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1-hop neighbor's text information: cisco_systems.cisco systems cisco systems inc. american multinational technology conglomerate headquartered san jose california center silicon valley cisco develops manufactures sells networking hardware telecommunications equipment high-technology services products numerous acquired subsidiaries opendns webex jabber jasper cisco specializes specific tech markets internet things iot domain security energy management cisco stock added dow jones industrial average june 8 2009 also included p 500 index russell 1000 index nasdaq-100 index russell 1000 growth stock index cisco systems founded december 1984 leonard bosack sandy lerner two stanford university computer scientists pioneered concept local area network lan used connect geographically disparate computers multiprotocol router system time company went public 1990 cisco market capitalization 224 million end dot-com bubble year 2000 cisco 500 billion market capitalization cisco systems founded december 1984 sandy lerner director computer facilities stanford university graduate school business lerner partnered husband leonard bosack charge stanford university computer science department computers cisco initial product roots stanford university campus technology early 1980s students staff stanford including bosack used technology campus link school computer systems talk one another creating box functioned multiprotocol router called blue box blue box used software originally written stanford research engineer william yeager due underlying architecture ability scale well yeager well-designed invention became key cisco early success 1985 bosack stanford employee kirk lougheed began project formally network stanford campus adapted yeager software became foundation cisco ios despite yeager claims denied permission sell blue box commercially july 11 1986 bosack lougheed forced resign stanford university contemplated filing criminal complaints cisco founders theft software hardware designs intellectual properties 1987 stanford licensed router software two computer boards cisco addition bosack lerner lougheed greg satz programmer richard troiano handled sales completed early cisco team company first ceo bill graves held position 1987 1988 1988 john morgridge appointed ceo name cisco derived city name san francisco company engineers insisted using lower case cisco early years logo intended depict two towers golden gate bridge february 16 1990 cisco systems went public market capitalization 224 million listed nasdaq stock exchange august 28 1990 lerner fired upon hearing news husband bosack resigned protest couple walked away cisco 170 million 70 committed charity although cisco first company develop sell dedicated network nodes one first sell commercially successful routers supporting multiple network protocols classical cpu-based architecture early cisco devices coupled flexibility operating system ios allowed keeping evolving technology needs means frequent software upgrades popular models time cisco 2500 managed stay production almost decade virtually unchanged company quick capture emerging service provider environment entering sp market product lines cisco 7000 cisco 8500 1992 1994 cisco acquired several companies ethernet switching kalpana grand junction notably mario mazzola crescendo communications together formed catalyst business unit time company envisioned layer 3 routing layer 2 ethernet token ring switching complementary functions different intelligence architecture—the former slow complex latter fast simple philosophy dominated company product lines throughout 1990s 1995 john morgridge succeeded john chambers internet protocol ip became widely adopted mid-to-late 1990s cisco introduced products ranging modem access shelves as5200 core gsr routers making major player market late march 2000 height dot-com bubble cisco became valuable company world market capitalization 500 billion july 2014 market cap us 129 billion still one valuable companies perceived complexity programming routing functions silicon led formation several startups determined find new ways process ip mpls packets entirely hardware blur boundaries routing switching one juniper networks shipped first product 1999 2000 chipped away 30 cisco sp market share response cisco later developed homegrown asics fast processing cards gsr routers catalyst 6500 switches 2004 cisco also started migration new high-end hardware crs-1 software architecture ios-xr part rebranding campaign 2006 cisco systems adopted shortened name cisco created human network advertising campaign efforts meant make cisco household brand—a strategy designed support low-end linksys products future consumer products traditional business side cisco continued develop routing switching security portfolio quickly growing importance ethernet also influenced company product lines limits ios aging crescendo architecture also forced cisco look merchant silicon carrier ethernet segment resulted new asr9000 product family intended consolidate company carrier ethernet subscriber management business around ezchip-based hardware ios-xr throughout mid-2000s cisco also built significant presence india establishing globalization centre east bangalore 1 billion cisco also expanded new markets acquisition—one example 2009 purchase mobile specialist starent