1997) Neuroblast ablation in Drosophila P[GAL4] lines reveals origins of olfactory interneurons. J. Neurobiol. 32, 443-456
34. Tissot M, Gendre N, Hawken A, Störtkuhl KF, Stocker RF (1997) Larval chemosensory projections and invasion of adult afferents in the antennal lobe of Drosophila melanogaster. J. Neurobiol. 32, 281-297
33. Batterham P, Crew JR, Sokac A, Andrews JR, Pasquini GMF, Davies AG, Stocker RF, Benzer S, and Pollock JA (1996) Genetic analysis of the lozenge gene complex of Drosophila melanogaster: adult visual system phenotypes. J. Neurogenet. 10, 193-220
32. VijayRaghavan K, Gendre N, Stocker RF (1996) Transplanted wing and leg imaginal discs in Drosophila melanogaster demonstrate interactions between epidermis and myoblasts in muscle formation. Devel. Genes Evol. 206, 46-53
31. Stocker RF, Tissot M, Gendre N (1995) Morphogenesis and cellular proliferation pattern in the developing antennal lobe of Drosophila melanogaster. Roux's Arch. Devl. Biol. 205, 62-75
30. Ferveur JF, Störtkuhl KF, Stocker RF, Greenspan RJ (1995) Genetic feminization of brain structures and changed sexual orientation in male Drosophila melanogaster. Science 267, 902-905
29. Gendre N, Stocker RF (1994) Surface transplantation of imaginal discs for generating ectopic legs and wings on the thorax. Dros. Inf. Serv. 75, 113-114
28. Störtkuhl KF, Hofbauer A, Keller V, Gendre N, Stocker RF (1994) Analysis of immunocytochemical staining patterns in the antennal system of Drosophila melanogaster. Cell Tiss. Res. 275, 27-38
27. Stocker RF (1994) The organization of the chemosensory system in Drosophila melanogaster: a review. Cell Tiss. Res. 275, 3-26
26. Stocker RF, Gendre N, Batterham P (1993) Analysis of the antennal phenotype in the Drosophila mutant lozenge. J. Neurogenet. 9, 29-53
25. Stocker RF, Gendre N, Lienhard MC, Link B (1992) Drosophila olfaction: Structural, behavioral, developmental, and genetic approach. In: R.N. Singh (ed.) “Nervous Systems: Principles of Design and Function”, Wiley Eastern, New Delhi, pp 351–372
24. Venard R, Stocker RF (1991) Behavioral and electroantennogram analysis of olfactory stimulation in lozenge: a Drosophila mutant lacking antennal basiconic sensilla. J. Insect Behav. 4, 683-705
23. Lienhard MC, Stocker RF (1991) The development of the sensory neuron pattern in the antennal disc of wild-type and mutant (lz3, ssa) Drosophila melanogaster. Development 112, 1063-1075
22. Stocker RF, Lienhard MC, Borst A, Fischbach KF (1990) Neuronal architecture of the antennal lobe in Drosophila melanogaster. Cell Tiss. Res. 262, 9-34
21. Stocker RF, Gendre N (1989) Courtship behavior of Drosophila, genetically and surgically deprived of basiconic sensilla. Behav. Genet. 19, 371-385
20. Foelix RF, Stocker RF, Steinbrecht RA (1989) Fine structure of a sensory organ in the arista of Drosophila melanogaster and some other dipterans. Cell Tiss. Res. 258, 277-287
19. Stocker RF, Gendre N (1988) Peripheral and central nervous effects of lozenge3, a Drosophila mutant lacking basiconic antennal sensilla. Devl. Biol. 127, 12-27
18. Pinto L, Stocker RF, Rodrigues V (1988) Anatomical and neurochemical classification of the antennal glomeruli in Drosophila melanogaster. Int. J. Insect Morphol. Embryol. 17, 335-344
17. Lienhard MC, Stocker RF (1987) Sensory projection patterns of supernumerary legs and aristae in D. melanogaster. J. Exp. Zool. 244, 187-201
16. Schmid H, Gendre N, Stocker RF (1986) Surgical generation of supernumerary appendages for studying neuronal specificity in Drosophila melanogaster. Devl. Biol. 113, 160-173
15. Stocker RF, Schorderet M (1985) Sensory projections of homoeotically transformed eyes in D. melanogaster. Dros. Inf. Serv. 61, 166-168
14. Stocker RF, Schmid H (1985) Sensory projections from dorsal and ventral appendages in Drosophila grafted to the same site are different. Experientia 41, 1607-1609
13. Stocker RF (1985) Neuronale Spezifität im sensorischen System von Drosophila melanogaster (Habilitation, University of Fribourg)
12. Stocker RF, Singh RN, Schorderet M, Siddiqi O (1983) Projection patterns of different types of antennal sensilla in the antennal glomeruli of Drosophila melanogaster. Cell Tiss. Res. 232, 237-248
11. Stocker RF (1982) Genetically displaced sensory neurons in the head of Drosophila project via different pathways into the same specific brain regions. Devl. Biol. 94, 31-40
10. Stocker RF, Schorderet M (1981) Cobalt filling of sensory projections from internal and external mouthparts in Drosophila. Cell Tiss. Res. 216, 513-523
9. Stocker RF, Lawrence PA (1981) Sensory projections from normal and homoeotically transformed antennae in Drosophila. Devl. Biol. 82, 224-237
8. Stocker RF (1979) Fine structural comparison of the antennal nerve in the homeotic mutant Antennapedia with the wild-type antennal and second leg nerves of Drosophila melanogaster. J. Morphol. 160, 209-222
7. Stocker RF, Edwards JS, Truman JW (1978) Fine structure of degenerating abdominal motor neurons after eclosion in the sphingid moth, Manduca sexta. Cell Tiss. Res. 191, 317-331
6. Stocker RF (1977) Gustatory stimulation of a homeotic mutant appendage, Antennapedia, in Drosophila melanogaster. J. Comp. Physiol. A 115, 351-361
5. Stocker RF, Edwards JS, Palka J, Schubiger G (1976) Projection of sensory neurons from a homeotic mutant appendage, Antennapedia, in Drosophila melanogaster. Devl. Biol. 52, 210-220
4. Nüesch H, Stocker RF (1975) Ultrastructural studies on neuromuscular contacts and the formation of junctions in the flight muscle of Antheraea polyphemus (Lep.). II. Changes after motor nerve section. Cell Tiss. Res. 164, 331-355
3. Stocker RF, Nüesch H (1975) Ultrastructural studies on neuromuscular contacts and the formation of junctions in the flight muscle of Antheraea polyphemus (Lep.). I. Normal adult development. Cell Tiss. Res. 159, 245-266
2. Stocker RF (1974) Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen über die Fusion myogener Zellen bei Antheraea polyphemus (Lepidoptera). Experientia 30, 896-898
1. Stocker R (1974) Die Entwicklung der ventralen Ganglienkette bei der Arbeiterinnenkaste von Myrmica laevinodis Nyl. (Hym., Form.). Rev. Suisse Zool. 80, 971-1029 (Dissertation, University of Basel)
Further publications
80. Stocker R (2020) Katastrophen, Krisen und kluge Köpfe – eine andere Weltgeschichte. tredition, Hamburg,
79. Stocker R (2006) Immer der Nase nach. Universitas, Freiburg/ Fribourg, September, 19-21.
Sources, interviews, and publications about RF Stocker
In: Fritz Müller. Vermindern, verfeinern, vermeiden. Universitas, Freiburg/ Fribourg, September 2009, p40.
Prix Théodore Ott. Unireflets, Freiburg/ Fribourg, 28. 08. 2008, p6.
Théodore-Ott-Preis 2007 für Theodor Landis und Reinhard Stocker. Schweizerische Akademie der Medizinischen Wissenschaften, SAMW Bulletin, 2007, 3, p8.
Le Prof. Reinhard Stocker reçoit le Prix Théodore Ott 2007. Unireflets, Freiburg/ Fribourg, 21. 06. 2007, p11.
In: Annemarie Schaffner. Interview mit Reinhard Stocker. Bulletin der Aargauischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, 2005, 2, p21-27.
In: Sonja Spreitzer. Dem Geruchssinn auf der Spur. Universitas, Freiburg/ Fribourg, März 2002, p26-27.
Verständnis für das Gehirn fördern. Freiburger Nachrichten, 16. 03. 2002.
A l’Université et à l’Hôpital cantonal, Fribourg se passionne pour le cerveau. La Liberté, 19. 03. 1999
Bourse pour une année. La Liberté, 11. 11. 1999
Erste bisexuelle Taufliegen, die ihre Veranlagung vererben können. Freiburger Nachrichten, 14. 02. 1995.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/page/journal/10969861/homepage/editorialboard.html
https://www.samw.ch/en/Funding/Theodore-Ott-Prize.html
References
1944 births
Living people
Swiss biologists
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The 2016 Election Committee subsector elections were held on 11 December 2016 for 1,034 of the 1,200 members of the Election Committee (EC) which is responsible for electing the Chief Executive of Hong Kong (CE) in the 2017 election.
Although incumbent Chief Executive Leung Chun-ying announced, two days before the election, that he would not be standing, the pro-democrats, whose campaign theme was opposition to Leung serving a second term, won a record quarter of the seats on the EC under the banner of "Democrats 300+" on a nearly 20 per cent surge in turnout over 2011.
Background
The pro-democracy camp pocketed 205 seats in the 1,200-strong Election Committee and nominated Albert Ho of the Democratic Party to run against Leung Chun-ying and Henry Tang in 2012. The main goal for the pro-democrats in this election was to grab more than 300 seats to increase the chance of blocking the incumbent Chief Executive Leung Chun-ying to re-elected. In order to do that, the camp tended not to send a candidate in the election and become a "kingmaker" by boosting the chance for an alternative establishment candidate.
The six pro-democrats elected to the Legislative Council in functional constituencies in September, including Edward Yiu who took the seat in the traditional pro-Beijing sector and Leung Chun-ying's stronghold Architectural, Surveying, Planning and Landscape, formed an alliance called the Professionals Guild to coordinate candidates to contest in the Election Committee election. The victory in the Legislative Council functional constituencies encouraged the pro-democrats to take a more progressive strategy in the professional sector, in which the pro-democrats traditionally had more advantages. The pro-democrat professionals and activists also formed a loose coalition called "Democrats 300+" hoping to snatch over 300 seats in the committee.
Some 300 candidates had also voiced opposition towards Leung Chun-ying re-election. Only 189 out of 305 of those who nominated Leung in 2012 sought to join the Election Committee this year. On 9 December, two days before the election, Leung announced he would not seek re-election, citing family reasons.
Composition
The Election Committee consisted of 1,034 members elected from 35 subsectors, 60 members nominated by the Religious subsector and 106 ex officio members. (Hong Kong deputies from the National People's Congress and Legislative Council of Hong Kong members). As the term of office commenced on 1 February 2016, the 1,200 member Election Committee was formed by 38 Election Committee Subsectors:
Heung Yee Kuk (26)
Agriculture and Fisheries (60)
Insurance (18)
Transport (18)
Education (30)
Legal (30)
Accountancy (30)
Medical (30)
Health Services (30)
Engineering (30)
Architectural, Surveying and Planning (30)
Labour (60)
Social Welfare (60)
Real Estate and Construction (18)
Tourism (18)
Commercial (First) (18)
Commercial (Second) (18)
Industrial (First) (18)
Industrial (Second) (18)
Finance (18)
Financial Services (18)
Sports, Performing Arts, Culture and Publication (60)
Import and Export (18)
Textiles and Garment (18)
Wholesale and Retail (18)
Information Technology (30)
Higher Education (30)
Hotel (17)
Catering (17)
Chinese Medicine (30)
Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (51)
Employers' Federation of HK (16)
HK and Kowloon District Councils (57)
New Territories District Councils (60)
HK Chinese Enterprises Association (16)
National People's Congress (36)
Legislative Council (70)
Religious (60)
Note: Figures in brackets denotes the number of members.
Number of members nominated by the six designated bodies of the religious subsector:
Catholic Diocese of Hong Kong (10 members)
Chinese Muslim Cultural and Fraternal Association (10 members)
Hong Kong Christian Council (10 members)
The Hong Kong Taoist Association (10 members)
The Confucian Academy (10 members)
The Hong Kong Buddhist Association (10 members)
Nominations
The nomination period was from 8 to 14 November 2016. A total number of 1,539 nominations were validated, while ten nominations were ruled invalid by the Returning Officers which included the former Chinese University of Hong Kong Students' Union president Tommy Cheung Sau-yin who led the seven-member "Student United 2017" and six members of the pro-democratic "Progressive Engineering" due to their "insufficient connection" with the Higher Education and Engineering subsectors.
One nomination from the 18-member Import and Export subsector was also invalidated, which made the number of the nominated candidates of the Import and Export subsector one less than the number of seats allocated to it. Since there was no provision in the Chief Executive Election Ordinance which allowed a by-election to fill the remaining seat, the seat would be vacant.
Among the 1,539 candidates, 300 of those were returned uncontested and voting for the 12 subsectors and the Sports sub-subsector would not be held. For the six designated bodies of the religious subsector, four of them were uncontested. The Returning Officer arranged lots drawing for the Catholic Diocese of Hong Kong and the Hong Kong Christian Council in order to decide members of the Election Committee among the nominees.
Election results
Results by subsector
Statistics are generated from the official election website:
Note: *One nomination from the 18-member Import and Export subsector was invalidated, which made the number of the nominated candidates of the Import and Export subsector one less than the number of seats allocated to it. Since there was no provision in the Chief Executive Election Ordinance which allowed a by-election to fill the remaining seat, the seat would be vacant.
Results by affiliation
|-
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;" colspan=3 rowspan=2 |Affiliation
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;" colspan=2 |1st Sector
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;" colspan=2 |2nd Sector
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;" colspan=2 |3rd Sector
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;" colspan=2 |4th Sector
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;" colspan=2 |Total
|-
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Standing
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Elected
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Standing
! style="bakground-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Elected
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Standing
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Elected
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Standing
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Elected
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Standing
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Elected
|-
|style="background-color:Pink" rowspan="17" |
| width=1px style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" |Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong
| 6 || 5
| - || -
| - || -
| 48 || 48
| 54 || 53
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" |Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions
| - || -
| - || -
| 35 || 33
| 11 || 11
| 46 || 44
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" |Liberal Party
| 12 || 11
| - || -
| - || -
| 2 || 2
| 14 || 13
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" |Business and Professionals Alliance for Hong Kong
| 2 || 2
| - || -
| - || -
| 8 || 8
| 10 || 10
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" |New People's Party
| 1 || 1
| - || -
| - || -
| 9 || 8
| 10 || 9
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" |Federation of Hong Kong and Kowloon Labour Unions
| - || -
| - || -
| 8 || 8
| 1 || 1
| 9 || 9
|-
| width=1px style="background-color:#FFFFFF" |
| style="text-align:left;" | ABC.P.A
| - || -
| 5 || 4
| - || -
| - || -
| 5 || 4
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" | New Territories Association of Societies
| - || -
| - || -
| - || -
| 2 || 2
| 2 || 2
|-
| width=1px style="background-color:#144F84" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Chinese Association of Hong Kong & Macao Studies
| 1 || 1
| - || -
| - || -
| - || -
| 1 || 1
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: #3A3B72" |
| style="text-align:left;" | V18 Accountants
| - || -
| 18 || 0
| - || -
| - || -
| 18 || 0
|-
| width=1px style="background-color:#aca4b7" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Gov.ALPS
| - || -
| 11 || 0
| - || -
| - || -
| 11 || 0
|-
| width=1px style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Education Convergence
| - || -
| 5 || 0
| - || -
| - || -
| 5 || 0
|-
| width=1px style="background-color:#E75433" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Your Vote Counts
| - || -
| 4 || 0
| - || -
| - || -
| 4 || 0
|-
| width=1px style="background-color:#D61E2F" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Hong Kong Securities & Futures Employees Union
| 1 || 0
| - || -
| - || -
| - || -
| 1 || 0
|-
| width=1px style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Hong Kong Women Teachers' Organization
| - || -
| 1 || 0
| - || -
| - || -
| 1 || 0
|-
| width=1px style="background-color:#047BC1" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Win Win Hong Kong Accountants
| - || -
| 1 || 0
| - || -
| - || -
| 1 || 0
|-
| width=1px style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Pro-Beijing Independent
| 319 || 279
| 301 || 53
| 156 || 137
| 123 || 114
| 898 || 581
|- style="background-color:Pink"
| colspan=3 style="text-align:left;" | Total for pro-Beijing camp || 342 || 299 || 345 || 57 || 199 || 178 || 204 || 194 || 1,091 || 726
|-
|style="background-color:Moccasin" rowspan="18" |
| width=1px style="background-color:#901582" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Health Professionals for Democracy 30
| - || -
| 29 || 29
| - || -
| - || -
| 29 || 29
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" |Hong Kong Professional Teachers' Union
| - || -
| 23 || 23
| - || -
| - || -
| 23 || 23
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" |Hong Kong Social Workers' General Union
| - || -
| - || -
| 20 || 20
| - || -
| 20 || 20
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: #F4835C" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Doctors for Democracy
| - || -
| 19 || 19
| - || -
| - || -
| 19 || 19
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: #DAA516" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Demo-Social Front
| - || -
| - || -
| 19 || 19
| - || -
| 19 || 19
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" |Democratic Party
| 1 || 0
| 12 || 12
| 3 || 3
| 2 || 0
| 18 || 15
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: #F15922" |
| style="text-align:left;" | IT Vision
| - || -
| 16 || 16
| - || -
| - || -
| 16 || 16
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" |Civic Party
| - || -
| 14 || 14
| - || -
| 2 || 0
| 16 || 14
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: #1C9E52" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Together for Social Welfare
| - || -
| - || -
| 18 || 13
| - || -
| 18 || 13
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: #91565A" |
| style="text-align:left;" | O Superpower
| - || -
| - || -
| 11 || 4
| - || -
| 11 || 4
|-
| width=1px style="background-color:#8ea28b " |
| style="text-align:left;" | Democrat Professionals Hong Kong
| - || -
| 4 || 4
| - || -
| - || -
| 4 || 4
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: #FFBA00" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Hearts of Accountants
| - || -
| 4 || 4
| - || -
| - || -
| 4 || 4
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" |Professional Commons
| - || -
| 2 || 2
| - || -
| - || -
| 2 || 2
|-
| width=1px style="background-color:Black " |
| style="text-align:left;" | Reclaiming Social Work Movement
| - || -
| - || -
| 12 || 1
| - || -
| 12 || 1
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" | Hong Kong Association for Democracy and People's Livelihood
| - || -
| 1 || 1
| - || -
| 3 || 0
| 4 || 1
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" |Labour Party
| - || -
| 1 || 1
| - || -
| 1 || 0
| 2 || 1
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: #006a6d" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Coalition of Hong Kong Newspaper and Magazine Merchant
| 1 || 0
| - || -
| - || -
| - || -
| 1 || 0
|-
| width=1px style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Independent democrats
| - || -
| 119 || 114
| 15 || 0
| 1 || 0
| 135 || 114
|- style="background-color:Moccasin"
| colspan=3 style="text-align:left;" | Total for Democrats 300+ || 2 || 0 || 243 || 238 || 100 || 60 || 9 || 0 || 352 || 298
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: " rowspan=7 |
| width=1px style="background-color: Green" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Frontline Doctors' Union
| - || -
| 3 || 3
| - || -
| - || -
| 3 || 3
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: #FAF84E" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Students United 2017
| - || -
| 6 || 0
| - || -
| - || -
| 6 || 0
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: #F16632" |
| style="text-align:left;" | User Voice
| - || -
| - || -
| 3 || 0
| - || -
| 3 || 0
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" | Path of Democracy
| - || -
| 1 || 0
| - || -
| - || -
| 1 || 0
|-
| width=1px style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" | Tuen Mun Community Network
| - || -
| - || -
| 1 || 0
| - || -
| 1 || 0
|-
| width=1px style="background-color:Red" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Alliance of Housing Department Staff Unions
| - || -
| - || -
| 1 || 0
| - || -
| 1 || 0
|-
| width=1px style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Non-aligned independent
| - || -
| 64 || 2
| 16 || 2
| 1 || 0
| 81 || 4
|-
|style="text-align:left;background-color:#E9E9E9" colspan="3"|Total
|style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"|344
|style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"|299
|style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"|663
|style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"| 300
|style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"|318
|style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"|240
|style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"|214
|style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"| 194
|style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"|1,539
|style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9"|1,033
|}
Overview of outcome
The election saw a nearly 20 percent point increase of turnout compared to the 2011 election. The pro-democracy camp took a record quarter of the seat in the elections, with the help of the landslide victories in the Second sector. Clean sweeps were seen in the Legal, Education, Higher Education, Health Services, Information Technology and Social Welfare subsectors, as well as victories in other subsectors. The pro-democrats under the banner of "Democrats 300+" won 325 seats in total if included the 27 ex officio Legislative Council members.
First sector
The pro-Beijing camp maintained its stronghold in the First sector. Liberal Party honorary chairman James Tien, key advocate of the so-called "ABC" – Anyone But CY Leung – campaign, received high votes in the Commercial (First) subsector along with his mentee Joseph Chan Ho-lim, each bagging more than 400 votes from corporate electors. Liberal Party chairman Tommy Cheung, Legislative Council member for the Catering functional constituency also had his 17-member candidate list elected uncontestedly in the Catering subsector. Vincent Fang, the party ex-leader and former Wholesale and Retail LegCo representative also won all 18 seats against a two-member list led by Democratic Party's Au Nok-hin.
The most prominent estate developing tycoons were elected through the Real Estate and Construction subsector, including Li Ka-shing, Lee Shau-kee, Gordon Wu and Ronnie Chan who were elected uncontestedly. The Hotel subsector was dominated by property developers. Among the 17 elected members were Gary Harilela, director of Harilela Hotels, Lui Che-woo, founder of K. Wah Group, and second-generation tycoons including Sino Land's Daryl Ng, Hopewell Holdings' Thomas Wu, and Henderson Land Development's Martin Lee Ka-shing.
Second sector
The pro-democrats scored landslide victories in the professional subsectors. The Academics in Support of Democracy ticket led by Occupy Central co-founders Chan Kin-man and Benny Tai seized all the seats in the Higher Education subsector. The two tickets led by pro-democrat politicians including Civic Party's Alan Leong and legal scholar Eric Cheung Tat-ming also won all the 30 seats in the Legal subsector. The other subsectors swept by the pro-democrats included Education and Information Technology subsector in which former Democratic Party legislators Cheung Man-kwong and Sin Chung-kai became the biggest winners.
The pro-democrats saw increase of their seats in the Architectural, Surveying, Planning and Landscape and the Accountancy subsectors, and secured at least half of the seats in the Engineering and Medical subsectors. The three pro-democrat candidates who were under the banner of the "Democrats 300+" were also elected in the traditional pro-Beijing stronghold of Chinese Medicine subsector for the first time.
Third sector
While all 60 seats in the Agriculture and Fisheries subsector were taken by pro-Beijing candidates uncontestedly, the pro-democrats won all of the seats in the 60-member Social Welfare subsector despite the infighting among different pro-democrat tickets. Pro-democracy filmmaker Derek Yee emerged as the only candidate from his eight-member list to secure a seat in the 15-seat Performing Arts sub-subsector, which had always been monopolised by conservative pro-Beijing forces. The remaining 14 seats in the sub-subsector were taken by the Hong Kong Motion Picture Industry Association led by Beijing-friendly Crucindo Hung Cho-sing, whose ticket included actors and filmmakers Raymond Wong Pak-ming and Eric Tsang. The 15 members of the pro-democracy group ARTicipants led by songwriter Adrian Chow Pok-yin were all defeated in the Culture sub-subsector against the pro-Beijing 15-member list which included veteran actress Liza Wang.
Fourth sector
The 51-member Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference subsector was returned uncontestedly, while the Heung Yee Kuk subsector was seen in a rare contest. The pro-democrats contested in the Hong Kong and Kowloon District Councils subsector with a nine-member ticket but all of them were defeated by the pro-Beijing District Councillors.
See also
2017 Hong Kong Chief Executive election
Politics of Hong Kong
References
External links
2016 Election Committee Subsector Ordinary Elections Official Website
E
E
E
2016 elections in China
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December 2016 events in China
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doc-en-7562_0
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This is a list of radio stations in Russian.
Moscow
UKV
Radio Rossii (VGTRK) 5:00-1:00 66.44 FM - News and talk radio
Radio Radonezh 72.92 FM - religious radio
FM
Business FM () 87.5 FM - All-news radio
Like FM (Gazprom-Media) 87.9 FM - Interactive music radio
Retro FM (EMG) 88.3 FM - Russian and Western 60-90s pop and rock hits
Yumor FM (Gazprom-Media) 88.7 FM - Russian contemporary pop music
Radio Jazz (Multimedia Holding) 89.1 FM - Contemporary jazz music
Megapolis FM 89.5 FM - House music
Radio Tvoya Volna 89.9 FM - Russian pop
AvtoRadio (Gazprom-Media) 90.3 FM - Adult contemporary
Relax FM (Gazprom-Media) 90.8 FM - Music for relaxation
Echo of Moscow (Gazprom-Media 66%) 91.2 FM - News/talk
Radio Kultura (VGTRK) 91.6 FM - Classical
Moskva FM (Moscow Media) 92.0 FM - Moscow city radio
Radio Dacha (SAFMAR Media) 92.4 FM - Russian and Soviet pop hits
Radio Karnaval (EKOR) 92.8 FM - Pop and rock hits
Studio 21 (EMG) 93.2 FM - Hip-Hop & R&B music
Kommersant FM 93.6 FM - News/Talk
Vostok FM (SAFMAR Media) 94.0 FM
Pervoe Sportivnoe (SAFMAR Media) 94.4 FM - Sport/Oldies
Govorit Moskva (SAFMAR Media) 94.8 FM - Talk/Oldies
ROCK FM (Multimedia Holding) 95.2 FM - Classic rock
Radio Zvezda 95.6 FM - Russian pop and rock music
Dorognoye Radio (EMG) 96.0 FM - Russian old music
Taxi FM (SAFMAR Media) 96.4 FM
Detskoye Radio (Gazprom Media) 96.8 FM - Radio for kids (mostly music)
Radio KP 97.2 FM - News/talk
Vesti FM (VGTRK) 97.6 FM - News 24x7
Radio Chocolate (Rumedia) 98.0 FM - Radio for women
Novoe radio (EMG) 98.4 FM - Russian pop music
Radio Romantika (Gazprom-Media) 98.8 FM - Russian pop music
Radio Orpheus 99.2 FM - Classical
Radio Russkiy hit (SAFMAR Media) 99.6 FM - Contemporary pop
Silver Rain 100.1 FM - Various
Zhara FM 100.5 FM - Pop music, Adult contemporary
Radio Vera 100.9 FM - Religious/Classical
DFM (RMG) 101.2 FM - Dance/Pop
Nashe Radio (Multimedia Holding) 101.7 FM - Russian rock
Radio Monte Carlo (RMG) 102.1 FM - Adult contemporary
Comedy Radio (Gazprom Media) 102.5 FM - Comedy Club Radio
Radio Shanson (SAFMAR Media) 103.0 FM - Russian Shanson
Radio Mayak (VGTRK) 103.4 FM - Talk radio
Radio MAXIMUM (RMG) 103.7 FM - Rock music
NRJ Russia (Gazprom-Media) 104.2 FM - European and Russian pop music
Radio 7 (EMG) 104.7 FM - Rock and pop hits (classical music hits on the top of each hour)
Radio Kniga (Dom Muzyki)/Radio 1 (Podmoskovie Media) 105.0 FM - Cultural and Education
Capital FM (Moscow Media) 105.3 FM - English language radio
Russian Radio (RMG) 105.7 FM - Russian pop music
Europa Plus (EMG) 106.2 FM - Pop music
Love Radio (SAFMAR Media) 106.6 FM - Top 40
Radio Izvestia (National Media Group) 107.0 FM - relaying of the TV channel "Izvestia"
Hit FM (RMG) 107.4 FM - Contemporary Hits
Militseyskaya Volna 107.8 FM - Russian pop
St. Petersburg
UKV
Radio Rossii (VGTRK) 66.30 FM 5:00-1:00 - News and talk radio
TRK Petersburg (National Media Group 72,4%) 69.47 FM 6:00-1:00 - St.Petersburg radio
Radio Orpheus 71.66 FM - Culture radio
Radio Grad Petrov 73.10 FM - Religious
FM
Dorozhnoye Radio (EMG) 87.5 FM - Russian Pop music and news
Retro FM (EMG) 88.0 FM - Russian and Western 60-90s pop and rock hits
AvtoRadio (Gazprom-Media) 88.4 FM - Music and talk
Yumor FM (Gazprom-Media) 88.9 FM - Russian contemporary pop music
Vesti FM (VGTRK) 89.3 FM - Talk radio
Radio Zenit (Gazprom-Media) 89.7 FM - Sport news and music
Radio Hermitage 90.1 FM - Contemporary jazz music and Big Bands
Radio Vanya (M10 Media) 90.6 FM - Russian Pop
Novoe radio (EMG) 91.1 FM - Russian pop music
Echo of Moscow (Gazprom-Media 66%) 91.5 FM - News/talk
Radio KP 92.0 FM - News/talk
Hit FM (RMG) 92.4 FM - Contemporary Hits
Radio Izvestia (National Media Group) 92.9 FM - relaying of the TV channel "Izvestia"
(planned) Radio Kniga 93.3 FM - Cultural and Education
Radio Zvezda 94.1 FM - Russian pop and rock music
NRJ Russia (Gazprom-Media) 95.0 FM
Studio 21 (EMG) 95.5 FM - Hip-Hop & R&B music
Comedy Radio (Gazprom Media) 95.9 FM - Comedy Club Radio
Radio Dacha (SAFMAR Media) 97.0 FM
Royal Radio 98.6 FM
Radio Rossii (VGTRK) 99.0 FM - News/Talk
Popular classic (M10 Media) 100.1 FM (Simagino) - Classic music
Europa Plus (EMG) 100.5 FM - Pop music
Piter FM (M10 Media) 100.9 FM
Eldoradio (EMG) 101.4 FM - Hits from 60s to 90s
Radio Tvoya Volna 102.0 FM - Russian pop
Radio Metro 102.4 FM
Radio MAXIMUM (RMG) 102.8 FM - Rock music
DFM (RMG) 103.4 FM - Dance/R'n'B
Detskoye Radio (Gazprom-Media) 103.7 FM - Child Music
Nashe Radio (Multimedia Holding) 104.0 FM - Russian rock
Radio Shanson (SAFMAR Media) 104.4 FM - Russian Shanson
Like FM (Gazprom-Media) 104.8 FM - Interactive music radio
Love Radio (SAFMAR Media) 105.3 FM - Pop music
Radio Monte Carlo (RMG) 105.9 FM - Pop music
Radio Record 106.3 FM - Dance and Club music
Radio Mayak (VGTRK) 107.0 FM - Talk radio
Business FM (Rumedia) 107.4 FM - Talk radio
Russian Radio (RMG) 107.8 FM - Russian pop music
MW
Radio Radonezh 19:00-0:00 684 MW - Religious
Radio Maria 10-14, 18-22 1053 MW - Religious
Novosibirsk
Radio 7 (EMG) 92.8 FM - Rock and pop hits (classical music hits on the top of each hour)
(planned) Radio Kniga 93.2 FM - Cultural and Education
Radio Mayak (VGTRK) 93.8 FM - Talk radio
Love Radio (SAFMAR Media) 94.2 FM - Top 40
Radio Vera - 94.6 FM
Radio MIR - 95.0 FM
Nashe Radio (Multimedia Holding) - 95.4 FM
Detskoye Radio (Gazprom Media) 95.8 FM - Radio for kids (mostly music)
Russian Radio (RMG) 96.2 FM - Russian pop music
Silver Rain - 96.6 FM
Retro FM (EMG) 97.0 FM - Russian and Western 60-90s pop and rock hits
Comedy Radio (Gazprom Media) 97.4 FM - Comedy Club Radio
Radio Rossia (VGTRK) 97.8 FM - News/Talk radio
Radio KP 98.3 FM - News/talk
AvtoRadio (Gazprom-Media) 98.7 FM - Adult contemporary
NRJ Russia (Gazprom-Media) 99.1 FM - European and Russian pop music
Yumor FM (Gazprom-Media) 99.5 FM - Russian contemporary pop music
Novoe radio (EMG) 100.0 FM - Russian pop music
Radio Uniton - 100.7 FM
City Wave - 101.4 FM
Dorognoye Radio (EMG) 102.0 FM - Russian old music
Radio Record 102.6 FM - Dance and Club music
Europa Plus (EMG) 103.2 FM - Pop music
DFM (RMG) 103.9 FM - Dance/Pop
Vesti FM (VGTRK) 104.6 FM - News 24x7
Hit FM (RMG) 105.2 FM - Contemporary Hits
Business FM (Rumedia) 105.7 FM - Talk radio
Radio 54 - 106.2 FM
Radio Dacha (SAFMAR Media) 106.7 FM - Russian and Soviet pop hits
Radio Shanson (SAFMAR Media) 107.7 FM - Russian Shanson
Yekaterinburg
UKV
Radio Orpheus 69.92 FM - Culture radio
Radio Voskreseniye 72.83 FM - Religious
FM
Radio Zvezda 87.6 FM
Hit FM (RMG) 88.3 FM - Contemporary Hits
Silver Rain - 88.8 FM
Detsckoe Radio (Gazprom Media) - 89.2 FM
NRJ Russia (Gazprom-Media) - 89.6 FM
Novoe radio (EMG) 90.8 FM - Russian pop music
Echo of Moscow (Gazprom Media 66%) 91.4 FM - News/talk
Radio Record - 91.9 FM - Dance radio
Radio KP - 92.3 FM
Studio 21 (EMG) 92.7 FM - Hip-Hop & R&B music
Radio Vera - 93.7 FM
Dorozhnoe radio (EMG) - 94.2 FM - Oldies
Nashe Radio (Multimedia Holding) - 94.8 FM
Radio Rossia (VGTRK) 95.5 FM - News/Talk radio
Comedy Radio (Gazprom Media) 95.9 FM - Comedy Club Radio
Vesti FM (VGTRK) - 96.3 FM
Radio MIR - 97.9 FM
Love radio (SAFMAR Media) - 98.5 FM
Radio Leto (EKOR) - 98.9 FM - Pop music
Business FM (Rumedia) 99.4 FM - Business news
Retro FM (EMG) 100.0 FM - Russian and Western 60-90s pop and rock hits
Radio Pilot (EKOR) - 100.4 FM
Radio Mayak (VGTRK) 100.8 FM - Talk radio
Europa Plus (EMG) 101.2 FM - Pop music
Yumor FM 102.0 FM (Gazprom-Media) - Russian contemporary pop music
Jam FM (EKOR) 102.5 FM - Disco radio
Radio Shanson (SAFMAR Media) 103.2 FM - Russian Shanson
Radio C (EKOR) 103.7 FM - Adult contemporary
Radio Dacha (SAFMAR Media) - 104.1 FM
Rock Arsenal (EKOR) 104.5 FM - Rock music
Avtoradio (Gazprom-Media) 105.0 FM - Adult contemporary
Russian Radio (RMG) 105.7 FM - Russian pop music
Radio Monte Carlo (RMG) 106.2 FM - Adult contemporary
Sputnik FM (EKOR) 107.0 FM
Gorod FM 107.6 FM - News/Talk Radio
Nizhniy Novgorod
Radio Mayak (VGTRK) 92.4 FM - Talk radio
Radio KP 92.8 FM - News/talk
Nashe Radio (Multimedia Holding) 93.5 FM - Russian rock
Radio Rossia (VGTRK) 93.9 FM - News/Talk radio
DFM (RMG) 94.7 FM - Dance/Pop
Novoe radio (EMG) 96.0 FM - Russian pop-music
Radiola (Media-1) 96.4 FM - Oldies hits 60-80s
NRJ Russia (Gazprom-Media) 96.8 FM - European and Russian pop music
(planned) Radio Kniga 97.6 FM - Cultural and Education
Radio Obraz 98.0 FM - Religious
Vesti FM (VGTRK) 98.6 FM - News 24x7
Detskoye Radio (Gazprom Media) 99.1 FM - Radio for kids (mostly music)
Comedy Radio (Gazprom Media) 99.5 FM - Comedy Club Radio
Radio 7 (EMG) 100.0 FM - Rock and pop hits (classical music hits on the top of each hour)
Silver Rain - 100.4 FM
Radio Record 100.9 FM - Dance music
Hit FM (RMG) 101.4 FM - Contemporary Hits
AvtoRadio (Gazprom-Media) 101.9 FM - Adult contemporary
Radio Monte Carlo (RMG) 102.4 FM - Pop music
Russian Radio (RMG) 102.9 FM - Russian pop music
Radio Randevu - 103.4 FM
Europa Plus (EMG) 103.9 FM - Pop music
Radio Dacha (SAFMAR Media) 104.5 FM - Russian and Soviet pop hits
Love Radio (SAFMAR Media) 104.9 FM - Top 40
Dorognoye Radio (EMG) 105.4 FM - Russian old music
Radio Rodnykh Dorog 105.9 FM
Retro FM (EMG) 106.4 FM - Russian and Western 60-90s pop and rock hits
Radio Shanson (SAFMAR Media) 106.9 FM - Russian Shanson
Yumor FM (Gazprom-Media) 107.4 FM - Russian contemporary pop music
Business FM (Rumedia) 107.8 FM - Talk radio
Kazan
UKV
Kuray radiosi - 73.97 FM
FM
Silver Rain - 88.3 FM
Dorognoye Radio (EMG) 88.9 FM - Russian old music
Detskoye Radio (Gazprom Media) 89.3 FM - Radio for kids (mostly music)
Radio Shanson (SAFMAR Media) - 89.7 FM - Russian Shanson
Radio Dacha (SAFMAR Media) 90.2 FM - Russian and Soviet pop hits
Russian Radio (RMG) 90.7 FM - Russian pop music
Yumor FM (Gazprom-Media) 91.1 FM - Russian contemporary pop music
Bolgar radiosi - 91.5 FM
Studio 21 (EMG) 91.9 FM - Hip-Hop & R&B music
NRJ Russia (Gazprom-Media) 92.3 FM - European and Russian pop music
Tartip radiosi (Tatmedia) 93.1 FM
Business FM (Rumedia) - 93.5 FM - Talk radio
Radio Mayak (VGTRK) 93.9 FM - Talk radio
Vesti FM (VGTRK) 94.3 FM - News 24x7
Radio Vera - 95.5 FM
Nashe Radio (Multimedia Holding) 96.8 FM - Russian rock
(planned) Radio Kniga 97.2 FM - Cultural and Education
Radio KP 98.0 FM - News/talk
Kitap radiosi (Tatmedia) 98.6 FM - Literature, Cultural
Radio Rossia (VGTRK) 99.2 FM - News/Talk radio
Tatar radiosi - 100.5 FM
Radio MIR - 100.9 FM
Novoe radio (EMG) 101.3 FM - Russian pop music
Radio Record 101.9 FM - Dance music
Retro FM (EMG) 102.4 FM - Russian and Western 60-90s pop and rock hits
BIM-Radio - 102.8 FM
AvtoRadio (Gazprom-Media) 103.3 FM - Adult contemporary
Radio Iskatel 104.0 FM
DFM (RMG) 104.7 FM - Dance/Pop
Relax FM (Gazprom-Media) 105.3 FM - Music for relaxation
Echo of Moscow (Gazprom-Media 66%) 105.8 FM - News/talk
Radio Monte-Carlo (RMG) 106.3 FM
Europa Plus (EMG) 106.8 FM - Pop music
Radio Millenium - 107.3 FM
Love Radio (SAFMAR Media) 107.8 FM - Top 40
Samara
(planned) Radio Kniga 88.2 FM - Cultural and Education
Radio MIR - 88.7 FM
Radio Russkiy hit (SAFMAR Media) 89.2 FM - Contemporary pop
Novoe Radio (EMG) 89.6 FM - Russian pop music
Radio Monte-Carlo (RMG) 91.0 FM - Pop music
Radio Shanson (SAFMAR Media) 91.5 FM - Russian Shanson
Business FM (Rumedia) 91.5 FM - Talk radio
Radio Mayak (VGTRK) 92.1 FM - Talk radio
Samara Guberniain Radio - 92.5 FM
Nashe Radio (Multimedia Holding) 92.9 FM - Russian rock
Vesti FM (VGTRK) 93.5 FM - News 24x7
Radio Rossia (VGTRK) 95.3 FM - News/Talk radio
Yumor FM (Gazprom-Media) 95.7 FM - Russian contemporary pop music
Radiola (Media-1) 96.3 FM - Oldies hits 60-80s
Radio Vera - 96.8 FM
Dorognoye Radio (EMG) 97.3 FM - Russian old music
Radio Jazz (Multimedia Holding) 97.8 FM - Jazz music
Radio KP 98.2 FM - News/talk
Retro FM (EMG) 98.6 FM - Russian and Western 60-90s pop and rock hits
Echo of Moscow (Gazprom-Media 66%) 99.1 FM - News/talk
Europa Plus (EMG) 99.9 FM - Pop music
Russian Radio (RMG) 100.3 FM - Russian pop music
Taxi FM (SAFMAR Media) 101.0 FM
Radio Record 101.5 FM - Dance music
Radio Dacha (SAFMAR Media) 102.1 FM - Russian and Soviet pop hits
NRJ Russia (Gazprom-Media) 102.5 FM - European and Russian pop music
DFM (RMG) 102.9 FM - Dance/Pop
Radio Megapolis (EKOR) - 103.6 FM
Samara-Maximum (EKOR) - 104.3 FM
AvtoRadio (Gazprom-Media) 104.8 FM - Adult contemporary
Comedy Radio (Gazprom Media) 105.4 FM - Comedy Club Radio
Radio Vanya (M10 Media) 106.1 FM - Russian Pop
Love Radio (SAFMAR Media) 106.6 FM - Top 40
Detskoye Radio (Gazprom Media) 107.2 FM - Radio for kids (mostly music)
Omsk
Radio Rossia (VGTRK) 87.7 FM - News/Talk radio
Radio Vanya (M10 Media) 88.1 FM - Russian Pop
Radio Mayak (VGTRK) 88.6 FM - Talk radio
NRJ Russia (Gazprom-Media) 89.1 FM - European and Russian pop music
Studio 21 (EMG) 89.5 FM - Hip-Hop & R&B music
(planned) Radio Kniga 90.1 FM - Cultural and Education
Radio Vera 90.5 FM - Religious/Classical
Radio MIR - 90.9 FM
Detskoye Radio (Gazprom Media) 91.4 FM - Radio for kids (mostly music)
Nashe Radio (Multimedia Holding) 100.6 FM - Russian rock
Radio Dacha (SAFMAR Media) 101.0 FM - Russian and Soviet pop hits
Yumor FM (Gazprom-Media) 101.5 FM - Russian contemporary pop music
Europa Plus (EMG) 101.9 FM - Pop music
Russian Radio (RMG) 102.5 FM - Russian pop music
Dorognoye Radio (EMG) 103.0 FM - Russian old music
Radio-3 - 103.5 FM
Radio Sibir (MKR-Media) - 103.9 FM - CHR Music
Radio Record 104.4 FM - Dance music
Radio MAXIMUM (RMG) 105.0 FM - Rock music
Retro FM (EMG) 105.7 FM - Russian and Western 60-90s pop and rock hits
Radio Monte-Carlo (RMG) 106.2 FM - Pop music
AvtoRadio (Gazprom-Media) 106.8 FM - Adult contemporary
Novoe radio (EMG) 107.3 FM - Russian pop music
Vesti FM (VGTRK) 107.8 FM - News 24x7
Chelyabinsk
UKV
Echo of Moscow (Gazprom-Media 66%) 73.97 FM - News/talk radio
FM
Vesti FM (VGTRK) 92.6 FM - News 24x7
(planned) Radio Kniga 93.0 FM - Cultural and Education
Radio Mayak (VGTRK) 93.6 FM - Talk radio
Radio MIR - 94.0 FM
Love Radio (SAFMAR Media) 94.6 FM - Top 40
Radio KP 95.3 FM - News/talk
NRJ Russia (Gazprom-Media) 96.0 FM - European and Russian pop music
Retro FM (EMG) 96.4 FM - Russian and Western 60-90s pop and rock hits
Detskoye Radio (Gazprom Media) 96.8 FM - Radio for kids (mostly music)
Radio Rossia (VGTRK) 97.8 FM - News/Talk
Radio Dacha (SAFMAR Media) 98.7 FM - Russian and Soviet pop hits
AvtoRadio (Gazprom-Media) 99.1 FM - Adult contemporary
Echo of Moscow (Gazprom-Media 66%) 99.5 FM - News/talk
Radio 100 - 100.0 FM
Radio Continental - 100.4 FM
Business FM (Rumedia) 100.8 FM - Talk radio
Yumor FM (Gazprom-Media) 101.2 FM - Russian contemporary pop music
Europa Plus (EMG) 101.6 FM - Pop music
Novoe radio (EMG) 102.0 FM - Russian pop music
Studio 21 (EMG) 102.4 FM - Hip-Hop & R&B music
Interwave - 102.9 FM
Nashe Radio (Multimedia Holding) - 103.5 FM
Russian Radio (RMG) 104.1 FM - Russian pop music
Radio Olymp - 104.5 FM
L-Radio - 104.9 FM
Radio 7 (EMG) 105.4 FM - Rock and pop hits (classical music hits on the top of each hour)
Radio Shanson (SAFMAR Media) 105.9 FM - Russian Shanson
Dorognoye Radio (EMG) 106.3 FM - Russian old music
Radio Vanya (M10 Media) 106.8 FM
DFM (RMG) 107.3 FM - Dance/Pop
Rostov-na-Donu
UKV
Nashe Radio (Multimedia Holding) - 73.76 FM
FM
Detskoye Radio (Gazprom Media) 88.2 FM - Radio for kids (mostly music)
Radio Rossia (VGTRK) 89.0 FM - News/Talk radio
Radio 7 (EMG) 89.4 FM - Rock and pop hits (classical music hits on the top of each hour)
Radio KP 89.8 FM - News/talk
Vesti FM (VGTRK) 90.2 FM - News 24x7
Radio MIR - 90.6 FM
Yumor FM (Gazprom-Media) 91.2 FM - Russian contemporary pop music
Radio Mayak (VGTRK) 91.8 FM - Talk radio
Hit FM (RMG) 100.1 FM - Contemporary Hits
FM-na-Donu 100.7 FM
Retro FM (EMG) 101.2 FM - Russian and Western 60-90s pop and rock hits
Love Radio (SAFMAR Media) 101.6 FM - Top 40
Dorognoye Radio (EMG) 102.2 FM - Russian old music
Russian Radio (RMG) 103.0 FM - Russian pop music
Radio Dacha (SAFMAR Media) 103.3 FM - Russian and Soviet pop hits
Radio Monte Carlo (RMG) 103.7 FM - Pop music
AvtoRadio (Gazprom-Media) 104.1 FM - Adult contemporary
DFM (RMG) 104.6 FM - Dance/Pop
Radio Shanson (SAFMAR Media) 105.1 FM - Russian Shanson
(planned) Like FM (Gazprom-Media) 105.1 FM - Interactive music radio
Europa Plus (EMG) 105.7 FM - Pop music
NRJ Russia (Gazprom-Media) 106.6 FM - European and Russian pop music
(planned) Radio Kniga 107.1 FM - Cultural and Education
Novoe radio (EMG) 107.5 FM - Russian pop music
Ufa
UKV
Ashkadar radiosi (Baskortostan State Broadcasting) 66.68 FM
Radio 1st channel 69.68 FM
FM
Studio 21 (EMG) 87.8 FM - Hip-Hop & R&B music
NRJ Russia (Gazprom-Media) 88.2 FM - European and Russian pop music
(planned) Radio Kniga 88.7 FM - Cultural and Education
Radio Iskatel 89.0 FM
Radio Rossia (VGTRK) 89.5 FM - News/Talk radio
Detskoye Radio (Gazprom Media) 90.6 FM - Radio for kids (mostly music)
Echo of Moscow (Gazprom-Media 66%) 91.1 FM - News/talk
DFM (RMG) 91.5 FM - Dance/Pop
Radio Mayak (VGTRK) 100.6 FM - Talk radio
Novoe radio (EMG) 101.2 FM - Russian pop music
Radio 1st channel 101.6 FM
Vesti FM (VGTRK) 102.1 FM - News 24x7
Nashe Radio (Multimedia Holding) 102.5 FM - Russian rock
Roxana radiosi 103.0 FM
Comedy Radio (Gazprom Media) 103.5 FM - Comedy Club Radio
Retro FM (EMG) 104.0 FM - Russian and Western 60-90s pop and rock hits
Russian Radio (RMG) 104.5 FM - Russian pop music
Radio Dacha (SAFMAR Media) 105.0 FM - Russian and Soviet pop hits
Uldash radiosi (Bashkortostan State Broadcasting) 105.5 FM
Europa Plus (EMG) 106.0 FM - Pop music
AvtoRadio (Gazprom-Media) 106.5 FM - Adult contemporary
Sputnik FM (Bashkortostan State Broadcasting) 107.0 FM
Business FM (Rumedia) 107.5 FM - Talk radio
Dorognoye Radio (EMG) 107.9 FM - Russian old music
Volgograd
UKV
Radio Orpheus 71.33 FM - Classical
FM
Radio Vera 92.6 FM - Religious/Classical
Volgograd 24 (VGTRK) 93.4 FM
Radio MIR - 93.8 FM
DFM (RMG) 94.5 FM - Dance/Pop
Radio 7 (EMG) 94.9 FM - Rock and pop hits (classical music hits on the top of each hour)
Radio Mayak (VGTRK) 95.3 FM - Talk radio
Detskoye Radio (Gazprom Media) 95.7 FM - Radio for kids (mostly music)
Love Radio (SAFMAR Media) 96.1 FM - Pop music
Radio KP 96.5 FM - News/talk
Nashe Radio (Multimedia Holding) - 97.2 FM
Radio Dacha (SAFMAR Media) 97.6 FM - Russian and Soviet pop hits
Radio Rossia (VGTRK) 98.3 FM - News/Talk radio
NRJ Russia (Gazprom-Media) 98.8 FM - European and Russian pop music
Radio MAXIMUM (RMG) 99.2 FM - Rock music
Radio Zvezda 99.6 FM
Radio Shanson (SAFMAR Media) 100.0 FM - Russian Shanson
Europa Plus (EMG) 100.6 FM - Pop music
Echo of Moscow (Gazprom-Media 66%) 101.1 FM - News/talk
Volgograd FM 101.5 FM
New Wave 102.0 FM
Retro FM (EMG) 102.6 FM - Russian and Western 60-90s pop and rock hits
AvtoRadio (Gazprom-Media) 103.1 FM - Adult contemporary
Dorognoye Radio (EMG) 103.6 FM - Russian old music
Novoe radio (EMG) 104.0 FM - Russian pop music
Yumor FM (Gazprom-Media) 104.5 FM - Russian contemporary pop music
Radio Sputnik 105.1 FM
Russian Radio (RMG) 105.6 FM - Russian pop music
Studio 21 (EMG) 106.0 FM - Hip-Hop & R&B music
Radio Kniga 106.4 FM - Cultural and Education
Vesti FM (VGTRK) 106.8 FM - News 24x7
(planned) Comedy Radio (Gazprom-Media) 107.2 FM
(planned) Silver Rain 107.9 FM - Various
Outside of Russia
Australia
SBS Radio 2 - National multilingual broadcaster, with regular Russian language programs.
Canada
CKER-FM Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; 107.1 -Sundays 21:00, music, news for Russians in Canada
Voice of Alberta 106.7 FM - Chat, news/talk, music. Russian speaking community in Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
Estonia
Russkoe Radio Estonia 90,6 FM Tallinn - Chat, news/talk, music. Russian speaking community in Estonia.
Raadio 4 94.5 FM Tallinn - Chat, news/talk, music. Russian speaking community in Estonia.
Narodnoe Radio 100.0 FM Tallinn - Chat, news/talk, music. Russian speaking community in Estonia.
Sky Radio 98.4 FM Tallinn - Music. Russian speaking community in Estonia.
Radio Volna 107.1 FM Tallinn - Music. Russian speaking community in Estonia.
DFM Estonia 90.2 FM Tallinn - Music. Russian speaking community in Estonia.
Yumor FM Estonia 104.9 FM Tallinn - Chat, music. Russian speaking community in Estonia.
Ireland
The Russian Show Dublin, Ireland; 103.2 FM - Tuesdays, 08:30-09:00, Chat and music for the Russian speaking community in Dublin, Ireland.
Lithuania
RusRadio.lt 105,6 FM Vilnius Russian speaking community in Lithuania.