networks cisco continued challenged domestic alcatel-lucent juniper networks overseas competitors huawei due lower-than-expected profit 2011 cisco reduced annual expenses 1 billion company cut around 3,000 employees early-retirement program accepted buyout planned eliminate many 10,000 jobs around 14 percent 73,400 total employees curtailment 2011 analyst call cisco ceo john chambers called several competitors name including juniper hp july 24 2012 cisco received approval eu acquire nds tv software developer us 5 billion 2013 cisco sold linksys home-router unit belkin international inc. signaling shift sales businesses rather consumers july 23 2013 cisco systems announced definitive agreement acquire sourcefire 2.7 billion august 14 2013 cisco systems announced would cut 4,000 jobs workforce roughly 6 starting 2014 end 2013 cisco announced poor revenue due depressed sales emerging markets caused economic uncertainty fears national security agency planting backdoors products april 2014 cisco announced funding early-stage firms focus internet things investment fund allocated investments iot accelerators startups alchemist accelerator ayla networks evrythng later year company announced laying another 6,000 workers 8 global workforce part second restructuring november 4 2014 cisco announced investment stratoscale may 4 2015 cisco announced ceo chairman john chambers would step ceo july 26 2015 remain chairman chuck robbins senior vice president worldwide sales operations 17-year cisco veteran announced next ceo july 23 2015 cisco announced divesture television set-top-box cable modem business technicolor sa 600 million division originally formed cisco 6.9 billion purchase scientific atlanta deal came part cisco gradual exit consumer market part effort cisco new leadership focus cloud-based products enterprise segments cisco indicated would still collaborate technicolor video products november 19 2015 cisco alongside arm holdings dell intel microsoft princeton university founded openfog consortium promote interests development fog computing january 2016 cisco invested velocloud software-defined wan sd-wan start-up cloud offering configuring optimizing branch office networks cisco contributed velocloud 27 million series c round led march capital partners february 2017 cisco launched cloud-based secure internet gateway called cisco umbrella provide safe internet access users n't use corporate networks vpns connect remote data centers immediately reporting fourth quarter earnings 2017 cisco price-per-share value jumped 7 earnings per share ratio increased 60 61 cents per share due part cisco outperformance analyst expectations september 2017 chambers announced would step executive chairman role end term board december 2017 december 11 2017 robbins elected succeed chambers executive chairman retaining role ceo chambers given title chairman emeritus reuters reported cisco systems inc ’ csco.o product revenue russia grew 20 percent 2017 ahead cisco ’ technology product revenue growth so-called bric countries brazil china india may 1 2018 cisco systems agreed buy ai-driven business intelligence startup accompany 270 million june 2018 cisco systems ranked 444th forbes global 2000 list 221.3 billion market cap fiscal year 2017 cisco reported earnings us 0.1 billion annual revenue us 49.3 billion increase 2.8 previous fiscal cycle cisco shares traded 43 per share market capitalization valued us 213.2 billion september 2018 low net income fiscal year 2018 attributed one time tax charge allowed cisco bring back capital overseas cisco used money able bring back lower tax rate fund share buybacks acquisitions cisco acquired variety companies spin products talent company 1995–1996 company completed 11 acquisitions several acquisitions stratacom biggest deals industry occurred internet boom 1999 company acquired cerent corporation start-up company located petaluma california us 7 billion expensive acquisition made cisco date acquisition scientific atlanta larger 1999 cisco also acquired stake 1 billion kpmg consulting enable establishing internet firm metrius founded keyur patel fuse several acquired companies grown 1bn+ business units cisco including lan switching enterprise voice internet protocol voip platform webex home networking latter came result cisco acquiring linksys 2003 2010 supplemented new product line dubbed cisco valet cisco announced january 12 2005 would acquire airespace us 450 million reinforce wireless controller product lines cisco announced january 4 2007 would buy ironport deal valued us 830 million completed acquisition june 25 2007 ironport best known ironport antispam senderbase email reputation service email security appliances accordingly ironport integrated cisco security business unit ironport senderbase renamed sensorbase take account input database cisco devices provide sensorbase allows devices build risk profile ip addresses therefore allowing risk profiles dynamically created http sites smtp email sources cisco announced march 15 2012 would acquire nds group 5bn transaction completed july 30 2012 recent merger deals cisco bought starent networks mobile packet core company moto development group product design consulting firm helped develop cisco flip video camera also 2010 cisco became key stakeholder e-skills week march 2011 cisco completed acquisition privately held network configuration change management software company pari networks although many buy-ins crescendo networks 1993 tandberg 2010 resulted acquisition flagship technology cisco many others failed—partially completely instance 2010 cisco occupied meaningful share packet-optical market revenues still par us 7 billion price tag paid 1999 cerent acquired technologies flip pure digital saw product lines terminated january 2013 cisco systems acquired israeli software maker intucell around 475 million cash move expand mobile network management offerings month cisco systems acquired cognitive security company focused cyber threat protection cisco also acquired solvedirect cloud services march 2013 ubiquisys mobile software april 2013 cisco acquired cyber-security firm sourcefire october 2013 june 16 2014 cisco announced completed acquisition threatgrid company provided dynamic malware analysis threat intelligence technology june 17 2014 cisco announced intent acquire privately held tail-f systems leader multi-vendor network service orchestration solutions traditional virtualized networks april 2 2015 cisco announced plans buy embrane software-defined networking startup deal give cisco embrane software platform provides layer 3–7 network services things firewalls vpn termination server load balancers ssl offload may 7 2015 cisco announced plans buy tropo cloud api platform simplifies addition real-time communications collaboration capabilities within applications june 30 2015 cisco acquired privately held opendns company best known dns service adds level security monitoring domain name requests august 6 2015 cisco announced completed acquisition privately held maintenancenet us-based company best known cloud-based contract management platform serviceexchange month cisco acquired pawaa privately held company bangalore india provides secure on-premises cloud-based file-sharing software september 30 2015 cisco announced intent acquire privately held portcullis computer security uk-based company provides cybersecurity services enterprise clients government sectors october 26 2015 cisco announced intent acquire parstream privately held company based cologne germany provides analytics database allows companies analyze large amounts data store near real time anywhere network october 27 2015 cisco announced would acquire lancope company focuses detecting threat activity 452.5 million cash-and-equity deal june 28 2016 cisco announced intent acquire cloudlock privately held cloud security company founded 2011 three israeli military veterans 293 million deal expected close first quarter 2017 august 2016 cisco announced getting closer making deal acquire springpath startup whose technology used cisco hyperflex systems cisco already owns undisclosed stake hyper-converged provider january 2017 cisco announced would acquire appdynamics company monitors application performance 3.7 billion acquisition came one day appdynamics set ipo january 26 2017 cisco founded innovation alliance germany eleven companies bringing together 40 sites 2,000 staff provide small businesses germany expertise august 1 2017 cisco completed acquisition viptela inc. 610 million cash assumed equity awards viptela privately held software-defined wide area network sd-wan company based san jose ca october 23 2017 cisco systems announced would acquiring broadsoft 1.9 billion entrench cloud communication collaboration area 2017 cisco systems shares mainly held institutional investors vanguard group blackrock state street corporation others cisco products services focus upon three market segments—enterprise service provider midsize small business cisco provides products services across five major technology areas networking including ethernet optical wireless mobility security collaboration including voice video data data center internet things cisco grown increasingly popular asia-pacific region last three decades dominant vendor australian market leadership across market segments uses australian office one main headquarters asia-pacific region offering diverse product portfolio long-term stability integration sustainable competitive advantage cisco became major provider voice ip enterprises moving home user market acquisitions scientific atlanta linksys scientific atlanta provides voip equipment cable service providers time warner cablevision rogers communications upc others linksys partnered companies skype microsoft yahoo integrate consumer voip services wireless cordless phones cisco partners offer cloud-based services based cisco virtualized unified computing system ucs part cisco unified services delivery solution includes hosted versions cisco unified communications manager ucm cisco unified contact center cisco unified mobility cisco unified presence cisco unity connection unified messaging cisco webex meeting center part tactical operations initiative cisco maintains several network emergency response vehicles nerv s. vehicles maintained deployed cisco employees natural disasters public crises vehicles self-contained provide wired wireless services including voice radio interoperability voice ip network-based video surveillance secured high-definition video-conferencing leaders first responders crisis areas 3 mbit/s bandwidth via 1.8-meter satellite antenna nervs based cisco headquarters sites san jose california research triangle park north carolina allowing strategic