Pakistan
DND Russian Russian Music and Russian News
United States
Echo Planety 1240 AM - Chat, news/talk, music. Chicago, United States.
Dr. Koles' weekly talk show 1430 AM - Physical and psychological health. Chicago, United States.
Narodnaya Volna Radio 1430 AM - Chat, news/talk, music. Chicago, United States.
New Life Russian Radio 1330 AM - pop music, news/talk, first Russian station in the United States, Chicago.
i-netradio.com 24hrs/7 - Chat, news/talk, music. Florida, United States.
Vashe Radio 1240 AM - Chat, news/talk, music. Chicago, United States.
KXPD 1040 AM - news/talk, music. Portland, Oregon, United States.
KQRR 1520 AM - Christian, news/talk. Portland, Oregon, United States.
Arti Gian FM 2 Pop,Eurodance. Hanover, Germany.
External links
Moscow FM Stations Guide
Radio of Russia
Radio Archive
Victor City FM Radio Stations
Lists of radio stations by language
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The Coventry Building Society Arena (formerly known as the Ricoh Arena) is a complex in Coventry, England. It includes a 32,609-seater stadium which is home to the owners, rugby club Wasps and to the football team, Championship club Coventry City F.C. along with facilities which include a exhibition hall, a hotel and a casino. The site is also home to Arena Park Shopping Centre, containing one of UK's largest Tesco Extra hypermarkets. Built on the site of the Foleshill gasworks, it is named after its sponsor, Coventry Building Society who entered into a ten-year sponsorship deal in 2021. For the 2012 Summer Olympics, where stadium naming sponsorship was forbidden, the stadium was known as the City of Coventry Stadium.
Originally built as a replacement for Coventry City's Highfield Road ground, the stadium was initially owned and operated by Arena Coventry Limited (ACL), with Coventry City as tenants. ACL was owned jointly by Coventry City Council and the Higgs Charity.
Following a protracted rent dispute between Coventry City and ACL, the football club left the arena in 2013; playing their home matches in Northampton for over a year before returning in September 2014. Within two months, both shareholders in ACL were bought out by rugby union Premiership Rugby club Wasps, who relocated to the stadium from their previous ground, Adams Park in High Wycombe. A further dispute with Wasps prior to the 2019–20 season saw Coventry City leave the Ricoh for a further two seasons. In March 2021, Wasps and Coventry City agreed to a ten-year deal to return to the arena and the city of Coventry.
The stadium was the first cashless stadium in the United Kingdom, with customers using a prepay smartcard system in the ground's bars and shops. However, the stadium now accepts cash at all kiosks.
History
Planning a new stadium
The decision to move Coventry City F.C. from Highfield Road to a new stadium – with a larger capacity and better road links and parking facilities – was made in 1997 by the club's then chairman Bryan Richardson. It was anticipated that the new stadium would be ready for the 2000–01 season. Permission for the construction of a 45,000-seater stadium was given in the spring of 1999, with a targeted completion date of August 2001. However, the stadium was delivered four years behind schedule, and was more basic than anticipated in the original plans.
Coventry were one out of three cities to bid for England's new national stadium along with London and Birmingham. In 2001, Nick Nolan, the leader of Coventry City Council, claimed that their proposal was always the strongest as the construction could be completed within three years. The council's plan was to build a 90,000 all-seater stadium for an estimated cost of £250 million. However, it was decided that Wembley, London would remain the location for the national stadium.
The original design for the arena was for a state-of-the-art stadium with a retractable roof and a pitch that could slide out to reveal a hard floor for concerts. After Coventry City's relegation from the Premiership in May 2001, a number of contractor/financier withdrawals, and England's bid to host the 2006 FIFA World Cup ending in failure, the plans were significantly downsized to reflect new realities. By the summer of 2002 there were plans for a more basic 32,500-seat stadium in its place.
Naming of the stadium
The arena's first name, 'The Ricoh Arena' came from a multi-year sponsorship deal, reported to be worth £10 million with camera and photocopier manufacturer Ricoh. During construction the stadium was variously referred to as the Jaguar Arena, Arena Coventry and Arena 2000.
The sponsorship deal with Ricoh came about after the stadium's initial sponsor, luxury car manufacturer Jaguar, was forced to pull out because of the commercial difficulties that had caused the controversial closure of the large Jaguar assembly plant at the city's Brown's Lane, previously a major source of employment in Coventry. On 4 August 2004, 12 months before the stadium's opening, it had been announced that the new stadium would be called the Jaguar Arena in a deal worth up to £7 million until 2015. However, the deal was cancelled on 17 December 2004. Jaguar did however retain naming rights to the Arena's Exhibition Hall. Ricoh's sponsorship of the new stadium was confirmed on 26 April 2005.
On 5 May 2021, it was announced that the venue would be renamed the Coventry Building Society Arena. The name change came into effect in summer 2021 as a part of a 10-year naming rights deal with the UK's second largest building society.
Football at the arena
Coventry City
The stadium hosted its first football match in August 2005. The official opening was performed by Dame Kelly Holmes and sports minister Richard Caborn on 24 February 2007, by which time the arena had already hosted a sell-out England U21 football match against Germany as well as a full season of Coventry City matches.
The arena became the venue for Coventry City's home games at the start of the 2005–06 season, following 106 years at the Highfield Road stadium. The first competitive football match played at the stadium was against Queens Park Rangers on 20 August 2005, in front of a reduced (for safety reasons) 23,012 capacity crowd. The game ended 3–0 to Coventry, with Claus Bech Jørgensen becoming the first player to score at the arena. Hull City became the first away team to win at the Ricoh, easing their way to a 2–0 win on 24 September 2005, with both goals coming from John Welsh.
The stadium has never seen a capacity 32,600 crowd for a Coventry City match but 2009 saw their highest attendance coming against Chelsea in an FA Cup quarter-final in 2009. This game was technically a sellout as the fan segregation took up a whole block and all available tickets were sold with the overall attendance being 31,407.
In December 2009, the first hat-trick was scored at the venue when Freddy Eastwood scored three past Peterborough United. Eastwood grabbed two goals before half-time before Craig Mackail-Smith netted a brace in the second half to level the scoring. However, Coventry City secured three points in the Championship fixture after Eastwood grabbed the final goal of the fixture just a minute after Peterborough levelled. Freddy Eastwood remained the only player to have scored a hat-trick at the Ricoh Arena until Coventry City loanee Jacob Murphy scored a first-half hat-trick in a League One fixture against Gillingham on 21 November 2015.
On 28 July 2011, a bronze statue of Jimmy Hill was unveiled at the entrance to the stadium after £100,000 was raised by Coventry City fans. He managed the club from 1961 to 1967 and was responsible for guiding it to the top flight. Despite this, Hill decided to resign as manager for a career in television but later returned to the Sky Blues as managing director before becoming chairman. When he died in December 2015, fans paid tribute by placing flowers and scarves by and around the statue.
The quickest ever goal scored at the ground was when Coventry striker Dan Agyei converted against Northampton Town after 19.5 seconds on 4 October 2016. This beat the previous record scored by Reading's Grzegorz Rasiak after 27 seconds in 2009, when Reading defeated Coventry 3–1. Rasiak's goal still remains the fastest one scored by an away side at the stadium.
Rent dispute (2012–13)
In December 2012, Coventry City owners SISU Capital became embroiled in a high-profile dispute with ACL over the rent arrangement and a lack of access to matchday revenue. The previously agreed rent amounted to £1.2 million per year, but did not give Coventry City access to matchday revenue.
A deadline of 27 December 2012 was given by ACL for unpaid rent. After the deadline passed, a winding up order was enforced through the High Court. Subsequently, after ACL planned to place Coventry City FC Ltd into administration, the club itself entered administration, accepting a 10-point penalty from the Football League as a consequence. A further 10-point penalty was incurred when ACL refused to accept the terms of a company voluntary arrangement (CVA) proposed by the administrator. Coventry City Football Club has since been bought by Otium Entertainment Group.
On 23 March 2013, Coventry City moved all its staff and club shop stock from the venue after a long dispute over rent and access to matchday revenue with the club.
Coventry City agreed to play their home games at Northampton Town's Sixfields Stadium to ensure that they fulfilled their fixtures. This resulted in ACL threatening to sue Northampton Town if they decided to carry on hosting Coventry City's home games. Northampton Town released a club statement saying that they "will not be bullied or threatened". ACL subsequently withdrew its legal action against Northampton Town.
Second stint at the arena (2014–19)
ACL and Sisu agreed a two-year deal to bring Coventry City back to the arena in 2014. The club also had the option to play there for a further two years; they played their first match back at the stadium on 5 September 2014 against Gillingham. This followed a payment of £470,000 from SISU Capital to ACL after a Football League ruling. The deal was later extended by a year. This meant Coventry City remained at the Ricoh Arena until May 2019 before ground-sharing for two seasons with Birmingham City at St Andrew's.
Third stint at the arena (2021–)
On 10 March 2021, It was announced that Coventry City and Wasps had agreed to a ten-year deal, which would mean that the club would return to the stadium from the 2021–22 season. The club still intend to build a new stadium on land near the University of Warwick on the southern edge of the city, as a break clause in their contract will allow them to leave the Ricoh for their new stadium. Their first game back was a pre-season friendly on 1 August against Wolverhampton Wanderers in which Coventry lost 2–1.
International football
The venue hosted two England under-21 internationals. The first was a 2007 European U-21 Championship qualification Play off match against Germany's under-21s on 5 October 2006. The hosts edged out the visitors 1 – 0 thanks to Leighton Baines seventy seventh-minute goal. The other was a 2011 UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualification Group 9 match against Macedonia's under-21s on 9 October 2009. The hosts beat the visitors 6 – 3 with Kieran Gibbs, Micah Richards, Andy Carroll (2) and Zavon Hines (2) grabbing the six goals scored by the victors.
On 17 May 2007, England U-19 team played their home fixture against Netherlands U-19 team in the Elite qualifying group round. Netherlands won the game 2–1.
2012 Olympics
The venue also became host to 2012 Olympic Football Matches, where the stadium hosted 12 tournament matches. The stadium was temporarily renamed to City of Coventry Stadium due to sponsorships on venue names not being allowed by the International Olympic Committee. In preparation for the Olympics, a test event on 23 April 2012 saw Oman play Senegal in the Olympic Qualifier 'play-offs'. Senegal won 2–0 and took the final place in the men's 2012 Olympic draw. The first Olympic match, on 25 July 2012, was between Japan and Canada in Group F of the women's tournament. On 9 August 2012, the bronze medal game was held between France and Canada at City of Coventry Stadium. Canada won the bronze medal in a 1–0 stoppage time victory on a goal from Diana Matheson.
Other football events
The stadium has also hosted the 2011 Women's FA Cup final, which was played between Arsenal and Bristol Academy. 13,885 watched Arsenal win their eleventh FA Cup as they ran out as 2–0 winners.
During Coventry City's absence, Football Conference Youth Alliance Midland Division side Football CV Reds agreed to play eight games at the stadium in January 2014. Leicester City's under-21 development squad played twice at the Arena on 29 January 2014 and 3 February 2014 due to waterlogged pitches at the original venues. The first game was behind closed doors but the second game against Manchester United was open to the public.
In August 2014 it was announced that Coventry City Ladies would be moving to the stadium for the 2014–15 season. However the team had to return to the Oval in Bedworth during the season after Wasps' purchase of the arena.
Rugby Union at the arena
Before Wasps' relocation
On 22 April 2007, the arena hosted its first ever rugby union match when Northampton Saints hosted Wasps (then known as London Wasps in an all-English Heineken Cup Semi-Final affair. 16,186 fans saw Saints Captain Bruce Reihana score the first ever try at the stadium but the London Wasps came from behind to win 30–13 to secure a place in the final.
London Wasps again played at the arena, this time hosting Irish side Munster on 10 November 2007 in a Heineken Cup fixture. Wasps narrowly won 24–23. The stadium hosted another Heienken Cup semi-final in the same season when Saracens chose it as their venue to play Munster. It was a close encounter that saw Munster win by two points with a score of 18–16.
On 28 March 2009, the arena hosted the EDF Energy Cup semi-finals. The first semi-final saw Gloucester beat their Welsh opponents Ospreys with a score of 17–0. A total of 26,744 people turned up with them also witnessing Cardiff Blues beat Northampton Saints 11–5.
The arena was one of several venues that put in a bid to host Rugby World Cup matches in 2015 as England were announced as hosts on 28 July 2009. However, the venue was unsuccessful in their bid with Villa Park and the Leicester City Stadium becoming the chosen venues within the Midlands to host tournament matches.
Wasps
In September 2014, Simon Gilbert of the Coventry Telegraph broke the news that Wasps (formerly London Wasps) were in talks to permanently relocate to the arena, from their home at Adams Park, in High Wycombe. In October 2014 Wasps announced that from December 2014 they would play their home games at the Coventry Building Society Arena. On 14 November 2014 Wasps confirmed the purchase of the final 50% of shares in the stadium from the Higgs Charity to become outright owners of the facility.
After Wasps purchased the remaining 50% from the Alan Edward Higgs Charity in November 2014, the club announced that the north stand would be renamed "The Higgs Charity Stand", and added that 50 pence would be donated to the charity from each ticket sold in that stand.
Wasps played their first home match as owners at the stadium against London Irish on 21 December 2014. The match saw Coventry-born Andy Goode set a Premiership Rugby record with the most points scored in a single match with a total of 33. It was not the only record broken at the time as the attendance of 28,254 meant it was the largest attendance at a Rugby Premiership match at a recognised home ground.
The Rugby Premiership attendance record was broken again when Leicester Tigers came to the arena. The overall attendance was 32,019 meaning it was the highest attendance at the stadium for a sporting event as well as the largest attendance at a Rugby Premiership match at a recognised home ground. Leicester Tigers beat Wasps by a score of 26–21 on their first trip to the stadium.
Samoa became the first international side to play at the stadium in a Rugby World Cup warm-up match when they faced Wasps on 5 September 2015.
Wasps recorded their biggest ever win in the Champions Cup on 15 October 2016 when they defeated Italian side Zebre 82-14 after scoring 12 tries.
Other sporting events at the arena
The arena was selected to host the Great Britain versus Russia Group One second round tie of the 2013 Davis Cup tennis competition on 5–7 April. Great Britain earned a shock 3–2 victory over Russia after they were trailing 2–0 in the tie. On Friday 5 April, Russia's Dmitry Tursunov beat Great Britain's Dan Evans and Evgeny Donskoy defeated James Ward, which meant Russia were 2–0 up after Friday's ties. On Saturday 6 April, Great Britain won the double pairs match as Colin Fleming and Jonny Marray won against Igor Kunitsyn and Victor Baluda. On Sunday 7 April, Great Britain completed the comeback when James Ward got the win against Dmitry Tursunov and Dan Evans achieved victory against Evgeny Donskoy.
After the revival of the Champion of Champions snooker tournament, the arena was chosen as the venue for its first tournament since 1980. After a successful event, The Coventry Building Society Arena became the annual venue for the competition until 2019 after hosting it again in 2014 as well as 2015.
Premier League Darts was held at the venue on two occasions with the first being on 21 February 2008 and the second being on 19 February 2009. Due to the rising demand for tickets in the PDC, it has not been a venue to audiences since. The venue has other minor PDC tournaments and those without audiences during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as BDO competitions.
The stadium hosted its first-ever American football game on 6 May 2007, when the Coventry Cassidy Jets beat then British national champions London Olympians 27–20. The Jets had hoped to play their inaugural EFAF Cup game against Madrid Bears on 29 April but they were forced to change venue to the Manor Park Stadium in Nuneaton. The Heineken Cup the previous week to the Madrid game had led to CCFC objecting in case of damage to the pitch.
The stadium hosted a rugby league fixture for the first time when Coventry Bears took on Keighley Cougars at the stadium on 8 May 2016 in a League 1 encounter.
A record home crowd for Coventry Bears of 1,097 watched the side lose to the Cougars. The arena also hosted a 2016 Rugby League Four Nations double-header in November as England defeated Scotland and Australia defeated New Zealand at the stadium in front of 21,009 people.
The arena will also hold the rugby sevens, wrestling and judo events at the 2022 Commonwealth Games.
Other events at the arena
The first concert held at the arena was by Bryan Adams on 23 September 2005. The bar in the Eon Lounge, overlooking the pitch, was named The Bryan Adams Bar after the Canadian rocker.
Almost 40,000 people saw Oasis play a concert at the stadium on 7 July 2009.
Scouting for Girls performed on 30 November 2008, in the Ericsson Exhibition Hall.
Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band performed a concert to a sell-out crowd of 37,262 on 20 June 2013 as part of their Wrecking Ball Tour. They performed again on 3 June 2016 as part of their The River 2016 Tour in front of a sold-out crowd of 36,588 people.
Multiplay's Insomnia Festival was hosted at the Ricoh Stadium until 2016 when it moved to the NEC.
Rihanna performed at the stadium as a part of her Anti World Tour on 25 June 2016.
MTV Crashes came to the venue on Friday 27 May and Saturday 28 May 2016, which included Chase & Status and Kaizer Chiefs on the first night while the second night was headlined by The Chainsmokers as part of Club MTV.
On Thursday 17 November 2016, Catfish and the Bottlemen performed to a sellout crowd in the Ericsson Exhibition Hall.
On Saturday 2 June 2018 the Rolling Stones played the Arena as part of their No Filter Tour, Mick Jagger and the crowd sang Happy Birthday to Charlie Watts who was celebrating his 77th Birthday.
The Spice Girls performed for two nights at the arena, including one sold-out concert, on 3 and 4 June 2019 as part of their Spice World – 2019 Tour.
Stands
North Stand
When the ground first opened, the stand was known as the Coventry Evening Telegraph stand and was the main stand for Coventry City supporters that sang during games. After the sponsorship deal ran out for the stand, it became known as the North Stand but then renamed again after the Wasps' purchase of the Alan Higgs Charity share of Arena Coventry Limited. After attendances dropping due to boycotts against the ownership, Coventry City announced that for the 2014–15 season that the stand would be closed for football matches due to costs but would be opened if the demand is there, however tickets could still be bought there for Wasps' fixtures. Coventry City have reopened the North Stand ahead of the 2021–22 season.
West Stand
The only two-tier stand at the stadium, it consists of a larger lower tier below the upper tier, which consists of corporate hospitality boxes. Also situated on this side of the stadium are hotel rooms, which have a view of the pitch. In the corner between this stand and the South Stand is a police control box. This is the only stand that offers cushioned seats and it also provides seating for directors as well as the media.
East Stand
The East Stand provided a video screen in the corner by the South Stand until 2018, this corner soon became known as the singers' corner to Coventry fans as first called by Aidy Boothroyd, when he was manager of the Sky Blues. This is where the main cameras are positioned. The stand has been formerly known as the NTL stand and the Tesco Stand. In 2021, in response to Coventry Building Society's sponsorship deal the black seats which previously spelt Ricoh were rearranged to spell Wasps.
South Stand
This stand is used for away supporters for Coventry City football matches and only opens for rugby matches when needed due to extra demand. However the stand has opened for home supporters in the past for Coventry City fixtures for fixtures against Gillingham and Crewe Alexandra as there was heavy demand by the home support but there was no large followings from the away side. Clubs such as Chelsea, West Ham United, Leicester City, Wolves, Sunderland and Leeds United have sold out the stand in the past. The stand has had previous names in the past, due to sponsors. In October 2018, the capacity of the stand was reduced when a new large screen was installed to replace the previous one situated between the South and East stands
Facilities
Stadium Bowl
The stadium bowl has a seating capacity of 32,609 with the overall capacity rising to 40,000 for concerts and has easy access to refreshments for customers from the many bar and food outlets around the bowl. Access for production is accessible via two main tunnels on the pitch and the stadium bowl also has back of house facilities meeting artist and production standards.
The Stadium bowl is the main venue for its sporting events as it currently hosts Coventry City's and Wasps' home fixtures as well as hosting top sporting events such as 2012 Olympic Football matches and Heineken Cup semi-finals.
It has also hosted music concerts with Muse, Bon Jovi, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Take That, Bruce Springsteen, Oasis, Pink, Rolling Stones, Rihanna, Spice Girls and Kings of Leon all performing on the outdoor pitch. Coldplay also performed there with tickets selling out in ninety minutes.
Ericsson Exhibition Hall
The Ericsson Exhibition Hall, formerly the Jaguar Exhibition Hall, is 6,000 square metres and column-free. The first ever gig at The Coventry Building Society Arena was held in the Exhibition hall when Bryan Adams played to a sell-out 8,000 crowd. The current maximum capacity is 12,000. Florence and the Machine, Scouting for Girls, The Enemy as well as the Specials (twice) have all performed in the hall.
It is also the host to the Champion of Champions snooker competition annually and is home to Netball Superleague side Wasps Netball since February 2017. The hall has also hosted major events such as the Davis Cup in 2013.
Besides Entertainment and Sport the Ericsson Exhibition Hall is also used as the counting hall for Council and Parliamentary Elections within Coventry and occasionally Nuneaton/Bedworth.
Hotels
The site includes a 121 bedroom DoubleTree by Hilton hotel including 50 rooms with pitch-side views of the stadium bowl. All of the rooms are en-suite as well as coming with access to satellite TV and wi-fi. The Singers Bar & Bistro is available for hotel guests to use, which is divided into a restaurant, bar area and coffee lounge.
A second Hampton by Hilton branded 150-room hotel is due to open at the site from late 2022.
Casino
The casino is built under the ground and has a standalone Show Bar, which has had live entertainment such as Rebecca Ferguson performing. There is a 120-seater poker room as well as other casino games on offer such as blackjack, roulette and slots. There is a gaming lounge, which shows the big televised sporting events.
Club shops
There are club shops situated at the stadium, where it is possible to buy merchandise and match tickets for all teams. Formerly a Wasps club shop was positioned where the old Coventry City club shop was. Coventry City moved all its staff and stock out of the complex in March 2013. The Wasps shop was relocated to the south side of the venue in 2021 due to construction of the new sports bar. A new combined club shop and ticket office for Coventry City opened ahead of the 2021–22 season, this is the first time Coventry City have had a club shop at the arena since 2013 after relocating the club shop to Gallagher Retail Park and then to the Arena Park Shopping Centre, and the ticket office having been situated at the Butts Park Arena.
Sports Bar
A 400 square metre sports bar opened at the arena in 2021, located by the front door in the space previously occupied by Wasps' club shop. The bar is named The Anecdote.
Arena Shopping Park
The Arena Shopping Park is also on the same site of The Coventry Building Society Arena but is not operated by Arena Coventry Limited. It is instead owned by Tesco with a large Tesco Extra store available to customers. Other stores such as Next, New Look, Boots, Marks and Spencer, Currys and Decathlon are also at the shopping park with other smaller unit shops like Game, Clinton Cards and TUI travel agent inside the mall where Tesco Extra is situated.
Accessibility
The stadium is situated on the northern side of Coventry, less than 1 mile south of junction 3 of the M6 motorway, on the A444 road from Coventry to Nuneaton. The railway line between Coventry and Nuneaton is immediately adjacent and Coventry Arena railway station which opened on 18 January 2016. Although officially designated as being situated in the Foleshill district, it is in fact located in the small suburb of Rowleys Green, between two larger suburbs, namely Holbrooks to the west, and Longford to the east. However, the stadium was constructed on the former site of the 'Foleshill' gasworks complex, although the Foleshill district itself begins more than a mile to the south east. The stadium is located within a quarter-mile of the boundary with Nuneaton and Bedworth and the county of Warwickshire. It is next to the Arena Park Shopping Centre.
From the city centre, the number 4 or 5 bus goes from the Coventry Transport Museum to the Arena Park Shopping Centre. The number 20, 20A and 20E go nearby the Arena Shopping Centre with each one stopping via Longford from the city centre. The number 48 also stops via Longford on its way to Bedworth and Nuneaton.
When arriving by train to Coventry, the number 8 bus can be caught at the railway station to the Transport Museum. There is a railway station located at the stadium but it was announced in August 2015 that the new station will be closed following major events at the stadium. It was announced that trains will be provided to transport 1,000 extra supporters for the Wasps' fixtures against Harlequins on 28 February and Leicester Tigers on 12 March 2016 as a trial run. London Midland and Wasps will review the trial run before deciding any more decisions with Coventry City "hopeful" that they will eventually benefit from the services.
There is car parking available on match days and concert days. Car Park A has 565 spaces and Car Park B has 555 spaces. Car Park C is accessible from the A444 Phoenix Way dual carriageway, which is just a short walk to the venue by footbridge or under the subway. There is no car parking available in side streets near the venue due to a strict residents' parking scheme enforced within two kilometres of the arena.
Attendance
Highest attendances
Top ten sporting attendances
The table shows the top ten attendances at the Coventry Building Society Arena for sporting events, in order of attendance.
Highest attendances by season
The table shows the highest attendances of Coventry City and Wasps fixtures each season
* 2021–22 season still playing.
Average attendances
This table shows the average attendances for league matches played at the Coventry Building Society Arena for both Coventry City and Wasps.
* 2021–22 season still playing.
References
External links
Official website
London 2012 Olympics profile
Wasps
Coventry City
Coventry Building Society
Coventry City F.C.
Wasps RFC
Rugby union stadiums in England
Sports venues in Coventry
Sports venues completed in 2005
Venues of the 2012 Summer Olympics
Olympic football venues
Darts venues
Snooker venues
2005 establishments in England
Football venues in England
English Football League venues
Netball venues in England
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The corn crake, corncrake or landrail (Crex crex) is a bird in the rail family. It breeds in Europe and Asia as far east as western China, and migrates to Africa for the Northern Hemisphere's winter. It is a medium-sized crake with buff- or grey-streaked brownish-black upperparts, chestnut markings on the wings, and blue-grey underparts with rust-coloured and white bars on the flanks and undertail. The strong bill is flesh-toned, the iris is pale brown, and the legs and feet are pale grey. Juveniles are similar in plumage to adults, and downy chicks are black, as with all rails. There are no subspecies, although individuals from the east of the breeding range tend to be slightly paler than their western counterparts. The male's call is a loud krek krek, from which the scientific name is derived. The corn crake is larger than its closest relative, the African crake, which shares its wintering range; that species is also darker-plumaged, and has a plainer face.
The corn crake's breeding habitat is grassland, particularly hayfields, and it uses similar environments on the wintering grounds. This secretive species builds a nest of grass leaves in a hollow in the ground and lays 6–14 cream-coloured eggs which are covered with rufous blotches. These hatch in 19–20 days, and the black precocial chicks fledge after about five weeks. This crake is in steep decline across much of its former breeding range because modern farming practices often destroy nests before breeding is completed. The corn crake is omnivorous but mainly feeds on invertebrates, the occasional small frog or mammal, and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain. Threats include dogs, cats, other introduced and feral mammals, large birds, various parasites and diseases.