deployment north america become fully operational within 15 minutes arrival high-capacity diesel fuel-tanks allow largest vehicles run 72 hours continuously nerv deployed incidents october 2007 california wildfires hurricanes gustav ike katrina 2010 san bruno gas pipeline explosion tornado outbreaks north carolina alabama 2011 hurricane sandy 2012 tactical operations team maintains deploys smaller portable communication kits emergencies outside north america 2010 team deployed assist earthquake recovery haiti christchurch new zealand 2011 deployed flooding brazil well response 2011 earthquake tsunami japan 2011 cisco received innovation preparedness award american red cross silicon valley chapter development use vehicles disasters cisco systems also sponsors line professional certifications cisco products four five path network designers levels certification entry ccent associate ccna/ccda professional ccnp/ccdp expert ccie/ccde recently architect ccar ccde previous well nine different paths routing switching design industrial network network security service provider service provider operations storage networking voice datacenter wireless number specialist technician sales datacenter certifications also available cisco also provides training certifications via portal called cisco networking academy qualifying schools become members cisco networking academy provide ccna level level courses cisco academy instructors must ccna certified ccai certified instructor cisco often finds involved technical education 10,000 partnerships 65 countries cisco academy program operates many exotic locations example march 2013 cisco announced interest myanmar investing two cisco networking academies yangon mandalay channel partner network cisco products including ip phones telepresence seen movies tv series company featured documentary film something ventured premiered 2011 cisco 2002–03 recipient ron brown award u.s. presidential honor recognize companies exemplary quality relationships employees communities cisco included part fortune 100 best companies work ranking 20 2011 according report technology consulting firm lexinnova cisco one leading recipients network security-related patents largest portfolio within companies 6,442 security-related patents 2015 class action lawsuit filed april 20 2001 accused cisco making misleading statements relied purchasers cisco stock insider trading cisco denied allegations suit august 18 2006 cisco liability insurers directors officers paid plaintiffs us 91.75 million settle suit december 11 2008 free software foundation filed suit cisco regarding cisco failure comply gpl lgpl license models make applicable source code publicly available may 20 2009 cisco settled lawsuit complying fsf licensing terms making monetary contribution fsf cisco criticized involvement censorship people republic china according author ethan gutmann cisco telecommunications equipment providers supplied chinese government surveillance internet infrastructure equipment used block internet websites track online activities china cisco stated customize develop specialized unique filtering capabilities enable governments block access information sells equipment china sells worldwide wired news uncovered leaked confidential cisco powerpoint presentation detailed commercial opportunities golden shield project internet control may 2011 group falun gong practitioners filed lawsuit alien tort statute alleging cisco knowingly developed customized product assist chinese government prosecution abuse falun gong practitioners lawsuit dismissed september 2014 united states district court northern district california decision appealed united states court appeals ninth circuit september 2015 october 2007 employees cisco brazilian unit arrested charges imported equipment without paying import duties response cisco stated import directly brazil instead use middlemen december 1 2008 multiven filed antitrust lawsuit cisco systems inc. multiven complaint alleges cisco harmed multiven consumers bundling tying bug fixes/patches updates operating system software maintenance services smartnet may 2010 cisco accused person filed antitrust suit british-nigerian technology entrepreneur peter alfred-adekeye hacking pressured us government extradite canada cisco settled antitrust lawsuit two months alfred-adekeye arrest making software updates available multiven customers cisco linksys e2700 e3500 e4500 devices reported remotely updated firmware version forces users register cloud service allows cisco monitor network use ultimately shut cloud service account thus render affected router unusable according german magazine der spiegel nsa developed jetplow gaining access asa series 5505 5510 5520 5540 5550 500-series pix firewalls cisco chief security officer addressed allegations publicly denied working government weaken cisco products exploitation implement security back doors document included trove national security agency files released glenn greenwald book place hide details agency tailored access operations tao unit nsa employees intercept servers routers network gear shipped organizations targeted surveillance install covert firmware onto delivered trojan horse systems described nsa manager “ productive operations tao pre-position access points hard target networks around world. ” cisco denied allegations customer document saying information included specific cisco products supply chain intervention implant techniques new security vulnerabilities cisco general counsel also said cisco work government including united states government weaken products allegations reported prompted company ceo express concern president united states march 2014 cisco systems sued patent infringement spherix says 43 billion cisco sales infringe old nortel patents owned spherix officials spherix saying wide range cisco products switches routers infringe 11 former nortel patents company owns january 2008 cisco announced investment 10 million three years towards job creation technology sector development palestinian territories according cisco project cooperation palestinian authority president mahmoud abbas ramallah-based exalt technologies handles software development cisco outsources palestinian territories
1-hop neighbor's text information: john_michael_mcconnell.john michael mcconnell john michael mcconnell born july 26 1943 former vice admiral united states navy naval career served director national security agency 1992 1996 civilian career includes serving united states director national intelligence 20 february 2007 27 january 2009 bush administration seven days obama administration currently vice chairman booz allen hamilton mcconnell born grew greenville south carolina mcconnell received commission united states navy 1967 worked intelligence officer j2 chairman joint chiefs staff united states secretary defense operation desert shield/storm dissolution soviet union developed improving information flow among intelligence agencies combat forces gulf war 1992 1996 mcconnell served director national security agency nsa led nsa adapted multi-polar threats brought end cold war leadership nsa routinely provided global intelligence information security services white house cabinet officials united states congress broad array military civilian intelligence customers also served member director central intelligence senior leadership team address major intelligence programmatic substantive issues 1992 1996 1996 mcconnell retired navy vice admiral 29 years service – 26 career intelligence officer addition many nation highest military awards meritorious service holds nation highest award service intelligence community also served chairman intelligence national security alliance mcconnell second person hold position director national intelligence nominated president george w. bush january 5 2007 sworn bolling air force base washington d.c. february 20 2007 mcconnell appointment post initially greeted broad bipartisan support although since attracted criticism advocating bush administration controversial policies nomination dni mcconnell served senior vice president consulting firm booz allen hamilton focusing intelligence national security areas 2005 confirmation dni 2007 also chairman board intelligence national security alliance premier not-for-profit nonpartisan private sector professional organization providing structure interactive forum thought leadership sharing ideas networking within intelligence national security communities whose members include leaders industry government academia tuesday august 14 2007 mcconnell visited texas house intelligence committee chairman silvestre reyes review border security granted wide-ranging interview el paso times newspaper surprised many intelligence community candor sensitive topics recent changes foreign intelligence surveillance act nsa warrantless surveillance controversy end interview mcconnell cautioned reporter chris roberts consider whether enemies u.s. could gain information shared leaving paper decide publish el paso times put entire unexpurgated interview website august 22 executive editor dionicio flores saying n't believe damaged national security endangered people resurgent taliban back charge parts afghanistan mcconnell told cnn february 27 2008 assessment differed one made january 2008 defense secretary robert gates january 24 2009 announced mcconnell would return booz allen senior vice president two months taking office mcconnell created series initiatives designed build foundation increased cooperation reform u.s. intelligence community ic plan dubbed 100 day plan integration collaboration focused efforts enable ic act unified enterprise collaborative manner focused six enterprise integration priorities 100 day plan accomplished launch civilian joint duty program improved security clearance processing times increased diversity intelligence workforce information sharing across community 500 day plan designed sustain momentum expanded set initiatives greater level participation set deepen integration community people processes technologies plan address new performance management framework entail six performance elements agencies must entail 100 day plan meant jump start series initiatives based deliberate planning process specific deadlines measures ensure needed reforms implemented 500 day plan started august 2007 designed accelerate sustain momentum expanded set initiatives broader ic participation contains 10 core initiatives tracked senior leadership intelligence community 33 enabling initiatives initiatives based six focus areas described 100 day plan top initiatives director mcconnell ended office near 400th day 500-day plan mcconnell approached congress early august 2007 need modernize fisa claiming