Although numbers have declined steeply in western Europe, this bird is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List because of its huge range and large, apparently stable, populations in Russia and Kazakhstan. Numbers in western China are more significant than previously thought, and conservation measures have facilitated an increased population in some countries which had suffered the greatest losses. Despite its elusive nature, the loud call has ensured the corn crake has been noted in literature, and garnered a range of local and dialect names.
Taxonomy
The rails are a bird family comprising nearly 150 species. Although the origins of the group are lost in antiquity, the largest number of species and least specialised forms are found in the Old World, suggesting this family originated there. The taxonomy of the small crakes is complicated, but the closest relative of the corn crake is the African crake, which has been given its own genus, Crecopsis.
Corn crakes were first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae as Rallus crex, but was subsequently moved to the genus Crex, created by German naturalist and ornithologist Johann Matthäus Bechstein in 1803, and named Crex pratensis. The earlier use of crex gives it priority over Bechstein's specific name pratensis, and leads to the current name of Crex crex. The binomial name, Crex crex, from the ancient Greek "κρεξ", is onomatopoeic, referring to the crake's repetitive grating call. The common name was formerly spelt as a single word, "corncrake", but the official version is now "corn crake". The English names refer to the species' habit of nesting in dry hay or cereal fields, rather than marshes used by most members of this family.
Description
The corn crake is a medium-sized rail, long with a wingspan of . Males weigh on average and females . The adult male has the crown of its head and all of its upperparts brown-black in colour, streaked with buff or grey. The wing coverts are a distinctive chestnut colour with some white bars. The face, neck and breast are blue-grey, apart from a pale brown streak from the base of the bill to behind the eye, the belly is white, and the flanks, and undertail are barred with chestnut and white. The strong bill is flesh-coloured, the iris is pale brown, and the legs and feet are pale grey. Compared to the male, the female has warmer-toned upperparts and a narrower duller eye streak. Outside the breeding season, the upperparts of both sexes become darker and the underparts less grey. The juvenile is like the adult in appearance, but has a yellow tone to its upperparts, and the grey of the underparts is replaced with buff-brown. The chicks have black down, as with all rails. While there are no subspecies, all populations show great individual variation in colouring, and the birds gradually become paler and greyer towards the east of the range. Adults undergo a complete moult after breeding, which is normally finished by late August or early September, before migration to south eastern Africa. There is a pre-breeding partial moult prior to the return from Africa, mainly involving the plumage of the head, body and tail. Young birds have a head and body moult about five weeks after hatching.
The corn crake is sympatric with the African crake on the wintering grounds, but can be distinguished by its larger size, paler upperparts, tawny upperwing and different underparts pattern. In flight, it has longer, less rounded wings, and shallower wingbeats than its African relative, and shows a white leading edge to the inner wing. In both the breeding and wintering ranges it is unlikely to be confused with any other rails, since sympatric species are smaller, with white markings on the upperparts, different underparts patterns and shorter bills. A flying corn crake can resemble a gamebird, but its chestnut wing pattern and dangling legs are diagnostic.
Voice
On the breeding grounds, the male corn crake's advertising call is a loud, repetitive, grating normally delivered from a low perch with the bird's head and neck almost vertical and its bill wide open. The call can be heard from away, and serves to establish the breeding territory, attract females, and challenge intruding males. Slight differences in vocalisations mean that individual males can be distinguished by their calls. Early in the season, the call is given almost continuously at night, and often during the day, too. It may be repeated more than 20,000 times a night, with a peak between midnight and 3 am. The call has evolved to make a singing male's location clear, as this species hides in vegetation. The frequency of calling reduces after a few weeks but may intensify again near the end of the laying period before falling away towards the end of the breeding season. To attract males, mechanical imitations of their call can be produced by rubbing two pieces of wood or ribs, one of them with notches, or by flicking a credit card against a comb or zip-fastener. The male also has a growling call, given with the bill shut and used during aggressive interactions.
The female corn crake may give a call that is similar to that of the male; it also has a distinctive barking sound, similar in rhythm to the main call but without the grating quality. The female also has a high-pitched cheep call, and a sound to call the chick. The chicks make a quiet contact call, and a chirp used to beg for food. Because of the difficulty in seeing this species, it is usually censused by counting males calling between 11 pm and 3 am; the birds do not move much at night, whereas they may wander up to during the day, which could lead to double-counting if monitored then. Identifying individual males suggests that just counting calling birds underestimates the true count by nearly 30%, and the discrepancy is likely to be greater, since only 80% of males may call at all on a given night. The corn crake is silent in Africa.
Distribution and habitat
The corn crake breeds from Ireland east through Europe to central Siberia. Although it has vanished from much of its historic range, this bird was once found in suitable habitats in Eurasia everywhere between latitudes 41°N and 62°N. There is also a sizable population in western China, but this species nests only rarely in northern Spain and in Turkey. Old claims of breeding in South Africa are incorrect, and result from misidentification of eggs in a museum collection which are actually those of the African rail.
The corn crake winters mainly in Africa, from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and central Tanzania south to eastern South Africa. North of this area, it is mainly seen on migration, but occasionally winters in North Africa and to the west and north of its core area in southeast Africa. Most of the South African population of about 2,000 birds occurs in KwaZulu-Natal and the former Transvaal Province, and numbers elsewhere in Africa are uncertain. There are several nineteenth-century records, when populations were much higher than now, of birds being seen in western Europe, mainly Britain and Ireland, between December and February.
This crake migrates to Africa along two main routes: a western route through Morocco and Algeria, and a more important flyway through Egypt. On passage, it has been recorded in most countries between its breeding and wintering ranges, including much of West Africa. Birds from Coll following the western route paused in West Africa on their way further south, and again on the return flight, when they also rested in Spain or North Africa. Eastern migrants have been recorded in those parts of southern Asia that lie between the east of the breeding range and Africa. Further afield, the corn crake has been recorded as a vagrant to Sri Lanka, Vietnam and Australia, New Zealand, the Seychelles, Bermuda, Canada, the US, Greenland, Iceland, the Faroes, the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands.
The corn crake is mainly a lowland species, but breeds up to altitude in the Alps, in China and in Russia. When breeding in Eurasia, the corn crake's habitats would originally have included river meadows with tall grass and meadow plants including sedges and irises. It is now mainly found in cool moist grassland used for the production of hay, particularly moist traditional farmland with limited cutting or fertiliser use. It also utilises other treeless grasslands in mountains or taiga, on coasts, or where created by fire. Moister areas like wetland edges may be used, but very wet habitats are avoided, as are open areas and those with vegetation more than tall, or too dense to walk through. The odd bush or hedge may be used as a calling post. Grassland which is not mown or grazed becomes too matted to be suitable for nesting, but locally-grown crops such as cereals, peas, rape, clover or potatoes may be used. After breeding, adults move to taller vegetation such as common reed, iris, or nettles to moult, returning to the hay and silage meadows for the second brood. In China, flax is also used for nest sites. Although males often sing in intensively managed grass or cereal crops, successful breeding is uncommon, and nests in the field margins or nearby fallow ground are more likely to succeed.
When wintering in Africa, the corn crake occupies dry grassland and savanna habitats, occurring in vegetation tall, including seasonally burnt areas and occasionally sedges or reed beds. It is also found on fallow and abandoned fields, uncut grass on airfields, and the edges of crops. It occurs at up to at least altitude in South Africa. Each bird stays within a fairly small area. Although it sometimes occurs with the African crake, that species normally prefers moister and shorter grassland habitats than does the corn crake. On migration, the corn crake may also occur in wheatfields and around golf courses.
Behaviour
The corn crake is a difficult bird to see in its breeding sites, usually being hidden by vegetation, but will sometimes emerge into the open. Occasionally, individuals may become very trusting; for five consecutive summers, an individual crake on the Scottish island of Tiree entered a kitchen to feed on scraps, and, in 1999, a wintering Barra bird would come for poultry feed once the chickens had finished. In Africa, it is more secretive than the African crake, and, unlike its relative, it is rarely seen in the open, although it occasionally feeds on tracks or road sides. The corn crake is most active early and late in the day, after heavy rain and during light rain. Its typical flight is weak and fluttering, although less so than that of the African crake. For longer flights, such as migration, it has a steadier, stronger action with legs drawn up. It walks with a high-stepping action, and can run swiftly through grass with its body held horizontal and laterally flattened. It will swim if essential. When flushed by a dog, it will fly less than , frequently landing behind a bush or thicket, and then crouch on landing. If disturbed in the open, this crake will often run in a crouch for a short distance, with its neck stretched forward, then stand upright to watch the intruder. When captured it may feign death, recovering at once if it sees a way out.
The corn crake is solitary on the wintering grounds, where each bird occupies at one time, although the total area used may be double that, since an individual may move locally due to flooding, plant growth, or grass cutting. Flocks of up to 40 birds may form on migration, sometimes associating with common quails. Migration takes place at night, and flocks resting during the day may aggregate to hundreds of birds at favoured sites. The ability to migrate is innate, not learned from adults. Chicks raised from birds kept in captivity for ten generations were able to migrate to Africa and return with similar success to wild-bred young.
Breeding
Until 1995, it was assumed that the corn crake is monogamous, but it transpires that a male may have a shifting home range, and mate with two or more females, moving on when laying is almost complete. The male's territory can vary from , but averages . The female has a much smaller range, averaging only . A male will challenge an intruder by calling with his wings drooped and his head pointing forward. Usually the stranger moves off; if it stays, the two birds square up with heads and necks raised and the wings touching the ground. They then run around giving the growling call and lunging at each other. A real fight may ensue, with the birds leaping at each other and pecking, and sometimes kicking. Females play no part in defending the territory.
The female may be offered food by the male during courtship. He has a brief courtship display in which the neck is extended and the head held down, the tail is fanned, and the wings are spread with the tips touching the ground. He will then attempt to approach the female from behind, and then leap on her back to copulate. The nest is typically in grassland, sometimes in safer sites along a hedge, or near an isolated tree or bush, or in overgrown vegetation. Where grass is not tall enough at the start of the season, the first nest may be constructed in herby or marsh vegetation, with the second brood in hay. The second nest may also be at a higher altitude that the first, to take advantage of the later-developing grasses further up a hill. The nest, well hidden in the grass, is built in a scrape or hollow in the ground. It is made of woven coarse dry grass and other plants, and lined with finer grasses. Although nest construction is usually described as undertaken by the female, a recent aviary study found that in the captive population the male always built the nest.
The nest is in diameter and deep. The clutch is 6–14, usually 8–12 eggs; these are oval, slightly glossy, creamy or tinted with green, blue or grey, and blotched red-brown. They average and weigh about , of which 7% is shell. The eggs are laid at daily intervals, but second clutches may sometimes have two eggs added per day. Incubation is by the female only; her tendency to sit tight when disturbed, or wait until the last moment to flee, leads to many deaths during hay-cutting and harvesting. The eggs hatch together after 19–20 days, and the precocial chicks leave the nest within a day or two. They are fed by the female for three or four days, but can find their own food thereafter. The juveniles fledge after 34–38 days. The second brood is started about 42 days after the first, and the incubation period is slightly shorter at 16–18 days. The grown young may stay with the female until departure for Africa.
Nest success in undisturbed sites is high, at 80–90%, but much lower in fertilised meadows and on arable land. The method and timing of mowing is crucial; mechanized mowing can kill 38–95% of chicks in a given site, and losses average 50% of first brood chicks and somewhat less than 40% of second brood chicks. The influence of weather on chick survival is limited; although chick growth is faster in dry or warm weather, the effects are relatively small. Unlike many precocial species, chicks are fed by their mother to a greater or lesser extent until they become independent, and this may cushion them from adverse conditions. The number of live chicks hatched is more important than the weather, with lower survival in large broods. The annual adult survival rate is under 30%, although some individuals may live for 5–7 years.
Feeding
The corn crake is omnivorous, but mainly feeds on invertebrates, including earthworms, slugs and snails, spiders, beetles, dragonflies, grasshoppers and other insects. In the breeding areas, it is a predator of Sitona weevils, which infest legume crops. and in the past consumed large amounts of the former grassland pests, leatherjackets and wireworms. This crake will also eat small frogs and mammals, and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain. Its diet on the wintering grounds is generally similar, but includes locally available items such as termites, cockroaches and dung beetles. Food is taken from the ground, low-growing plants and from inside grass tussocks; the crake may search leaf litter with its bill, and run in pursuit of active prey. Hunting is normally in cover, but, particularly in the wintering areas, it will occasionally feed on grassy tracks or dirt roads. Indigestible material is regurgitated as pellets. Chicks are fed mainly on animal food, and when fully grown they may fly with the parents up to to visit supplementary feeding areas. As with other rails, grit is swallowed to help break up food in the stomach.
Predators and parasites
Predators on the breeding grounds include feral and domestic cats, introduced American mink, feral ferrets, otters and red foxes, and birds including the common buzzard and hooded crow. In Lithuania, the introduced raccoon dog has also been recorded as taking corn crakes. When chicks are exposed by rapid mowing, they may be taken by large birds including the white stork, harriers and other birds of prey, gulls and corvids. At undisturbed sites nests and broods are rarely attacked, as reflected in a high breeding success. There is a record of a corn crake on migration through Gabon being killed by a black sparrowhawk.
The widespread fluke Prosthogonimus ovatus, which lives in the oviducts of birds, has been recorded in the corn crake, as have the parasitic worm Plagiorchis elegans, the larvae of parasitic flies, and hard ticks of the genera Haemaphysalis and Ixodes.
During the reintroduction of corn crakes to England in the 2003 breeding season, enteritis and ill health in pre-release birds was due to bacteria of a pathogenic Campylobacter species. Subsequently, microbiology tests were done to detect infected individuals and to find the source of the bacteria in their environment.
Status
Until 2010, despite a breeding range estimated at , the corn crake was classified as near threatened on the IUCN Red List because of serious declines in Europe, but improved monitoring in Russia indicates that anticipated losses there have not occurred and numbers have remained stable or possibly increased. It is therefore now classed as least concern, since the major populations in Russia and Kazakhstan are not expected to change much in the short term. There are an estimated 1.3–2.0 million breeding pairs in Europe, three-quarters of which are in European Russia, and a further 515,000–1,240,000 pairs in Asiatic Russia; the total Eurasian population has been estimated at between 5.45 and 9.72 million individuals. In much of the western half of its range, there have been long-term declines that are expected to continue, although conservation measures have enabled numbers to grow in several countries, including a five-fold increase in Finland, and a doubling in the UK. In the Netherlands, there were 33 breeding territories in 1996, but this number had increased to at least 500 by 1998.
The breeding corn crake population had begun to decline in the 19th century, but the process gained pace after World War II. The main cause of the steep declines in much of Europe is the loss of nests and chicks from early mowing. Haymaking dates have moved forward in the past century due to faster crop growth, made possible by land drainage and the use of fertilisers, and the move from manual grass-cutting using scythes to mechanical mowers, at first horse-drawn and later pulled by tractors. Mechanisation also means that large areas can be cut quickly, leaving the crake with no alternative sites to raise either a first brood if suitable habitat has gone, or a replacement brood if the first nest is destroyed. The pattern of mowing, typically in a circular pattern from the outside of a field to its centre, gives little chance of escape for the chicks, which are also exposed to potential animal predators. Adults can often escape the mowers, although some incubating females sit tight on the nest, with fatal results.
Loss of habitat is the other major threat to the corn crake. Apart from the reduced suitability of drained and fertilised silage fields compared to traditional hay meadows, in western Europe the conversion of grassland to arable has been aided by subsidies, and further east the collapse of collective farming has led to the abandonment and lack of management of much land in this important breeding area. More localised threats include floods in spring, and disturbance by roads or wind farms. This bird is edible; when they were common in England, Mrs Beeton recommended roasting four on a skewer. More significant than direct hunting is the loss of many birds, up to 14,000 a year, in Egypt, where migrating birds are captured in nets set for the quail with which they often migrate. Although this may account for 0.5–2.7% of the European population, the losses to this form of hunting are less than when the targeted species were more numerous and predictable.
Most European countries have taken steps to conserve the corn crake and produce national management policies; there is also an overall European action plan. The focus of conservation effort is to monitor populations and ecology and to improve survival, principally through changing the timing and method of hay harvesting. Later cutting gives time for breeding to be completed, and leaving uncut strips at the edges of fields and cutting from the centre outwards reduces the casualties from mowing. Implementing these changes is predicted to stop the population decline if the measures are applied on a sufficiently large scale. Reduction of illegal hunting, and protection in countries where hunting is still allowed, are also conservation aims. Reintroduction of the corn crake is being attempted in England, and breeding sites are scheduled for protection in many other countries. Where breeding sites impinge on urban areas, there are cost implications, estimated in one German study at several million euros per corn crake. The corn crake does not appear to be seriously threatened on its wintering grounds and may benefit from deforestation, which creates more open habitats.
In culture
Most rails are secretive wetland birds that have made little cultural impression, but as a formerly common farmland bird with a loud nocturnal call that sometimes led to disturbed sleep for rural dwellers, the corn crake has acquired a variety of folk names and some commemoration in literature.
Names
The favoured name for this species among naturalists has changed over the years, with "landrail" and variants of "corncrake" being preferred at various times. "Crake gallinule" also had a period of popularity between 1768 and 1813. The originally Older Scots "cornecrake" was popularised by Thomas Bewick, who used this term in his 1797 A History of British Birds. Other Scots names include "corn scrack" and "quailzie"; the latter term, like "king of the quail", "grass quail", the French "roi de caille", and the German "Wachtelkönig" refer to the association with the small gamebird. Another name, "daker", has been variously interpreted as onomatopoeic, or derived from the Old Norse ager-hoene, meaning "cock of the field"; variants include "drake", "drake Hen" and "gorse drake".
In literature
Corn crakes are the subject of three stanzas of the seventeenth century poet Andrew Marvell's "Upon Appleton House", written in 1651 about the North Yorkshire country estate of Thomas Fairfax. The narrator depicts the scene of a mower cutting the grass, before his "whistling Sithe" unknowingly "carves the Rail". The farmhand draws out the scythe "all bloody from its breast" and "does the stroke detest". It continues with a stanza that demonstrates the problematic nature of the corn crake's nesting habits:
Unhappy Birds! What does it boot
To build below the Grass' Root;
When Lowness is unsafe as Hight,
And Chance o'ertakes, what scapeth spight?
John Clare, the nineteenth-century English poet based in Northamptonshire, wrote "The Landrail", a semi-comic piece which is primarily about the difficulty of seeing corn crakes – as opposed to hearing them. In the fourth verse he exclaims: "Tis like a fancy everywhere/A sort of living doubt". Clare wrote about corn crakes in his prose works too, and his writings help to clarify the distribution of this rail when it was far more widespread than now.
The Finnish poet Eino Leino also wrote about the bird in his poem "Nocturne".
The corncrake's song rings in my ears,
above the rye a full moon sails
The proverbial use of the corn crake's call to describe someone with a grating or unmelodious voice is illustrated in the quotation "thanks to a wee woman with a voice like a corncrake who believed she was an apprentice angel". This usage dates from at least the first half of the nineteenth century, and continues through to the present.
In music
In The Pogues "Lullaby of London" Shane MacGowan uses the corncrake's cry as a motif to illustrate his alienation in the city, he sings:
Though there is no lonesome corncrake's cry
Or sorrow and delight
You can hear the cars
And the shouts from bars
And the laughter and the fights
In The Decemberists "The Hazards of Love 2 (Wager All)" Colin Meloy references the corn crake's call, singing: "And we'll lie until the corn crake crows."
References
Cited texts
External links
Feathers of corn crake (Crex crex)
Upon Appleton House, to my Lord Fairfax by Andrew Marvell
The Landrail by John Clare
Corn crake species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
corn crake
Birds of Eurasia
Birds of Russia
Birds of Southern Africa
corn crake
corn crake
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A submachine gun, abbreviated SMG, is a magazine-fed, automatic carbine designed to fire handgun cartridges. The term "submachine gun" was coined by John T. Thompson, the inventor of the Thompson submachine gun, to describe its design concept as an automatic firearm with notably less firepower than a machine gun (hence the prefix "sub-"). As a machine gun must fire rifle cartridges to be classified as such, submachine guns are not considered machine guns.
The submachine gun was developed during World War I (1914–1918) as a close quarter offensive weapon, mainly for trench raiding. At its peak during World War II (1939–1945), millions of SMGs were made for use by regular troops, clandestine commandos and partisans alike. After the war, new SMG designs appeared frequently. However, by the 1980s, SMG usage decreased. Today, submachine guns have been largely replaced by assault rifles, which have a longer effective range and are capable of penetrating the helmets and body armor used by modern infantry. However, submachine guns are still used by military special forces and police SWAT teams for close-quarters battle (CQB) because they are "a pistol-caliber weapon that's easy to control, and less likely to overpenetrate the target".
Name
There are some inconsistencies in the classification of submachine guns. British Commonwealth sources often refer to SMGs as "machine carbines". Other sources refer to SMGs as "machine pistols" because they fire pistol-caliber ammunition, for example, the MP-40 and MP5, where "MP" stands for Maschinenpistole ("Submachine gun" in German, but cognate with the English term "Machine pistol"). However, the term "machine pistol" is also used to describe a handgun-style firearm capable of fully automatic or burst fire, such as the Stechkin, Beretta 93R and the H&K VP70. Also, Personal Defense Weapons such as the FN P90 and H&K MP7 are often called submachine guns. In addition, some compact assault rifles, such as the Colt XM177 and HK53, have been historically referred to as submachine guns as they served in the latter's role.
History
World War I
During World War I, Austria-Hungary introduced the world's first machine pistol: the Steyr Repetierpistole M1912/P16. The Germans also experimented with machine pistols by converting pistols such as the Mauser C96 and Luger P-08 from semi-automatic to fully automatic operation and adding detachable stocks. Carbine-type automatic weapons firing pistol rounds were developed during the latter stages of World War I by Italy, Germany and the United States. Their improved firepower (800-1000RPM) and portability offered an advantage in trench warfare, where most troops were issued bolt-action rifles, such as the Gewehr 98 or Lee–Enfield.
In 1915, the Kingdom of Italy introduced the Villar-Perosa aircraft machine gun. It fired pistol-caliber 9mm Glisenti ammunition, but was not a true submachine gun, as it was originally designed as a mounted weapon. This odd design was then modified into the OVP 1918 carbine-type submachine gun, which then evolved into the 9×19mm Parabellum Beretta Model 1918 after the end of World War I. Both the OVP 1918 and the Beretta 1918 had a traditional wooden stock, a 25-round top-fed box magazine, and had a cyclic rate of fire of 900 rounds per minute.
The Germans initially used heavier versions of the P08 pistol equipped with a detachable stock, larger-capacity snail-drum magazine and a longer barrel. By 1918, Bergmann Waffenfabrik had developed the 9 mm Parabellum MP 18, the first practical submachine gun. This weapon used the same 32-round snail-drum magazine as the Luger P-08. The MP 18 was used in significant numbers by German stormtroopers employing infiltration tactics, achieving some notable successes in the final year of the war. However, these were not enough to prevent Germany's collapse in November 1918. After World War I, the MP 18 evolved into the MP28/II SMG,
which incorporated a simple 32-round box magazine, selective fire, and other minor improvements. Though the MP18 had a rather short service life, it was influential in the design of later submachine guns, such as the Lanchester, Sten and PPD-40.
The .45 ACP Thompson submachine gun had been in development at approximately the same time as the Bergmann and the Beretta. However, the war ended before prototypes could be shipped to Europe. Although it had missed its chance to be the first purpose-designed submachine gun to enter service, it became the basis for later weapons, and was much more successful than the other submachine guns produced during World War I.
Interwar Period
In the interwar period, the Thompson, nicknamed "Tommy Gun" or "Chicago Typewriter" became notorious in the U.S. due to its employment by the Mafia: the image of pinstripe-suited James Cagney types wielding drum-magazine Thompsons caused some military planners to shun the weapon. However, the FBI and other U.S. police forces themselves showed no reluctance to use and prominently display these weapons. Eventually, the submachine gun was gradually accepted by many military organizations, especially as World War II loomed, with many countries developing their own designs. The United States Marine Corps adopted the Thompson during this period, they used them during the Banana Wars in Central America and it was also used by the China Marines.
Germany transferred its MP 18s to the German police forces after World War I. They also saw use in the hands of various paramilitary Freikorps during the aftermath of the German Revolution. In the 1920s a new, more reliable box magazine was developed for the MP 18 to replace the older snail-drum magazines. In 1928 a new version of the MP 18, the MP 28, saw the light of day, it featured the new box magazine as standard, a bayonet lug and a single shot mode. The MP 28 was manufactured in Belgium and Spain, and was widely exported from there, including to China and South America. Another variant based on the MP 18 was the MP 34 that was manufactured by the Germans through the Swiss front company Solothurn. The MP 34 was manufactured from the very best materials available and finished to the highest possible standard. Consequently, its production costs were extremely high. It was adopted by the Austrian police and army in the 1930s, and they were taken over by the Germans after German annexation of Austria in 1938. The MP35 was another interwar German submachine gun, designed by the Bergmann brothers. It was exported to Sweden and Ethiopia and also saw extensive use in the Spanish Civil War. About 40,000 of the type were manufactured until 1944, with many going into the hands of the Waffen SS. The Erma EMP was yet another submachine gun from this period, based on a design by Heinrich Vollmer, about 10,000 were manufactured. It was exported to Spain, Mexico, China and Yugoslavia, but also used domestically by the SS, as well as being produced under license in Francoist Spain.
World War II
Changes in design accelerated during the war, with one major trend being the abandonment of complex and finely made pre-war designs like the Thompson submachine gun to weapons designed for cheap mass production and easy replacement like the M3 Grease Gun.
The Italians were among the first to develop submachine guns during World War I. However, they were slow to produce them under Mussolini; the 9 mm Parabellum Beretta Model 38 (MAB 38) was not available in large numbers until 1943. The MAB 38 was made in a successive series of improved and simplified models all sharing the same basic layout. The MAB 38 has two triggers, the front for semi-auto and rear for full-auto. Most models use standard wooden stocks, although some models were fitted with an MP40-style under-folding stock and are commonly mistaken for the German SMG. The MAB 38 series was extremely robust and proved very popular with both Axis and Allied troops (who used captured MAB 38s). It is considered the most successful and effective Italian small arm of World War II. During the later years of the war, the TZ-45 submachine gun was manufactured in small numbers in the Italian Social Republic. A cheaper alternative to the MAB 38, it also sported an unusual-for-the time grip safety.