two changes needed initial efforts began april – see factsheet first intelligence community required technology changes since 1978 obtain court orders effectively collect foreign intelligence foreign targets located overseas also argued telecoms sued violating nation wiretapping laws must protected liability—regardless veracity charges shortly thereafter mcconnell took active role capitol hill legislation drafted congress august 3 mcconnell announced strongly oppose house proposal n't strong enough heated debate congress updated fisa passing protect america act 2007 september 10 2007 testimony senate committee homeland security governmental affairs mcconnell asserted recently passed protect america act 2007 eased restrictions fisa helped foil major terror plot germany u.s. intelligence-community officials questioned accuracy mcconnell testimony urged office correct statement issued september 12 2007 critics cited incident example bush administration exaggerated claims contradictory statements surveillance activities counterterrorism officials familiar background mcconnell testimony said believe made inaccurate statements intentionally part strategy administration persuade congress make new eavesdropping law permanent officials said believed mcconnell gave wrong answer overwhelmed information merely mixed facts testimony mcconnell blamed death kidnapped american soldier iraq requirements fisa slowness courts however timeline later released showed delays mostly inside nsa casting doubt mcconnell truthfulness mcconnell speaking congressional panel defense protect america act said russian chinese foreign intelligence services nearly active cold war september 18 2007 testimony house judiciary committee mcconnell addressed nsa warrantless surveillance controversy saying agency conducted telephone surveillance americans without obtaining warrant advance since became director national intelligence february 2007 mcconnell called fisa foundational law important legacy protecting rights americans passed era watergate aftermath church pike investigations stressed changes honor legacy privacy foreign threats july 2008 director mcconnell issued directive icd 205 analysts build relationships outside experts topics concern intelligence community—a recommendation highlighted wmd commission report director mcconnell worked white house overhaul executive order 12333 outlines fundamental guidance intelligence agencies mcconnell believes update necessary incorporate intelligence community ’ new organizations new technologies methods redo expected help sixteen intelligence agencies work together reflect post 9/11 threat environment july 2008 president bush issued executive order 13470 amended 12333 one mcconnell last acts dni signed icd501 discovery dissemination retrieval information within intelligence community dramatically increase access several databases held various agencies community policy establishes rules govern disputes access granted dni final adjudicator resolve disputes organizations also established intelligence information integration program i2p leadership then-cio patrick gorman nsa-cio dr. prescott winter goal i2p create shared infrastructure family shared services means increase information access sharing collaboration throughout us intelligence community mcconnell led effort create integrated planning programming budgeting system fully integrate optimize capabilities intelligence community previously agency budget developed independently aggregated congress issuance icd106 strategic enterprise management ic sem intelligence community budget closely aligned strategic goals objectives requirements performance criteria icd 106 replaced icd 116 2011 early april 2010 admiral mcconnell called expanding powers dni giving tenure creating department intelligence dni oversee fully control settle continued fighting amongst agencies within various departments
Target text information: melissa_hathaway.melissa hathaway melissa hathaway born november 10 1968 leading expert cyberspace policy cybersecurity served two u.s. presidential administrations 2007 2009 including 8 months white house spearheading cyberspace policy review president barack obama leading comprehensive national cybersecurity initiative cnci president george w. bush president hathaway global strategies llc senior fellow member board regents potomac institute policy studies distinguished fellow centre international governance innovation canada non-resident research fellow kosciuszko institute poland previously senior adviser harvard kennedy school ’ belfer center hathaway received b.a american university graduated us armed forces staff college special certificate information operations hathaway employed consulting firm evidence based research work included developing models detection cocaine movement united states june 1993 february 2007 hathaway worked consulting firm booz allen hamilton focusing information operations long-range strategy policy support business units work included evaluations new force options across electromagnetic spectrum design development novel techniques mapping social business process infrastructure relationships hathaway served senior advisor director national intelligence mike mcconnell cyber coordination executive chaired national cyber study group ncsg role ncsg contributed development comprehensive national cybersecurity initiative cnci hathaway appointed director joint interagency cyber task force january 2008 hathaway named acting senior director cyberspace national security homeland security councils february 9 2009 placed charge 60-day inter-agency review plan programs activities underway throughout government dedicated cyber security january 2009 request assistant president national security affairs ms. hathaway asked lead 60-day cyberspace policy review president obama assembled team experienced government cyber experts identified 250 recommendations may 2009 president obama presented blueprint cyberspace policy review announced cybersecurity would one administration priorities recognized ms. hathaway leadership noted president said “ opportunities everyone—academia industry governments—to work together build trusted resilient communications information infrastructure. ” august 3 2009 announced hathaway would return private sector resignation taking effect august 21 2009 departing cited frustration yet selected new position cyber coordinator n't willing continue wait longer 'm empowered right continue drive change october 1 2009 till project conclusion 2015 hathaway served senior adviser project minerva harvard kennedy school also one lead instructors executive program cybersecurity intersection policy technology hathaway president hathaway global strategies consulting firm also serves advisor companies including cisco one thirty commissioners global commission internet governance
I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are:
0: Computational Linguistics
1: Databases
2: Operating Systems
3: Computer Architecture
4: Computer Security
5: Internet Protocols
6: Computer File Systems
7: Distributed Computing Architecture
8: Web Technology
9: Programming Language Topics
Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.
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4
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Computer Security
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wikics
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1-hop neighbor's text information: consensus_(computer_science).consensus computer science fundamental problem distributed computing multi-agent systems achieve overall system reliability presence number faulty processes often requires processes agree data value needed computation examples applications consensus include whether commit transaction database agreeing identity leader state machine replication atomic broadcasts real world applications include clock synchronization pagerank opinion formation smart power grids state estimation control uavs multiple robots/agents general load balancing blockchain others consensus problem requires agreement among number processes agents single data value processes agents may fail unreliable ways consensus protocols must fault tolerant resilient processes must somehow put forth candidate values communicate one another agree single consensus value consensus problem fundamental problem control multi-agent systems one approach generating consensus processes agents agree majority value context majority requires least one half available votes process given vote however one faulty processes may skew resultant outcome consensus may reached reached incorrectly protocols solve consensus problems designed deal limited numbers faulty processes protocols must satisfy number requirements useful instance trivial protocol could processes output binary value 1 useful thus requirement modified output must somehow depend input output value consensus protocol must input value process another requirement process may decide upon output value decision irrevocable process called correct execution experience failure consensus protocol tolerating halting failures must satisfy following properties variations definition integrity may appropriate according application example weaker type integrity would decision value equal value correct process proposed – necessarily integrity condition also known validity literature protocol correctly guarantee consensus amongst n processes fail said t-resilient evaluating performance consensus protocols two factors interest running time message complexity running time given big notation number rounds message exchange function input parameters typically number processes and/or size input domain message complexity refers amount message traffic generated protocol factors may include memory usage size messages varying models computation may define consensus problem models may deal fully connected graphs others may deal rings trees models message authentication allowed whereas others processes completely anonymous shared memory models processes communicate accessing objects shared memory also important area research models communication protocol participants communicate authenticated channels means messages anonymous receivers know source every message receive models assume stronger form authentication message signed sender receiver knows immediate source every message participant initially created message stronger type authentication achieved digital signatures stronger form authentication present protocols tolerate larger number faults two different authentication models often called oral communication written communication models oral communication model immediate source information known whereas stronger written