In 1939, the Germans introduced the 9 mm Parabellum MP38 which was first used during the invasion of Poland of September that year. However, the MP38 production was still just starting and only a few thousand were in service at the time. It proved to be far more practical and effective in close quarters combat than the standard-issue German Karabiner 98k bolt-action rifle. From this experience, the simplified and modernized MP40 (commonly and erroneously referred to as the Schmeisser) was developed and made in large numbers; about a million were made during World War II. The MP40 was lighter than the MP38. It also used more stamped parts, making it faster and cheaper to produce. The MP38 and MP40 were the first SMGs to use plastic furniture and a practical folding stock, which became standard for all future SMG designs. The Germans utilized large number of captured Soviet PPSh-41 submachine guns, some were converted to fire 9 mm Parabellum while others were used unmodified (the German 7.63×25mm Mauser cartridge was used as it has identical dimensions as the 7.62×25mm Tokarev, albeit slightly less powerful).
During the Winter War, the badly outnumbered Finnish used the Suomi KP/-31 in large numbers against the Russians with devastating effect. Finnish ski troops became known for appearing out of the woods on one side of a road, raking Soviet columns with SMG fire and disappearing back into the woods on the other side. During the Continuation War, the Finnish Sissi patrols often equipped every soldier with KP/-31s. The Suomi fired 9 mm Parabellum ammo from a 71-round drum magazine (although often loaded with 74 rounds). "This SMG showed the world the importance of the submachine gun in modern warfare", prompting the development, adoption and mass production of submachine guns by most of the world's armies. The Suomi was used in combat until the end of the Lapland war, was widely exported and remained in service to the late 1970s. Inspired by captured examples of the Soviet PPS submachine gun, a gun that was cheaper and quicker to manufacture than the Suomi, the Finns introduced the KP m/44 submachine gun in 1944.
In 1940, the Soviets introduced the 7.62×25mm PPD-40 and later the more easily manufactured PPSh-41 in response to their experience during the Winter War against Finland. The PPSh's 71-round drum magazine is a copy of the Suomi's. Later in the war they developed the even more readily mass-produced PPS submachine gun - all firing the same small-caliber but high-powered Tokarev cartridges. The USSR went on to make over 6 million PPSh-41s and 2 million PPS-43s by the end of World War II. Thus, the Soviet Union could field huge numbers of submachine guns against the Wehrmacht, with whole infantry battalions being armed with little else. Even in the hands of conscripts with minimal training, the volume of fire produced by massed submachine guns could be overwhelming.
Britain entered the war with no domestic submachine gun design of its own, but instead imported the expensive US M1928 Thompson. After evaluating their battlefield experience in the Battle of France and losing many military arms in the Dunkirk evacuation, the British Royal Navy adopted the 9 mm Parabellum Lanchester submachine gun. With no time for the usual research and development for a new weapon, it was decided to make a direct copy of the German MP 28. Like other early submachine guns it was difficult and expensive to manufacture. Shortly thereafter, the simpler Sten submachine gun was developed for general use by the British armed forces, it was much cheaper and faster to make. Over 4 million Sten guns were made during World War II. Indeed, the Sten was so cheap and easy to produce that towards the end of World War II as their economic base approached crisis, Germany started manufacturing their own copy, the MP 3008. After the war, the British replaced the Sten with the Sterling submachine gun.
The United States and its allies used the Thompson submachine gun, especially the simplified M1. However, the Thompson was still expensive and slow to produce. Therefore, the U.S. developed the M3 submachine gun or "Grease Gun" in 1942, followed by the improved M3A1 in 1944. While the M3 was no more effective than the Tommy Gun, it was made primarily of stamped parts and welded together, and so, it could be produced much faster and at a fraction of the cost of a Thompson. Additionally, its much lower rate of fire made it a lot more controllable. It could be configured to fire either .45 ACP or 9mm Luger ammunition. The M3A1 was among the longest-serving submachine gun designs, being produced into the 1960s and serving in US forces into the 1990s.
France produced only about 2,000 of the MAS-38 submachine gun (chambered in 7.65×20mm Longue) before the Fall of France in June 1940. Production was taken over by the occupying Germans, who used them for themselves and also put them into the hands of the Vichy French.
The Owen Gun is a 9mm Parabellum Australian submachine gun designed by Evelyn Owen in 1939. The Owen is a simple, highly reliable, open bolt, blowback SMG. It was designed to be fired either from the shoulder or the hip. It is easily recognisable, owing to its unconventional appearance, including a quick-release barrel and butt-stock, double pistol grips, top-mounted magazine, and unusual offset right-side-mounted sights. The Owen was the only entirely Australian-designed and constructed service submachine gun of World War II and was used by the Australian Army from 1943 until the mid-1960s, when it was replaced by the F1 submachine gun. Only about 45,000 Owens were produced during the war for a unit cost of about A$30.
While most other countries during World War II developed multiple submachine guns, the Empire of Japan had only produced one, the Type 100 submachine gun, based heavily on the German MP28. Like most other small arms created in Imperial Japan, the Type 100 could be fitted with a bayonet. It used the 8×22mm Nambu cartridge, which was about half as powerful as a standard Western 9mm Parabellum round. Production of the gun was even more inadequate: by the war's end, Japan had only manufactured about 7,500 of the Type 100, whereas Germany, America, and other countries in the war had produced well over a million of their own SMG designs.
The German military concluded that most firefights took place at ranges of no more than about 300 meters. They therefore sought to develop a new class of weapon that would combine the high volume of fire of the submachine gun with an intermediate cartridge that enabled the shooter to place accurate shots at medium ranges (beyond that of the 100-200 meter range of the typical submachine gun). After a false start with the FG 42, this led to the development of the Sturmgewehr 44 select-fire assault rifle ("assault rifle" is a translation of the German Sturmgewehr). In the years following the war, this new format began to gradually replace the submachine gun in military use to a large extent. Based on the StG44, the Soviet Union created the AK-47, which is to date the world's most produced firearm, with over 100 million made.
Post World War II
After World War II, "new submachine gun designs appeared almost every week to replace the admittedly rough and ready designs which had appeared during the war. Some (the better ones) survived, most rarely got past the glossy brochure stage." Most of these survivors were cheaper, easier and faster to make than their predecessors. As such, they were widely distributed.
In 1945, Sweden introduced the 9 mm Parabellum Carl Gustaf m/45 with a design borrowing from and improving on many design elements of earlier submachine-gun designs. It has a tubular stamped steel receiver with a side folding stock. The m/45 was widely exported, and especially popular with CIA operatives and U.S. Special Forces during the Vietnam War. In U.S. service it was known as the "Swedish-K". In 1966, the Swedish government blocked the sale of firearms to the United States because it opposed the Vietnam War. As a result, in the following year Smith & Wesson began to manufacture an m/45 clone called the M76. The m/45 was used in combat by Swedish troops as part of the United Nations Operation in the Congo, during the Congo Crisis during the early 1960s. Battlefield reports of the lack of penetrative power of the 9 mm Parabellum during this operation led to Sweden developing a more powerful 9 mm round designated "9 mm m/39B".
In 1946, Denmark introduced the Madsen M-46, and in 1950, an improved model the Madsen M-50. These 9 mm Parabellum stamped steel SMGs featured a unique clamshell type design, a side folding stock and a grip-safety on the magazine housing. The Madsen was widely exported and especially popular in Latin America, with variants made by several countries.
In 1948, Czechoslovakia introduced the Sa vz. 23 series. This 9 mm Parabellum SMG introduced several innovations: a progressive trigger for selecting between semi-automatic and full auto fire, a telescoping bolt that extends forward wrapping around the barrel and a vertical handgrip housing the magazine and trigger mechanism. The vz. 23 series was widely exported and especially popular in Africa and the Middle East with variants made by several countries. The vz. 23 inspired the development of the Uzi submachine gun.
In 1949, France introduced the MAT-49 to replace the hodgepodge of French, American, British, German and Italian SMGs in French service after World War II. The 9 mm Parabellum MAT-49 is an inexpensive stamped steel SMG with a telescoping wire stock, a pronounced folding magazine housing and a grip safety. This "wildebeast like design" proved to be an extremely reliable and effective SMG, and was used by the French well into the 1980s. It was also widely exported to Africa, Asia and the Middle East.
1950s
In 1954, Israel introduced a 9 mm Parabellum open-bolt, blowback-operated submachine gun called the Uzi (after its designer Uziel Gal). The Uzi was one of the first weapons to use a telescoping bolt design with the magazine housed in the pistol grip for a shorter weapon. The Uzi has become the most popular submachine gun in the world, with over 10 million units sold, more
than any other submachine gun.
In 1959, Beretta introduced the Model 12. This 9 mm Parabellum submachine gun was a complete break with previous Beretta designs. It is a small, compact, very well made SMG and among the first to use a telescoping bolt design. The M12 was designed for mass production and was made largely of stamped steel and welded together. It is identified by its tubular shape receiver, double pistol grips, a side folding stock and the magazine housed in front of the trigger guard. The M12 uses the same magazines as the Model 38 series.
Submachine guns in the Korean War
Submachine guns proved to be an important weapon system once again in the Korean War (25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953). The Korean People's Army (KPA) and the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) fighting in Korea received massive numbers of the PPSh-41, in addition to the North Korean Type 49 and the Chinese Type 50, which were both licensed copies of the PPSh-41 with small mechanical revisions. Though relatively inaccurate, the Chinese PPSh has a high rate of fire and was well-suited to the close-range firefights that typically occurred in that conflict, especially at night. United Nations Command forces in defensive outposts or on patrol often had trouble returning a sufficient volume of fire when attacked by companies of infantry armed with the PPSh. Some U.S. infantry officers ranked the PPSh as the best combat weapon of the war: while lacking the accuracy of the U.S. M1 Garand and M1 carbine, it provided more firepower at short distances. As infantry Captain (later General) Hal Moore, stated: "on full automatic it sprayed a lot of bullets and most of the killing in Korea was done at very close ranges and it was done quickly – a matter of who responded faster. In situations like that it outclassed and outgunned what we had. A close-in patrol fight was over very quickly and usually we lost because of it." U.S. servicemen, however, felt that their M2 carbines were superior to the PPSh-41 at the typical engagement range of 100–150 meters.
Other older designs also saw use in the Korean war. The Thompson had seen much use by the U.S. and South Korean military, even though the Thompson had been replaced as standard-issue by the M3/M3A1. With huge numbers of guns available in army ordnance arsenals, the Thompson remained classed as Limited Standard or Substitute Standard long after the standardization of the M3/M3A1. Many Thompsons were distributed to the US-backed Nationalist Chinese armed forces as military aid before the fall of Chiang Kai-shek's government to Mao Zedong's communist forces at the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949 (Thompsons had already been widely used throughout China since the 1920s, at a time when several Chinese warlords and their military factions running various parts of the fragmented country made purchases of the weapon and then subsequently produced many local copies). US troops were surprised to encounter communist Chinese troops armed with Thompsons (amongst other captured US-made Nationalist Chinese and American firearms), especially during unexpected night-time assaults which became a prominent Chinese combat tactic in the conflict. The gun's ability to deliver large quantities of short-range automatic assault fire proved very useful in both defense and assault during the early part of the war when it was constantly mobile and shifting back and forth. Many Chinese Thompsons were captured and placed into service with American soldiers and marines for the remaining period of the war.
1960s
In the 1960s, Heckler & Koch developed the 9 mm Parabellum MP5 submachine gun. The MP5 is based on the G3 rifle and uses the same closed-bolt roller-delayed blowback operation system. This makes the MP5 more accurate than open-bolt SMGs, such as the Uzi. The MP5 is also one of the most widely used submachine guns in the world, having been adopted by 40 nations and numerous military, law enforcement, and security organizations.
In 1969, Steyr introduced the MPi 69. This 9 mm Parabellum open-bolt, blowback-operated SMG has a telescoping bolt and is similar in appearance to the Uzi SMG. It has a vertical pistol-grip into which the magazine is inserted, a longer horizontal front grip area and a telescoping wire buttstock. The receiver is a squared stamped steel tube that partly nestles inside a large plastic molding (resembling a lower receiver) which contains the forward hand-grip, vertical pistol-grip and the fire control group, making the MPi 69 one of the first firearms to use a plastic construction in this way. It has a progressive trigger and is also unusual among modern SMGs, as the MPi 69 is cocked by a dual-purpose lever also used as the front sling attachment point.
1970s
In the 1970s, extremely compact submachine guns, such as the .45ACP Mac-10 and .380 ACP Mac-11, were developed to be used with silencers or suppressors. While these SMGs received enormous publicity, and were prominently displayed in films and television, they were not widely adopted by military or law enforcement agencies. These smaller weapons led other manufacturers to develop their own compact SMGs, such as the Micro-UZI and the H&K MP5K.
1980s
By the 1980s, the demand for new submachine guns was very low and could be easily met by existing makers with existing designs. However, following H&K's lead, other manufacturers began designing submachine guns based on their existing assault rifle patterns. These new SMGs offered a high degree of parts commonality with parent weapons, thereby easing logistical concerns.
In 1982, Colt introduced the Colt 9mm SMG based on the M16 rifle. The Colt SMG is a closed bolt, blowback operated SMG and the overall aesthetics are identical to most M16 type rifles. The magazine well is modified using a special adapter to allow the use of the smaller 9mm magazines. The magazines themselves are a copy of the Israeli UZI SMG magazine, modified to fit the Colt and lock the bolt back after the last shot. The Colt is widely used by US law enforcement and the USMC.
1990s
In 1998, H&K introduced the last widely distributed SMG, the UMP "Universal Machine Pistol". The UMP is a 9mm, .40 S&W, or .45 ACP, closed-bolt blowback-operated SMG, based on the H&K G36 assault rifle. It features a predominantly polymer construction and was designed to be a more cost effective, lighter weight, and less complex design alternative to the MP5. The UMP has a side-folding stock and is available with four different trigger group configurations. It was also designed to use a wide range of Picatinny rail mounted accessories
2000s
In 2004, Izhmash introduced the Vityaz-SN a 9 mm Parabellum, closed bolt straight blowback operated submachine gun. It is based on the AK-74 rifle and offers a high degree of parts commonality with the AK-74. It is the standard submachine gun for all branches of Russian military and police forces.
In 2009, KRISS USA introduced the KRISS Vector family of submachine guns. Futuristic in appearance, the KRISS uses an unconventional delayed blowback system combined with in-line design to reduce perceived recoil and muzzle climb. The KRISS comes in 9mm Parabellum, .40 S&W, .45 ACP, 9×21mm, 10mm Auto, and .357 SIG. It also uses standard Glock pistol magazines.
2010s
By 2010, compact assault rifles and personal defense weapons had replaced submachine guns in most roles. Factors such as the increasing use of body armor and logistical concerns have combined to limit the appeal of submachine guns. However, SMGs are still used by police (especially SWAT teams) for dealing with heavily armed suspects and by military special forces units for close-quarters combat, due to their reduced size, recoil and muzzle blast. Submachine guns also lend themselves to the use of suppressors, particularly when loaded with subsonic ammunition. Variants of the Sterling and Heckler & Koch MP5 have been manufactured with integral suppressors.
Personal defense weapons
First developed during the 1980s, the personal defense weapon (PDW) is touted as a further evolution of the submachine gun. The PDW was created in response to a NATO request for a replacement for 9×19mm Parabellum submachine guns. The PDW is a compact automatic weapon that uses specially designed rifle-like cartridges to fire armor-piercing bullets and are sufficiently light to be used conveniently by non-combatant and support troops, and as an effective close quarters battle weapon for special forces and counter-terrorist groups.
Introduced in 1991, the FN P90 features a bullpup design with a futuristic appearance. It has a 50-round magazine housed horizontally above the barrel, an integrated reflex sight and fully ambidextrous controls. A simple blowback automatic weapon, it was designed to fire the proprietary FN 5.7×28mm cartridge which can penetrate soft body armor. The P90 was designed to have a length no greater than an average-sized man's shoulder width, to allow it to be easily carried and maneuvered in tight spaces, such as the inside of an infantry fighting vehicle. The P90 is currently in service with military and police forces in over 40 nations.
Introduced in 2001, the Heckler & Koch MP7 is a direct rival to the FN P90. It is a more conventional-looking design, and uses a short-stroke piston gas system as used on H&K's G36 and HK416 assault rifles, in place of a blowback system traditionally seen on submachine guns. The MP7 uses 20-, 30- and 40-round box magazines and fires the proprietary 4.6×30mm ammunition which can penetrate soft body armor. Due to the heavy use of polymers in its construction, the MP7 is much lighter than older SMG designs, being only with an empty 20-round magazine. The MP7 is currently in service with military and police forces in over 20 nations.
See also
Assault rifle
Firearm action
List of submachine guns
Machine gun
Machine pistol
Overview of gun laws by nation
Personal defense weapon
Semi-automatic pistol
Sputter Gun
Submachine gun competition
References
External links
Submachine Gun at the Encyclopædia Britannica
Law enforcement equipment
Military equipment
World War I weapons
| 6,518
|
doc-en-7819_0
|
The 2012–13 Indiana Pacers season was Indiana's 46th season as a franchise and 37th season in the NBA. The regular season ended with a 49–32 win–loss record and the team advanced to the conference finals. The team only played 81 games due to a game versus the Boston Celtics that was cancelled following the Boston Marathon bombing. However, it was not to be as they fell to the Miami Heat in seven games. The Heat would go on to win its third NBA Championship after defeating the San Antonio Spurs in a seven-game NBA Finals series.
The season was the first since 1998-99 without Jeff Foster, who retired after 2011-12 season.
Key dates
June 28: The 2012 NBA draft took place at Prudential Center in Newark, New Jersey.
2012 NBA draft
Roster
Pre-season
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 1
| October 10
| @ Minnesota
|
| Paul George (16)
| Tyler Hansbrough (7)
| Four players (2)
| Fargodome9,163
| 0–1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 2
| October 12
| Minnesota
|
| Paul George (19)
| Ian Mahinmi (8)
| Ben Hansbrough (7)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse10,794
| 1–1
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 3
| October 16
| Atlanta
|
| Paul George (20)
| Roy Hibbert (11)
| Paul George, Ben Hansbrough (4)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse10,786
| 2–1
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 4
| October 19
| @ Orlando
|
| Tyler Hansbrough (23)
| Paul George (7)
| Sundiata Gaines, Lance Stephenson (3)
| Amway Center17,204
| 2–2
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 5
| October 20
| Memphis
|
| Gerald Green (18)
| Tyler Hansbrough (13)
| Paul George (3)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse13,399
| 3–2
|- style="background:#bfb;"
| 6
| October 23
| @ Cleveland
|
| Paul George (14)
| David West (8)
| D. J. Augustin (11)
| Quicken Loans Arena10,040
| 4–2
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 7
| October 26
| @ Chicago
|
| Roy Hibbert (17)
| Paul George (10)
| D. J. Augustin (13)
| United Center9,149
| 4–3
Regular season
Game log
Note: the Indiana Pacers only played 81 games due to the cancellation of the April 16, 2013 game vs the Boston Celtics.
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1 || October 31 || @ Toronto
|
| David West (25)
| Paul George (15)
| George Hill (7)
| Air Canada Centre19,800
| 1–0
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 2 || November 2 || @ Charlotte
|
| Hansbrough & Stephenson (15)
| Ian Mahinmi (8)
| Paul George (6)
| Time Warner Cable Arena19,124
| 1–1
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 3 || November 3 || Sacramento
|
| Hill & West (18)
| David West (18)
| George Hill (5)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 2–1
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 4 || November 5 || @ San Antonio
|
| George Hill (15)
| David West (11)
| George Hill (6)
| AT&T Center17,158
| 2–2
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 5 || November 7 || @ Atlanta
|
| Hill & West (20)
| George & Hibbert (7)
| George Hill (5)
| Philips Arena10,684
| 2–3
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 6 || November 9 || @ Minnesota
|
| George Hill (29)
| David West (13)
| George Hill (7)
| Target Center18,222
| 2–4
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 7 || November 10 || Washington
|
| Paul George (20)
| Roy Hibbert (12)
| George Hill (5)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse12,036
| 3–4
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 8 || November 13 || Toronto
|
| George Hill (18)
| George & Hibbert (9)
| Paul George (4)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse11,947
| 3–5
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 9 || November 14 || @ Milwaukee
|
| Tyler Hansbrough (17)
| David West (9)
| Hill & Stephenson (4)
| BMO Harris Bradley Center11,573
| 3–6
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 10 || November 16 || Dallas
|
| Hill & West (15)
| Roy Hibbert (8)
| George Hill (7)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse15,110
| 4–6
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 11 || November 18 || @ New York
|
| Paul George (20)
| Hansbrough & Hibbert (8)
| George Hill (6)
| Madison Square Garden19,033
| 4–7
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 12 || November 19 || @ Washington
|
| David West (30)
| Hibbert (12)
| George Hill (5)
| Verizon Center14,426
| 5–7
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 13 || November 21 || New Orleans
|
| Paul George (37)
| Roy Hibbert (11)
| George Hill (7)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse12,633
| 6–7
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 14 || November 23 || San Antonio
|
| David West (22)
| Tyler Hansbrough (12)
| D. J. Augustin (8)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse17,082
| 6–8
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 15 || November 27 || @ L. A. Lakers
|
| George Hill (19)
| David West (10)
| David West (8)
| Staples Center18,997
| 7–8
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 16 || November 30 || @ Sacramento
|
| David West (31)
| David West (11)
| Paul George (9)
| Sleep Train Arena12,544
| 8–8
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 17 || December 1 || @ Golden State
|
| David West (23)
| David West (8)
| George, Stephenson,& West (4)
| Oracle Arena18,623
| 8–9
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 18 || December 4 || @ Chicago
|
| Paul George (34)
| Roy Hibbert (11)
| West & Hill (5)
| United Center21,252
| 9–9
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 19 || December 5 || Portland
|
| Paul George (22)
| David West (10)
| Paul George (5)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse11,569
| 10–9
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 20 || December 7 || Denver
|
| Paul George (22)
| David West (11)
| George Hill (10)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse15,289
| 10–10
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 21 || December 9 || @ Oklahoma City
|
| David West (21)
| David West (9)
| George & Hill (3)
| Chesapeake Energy Arena18,203
| 10–11
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 22 || December 12 || Cleveland
|
| Paul George (27)
| Roy Hibbert (12)
| David West (7)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse11,595
| 11–11
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 23 || December 14 || Philadelphia
|
| Paul George (28)
| Roy Hibbert (13)
| George Hill (10)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse13,538
| 12–11
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 24 || December 15 || @ Detroit
|
| David West (23)
| Paul George (8)
| Paul George (8)
| The Palace of Auburn Hills13,235
| 13–11
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 25 || December 18 || @ Milwaukee
|
| George Hill (18)
| George & Hibbert (10)
| Paul George (5)
| BMO Harris Bradley Center11,739
| 13–12
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 26 || December 19 || Utah
|
| Gerald Green (21)
| Paul George (11)
| George Hill (5)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse13,559
| 14–12
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 27 || December 21 || @ Cleveland
|
| Roy Hibbert (18)
| David West (10)
| Lance Stephenson (7)
| Quicken Loans Arena14,105
| 15–12
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 28 || December 22 || @ New Orleans
|
| David West (25)
| Paul George (12)
| George Hill (6)
| New Orleans Arena15,042
| 16–12
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 29 || December 28 || Phoenix
|
| George Hill (22)
| Roy Hibbert (14)
| Lance Stephenson (5)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse15,288
| 17–12
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 30 || December 29 || @ Atlanta
|
| David West (29)
| Tyler Hansbrough (9)
| Paul George (8)
| Philips Arena16,558
| 17–13
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 31 || December 31 || Memphis
|
| Paul George (21)
| David West (9)
| D. J. Augustin (6)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse14,979
| 18–13
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 32 || January 2 || Washington
|
| Paul George (29)
| Paul George (14)
| D. J. Augustin (6)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse11,182
| 19–13
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 33 || January 4 || @ Boston
|
| Tyler Hansbrough (19)
| Hibbert & West (10)
| Augustin & George (4)
| TD Garden18,624
| 19–14
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 34 || January 5 || Milwaukee
|
| Roy Hibbert (20)
| Roy Hibbert (15)
| George & Hill (4)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse15,329
| 20–14
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 35 || January 8 || Miami
|
| Paul George (29)
| Roy Hibbert (14)
| D. J. Augustin (8)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 21–14
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 36 || January 10 || New York
|
| Paul George (29)
| Paul George (11)
| Paul George (5)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse16,568
| 22–14
|- style="background: #cfc;"
| 37 || January 12 || Charlotte
|
| George Hill (19)
| David West (12)
| David West (10)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse13,656
| 23–14
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 38 || January 13 || @ Brooklyn
|
| David West (27)
| Paul George (12)
| D. J. Augustin (4)
| Barclays Center16,499
| 23–15
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 39 || January 15 || @ Charlotte
|
| Roy Hibbert (18)
| Paul George (10)
| Lance Stephenson (6)
| Time Warner Cable Arena12,996
| 24–15
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 40 || January 16 || @ Orlando
|
| Paul George (20)
| Paul George (10)
| George Hill (6)
| Amway Center17,499
| 24–16
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 41 || January 18 || Houston
|
| Paul George (31)
| David West (11)
| David West (7)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse16,902
| 25–16
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 42 || January 21 || @ Memphis
|
| David West (14)
| Paul George (10)
| Paul George (9)
| FedExForum17,508
| 26–16
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 43 || January 23 || @ Portland
|
| Paul George (22)
| George & West (7)
| Hill, Stephenson,& West (3)
| Rose Garden18,934
| 26–17
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 44 || January 26 || @ Utah
|
| David West (24)
| Roy Hibbert (12)
| George Hill (8)
| EnergySolutions Arena19,201
| 26–18
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 45 || January 28 || @ Denver
|
| Paul George (23)
| Roy Hibbert (11)
| George Hill (6)
| Pepsi Center16,032
| 26–19
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 46 || January 30 || Detroit
|
| Roy Hibbert (18)
| Hansbrough, Hibbert,& Stephenson (11)
| Lance Stephenson (5)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse12,137
| 27–19
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 47 || February 1 || Miami
|
| David West (30)
| David West (7)
| Paul George (6)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 28–19
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 48 || February 4|| Chicago
|
| David West (29)
| Paul George (11)
| George Hill (6)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 29–19
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 49 || February 5 || Atlanta
|
| Paul George (29)
| Roy Hibbert (8)
| George Hill (8)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse12,578
| 30–19
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 50 || February 6 || @ Philadelphia
|
| Roy Hibbert (18)
| Roy Hibbert (14)
| Paul George (6)
| Wells Fargo Center15,299
| 31–19
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 51 || February 8 || Toronto
|
| David West (30)
| Paul George (14)
| George & Hill (5)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse16,253
| 31–20
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 52 || February 11 || Brooklyn
|
| George Hill (22)
| Roy Hibbert (10)
| George Hill (6)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse11,672
| 31–21
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 53 || February 13 || Charlotte
|
| Paul George (23)
| Paul George (12)
| Paul George (12)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse11,707
| 32–21
|- align="center"
|colspan="9" bgcolor="#bbcaff"|All-Star Break
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 54 || February 20 || New York
|
| Paul George (27)
| David West (9)
| George Hill (5)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse16,123
| 33–21
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 55 || February 22 || Detroit
|
| David West (18)
| David West (8)
| George Hill (6)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse17,750
| 34–21
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 56 || February 23 || @ Detroit
|
| George Hill (17)
| Paul George (12)
| Paul George (8)
| The Palace of Auburn Hills17,509
| 35–21
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 57 || February 26 || Golden State
|
| David West (28)
| Paul George (11)
| George Hill (7)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse14,426
| 36–21
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 58 || February 28 || L. A. Clippers
|
| David West (22)
| Lance Stephenson (7)
| Paul George (5)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 36–22
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 59 || March 1 || @ Toronto
|
| Paul George (22)
| David West (11)
| D. J. Augustin (7)
| Air Canada Centre18,268
| 37–22
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 60 || March 3 || Chicago
|
| David West (31)
| George & Hibbert (10)
| Paul George (6)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse17,533
| 38–22
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 61 || March 6 || Boston
|
| Paul George (16)
| Roy Hibbert (16)
| David West (4)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse17,833
| 38–23
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 62 || March 8 || @ Orlando
|
| Paul George (25)
| David West (7)
| D. J. Augustin (8)
| Amway Center16,515
| 39–23
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 63 || March 10 || @ Miami
|
| David West (24)
| Paul George (6)
| Paul George (5)
| American Airlines Arena20,219
| 39–24
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 64 || March 13 || Minnesota
|
| Roy Hibbert (27)
| Roy Hibbert (12)
| David West (6)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse14,187
| 40–24
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 65 || March 15 || L. A. Lakers
|
| George Hill (27)
| Lance Stephenson (11)
| Lance Stephenson (5)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 40–25
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 66 || March 16 || @ Philadelphia
|
| Roy Hibbert (25)
| Paul George (14)
| Paul George (8)
| Wells Fargo Center18,587
| 40–26
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 67 || March 18 || @ Cleveland
|
| Gerald Green (20)
| Tyler Hansbrough (11)
| George Hill (7)
| Quicken Loans Arena13,016
| 41–26
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 68 || March 19 || Orlando
|
| Paul George (19)
| Tyler Hansbrough (14)
| Orlando Johnson (5)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse14,343
| 42–26
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 69 || March 22 || Milwaukee
|
| Tyler Hansbrough (22)
| Tyler Hansbrough (12)
| Paul George (6)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 43–26
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 70 || March 23 || @ Chicago
|
| Paul George (23)
| Roy Hibbert (12)
| Tyler Hansbrough (3)
| United Center22,494
| 43–27
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 71 || March 25 || Atlanta
|
| Gerald Green (19)
| Roy Hibbert (13)
| D. J. Augustin (5)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse14,336
| 44–27
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 72 || March 27 || @ Houston
|
| Roy Hibbert (28)
| Roy Hibbert (13)
| George Hill (5)
| Toyota Center18,134
| 45–27
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 73 || March 28 || @ Dallas
|
| Paul George (24)
| Roy Hibbert (11)
| Paul George (6)
| American Airlines Center20,037
| 46–27
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 74 || March 30 || @ Phoenix
|
| Paul George (25)
| David West (7)
| Paul George &David West (4)
| US Airways Center17,090
| 47–27
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 75 || April 1 || @ L. A. Clippers
|
| Roy Hibbert (26)
| Roy Hibbert (10)
| Paul George (10)
| Staples Center19,384
| 48–27
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 76 || April 5 || Oklahoma City
|
| Roy Hibbert (22)
| Roy Hibbert (8)
| Stephenson & Hill (3)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 48–28
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 77 || April 6 || @ Washington
|
| Roy Hibbert (25)
| David West (10)
| Paul George & Hill (3)
| Verizon Center19,360
| 48–29
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 78 || April 9 || Cleveland
|
| George Hill (27)
| David West (9)
| George Hill (4)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse15,279
| 49–29
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 79 || April 12 || Brooklyn
|
| David West (26)
| Roy Hibbert (10)
| George Hill (10)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 49–30
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 80 || April 14 || @ New York
|
| Lance Stephenson (22)
| Roy Hibbert (10)
| George Hill (11)
| Madison Square Garden19,033
| 49–31
|- style="background:#ccc;"
| –
| April 16
| @ Boston
| colspan="7" | Game canceled due to the Boston Marathon bombing.
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 81 || April 17 || Philadelphia
|
| Gerald Green (34)
| Tyler Hansbrough (9)
| Lance Stephenson (6)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 49–32
Standings
Playoffs
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1
| April 21
| Atlanta
|
| Paul George (23)
| Paul George (11)
| Paul George (12)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 1–0
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 2
| April 24
| Atlanta
|
| Paul George (27)
| Roy Hibbert (9)
| George, West, Hibbert, Hill, & Augustin (3)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 2–0
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 3
| April 27
| @ Atlanta
|
| West (18)
| George, Hibbert, & Hansbrough (9)
| George Hill (3)
| Philips Arena18,238
| 2–1
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 4
| April 29
| @ Atlanta
|
| Paul George (21)
| Paul George (12)
| Lance Stephenson (8)
| Philips Arena18,241
| 2–2
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 5
| May 1
| Atlanta
|
| David West (24)
| Lance Stephenson (12)
| George Hill (10)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 3–2
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 6
| May 3
| @ Atlanta
|
| West & Hill (21)
| Hibbert & Stephenon (11)
| Paul George (7)
| Philips Arena18,238
| 4–2
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 1
| May 5
| @ New York
|
| David West (20)
| Lance Stephenson (13)
| George Hill (6)
| Madison Square Garden19,033
| 1–0
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 2
| May 7
| @ New York
|
| Paul George (20)
| Roy Hibbert (12)
| George Hill (7)
| Madison Square Garden19,033
| 1–1
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 3
| May 11
| New York
|
| Roy Hibbert (24)
| Hibbert & West (12)
| Paul George (8)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 2–1
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 4
| May 14
| New York
|
| George Hill (26)
| Paul George (14)
| Paul George (7)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 3–1
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 5
| May 16
| @ New York
|
| Paul George (23)
| David West (10)
| Paul George (6)
| Madison Square Garden19,033
| 3–2
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 6
| May 18
| New York
|
| Lance Stephenson (25)
| Roy Hibbert (12)
| George, West, & Hill (4)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse 18,165
| 4–2
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 1
| May 22
| @ Miami
|
| Paul George (27)
| Lance Stephenson (12)
| George Hill (7)
| American Airlines Arena19,679
| 0–1
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 2
| May 24
| @ Miami
|
| Roy Hibbert (29)
| Roy Hibbert (10)
| Paul George (6)
| American Airlines Arena20,022
| 1–1
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 3
| May 26
| Miami
|
| David West (21)
| Roy Hibbert (17)
| Paul George (8)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 1–2
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 4
| May 28
| Miami
|
| Roy Hibbert (23)
| West & Hibbert (12)
| George Hill (6)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 2–2
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 5
| May 30
| @ Miami
|
| Paul George (27)
| Paul George (11)
| Paul George (5)
| American Airlines Arena19,913
| 2–3
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| 6
| June 1
| Miami
|
| Paul George (28)
| David West (14)
| George Hill (6)
| Bankers Life Fieldhouse18,165
| 3–3
|- style="background:#fcc;"
| 7
| June 3
| @ Miami
|
| Roy Hibbert (18)
| Roy Hibbert (8)
| Lance Stephenson (5)
| American Airlines Arena20,025
| 3–4
Player statistics
Regular season
Playoffs
Player Statistics Citation:
Transactions
Overview
Trades
Free agents
See also
References
Indiana Pacers seasons
Indiana Pacers
Pace
Pace
| 6,812
|
doc-en-7826_0
|
The Chicago Traction Wars was a political conflict which took place in Chicago primarily from the mid-1890s through the early 1910s. It concerned the franchise and ownership of streetcar lines. At the time it was one of the dominant political issues in the city and was a central issue of several mayoral elections and shaped the tenures of several mayors, particularly those of Carter Harrison Jr. and Edward Fitzsimmons Dunne.
Background
Chicago awarded its first street railway franchises in 1856. Early on, dozens of streetcar companies arose. However, by the 1890s mergers and acquisitions had left only a handful.
99-year franchise act
In the summer of 1863, the "Gridiron Bill" was proposed to extend the franchise of Chicago streetcar companies to 99 years. This generated outrage in Chicago, with large petitions and protests arising.
In January 1865, overriding a veto from Governor Richard Yates, the Illinois legislature passed the "Century Franchise", which had by then become known as the "99 years act"/ "99-year franchise act" which extended the franchise of streetcar companies to 99 years. There were strong doubts about the constitutionality of the legislation.
In 1883, to postpone a conflict, Chicago mayor Carter Harrison Sr. brokered an understanding with streetcar companies that the city would extend their franchises for twenty more years, and settle the status of the 99 years act at another time.
Yerkes-backed bills
Charles Yerkes, owner of a large number of the city's streetcar lines,
began leading a push for extended franchises. Yerkes held great power and influence, at one point holding influence over a majority of the state legislature.
Crawford bill
On May 14, 1865, Governor John Peter Altgeld vetoed a bill to extend franchises which had been passed by the Illinois legislature. He declared "I love Chicago and am not willing to help forge a chain which would bind her people hand and foot for all time to the wheels of monopoly and leave them no escape."
Humphrey bills
In early 1897, legislator John Humphrey introduced several bills which would grant 50-year franchises with very little compensation to the city. The bills were defeated in the Illinois House of Representatives on May 12, 1897.
Newly-elected Chicago mayor Carter Harrison Jr. (the son of former mayor Carter Harrison Sr.) had taken vigorous opposition to the bills, and successfully lobbied legislators to kill these bills. Ultimately, the traction wars would become a dominant concern of the young mayor's five terms in office.
Public opinion sided in opposition to a 50-year extension.
Passage of the Allen Law
After the defeat of the Humphrey bills, State Representative Charles Allen introduced a bill which would enable City Councils to grant 50-year franchises. It passed in both the Illinois Senate and Illinois House of Representatives on June 4, 1897 and was signed by Governor John Riley Tanner on June 9. After the bill was successfully passed, the arena of the conflict moved from the state legislature to the Chicago City Council.
City Council vote (Lyman Ordinance)
The April 1898 Chicago aldermanic elections was seen as an opportunity shape the City Council's pending vote on the matter. The Municipal Voters' League requested that all candidates sign its platform, which contained a pledge to not vote for any franchise which exceeded twenty years or which did not provide the city with ample compensation. Of the twenty-nine candidates the league endorsed in the April Chicago aldermanic election, nineteen were elected. Additionally, another six elected alderman had signed the pledge despite not carrying the League's endorsement (as their seats were considered to be "safe" for reelection). It was believed that voters had elected a City Council that would oppose the Allen Law extensions, as 42 out of the 68 alderman were believed likely to cast votes against it.
On December 5, 1898, five months after the state passed the bill introduced by Allen, seven months after the aldermanic elections, and a month after state legislative elections had seemed to signal a death knell for the Allen Law, an ordinance was introduced to the Chicago City Council that would award 50-year franchises. The ordinance would extend all franchises that had been granted and enacted before July 1, 1897 fifty year extensions. It also specified a five cent fare for the first twenty years. It also specified considerably low compensation to the city by streetcar companies. This ordinance was introduced by 23rd Ward alderman William H. Lyman, and was dubbed the "Lyman Ordinance". This was, in essence, a last-ditch effort by the streetcar companies.
Harrison vowed to stop the ordinance, stating that, "If Yerkes can pass an ordinance over my veto I'll eat my old brown fedora".
The ordinance had the support of a number of the City Council's Gray Wolves. Harrison stopped the bill by "burying" it in a committee. Decisive roll call votes came from aldermen Michael Kenna and John Coughlin on December 19. The bill was sent first to the Committee of Streets and Alleys South, Streets and Alleys North, and Streets and Alleys West, where it remained until December 19, when it was withdrawn and instead referred to the Committee on City Hall. It was held by this committee until February 14, 1899, when in accordance with an unfavorable opinion on the bill issued by Corporation Council Granville W. Browning a majority report was created, which recommended that no legislation be enacted at the time. A minority report had been signed by William C. L. Zeiler and William Mangler recommending its passage.
Other ordinance were attempted. The minority report recommended the so-called "Kimbell ordinance", which would, among other things, extend franchises to December 31, 1946 and have a five cent fare for the first twenty years. The proposed "Hermann Ordinance" would extend franchises for twenty years, but thereafter allow the city to purchase, own and operate lines.
Repeal of the Allen Law
So strong was the public opinion against the Allen Law, the platforms of the conventions of all parties in Cook County, as well as many party conventions elsewhere in the state, included support for the repeal of the law. The two major parties' state conventions also passed resolutions calling for the repeal of the law. Again, as in the aldermanic elections earlier that year, the Municipal Voters' League requested all candidates sign their platform. Efforts were also undertaken in many legislative districts to block the renomination and reelection of members who had previously voted for the Humphrey bills and/or the Allen Law. So successful was this effort, that only 22 of the 114 members of the Illinois General Assembly that had voted for the Allen Law were reelected.
Not only was Harrison, like the majority of Chicagoans, opposed to the 50-year extension, but he also was opposed to accepting any franchise extension unless the Allen Law was repealed by the state legislature. This stance was seen as having paid off when the bill was repealed.
On March 7, 1899 the Allen Law was repealed.
Conceding defeat, Yerkes sold the majority of his Chicago transport stocks and moved to New York.
Municipal ownership movement at the turn of the 20th century
A standoff emerged between the streetcar operators, still asserting their right to 99-year franchises, and Harrison's municipal government. The dispute between the city government and the companies would not be settled until 1907 after Harrison had already left office. Meanwhile, public frustration with this inaction began to grow.
At the same time, a new movement emerged in support of municipal ownership. Alongside a number of "progressive" causes, a movement for municipal ownership (Municipalization) had arisen in the United States. As a result, a movement arose in Chicago which sought to immediately pursue public social ownership of the streetcar lines, running them as a publicly owned enterprise/ public utility.
The influential Municipal Voters' League, which advocated on the traction issue, was founded in January 1896.
Mayor Harrison did not embrace the idea of municipal ownership, even after it had become supported by both major political parties by 1900.
Transit emerged as a central issue in municipal elections.
In 1897 John Maynard Harlan ran for mayor on a platform supporting municipal ownership.
When Carter Harrison Jr. had been reelected in 1899. One of his opponents had been former governor Altgeld, who ran under the "Municipal Ownership" party label on a platform which supported municipal ownership.
In 1902 a municipal ownership referendum passed by a six to one margin.
Street Railway Commission
On December 18, 1899, the Chicago City Council passed a resolution enabling the appointment of a special committee of seven, subsequently referred to as the Street Railway Commission, to form a policy on the traction issue. This followed the "Harlan Committee", a commission which existed from 1897 through 1898, which was led by then-alderman John Maynard Harlan and which issued the "Harlan Report", a document that laid out facts about the issue but drew no policy conclusion.
Among other things, the committee was to examine the feasibility and practicality of municipal ownership, as well as the terms and conditions under which municipal ownership might exist.
On January 15, 1900, a resolution was adopted by the City Council further directing the commission to examine and report what companies, if any, were authorized under their charters to operate streetcars using anything other than animal power, the validity of ordinances granting such right in opposition to the charters of companies, the related provisions of the 99-year act, and what streetcar lines, if any, might be acquired the city by virtue of their ordinances.
The committee consisted William F. Brennan, Milton J. Foreman, Ernst F. Hermann, William Mavor, Walter J. Raymer, William E. Schlake.
The report was submitted on December 17, 1900. Among other things, it recommended that streetcar businesses be recognized and treated as a monopoly, that the City Council have broad powers of control over them, the creation of a new standing committee on local transportation, and that the city should have the power to own and operate street railways. It recommended holding referendums on important questions of street railway policy.
On May 20, 1901, the City Council passed an ordinance creating the Committee on Local Transportation. Some of the committee's special duties was "to carry on any work of investigation that may have been left uncompleted by the Street Railway Commission, to consider and devise plans for meeting the situation that may arise when street railway ordinances come up for action," and, "to make special study of the kind, quality, and sufficiency of the local transportation service and facilities of Chicago, and to make City Council from time to time, as it may see fit, recommendations looking to the improvement of the same." The committee would consist of nine City Council members, and the mayor as an ex-officio member. In its first report, issued December 11, 1901, it reported that the municipal ownership of street railways was not feasible.
Mueller Law
In May 1903 the Illinois General Assembly passed the Mueller Law, which allowed cities to "own, construct, acquire, purchase, maintain, and operate street railways" through direct titles and leases, with the stipulation that cities must receive three-fifths approval from their electorate before assuming control of railways. The law also placed a 20-year limit on traction franchises and provided the right for municipalities to buy-out traction companies when their franchises expired. The law had been introduced by Illinois Senator Carl Mueller.
In an April 5, 1904 referendum, Chicago voters voted in strong enough support to allow the city to begin acquiring street railways, with voters approving the measure by a nearly a margin of 5-1. The city also simultaneously voted in support of two other municipal ownership-related referendums.
1905 municipal election
Mayor Harrison preferred to be pragmatic and negotiate with transit companies for better service instead of buying them out. However, this ran into opposition, particularly from hard-lined backers of immediate municipal ownership such as alderman William Emmett Dever. Dever attempted to pressure his fellow alderman to take a firm position on the issue of municipal ownership by sponsoring several traction reform legislation. In the fall of 1904, Dever proposed holding a referendum on whether the city should enact an immediate takeover of streetcar service. Harrison publicly killed Dever's referendum effort, stating, "The Dever ordinance is a war measure and should be withheld until all other means of settling the traction issue have failed."
Ultimately, three months after killing Dever's "war measure", with growing public dissatisfaction over his handling of the traction standoff and with labor unions disagreeing with his opposition towards immediate municipal ownership, Harrison decided to retire prior to the 1905 mayoral election.
Harrison persuaded the City Council to submit tentative transit ordinances for referendum during the 1905 municipal election. Ultimately, three propositions were placed on an advisory ballot related to transit.
On the question of whether City Council should pass the tentative ordinances, 150,785 voted "no" while only 64,391 voted "yes".
Voters also strongly (by a 3-1 margin) voted "no" on the question of whether the city should grant any franchise to the Chicago City Railway and the question of whether the City Council should grant a franchise to any rail company.
There was additionally a referendum on immediate municipal ownership in which voters sided in support of it.
Democrat Edward Fitzsimmons Dunne successfully ran to succeed Harrison, campaigning on a platform which advocated immediate municipal ownership. While his Republican opponent, John Manyard Harlan, had eight years earlier run as an independent Republican on a platform in support of municipal ownership, in 1905 he supported the tentative ordinances, preferring to delay municipal ownership until a time in which it would be more economically viable for the city.
Plans proposed by Edward Fitzsimmons Dunne
The main focus of Dunne's mayoralty would be on attempting to implement immediate municipal ownership. After assuming office, Dunne appointed Clarence Darrow as "Special Traction Counsel to the Mayor"
In June 1905, two months after taking office, Dunne put forth his proposed Contract Plan, under which a municipal contract would be given to a select group of private investors that would build and run a new transit city on behalf of the city. The trustees of this system would be granted a twenty-year franchise. This was voted down by the city council.
Dunne later presented an alternative plan, which also failed in the City Council.
In November 1905, Darrow resigned his position as Special Traction Counsel. In 1906, Dunne would appoint Walter L. Fisher as the city's new Special Traction Counsel.
After negotiations with streetcar companies, Fisher created the so-called Tentative Ordinance, which would see upgrades made to service, greater reimbursement made to the city for the use of streets, and stricter regulations. The plan, however, lacked any meaningful proposal for municipal purchase. Dunne, at first, touted this ordinance. However, after backlash from social reform allies of Dunne's and William Randolph Hearst's Independence League (which threatened that it might run a candidate against Dunne in the 1907 mayoral election), Dunne switched his position on the ordinance.
April 1906 referendums
After the failure of the plan in city council, Dunne and his ally Dever both sought to present the plan to the voters by referendum. They along with the pro-municipal ownership lobby and William Randolph Hearst-owned media outlets were ultimately successful in urging the city council to consent to this.
The City Council granted approval to issue $75 million in certificates to fund acquisition of street railways. Such bonds were approved by voters in a referendum held that April. Dunne would ultimately subsequently struggle to arrange other financial and legal steps necessary to undertake acquisitions.
While voters successfully approved of municipal ownership of streetcars, a measure to allow the city to "proceed to operate street railways" by issuing Mueller bonds fell short of the required 60% support.
Court rulings on 99-year franchise act
A standoff had emerged at the turn of the twentieth century between the railway companies, still asserting their right to 99 year franchises, and Chicago's municipal government. Ultimately, this standoff lasted several years, until court decisions nullified the 99-year act.
1903 United States Circuit Court
A 1903 ruling by United States Seventh Circuit Court judge Peter S. Grosscup partially upheld the validity of the 99 year franchise act as it pertained to milage owned by the Union Traction Company.
1905 United States Supreme Court
A 1905 ruling by the Supreme Court of the United States largely undermined the 99 franchise year act.
1907 Illinois Supreme Court
In 1907 the Supreme Court of Illinois ruled that the 99-year franchise act was invalid.
Settlement Ordinances of 1907
In 1907, with Mayor Dunne struggling to pursue municipal ownership, the city council moved on without him and negotiated franchise extensions without Dunne's involvement.
In 1907 the Chicago City Council bared the fruits of their negotiations, passing the Settlement Ordinances of 1907. The ordinance would extend franchises by twenty years, but would provide the city the option to buy-up the streetcar lines for $50,000,000. It was, in essence, was a revised version of the Tentative Ordinance which Dunne had abandoned.
The ordinance would also impose a 5 cent fare on streetcars, universal transfers between lines, and would provide the city with 55% of the net profit earned by streetcar operators. It also established a Board of Supervising Engineers comprised engineers and accountants who were to be tasked with assuring compliance with the ordinances, and setting standards for equipment and construction.
While a Democratic city council had passed the Settlement Ordinances of 1907, Democratic mayor Dunne vetoed it, favoring immediate and outright municipal ownership. The city council overrode this veto. Dunne's traction counsel Walter L. Fisher, who had become disillusioned over the political feasibility of municipal ownership, had urged Dunne to accept the Settlement Ordinances. When Dunne refused, Fisher resigned.
Mayor Dunne ran for reelection in 1907, again on a platform of municipal ownership for the streetcar lines. However, he was defeated by Republican Fred A. Busse, who was in support of the Settlement Ordinances of 1907.
The ordinances were also put on the ballot during the 1907 municipal election and was approved by voters. The voters approved the ordinances by a vote of 167,367 to 134,281.
The Ordinances were implemented, with traction companies receiving 20-year franchises, post-dated as beginning on February 11, 1907.
1909 Burnham Transit Plan
In 1909 the Burnham Transit Plan (part of the Burnham Plan of Chicago) formally outlined a plan for the city's rail and streetcar systems.
1910 reorganization of routes
Through routes over the lines of several companies were established in 1910 creating a number of joint services.
Unification Ordinance of 1913
The Unification Ordinance of 1913 was passed by the Chicago City Council on November 13, 1913. It combined management and operations of all Chicago streetcar companies as the Chicago Surface Lines (C.S.L.). It took effect in 1914. Companies such as the Chicago City Railway became "paper companies", continuing to own equipment, but with their equipment being operated by the C.S.L. and used systemwide throughout the metropolitan area. As a result, Chicago now had the largest street railway system, the longest one-fare ride, the longest average ride, and the most liberal transfer privileges in the world.
In 1913, the city's elevated lines also joined into a loose association.
Subsequent failed schemes
CLTC plan
In early 1916 the Chicago City Council created a commission of three engineers called the Chicago Traction and Subway Commission to assess the city's transit network and plan improvements. In a comprehensive plan released later that year, the commission suggested that the city council create a municipally run transit corporation to buy out private transit carriers and improve the network.
After two years of inaction, in 1918 the City Council passed legislation to create the Chicago Local Transit Company (CLTC). The CLTC board was to have a number of members appointed by the City Council. The CLTC was to oversee consolidation of all elevates and surface transit lines under a singular management and begin work on expansions proposed by the commission. Meanwhile. The City of Chicago was to construct the downtown subway proposed by the commission and rent it to the CLTC.
Mayor Bill Thompson opposed the CLTC plan and vetoed its ordinance. The City Council overrode his veto to send the ordinance to the voters in a referendum.
Initially, in August, it had seemed likely that the referendum would pass. It had backing from most of City Council, five of the city's six daily newspapers, and a majority of the city's business community. However, by October its chances had begun to decrease. Hard line municipal ownership backers had found the plan insufficient and started opposition to it. They criticized the plan for failing to guarantee that the city would permanently have control over the CLTC board. They also criticized the price tag given to the acquisition of the existing lines ($149 million for Chicago Surface Lines and $71 million for elevated lines), and argued that it would potentially require service cuts and price hikes to pay-off. Soon after, an anti-ordinance coalition followed led by individuals such as former mayors Harrison and Dunne. Labor unions joined the opposition, as did a few business groups.
In November, voters rejected the CLTC ordinance by 53 to 47%.
Schwartz plan
In February 1922 Alderman Ulysses S. Schwartz proposed a scheme in which the city would raise funds to buy-out transit companies by selling public utility certificate bonds backed by the assets and income of the transit properties to be acquired. No taxes would be raised and the city's transit fund would be left untouched in this scheme.
Metropolitan Transit District plan
Mayor Thompson proposed the creation of a regional transportation authority in his Metropolitan Transit District Plan. Thompson was unable to get state enabling legislation, dooming his proposal.
Dever mayoralty
In 1916 the Chicago Traction and Subway Commission put forth plans for a "Unified System of Surface, Elevated and Subway Lines in the Loop"
In the 1923 Chicago mayoral election Democratic candidate William Emmett Dever proclaimed that the most critical task for the victor of the election would be to resolve problems with the city's public transit. These problems included price increases and declining quality of service provided by the Chicago Surface Lines. A long time advocate for municipal ownership, Dever believed that it would be ideal for the city to buy-out the Chicago Surface Lines once their franchise expired in 1927. His opponent Arthur C. Lueder promised to study the possibility of municipal ownership.
Dever ultimately won the 1923 election. After becoming mayor, Dever began negotiations for the city to acquire both the Chicago Surface Lines and the Chicago Rapid Transit Company. Dever resurrected Schwartz's proposal, incorporating its certificate bond plan into his own proposal he presented in June 1923. He began to negotiate the acquisition of private carriers, however, the city and carrier companies again could not agree on a price of acquisition. This was exacerbated by the fact that the debt-plagued Chicago Surface Lines was being managed by a consortium of various financiers. The city had to directly deal with these financiers, who gave a cost of $162 million based upon the formula of the 1907 Settlement law. Negotiations with Samuel Insull, the effective owner of the elevated rail, about acquiring the elevated lines were also complicated.
By 1924, Dever began to explore other possible routes to create a municipal rail service. One was to use the roughly $40-million in the city's transit fund and build a new, separate, system with a subway and several surface lines feeding into it. This idea had come from the William Randolph Hearst papers, who had pushed for such a municipal system to be built in Chicago. By autumn of 1924, however, Dever abandoned his consideration of building a new municipal system. He felt having a third actor in the city's transit network would only prolong future municipal acquisition and unification of its system rather than hasten it.
Dever next publicly proposed comprehensive municipal ownership, with Schwartz's certificate plan being utilized to finance such a purchase. The only area of disagreement between the city and the companies was the price to be paid for acquisition. Once this disagreement was settled, unified municipal transit would be possible. However he still warned, "If...it becomes clear that a settlement cannot be brought on that basis because the persons holding the securities of private companies cannot agree with the city on a fair price, then it seems to me the (solution) is the immediate building by the city of a rapid transit system."
A battle ensued between Insull and Dever.
Dever put his transit plan to a referendum vote on February 24, 1925. His proposed ordinance was defeated heavily at the polls.
On February 27, 1925 the City Council voted 40 to 5 in support of an ordinance that included both the acquisition of existing transit facilities and for the city to construct new transit facilities. This ordinance also would create a municipal railway board. The ordinance, along with a separate question on whether the city (through the new municipal railway board) should operate the transit facilities, was put to a vote on April 8. The ordinance itself was defeated by 333,758 to 227,033. The question on whether the city should operate the facilities saw a "no" victory by a vote of 333,190 to 225,406.
Dever was unable to follow through with any of his plans. He changed his focus to the issue of crime which preoccupied the rest of his mayoralty. Dever lost reelection in 1927.
In the 1927 Republican mayoral primary Edward R. Litsinger had unsuccessfully run on a platform which, in part, promised to bring an end to the Chicago Traction Wars by mandating a board of control and the consolidation for all transportation lines.
Later developments
In the late-1930s, the Chicago City Council's Transportation Committee, led by alderman James R. Quinn, negotiated with transit companies about possible acquisitions of them by the city, with hope being held that the city might be able to procure Public Works Administration funding to purchase and consolidate transit lines.
The Chicago Surface Lines was eventually sold to the publicly owned, city government agency Chicago Transit Authority after 88 years of private operations and 34 years since consolidation, on April 22, 1947, and the Chicago City Railway was liquidated on February 15, 1950.
See also
History of Chicago
Politics of Chicago
Transportation in Chicago
Cleveland Traction Wars
References
Politics of Illinois
Transportation in Chicago
1890s in Chicago
1900s in Chicago
1910s in Chicago
1920s in Chicago
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The 49th Annual Grammy Awards was a ceremony honoring the best in music for the recording year beginning October 1, 2005 and ending September 30, 2006 in the United States. The awards were handed out on Sunday, February 11, 2007 at the Staples Center in Los Angeles. The Dixie Chicks were the night's biggest winners winning a total of five awards. Mary J. Blige received the most nominations, with eight. Don Henley was honored as MusiCares Person of the Year two nights prior to the show on February 9, 2007. The show won an Emmy for Outstanding Lighting Direction (electronic, multicamera) for VMC Programming.
Main ceremony
The performance of Roxanne by The Police to open the show promoted the start of their reunion tour.
Presenters
Main ceremony
Jaime Foxx – presented Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals
Joan Baez – introduced Dixie Chicks
Prince – introduced Beyoncé
The Black Eyed Peas – presented Best R&B Album
P!nk & T.I. – presented Best Female R&B Vocal Performance
Stevie Wonder – introduced Corinne Bailey Rae, John Legend & John Mayer
Nelly Furtado, Natasha Bedingfield & Nicole Scherzinger – presented Best Pop Vocal Album
Burt Bacharach & Seal – presented Song of the Year
Alyson Hannigan & Cobie Smulders – introduced Gnarls Barkley
Common & Kanye West – presented Best Rap Album
Terrence Howard – introduced Mary J. Blige
Mandy Moore, LeAnn Rimes & Luke Wilson – presented Best Country Album
Reba McEntire – introduced Carrie Underwood & Rascal Flatts
Natalie Cole & Ornette Coleman – presented Best New Artist
Samuel L. Jackson & Christina Ricci – introduced Lionel Richie, Chris Brown & Smokey Robinson
Rihanna & David Spade – introduced Ludacris, Mary J. Blige & Earth, Wind & Fire
Jennifer Hudson – introduced My Grammy Moment Winner Robyn Troup
Tony Bennett & Quentin Tarantino – presented Record of the Year
Chris Rock – introduced Red Hot Chili Peppers
Al Gore & Queen Latifah – presented Best Rock Album
Don Henley & Scarlett Johansson – presented Album of the Year
Winners and nominees
Multiple nominees and wins (award nominations/wins)
Mary J. Blige (8/3)
Dixie Chicks (5/5)
John Mayer (5/2)
James Blunt (5/0)
Red Hot Chili Peppers (4/3)
Gnarls Barkley (4/2)
Justin Timberlake (4/2)
Carrie Underwood (3/2)
Bold type indicates the winner out of the list of nominees.
General
Record of the Year
"Not Ready to Make Nice" – Dixie Chicks
Rick Rubin, producer; Richard Dodd, Jim Scott & Chris Testa, engineers/mixers
"Be Without You" – Mary J. Blige
Bryan-Michael Cox & Ron Fair producers; Danny Cheung, Tal Herzberg, Dave "Hard-Drive" Pensado & Allen Sides, engineers/mixers
"You're Beautiful" – James Blunt
Tom Rothrock, producer; Tom Rothrock & Mike Tarantino, engineers/mixers
"Crazy" – Gnarls Barkley
Danger Mouse, producer; Ben H. Allen, Danger Mouse & Kennie Takahashi, engineers/mixers
"Put Your Records On" – Corinne Bailey Rae
Steve Chrisanthou, producer; Steve Chrisanthou & Jeremy Wheatley, engineers/mixers
Album of the Year
Taking the Long Way – Dixie Chicks
Rick Rubin, producer; Richard Dodd, Jim Scott & Chris Testa, engineers/mixers; Richard Dodd, mastering engineer
St. Elsewhere – Gnarls Barkley
Danger Mouse, producer; Ben H. Allen, Danger Mouse & Kennie Takahashi, engineers/mixers; Mike Lazer, mastering engineer
Continuum – John Mayer
Steve Jordan & John Mayer, producers; John Alagía, Michael Brauer, Joe Ferla, Chad Franscoviak, Manny Marroquin & Dave O'Donnell, engineers/mixers; Greg Calbi, mastering engineer
Stadium Arcadium – Red Hot Chili Peppers
Rick Rubin, producer; Ryan Hewitt, Mark Linett & Andrew Scheps, engineers/mixers; Vlado Meller, mastering engineer
FutureSex/LoveSounds – Justin Timberlake
Nate (Danja) Hills, Jawbreakers, Rick Rubin, Timbaland & Justin Timberlake, producers; Jimmy Douglass, Serban Ghenea, Padraic Kerin, Jason Lader, Andrew Scheps, Timbaland & Ethan Willoughby, engineers/mixers; Herb Powers, Jr., mastering engineer
Song of the Year
"Not Ready to Make Nice" – Dixie Chicks
Martie Maguire, Natalie Maines, Emily Robison & Dan Wilson, songwriters
"Be Without You" – Mary J. Blige
Johntá Austin, Mary J. Blige, Bryan-Michael Cox & Jason Perry, songwriters
"Jesus, Take The Wheel" – Carrie Underwood
Brett James, Hillary Lindsey & Gordie Sampson, songwriters
"Put Your Records On" – Corinne Bailey Rae
John Beck, Steve Chrisanthou & Corinne Bailey Rae, songwriters
"You're Beautiful" – James Blunt
James Blunt, Amanda Ghost & Sacha Skarbek, songwriters
Best New Artist
Carrie Underwood
Chris Brown
Corinne Bailey Rae
Imogen Heap
James Blunt
Grammy Award for Best Recording Package
10,000 Days - Tool by Adam Jones
The Best Worst-Case Scenario - Fair by Ryan Clark
Personal File - Johnny Cash by Randall Martin
Reprieve - Ani DiFranco by Ani DiFranco and Brian Grunert
Versions by Thievery Corporation
Alternative
Best Alternative Music Album
St. Elsewhere – Gnarls Barkley
Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not – Arctic Monkeys
At War with the Mystics – The Flaming Lips
Show Your Bones – Yeah Yeah Yeahs
The Eraser – Thom Yorke
Blues
Best Traditional Blues Album
Risin' with the Blues – Ike Turner
Brother To The Blues – Tab Benoit & Louisiana's Leroux
Bronx In Blue – Dion
People Gonna Talk – James Hunter
Guitar Groove-A-Rama – Duke Robillard
Best Contemporary Blues Album
After the Rain – Irma Thomas
Live from Across the Pond – Robert Cray Band
Sippiand Hericana – Dr. John & The Lower 911
Suitcase – Keb' Mo'
Hope and Desire – Susan Tedeschi
Country
Best Female Country Vocal Performance
"Jesus, Take the Wheel" – Carrie Underwood
"Kerosene" – Miranda Lambert
"I Still Miss Someone" – Martina McBride
"Something's Gotta Give" – LeAnn Rimes
"I Don't Feel Like Loving You Today" – Gretchen Wilson
Best Male Country Vocal Performance
"The Reason Why" – Vince Gill
"Every Mile a Memory" – Dierks Bentley
"The Seashores of Old Mexico" – George Strait
"Would You Go with Me" – Josh Turner
"Once in a Lifetime" – Keith Urban
Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
"Not Ready to Make Nice" – Dixie Chicks
"Heaven's My Home" – The Duhks
"Boondocks" – Little Big Town
"What Hurts the Most" – Rascal Flatts
"Leave The Pieces" – The Wreckers
Best Country Collaboration with Vocals
"Who Says You Can't Go Home" – Bon Jovi & Jennifer Nettles
"Tomorrow Is Forever" – Solomon Burke & Dolly Parton
"Calling Me" – Kenny Rogers & Don Henley
"Midnight Angel" – Rhonda Vincent & Bobby Osborne
"Love Will Always Win" – Trisha Yearwood & Garth Brooks
Best Country Instrumental Performance
"Whiskey Before Breakfast" – Bryan Sutton & Doc Watson
"Jerusalem Ridge" – Casey Driessen
"Gameshow Rag/Cannonball Rag" – Tommy Emmanuel
"The Eleventh Reel" – Chris Thile
"Nature of the Beast" – Jim VanCleve
Best Country Song
"Jesus, Take The Wheel"
Brett James, Hillary Lindsey & Gordie Sampson, songwriters (Carrie Underwood)
"Every Mile a Memory"
Brett Beavers, Dierks Bentley & Steve Bogard, songwriters (Dierks Bentley)
"I Don't Feel Like Loving You Today"
Matraca Berg & Jim Collins, songwriters (Gretchen Wilson)
"Like Red on a Rose"
Melanie Castleman & Robert Lee Castleman, songwriters (Alan Jackson)
"What Hurts the Most"
Steve Robson & Jeffrey Steele, songwriters (Rascal Flatts)
Best Country Album
Taking the Long Way – Dixie Chicks
Like Red on a Rose – Alan Jackson
The Road to Here – Little Big Town
You Don't Know Me: The Songs of Cindy Walker – Willie Nelson
Your Man – Josh Turner
Best Bluegrass Album
"Instrumentals" – Ricky Skaggs & Kentucky Thunder
Dance
Best Dance Recording
"SexyBack"
Nate "Danja" Hills, Timbaland & Justin Timberlake, producers; Jimmy Douglass, mixer (Justin Timberlake)
"Suffer Well"
Ben Hillier, producer; Steve Fitzmaurice & Ben Hillier, mixers (Depeche Mode)
"Ooh La La"
Goldfrapp, producers; Mark "Spike" Stent, mixer (Goldfrapp)
"Get Together"
Madonna & Stuart Price, producers; Mark "Spike" Stent, mixer (Madonna)
"I'm With Stupid"
Trevor Horn, producer; Robert Orton, mixer (Pet Shop Boys)
Best Electronic/Dance Album
Confessions On A Dance Floor – MadonnaSupernature – Goldfrapp
A Lively Mind – Paul Oakenfold
Fundamental – Pet Shop Boys
The Garden – Zero 7
Folk
Best Traditional Folk AlbumWe Shall Overcome: The Seeger Sessions – Bruce Springsteen
I Stand Alone – Ramblin' Jack Elliot
Gonna Let It Shine – Odetta
Adieu False Heart – Linda Ronstadt & Ann Savoy
A Distant Land to Roam: Songs of The Carter Family – Ralph Stanley
Best Contemporary Folk/American Album
Modern Times – Bob Dylan
Solo Acoustic, Vol. 1 – Jackson Browne
Black Cadillac – Rosanne Cash
Workbench Songs – Guy Clark
All the Roadrunning – Mark Knopfler & Emmylou Harris
Best Native American Music Album
Dance with the Wind - Mary Youngblood
Best Hawaiian Music Album
Huana Ke Aloha – Tia Carrere, Daniel Ho & Amy Ku'uleialoha
Gospel
Best Gospel Performance
"Victory" – Yolanda Adams
"Not Forgotten" – Israel and New Breed
"The Blessing Of Abraham" – Donald Lawrence & The Tri-City Singers
"Made To Worship" – Chris Tomlin
"Victory" – Tye Tribbett & G.A.
Best Gospel Song
"Imagine Me" – Kirk Franklin
"The Blessing Of Abraham" – Donald Lawrence
"Mountain Of God" – Brown Bannister & Mac Powell
"Not Forgotten" – Israel Houghton & Aaron Lindsey
"Victory" – Tye Tribbett
Best Southern, Country or Bluegrass Gospel Album
Glory Train – Randy TravisKenny Bishop – Kenny Bishop
Give It Away – Gaither Vocal Band
Precious Memories – Alan Jackson
The Promised Land – The Del McCoury Band
Best Traditional Gospel AlbumAlive In South Africa – Israel and New BreedAn Invitation To Worship – Byron Cage
Paved The Way – The Caravans
Still Keeping It Real – The Dixie Hummingbirds
Finalé Act One – Donald Lawrence & The Tri-City Singers
Best Contemporary R&B Gospel AlbumHero – Kirk FranklinSet Me Free – Myron Butler & Levi
A Timeless Christmas – Israel and New Breed
This Is Me – Kierra Sheard
Victory Live! – Tye Tribbett & G.A.
Jazz
Best Contemporary Jazz AlbumThe Hidden Land – Béla Fleck and the Flecktones
People People Music Music – Groove Collective
Rewind That – Christian Scott
Sexotica – Sex Mob
Who Let the Cats Out? – Mike Stern
Best Jazz Vocal Album
Turned To Blue – Nancy Wilson
Footprints – Karrin Allyson
Easy To Love – Roberta Gambarini
Live At Jazz Standard With Fred Hersch – Nancy King
From This Moment On – Diana Krall
Best Jazz Instrumental Solo
"Some Skunk Funk" – Michael Brecker
"Paq Man" – Paquito D'Rivera
"Freedom Jazz Dance" – Taylor Eigsti
"Hippidy Hop" (Drum Solo) – Roy Haynes
"Hope" – Branford Marsalis
Best Jazz Instrumental Album, Individual or Group
The Ultimate Adventure – Chick Corea
Sound Grammar – Ornette Coleman
Saudades – Trio Beyond
Beyond the Wall – Kenny Garrett
Sonny, Please – Sonny Rollins
Best Large Jazz Ensemble Album
Some Skunk Funk – Randy Brecker with Michael Brecker, Jim Beard, Will Lee, Peter Erskine, Marcio Doctor and Vince Mendoza conducting The WDR Big Band Köln
Spirit Music – Bob Brookmeyer and the New Art Orchestra
Streams of Expression – the Joe Lovano Ensemble
Live In Tokyo At The Blue Note – Mingus Big Band
Up From The Skies, Music of Jim McNeely – The Vanguard Jazz Orchestra
Best Latin Jazz Album
Simpático – The Brian Lynch/Eddie Palmieri Project
Codes – Ignacio Berroa
Cubist Music – Edsel Gomez
Absolute Quintet – Dafnis Prieto
Viva – Diego Urcola, Edward Simon, Avishai Cohen, Antonio Sánchez and Pernell Saturnino
Latin
Best Latin Pop Album:
Adentro – Ricardo Arjona
Limón y sal – Julieta Venegas
Lo que trajo el barco – Obie Bermúdez
Individual – Fulano
Trozos de mi alma 2 – Marco Antonio Solis
Best Latin Rock, Alternative Or Urban Album:
Amar es combatir – Maná
Lo demás es plástico – Black Guayaba
The Underdog / El subestimado – Tego Calderón
Calle 13 – Calle 13
Superpop Venezuela de Amigos Invisibles
Best Tropical Latin Album:
Directo al corazón – Gilberto Santa Rosa
Fuzionando – Oscar D'Leon
Salsatón: Salsa con reggaetón – Andy Montañez
Hoy, mañana y siempre – Tito Nieves
What You've Been Waiting For – Lo que esperabas – Tiempo Libre
Best Mexican / Mexican-American Album:
Historias de mi tierra – Pepe Aguilar
No es brujería – Ana Bárbara
25 Aniversario – Mariachi Sol de Mexico de José Hernández
A toda ley – Pablo Montero
Orgullo de mujer – Alicia Villarreal
Best Tejano Album:
Sigue el Taconazo – Chente Barrera y Taconazo
Also nominated were:
Live In Session – Bob Gallarza
All Of Me – Jay Perez
Rebecca Valadez – Rebecca Valadez
Best Norteño Album:
Historias que contar – Tigres del Norte
Algo de mí – Conjunto Primavera
Puro pa' arriba – Huracanes del Norte
Piénsame un momento – Pesado
Prefiero la soledad – Retoño
Best Banda Album:
Más allá del sol – Joan Sebastian
20 vil heridas – Banda Machos
Mas fuerte que nunca – Banda El Recodo de Cruz Lizárraga
Amor gitano – Cuisillos
A mucha honra – Ezequiel Peña
New Age
Best New Age Album
Amaratine – Enya
A posteriori – Enigma
Beyond Words – Gentle Thunder, Will Clipman & AmoChip Dabney
Elements Series: Fire – Peter Kater
The Magical Journeys of Andreas Vollenweider – Andreas Vollenweider
Pop
Best Female Pop Vocal Performance
"Ain't No Other Man" – Christina Aguilera
"Unwritten" – Natasha Bedingfield
"You Can Close Your Eyes" – Sheryl Crow
"Stupid Girls" – P!nk
"Black Horse and the Cherry Tree" – KT Tunstall
Best Male Pop Vocal Performance
"Waiting On The World To Change" – John Mayer
"You're Beautiful" – James Blunt
"Save Room" – John Legend
"Jenny Wren" – Paul McCartney
"Bad Day" – Daniel Powter
Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals
"My Humps" – The Black Eyed Peas
"I Will Follow You Into The Dark" – Death Cab For Cutie
"Over My Head (Cable Car)" – The Fray
"Is It Any Wonder?" – Keane
"Stickwitu" – The Pussycat Dolls
Best Pop Collaboration With Vocals
"For Once in My Life" – Tony Bennett & Stevie Wonder
"One" – Mary J. Blige & U2
"Always On Your Side" – Sheryl Crow & Sting
"Promiscuous" – Nelly Furtado & Timbaland
"Hips Don't Lie" – Shakira & Wyclef Jean
Best Pop Instrumental Performance
"Mornin'" – George Benson & Al Jarreau
"Drifting" – Enya
"Subterfuge" – Béla Fleck & The Flecktones
"Song H" – Bruce Hornsby
"My Favorite Things" – The Brian Setzer Orchestra
Best Pop Instrumental Album
Fingerprints – Peter Frampton
New Beginnings – Gerald Albright
Fire Wire – Larry Carlton
X – Fourplay
Wrapped in a Dream – Spyro Gyra
Best Pop Vocal Album
Continuum – John Mayer
Back to Basics – Christina Aguilera
Back to Bedlam – James Blunt
The River in Reverse – Elvis Costello & Allen Toussaint
FutureSex/LoveSounds – Justin Timberlake
R&B
Best Female R&B Vocal Performance
"Be Without You" – Mary J. Blige
"Don't Forget About Us" – Mariah Carey
"Ring the Alarm" – Beyoncé
"Day Dreaming" – Natalie Cole
"I Am Not My Hair" – India.Arie
Best Male R&B Vocal Performance
"Heaven" – John Legend
"Black Sweat" – Prince
"Got You Home" – Luther Vandross
"So Sick" – Ne-Yo
"I Call It Love" – Lionel Richie
Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals
"Family Affair" – Sly & The Family Stone, John Legend, Joss Stone & Van Hunt
"Breezin'" – George Benson & Al Jarreau
"Love Changes" – Jamie Foxx & Mary J. Blige
"Everyday (Family Reunion)" – Chaka Khan, Gerald Levert, Yolanda Adams & Carl Thomas
"Beautiful, Loved And Blessed" – Prince & Támar
Best Traditional R&B Vocal Performance
"God Bless the Child" – George Benson, Al Jarreau & Jill Scott
"Christmas Time Is Here" – Anita Baker
"I Found My Everything" – Mary J. Blige & Raphael Saadiq
"You Are So Beautiful" – Sam Moore Featuring Billy Preston, Zucchero, Eric Clapton & Robert Randolph
"How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved by You)" – The Temptations
Best Urban/Alternative Performance
"Crazy" – Gnarls Barkley
"3121" – Prince
"Idlewild Blue (Don't Chu Worry 'Bout Me)" – Outkast
"That Heat" – Sérgio Mendes, Erykah Badu & will.i.am
"Mas Que Nada" – Sérgio Mendes & The Black Eyed Peas
Best R&B Song
"Be Without You" – Mary J. Blige
Johnta Austin, Mary J. Blige, Bryan-Michael Cox & Jason Perry songwriters
"Black Sweat" – Prince
Prince songwriter
"Deja Vu" – Beyoncé & Jay-Z
Shawn Carter, Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins, Beyoncé, Makeba Riddick, Keli Nicole Price, Delisha Thomas & John Webb songwriters
"Don't Forget About Us" – Mariah Carey
Johnta Austin, Mariah Carey, Bryan-Michael Cox & Jermaine Dupri songwriters
"I Am Not My Hair" – India.Arie
Drew Ramsey, Shannon Sanders & India Arie Simpson songwriters
Best R&B Album
The Breakthrough – Mary J. Blige
Unpredictable – Jamie Foxx
Testimony: Vol. 1, Life & Relationship – India.Arie
3121 – Prince
Coming Home – Lionel Richie
Best Contemporary R&B Album
B'Day – Beyoncé
Chris Brown – Chris Brown
20 Y.O. – Janet Jackson
Kelis Was Here – Kelis
In My Own Words – Ne-Yo
Rap
Best Rap Solo Performance
"What You Know" – T.I.
"Touch It" – Busta Rhymes
"We Run This" – Missy Elliott
"Kick, Push" – Lupe Fiasco
"Undeniable" – Mos Def
Best Rap Performance By A Duo Or Group
"Ridin" – Chamillionaire featuring Krayzie Bone
"Georgia" – Ludacris & Field Mob featuring Jamie Foxx
"Grillz" – Nelly featuring Paul Wall, Ali & Gipp
"Mighty "O"" – Outkast
"Don't Feel Right" – The Roots
Best Rap/Sung Collaboration
"My Love" – Justin Timberlake featuring T.I.
"Smack That" – Akon featuring Eminem
"Deja Vu" – Beyoncé featuring Jay-Z
"Shake That" – Eminem featuring Nate Dogg
"Unpredictable" – Jamie Foxx featuring Ludacris
Best Rap Song
"Money Maker"
Christopher Bridges & Pharrell Williams, songwriters (Ludacris featuring Pharrell)
"It's Goin' Down"
Chadron Moore & Jasiel Robinson, songwriters (Yung Joc)
"Kick, Push"
Wasalu Muhammad Jaco, songwriter (Lupe Fiasco)
"Ridin"
Anthony Henderson, J. Salinas, O. Salinas & Hakeem Seriki, songwriters (Chamillionaire featuring Krayzie Bone)
"What You Know" – T.I.
A. Davis & Clifford Harris, songwriters; (Donny Hathaway, Leroy Hutson & Curtis Mayfield, songwriters) (T.I.)
Best Rap Album
Release Therapy – LudacrisLupe Fiasco's Food & Liquor – Lupe Fiasco
In My Mind – Pharrell
Game Theory – The Roots
King – T.I.
Reggae
Best Reggae AlbumLove Is My Religion – Ziggy Marley
Too Bad – Buju Banton
Youth – Matisyahu
Rhythm Doubles – Sly and Robbie
Who You Fighting For? – UB40
Rock
Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance
"Someday Baby" – Bob Dylan
"Nausea" – Beck
"Route 66" – John Mayer
"Saving Grace" – Tom Petty
"Lookin' for a Leader" – Neil Young
Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal
"Dani California" – Red Hot Chili Peppers
"Talk" – Coldplay
"How to Save a Life" – The Fray
"Steady, As She Goes" – The Raconteurs
"The Saints Are Coming" – U2 & Green Day
Best Hard Rock Performance
"Woman" – Wolfmother
"Crazy Bitch" – Buckcherry
"Every Day Is Exactly the Same" – Nine Inch Nails
"Lonely Day" – System of a Down
"Vicarious" – Tool
Best Metal Performance
"Eyes of the Insane" – Slayer
"Redneck" – Lamb of God
"Colony of Birchmen" – Mastodon
"LiesLiesLies" – Ministry
"30/30-150" – Stone Sour
Best Rock Instrumental Performance
"The Wizard Turns On..." – The Flaming Lips
"Chun Li's Flying Bird Kick" – Arctic Monkeys
"Black Hole Sun" – Peter Frampton
"Castellorizon" – David Gilmour
"Super Colossal" – Joe Satriani
Best Rock Song
"Dani California" – Red Hot Chili Peppers
Flea, John Frusciante, Anthony Kiedis & Chad Smith songwriters
"Chasing Cars" – Snow Patrol
Nathan Connolly, Gary Lightbody, Jonny Quinn, Tom Simpson & Paul Wilson songwriters
"Lookin' for a Leader" – Neil Young
Neil Young songwriter
"Someday Baby" – Bob Dylan
Bob Dylan songwriter
"When You Were Young" – The Killers
Brandon Flowers, Dave Keuning, Mark Stoermer & Ronnie Vannucci songwriters
Best Rock Album
Stadium Arcadium – Red Hot Chili Peppers
Try! – John Mayer Trio
Highway Companion – Tom Petty
Broken Boy Soldiers – The Raconteurs
Living with War – Neil Young
Traditional Pop
Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album
Duets: An American Classic – Tony Bennett
Caught In The Act – Michael Bublé
Wintersong – Sarah McLachlan
Bette Midler Sings the Peggy Lee Songbook – Bette Midler
Timeless Love – Smokey Robinson
Children's
Best Musical Album for Children
Catch That Train! - Dan Zanes and Friends
Best Spoken Word Album for Children
Blah Blah Blah: Stories About Clams, Swamp Monsters, Pirates & Dogs – Bill Harley
Christmas In The Trenches – John McCutcheon
Disney's Little Einsteins Musical Missions (Various Artists) – Ted Kryczko & Ed Mitchell, producers
Peter Pan – Jim Dale
The Witches – Lynn Redgrave
Spoken Word
Best Spoken Word Album (Includes Poetry, Audio Books & Story Telling)
Our Endangered Values: America's Moral Crisis – Jimmy Carter
With Ossie And Ruby: In This Life Together – Ossie Davis & Ruby Dee (tie)
I Shouldn't Even Be Doing This! – Bob Newhart
New Rules — Polite Musings From A Timid Observer – Bill Maher
The Truth (with jokes) – Al Franken
Comedy
Best Comedy Album (For comedy recordings, spoken or musical)
The Carnegie Hall Performance – Lewis Black
Blue Collar Comedy Tour – One For The Road – Bill Engvall, Ron White, Jeff Foxworthy & Larry The Cable Guy
Life Is Worth Losing – George Carlin
Straight Outta Lynwood – "Weird Al" Yankovic
You Can't Fix Stupid – Ron White
Classical
Best Classical Album
Mahler: Symphony No. 7
Michael Tilson Thomas, conductor; Andreas Neubronner, producer
Best Orchestra Performance
Mahler: Symphony No. 7
Michael Tilson Thomas, conductor; Andreas Neubronner, producer; Peter Laenger, engineer (San Francisco Symphony)
Best Opera Recording
"Golijov: Ainadamar: Fountain Of Tears"
Robert Spano, conductor; Valerie Gross & Sid McLauchlan, producers; Kelley O'Connor, Jessica Rivera & Dawn Upshaw, soloists; Stephan Flock & Wolf-Dieter Karwatky, engineers (Women Of The Atlanta Symphony Orchestra Chorus; Atlanta Symphony Orchestra)
Best Choral Performance
"Pärt: Da Pacem"
Paul Hillier, conductor; Brad Michel & Robina G. Young, producers; Brad Michel, engineer/mixer (Estonian Philharmonic Chamber Choir)
Best Instrumental Soloist(s) Performance (with Orchestra)
Messiaen: Oiseaux exotiques (Exotic Birds)
Angelin Chang (Cleveland Chamber Symphony)
Best Instrumental Soloist Performance (without Orchestra)
Chopin: Nocturnes
Maurizio Pollini, soloist; Christopher Alder, producer; Klaus Hiemann & Oliver Rogalla Von Heyden, engineers
Best Chamber Music Performance
"Intimate Voices"
Emerson String Quartet (Eugene Drucker, Lawrence Dutton, David Finckel & Philip Setzer), ensembles; Da-Hong Seetoo, producer
Best Small Ensemble Performance
"Padilla: Sun Of Justice"
Fred Vogler, producer; Peter Rutenberg, conductor; Los Angeles Chamber Singers' Capella (Corey Carleton), ensembles; Fred Vogler, engineer
Best Classical Vocal Performance
"Rilke Songs"
Lorraine Hunt Lieberson, soloist
Best Classical Contemporary Composition
"Golijov: Ainadamar: Fountain Of Tears"
Osvaldo Golijov, composer
Best Classical Crossover Album
"Simple Gifts"
Bryn Terfel, soloist; Sid McLauchlan, producer; Stephan Flock & Piotr Furmanczyk, engineers
Music Video
Best Short Form Music Video
"Here It Goes Again" – Ok Go
Best Long Form Music Video
Wings for Wheels: The Making of Born to Run – Bruce Springsteen
References
External links
49th Annual Grammy Awards
2007 music awards
049
2007 in Los Angeles
Grammy
February 2007 events in the United States
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Charles William Gordon, or Ralph Connor, (September 13, 1860 – October 31, 1937) was a Canadian novelist, using the Connor pen name while maintaining his status as a church leader, first in the Presbyterian and later the United Church in Canada.
Gordon was born in Glengarry County, Ontario, and was the son of Rev. Daniel Gordon (1822–1910) and Mary Robertson Gordon (d. 1890). His father was a Free Church of Scotland Missionary in Upper Canada. While at Knox College, Gordon was inspired by a lecture given by Superintendent Robertson about the challenges in the West, leading him to pursue his summer mission work there, and ultimately to spend his life on reform and mission work in Western Canada. Gordon's views were largely shaped by Robertson, who believed that the settlers' lax attitudes towards irregular church services and lukewarm spirituality could only be remedied by missionaries. Gordon felt called to be one of these missionaries and establish not only churches, but Christian social and moral reform in Western Canada. To this end, Gordon completed his theological training in Edinburgh, Scotland, where he was even further affirmed in his desire to bring the church to Western Canada. The theological atmosphere in Scotland during the 1870s and 1880s was increasingly liberal. This movement towards harmonizing traditional Christian doctrine with modern advancements, such as science and evolution, greatly appealed to Gordon. He became an influential proponent of social reform in the West, as well as for the union of the churches. The union, which resulted in the formation of the United Church of Canada in the 1920s, was a response to the increasing liberalization and secularization growing in prevalence especially in Canada.
Gordon's views of Western Canada were intricately connected to his views of religion and Christianity. His social and reform work were rooted in his call to ministry and his desire to see Canada united both in faith and in Nation.
The difficulties on the mission fields of the Canadian West were motivating factors for his fiction writing, and he successfully had many of his writings published and sold.
Early life
Charles William Gordon was born in Glengarry county on September 13, 1860, the fourth son to Rev. Daniel and Mary (née Robertson) Gordon. Glengarry County was backwoods country, situated on the St. Lawrence River, and composed of Scottish immigrants. It was characterized by the Scottish virtues of religion, hard-work, and stern Calvinism, but seasoned with wry wit and a fiery love of theological debates. It was these theological debates that led to the division of the Presbyterian church. In 1843, dissenters in the established Presbyterian Church of Scotland (the Auld Kirk), seceded and formed the Free Church of Scotland. It was this new Free Church which upheld the goal to send missionaries to Canada. The dissension affected several Presbyterian congregations in Glengarry county, most prominently the Free Church congregation at Indian Lands (named for the original land tracts which were leased from St. Regis Mohawk Tribe), led by Rev. Daniel Gordon since 1853. Rev. Gordon had a reputation as a fiery Highland preacher who inspired both fear and awe with his sermons on sin and the final judgement. Daniel Gordon's passion was animated by his very strong belief in the spirit world, but his greatest passion was the "Love of the Cross." As Charles said of his own father, "Not one of all the great preachers I have known could ever thrill my soul as could my father when I was a little lad."
A strict disciplinarian, Daniel Gordon ruled with respect and rarely had to resort to punishing his children. His frequent absences, however, as he traveled to other Parishes, meant that the duty of discipline fell to his wife, Mary. In his autobiography, Charles Gordon remembered that his mother's discipline was mild but never failed to fill him with remorse. For, after chastising, she would make her children kneel in prayer with her. As Gordon described, "no matter how filled with anger my heart might be, before the prayer was ended the love and grief in her voice and the tears in her eyes never failed to break me up."
The Indian Lands church, where Charles was born, shared a building with an Auld Kirk congregation. Conflict eventually boiled over, causing the Auld Kirk congregation to lock the doors, barring Daniel Gordon's congregation out. In response, Daniel kicked the doors in and proceeded with his service. He was brought up on charges, though never convicted, and the Free Church congregation was forced to find a building of their own. Daniel Gordon, fiery as he was, also had a sense of humour and was both liked and respected. Charles Gordon drew much inspiration and virtue from his father for his strong yet loving personality and skill as a preacher.
Mary Gordon came from a scholarly family and was granted the education that most girls were denied in this Victorian period. After completing her early education at Sherbrooke Young Ladies' Academy in Canada East, Mary went on to Mount Holyoke Ladies' Seminary in New England. She excelled in English, mathematics, and philosophy; so much so that she was invited to be principal at the young age of twenty-two. Although the position was a great honour, Mary ultimately decided not to accept the offer in favour of remaining at home in Sherbrooke. It was there that she later met and married the young Presbyterian minister Daniel Gordon.
Education
Together, Mary and Daniel moved to Indian Lands, where Charles was born and raised. According to Keith Wilson, "The Christian warmth of his home, the surrounding forests of pine and balsams, the hard physical life of the settlers and the carefree gaiety of the youngsters were all integral parts of his education." His formal education began in the pine log schoolhouse at Athol. The schoolhouse itself represented the settlers of Canada West: sturdy yet poor. The education Charles received was strongly Scottish. The schoolmaster was both loved and feared, and always respected. It was during this time, as Charles grew into his love for learning, that the British colonies of North America were on their way to Confederation. Indian Lands was twenty-five miles from the nearest railway station. The community was isolated, and Charles had very little recollection of these political changes later in his life.
In 1870, his father was called to Zorra in Oxford County, where the congregation was Highlander mixed with Lowland and English. This move brought Charles into proximity to more formal civilization, the village of Harrington being close by. It was here that Charles continued his elementary schooling, with an emphasis on preparing for admission into high school. Charles thrived under this new challenge and developed ambition in both scholarship and organized sports.
Charles attended high school at St. Mary's in Harrington, Ontario. Because it was a ten-mile drive, he and his siblings had to board in town during the week, returning on Fridays for the weekend and the "steadying influence of home." Schooling at this time in Canada West was expensive, and Daniel Gordon could not afford to send his boys on his own salary. The boys thus hired themselves out during the summers to local farmers and were able to help pay their own way. As Wilson summarizes, "Determination and hard-work became characteristic of young Charles, and these qualities assured his success at St. Mary's Collegiate Institute where he first met the challenge of classical scholarship." It was here that Charles developed a fervent appreciation for language through his studies of Latin and Greek poetry. In 1879, he completed his High school degree with first class honours in English, mathematics, and classics, giving him a firm foundation for his university career at the University of Toronto.
Like many other young men in the area, Gordon went to Toronto and received theological training at Knox College at the University of Toronto where he completed a B.A. and graduated with distinction in 1886. He then went on to study in Edinburgh, where he became deeply troubled by higher criticism and sought guidance from his mentors, A.B. Davidson, Marcus Dodds, Alexander Whyte, and Henry Drummond who all believed in a new attitude and views of the West.
Religion and Ministerial Career
While attending the University of Toronto, Gordon was inspired by a lecture given by Reverend James Robertson, the Presbyterian superintendent of missions to Manitoba and the North West. His passionate discussion of missions to Canada West so caught Gordon's attention that he volunteered to spend the Spring and Summer of 1885 in a mission field in Manitoba. There, Gordon was set the task of organizing parish life for the settlers in the province created by Riel's last armed resistance. After the Summer, Gordon went back home to the East, but later returned West, answering what he perceived to be the call on his life to minister to Canada West. As author and historian, Christopher Dummitt has explained, "His future success was built on this decision."
During this time, the church was undergoing significant upheaval due to controversies posed by scientific developments. The role of theology was called into question, specifically by Higher Criticism. While in Edinburgh, Gordon became greatly troubled by Higher Criticism teaching and sought counsel from his mentors A.B. Davidson, Marcus Dodds, Alexander Whyte, and especially Henry Drummond. What appealed to Gordon was that these men were able to find a balance between tradition and modern advancements, reconciling the conflicts the two seemed to pose. Scientific advancements and biblical criticism could be acknowledged without sacrificing what they saw to be the core of Christianity: the need for salvation and the preaching of personal conversion. Alexander Whyte, in particular, influenced Gordon's struggle with Higher Criticism by reminding him, "You are to be a minister, see that you feed your people. Never mind your theological, your scientific, your higher critical problems. Keep them for your study." Gordon was greatly assured by this appeal to the common people and was reaffirmed in his calling to "save souls" This "pragmatic Protestantism" was popular at the time in Canada West, where the focus on individual salvation was emphasized.
Upon his return from Scotland, Gordon was ordained in a small service in June, 1890. He was then appointed missionary around what is now Banff, Alberta. He spent three years trying to reform and improve the lives of rough country miners, lumbermen, and ranchers. Gordon held to the Scottish emphasis on school and church as the means to making society more spiritual. He worked diligently in social reform measures, including advocating for improved living conditions on the work camps. Essential to this, Gordon believed, was the introduction of Temperance and the elimination of the vice of alcohol. Gordon retained an "optimistic belief in the possibility of individual salvation."
In the mid 1890s, Gordon settled down in Winnipeg as Minister at St. Stephen's Parish. He continued to live out his missionary ideals through his novels, especially Black Rock (1898) and Sky Pilot (1900). Gordon viewed himself first and foremost as a minister, serving the spiritual needs of his congregation in Winnipeg, but also with a view to serving beyond this area to the entire province, and, indeed, the nation. He thus engaged himself in projects which would now be considered part of the social gospel movement. Gordon served on the Social Service Council of Manitoba as well as on the Social Service Committee of the Presbyterian Church of Canada. Through these, he continued to fight for temperance legislation, and continued to promote social reform that would help with poverty, health services, and immigration.
At this time, the church was struggling with a decline in attendance and membership. Methodists and Presbyterians especially focused on this problem, as they viewed church growth to be integral to their sense of history. It was through progress and growth that these denominations were affirmed in their mission, and thus they felt it necessary to compete with an increasingly secular culture to reverse the trends of decline that they were seeing. Gordon was especially eager to do all he could to compete with secular culture by providing spiritual leisure activities. Churches began emphasizing a Christianity that was not only spiritual but also muscular, pointing to the necessity of strong bodies as well as souls. They thus engaged in sports and other leisure activities to bring young men especially into the church. Gordon did his part by providing novels that were both exciting and enjoyable to read and that also upheld strong moral principles. His preaching, too, was influenced by the desire to reach the common man. Thus, he spoke not in a dry, didactic manner, but with a narrative style that many found greatly appealing.
Throughout his life, Gordon never swayed from his role as minister, while also writing, and serving in prominent public positions, such as moderator of the Presbyterian Church in 1922. He also served as a strong proponent for the union of the Presbyterian, Methodist and Congregational churches which ultimately resulted in the creation of the United Church of Canada in 1925.
Service in World War I
When the Great War broke out, Gordon was quick to enlist. He volunteered for service with the 43rd Cameron Highlanders as army chaplain at the age of 54. This experience greatly influenced his writing during these years, as he focused on the war cause, the soldier's lives, and the deaths he witnessed every day. His service also brought Gordon personal tragedy when his friend and mentor R.M. Thomson was killed in action.
Views on Western Canada
While attending Knox College, Gordon reported in the school's monthly newspaper that "men's hearts grow harder when for a few years they are without the softening influence of the gospel; and the tone of morality is such that open vice makes no discord". By the mid-nineteenth century, Canada had reached a critical stage. Charles Gordon's impression of the religious situation in the Canadian West was strikingly similar to that of Superintendent Robertson and was inspired by him to apply his talents within Canada rather than take part in foreign mission work. Gordon later memorialized Dr. Robertson in his novel entitled The Superintendent. C.W. Gordon seemed to be particularly aware of the battle between church and secular culture and concluded that the battle to establish Christianity in the prairies would "have to be waged single-handedly by the missionary because settlers were not alarmed by irreligion and seemed uninterested in forming congregations". In addition, Gordon observed that worship services in the West were infrequent and found traditional forms of preaching and Bible study to be uninspiring.
Immigrants viewed the West in the light of the expansionist campaign and challenged all the traditional premises and viewed the North West from a new perspective: the "Promised Land" in terms of agricultural potential rather than religious expansion. The potential of the "Promised Land" was accompanied by a number of insurmountable obstacles. The difficulties on the mission fields motivated Gordon's decision to write fiction as the changes he desired to make in the developing nation would become the focal point of his fictional narratives. However, the missionaries, such as Gordon, had found little beauty or romance in the wilderness as it was accompanied with heathens and 'Indians'. C.W. Gordon believed it was his role to help the immigrants flooding the Canadian West to be "good Christians and good Canadians". He optimistically believed in the possibility of individual salvation and notions of duty and sacrifice. The praise in response to his first fictional sketches encouraged Gordon to continue writing his religious-driven stories.
Writing career
As a result of his dedication to his missionary tasks in Western Canada, Gordon began his literary career and wrote a fictionalized account of life in the northwest. Gordon used the 'Ralph Connor' pen name while maintaining his status as a Church leader. His early novels were set in the Western mission fields that Gordon became familiar with and the plot of his novels often followed a similar outline and his first stories were published in the Presbyterian weekly, The Westminster. The landscape and setting of his narratives was presented as a force which renewed and purified Christianity. In his novels, a missionary hero is often faced with tremendous difficulty in bringing Christianity to the wild frontier, and the men in particular posed a great challenge. This outline is evident in numerous novels such as Black Rock and The Sky Pilot. The missionary protagonist in his novels reflected the image of missionaries in the late-Victorian historical literature and were often described as being able to overcome hardship due to their dedication and unwavering faith. His protagonists also combated the harshness of the frontier by preaching the gospel and redemption. His early novels also highlighted important religious questions, such as the presence of a loving God and individual mortality, making such issues real and tangible. The drunkenness, violence and profanity present in his writing that was associated with the antagonists of his stories were portrayed as products of the western frontier and were not meant to be interpreted as alienation from God.
As suggested by Dick Harrison, a Swedish Historian, Ralph Connor's novels are often romanticized versions of the Canadian West. His novel Corporal Cameron, for example, epitomizes the myth of the Canadian Mountie. The vision of the West rested firmly upon a British dominated society, and the North West Mounted Police represented an irresistible force stemming from an invincible culture. Cumulatively, Connor's writings on the West shift the tone of the frontier as his appeal lay not only in his clear and descriptive depictions of the Canadian West, but also in the religious and personal overtones. By writing novels, Gordon believed he was providing examples of sentimental as well as muscular Christianity and used his novels as tools to expand the Christian ministry to a wider audience. Gordon published his first novel, Black Rock, in 1898. While the book was moderately successful in Canada, his second novel, The Sky Pilot, gained him international attention in 1899 and the reputation of 'Ralph Connor' was officially launched. Gordon wrote his books in the early age of mass fiction. This period saw the regularization of copyright law and advances in printing and transportation. Several novels followed his 1899 publication such as Glengarry School Days and The Man from Glengarry ; The Superintendent ; The Prospector ; The Doctor ; and The Foreigner . The years between 1888 and 1914 were prolific for Gordon as an author and is evident in the publication and sales of his most important books. He continued to write until his death in 1937. His autobiography, Postscript to Adventure was penned in his final year and published posthumously in 1938. His books were not only popular in Canada, but also the United States, Britain, the English-speaking Commonwealth, and a great number of other countries.
While Connor's audiences responded to the straightforward appeals for conversion and the presentation of the gospel in simple style, most critics have dismissed the Christianity in his novels as being oversimplified, and therefore not worthy of significant attention. Early criticism of his romantic view of the West presented in his novels stemmed from the experiences of other Western missionaries as they had felt "blocked and frustrated by the isolation, emptiness, and seeming permanence of the wilderness in which [they] worked". The harsh experiences faced by missionaries made it difficult for many to regard the Canadian West as an area that would spark religious revival. One missionary stressed the loneliness and lack of opportunity for nurturing a deeper faith. Other critics labelled his novels to be "fictionalized sermons." Glenys Stow, summarized Connor describing him as a "Didactic popular novelist; social activist; unconscious mythmaker; Connor is a strange mixture as a writer. Little that he has written will last."
Marriage and Family
The sudden death of Gordon's mother in 1890 was a life-altering event for Gordon. His mother, who had been such a strong and positive influence in his life, left him with a hole which he would not fill for some years. He met his wife, Helen King, while at college. He and his brother attended the church where her father, Dr. King, was minister during his college and university days in Toronto. Later, when Gordon had taken up the position offered to him in Winnipeg, he was reacquainted with Helen who had moved out West with her family when Dr. King was given the position of first principal of Manitoba College. They were married in Toronto in 1899. As Wilson has summarized, "With her strong convictions, efficiency and dedication, she was to prove a source of real strength to him." Together, they had one son (J. King Gordon) and six daughters. All of their children graduated from the University of Manitoba, continuing on the strong scholarly legacy of their parents. Despite Gordon's many duties, he remained close to his family at all times.
Death
Gordon continued working right up until a few days before his death on October 31, 1937. His passion for preaching, ministering to spiritual needs, and serving social reform never abated.
Legacy
Historians recognize Charles Gordon as being a "progressive" who believed in "centralized organization and unity of purpose". Gordon was honoured with a number of different degrees and awards. In 1919, he was awarded an honorary doctorate of divinity by the University of Glasgow; in 1937, the University of Manitoba awarded him an honorary L.L.D. He was also the recipient of the Order of St. Michael and St. George in 1935.
The Ralph Connor House is a heritage property designated as a National Historic Site of Canada in 2011, a Provincial Heritage Site and a Winnipeg Landmark Heritage Structure that was built in 1913-1914. Located on the Assiniboine River in gracious Armstrong's Point, this house was the home of Reverend Charles Gordon, wife Helen, and their seven children. The House was named after Charles Gordon's pen name and is currently owned by the Friends of The Ralph Connor House that has launched a 21st Century Campaign to ensure the legacy of the Gordon family continues. Their mission is to "preserve Ralph Connor House as a meeting place that keeps alive the spirit and legacies of Rev. Charles and Helen Gordon, their family and the University Women's Club of Winnipeg, and to continue service to the greater community". Their vision is to "be a centre and meeting place that fosters the work of people who are committed to education, social justice, healthy communities, human rights, music, art, literature and intellectual activity".
The United Church in Canmore, Alberta, founded as a Presbyterian Church by Dr. Gordon in 1891, was renamed Ralph Connor Memorial United Church in 1942. The structure embodies the classical mission style of ecclesiastical architecture. It is one of the earliest Presbyterian churches built in Alberta and was constructed in the Carpenter Gothic architectural style.
His grandchildren include journalist and humorist Charles Gordon and sportswriter and mystery novelist Alison Gordon.
Publications
In 1972, the National Library of Canada released The Works of Ralph Connor which listed some 43 titles as well as three books for which he wrote the introductions. His publications include:
The Angel and the Star. Toronto, Revell, 1908
The Arm of Gold. Toronto, McClelland and Stewart, 1932
Beyond the Marshes. Toronto, Westminster, 1898
Black Rock, a Tale of the Selkirks. Toronto, Westminster, 1898
Breaking the Record. New York, Revell, 1904
The Doctor, Revell, 1906
The Foreigner, Hodder & Stoughton, 1909
The Gaspards of Pine Croft, George H. Doran Company, 1923
The Gay Crusader, Toronto, McClelland and Stewart, 1936
The Girl from Glengarry, New York, Dodd, Mead & company, 1933
Glengarry School Days, Grosset, 1902
The Major, c. 1919
The Man from Glengarry, 1901
Postscript to Adventure, Farrar & Rinehart, inc., 1938
The Prospector. New York, Revell, 1904
The Rebel Loyalist, Dodd, 1935
The Rock and the River, Dodd, Mead, 1931
The Runner, Doubleday, Doran and Co.
The Sky Pilot, 1899
To Him That Hath, George H. Doran Company, 1921
Torches through the Bush, Dodd, Mead, 1934
Filmography
The Heart of a Lion, directed by Frank Lloyd (1917, based on the novel The Doctor)
The Sky Pilot, directed by King Vidor (1921, based on the novel The Sky Pilot)
God's Crucible, directed by Henry MacRae (1921, based on the novel The Foreigner)
Cameron of the Royal Mounted, directed by Henry MacRae (1921, based on the story Corporal Cameron)
The Man from Glengarry, directed by Henry MacRae (1922, based on the novel The Man from Glengarry)
Glengarry School Days, directed by Henry MacRae (1923, based on the novel Glengarry School Days)
Further reading
John Lennox, Charles W. Gordon ("Ralph Connor") and his Works, Toronto: ECW Press, 1989
Gordon, Charles W. Postscript to Adventure. New York: Ferris Printing Company, 1938.
Dummitt, Chris. 2013. "The 'Taint of Self': Reflections on Ralph Connor, His Fans, and the Problem of Morality in Recent Canadian Historiography." Histoire sociale/Social History 46 (1): 63-90.
Marshall, David Brian. Secularizing the Faith Canadian Protestant Clergy and the Crisis of Belief, 1850-1940. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1992.
Wilson, Keith. Manitobans in Profile: Charles William Gordon. Winnipeg: Peguis Publishers Limited, 1981.
Notes
External links
Ralph Connor Memorial United Church in Canmore, Alberta
"Ralph Connor House" in Winnipeg, MB
UNCG American Publishers' Trade Bindings: Ralph Connor
Canadian people of Scottish descent
1860 births
1937 deaths
Canadian male novelists
Ministers of the United Church of Canada
University of Toronto alumni
Knox College (Illinois) alumni
Writers from Winnipeg
People from the United Counties of Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry
Writers from Ontario
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
19th-century Canadian novelists
20th-century Canadian novelists
20th-century Canadian male writers
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