communication models every step along receiver learns immediate source message communication history message special case consensus problem called binary consensus restricts input hence output domain single binary digit 0,1 two types failures process may undergo crash failure byzantine failure crash failure occurs process abruptly stops resume byzantine failure failures absolutely conditions imposed example may occur result malicious actions adversary process experiences byzantine failure may send contradictory conflicting data processes may sleep resume activity lengthy delay two types failures byzantine failures far disruptive thus consensus protocol tolerating byzantine failures must resilient every possible error occur stronger version consensus tolerating byzantine failures given strengthening integrity constraint consensus problem may considered case asynchronous synchronous systems real world communications often inherently asynchronous practical often easier model synchronous systems given asynchronous systems naturally involve issues synchronous ones synchronous systems assumed communications proceed rounds one round process may send messages requires receiving messages processes manner message one round may influence messages sent within round fully asynchronous message-passing distributed system one process may crash failure proved consensus impossible however impossibility result derives worst-case scenario process schedule highly unlikely reality process scheduling degree randomness asynchronous model forms failures handled synchronous consensus protocol instance loss communication link may modelled process suffered byzantine failure three agreement problems interest follows collection formula_5 processes numbered formula_6 formula_7 communicate sending messages one another process formula_6 must transmit value formula_1 processes also known general problem formal requirements consensus protocol may include n processes partially synchronous system system alternates good bad periods synchrony process chooses private value processes communicate rounds determine public value generate consensus vector following requirements shown variations problems equivalent solution problem one type model may solution another problem another type model example solution weak byzantine general problem synchronous authenticated message passing model leads solution weak interactive consistency interactive consistency algorithm solve consensus problem process choose majority value consensus vector consensus value t-resilient anonymous synchronous protocol solves byzantine generals problem formula_14 weak byzantine generals case number failures n number processes systems formula_5 processors formula_16 byzantine shown exists algorithm solves consensus problem formula_17 oral-messages model proof constructed first showing impossibility three-node case formula_18 using result argue partitions processors written-messages model protocols tolerate formula_19 fully asynchronous system consensus solution tolerate one crash failures even requiring non triviality property result sometimes called flp impossibility proof named authors michael j. fischer nancy lynch mike paterson awarded dijkstra prize significant work flp result state consensus never reached merely model assumptions algorithm always reach consensus bounded time practice highly unlikely occur example polynomial time binary consensus protocol tolerates byzantine failures phase king algorithm garay berman algorithm solves consensus synchronous message passing model n processes f failures provided n 4 f phase king algorithm f 1 phases 2 rounds per phase process keeps track preferred output initially equal process input value first round phase process broadcasts preferred value processes receives values processes determines value majority value count second round phase process whose id matches current phase number designated king phase king broadcasts majority value observed first round serves tie breaker process updates preferred value follows count majority value process observed first round greater n /2 f process changes preference majority value otherwise uses phase king value end f 1 phases processes output preferred values google implemented distributed lock service library called chubby chubby maintains lock information small files stored replicated database achieve high availability face failures database implemented top fault-tolerant log layer based paxos consensus algorithm scheme chubby clients communicate paxos master order access/update replicated log i.e. read/write files bitcoin uses proof work maintain consensus peer-to-peer network nodes bitcoin network attempt solve cryptographic proof-of-work problem probability finding solution proportional computational effort hashes per second expended node solves problem version block transactions added peer-to-peer distributed timestamp server accepted nodes node network attempt solve proof-of-work problem sybil attack becomes unfeasible unless attacker 50 computational resources network many peer-to-peer online real-time strategy games use modified lockstep protocol consensus protocol order manage game state players game game action results game state delta broadcast players game along hash total game state player validates change applying delta game state comparing game state hashes hashes agree vote cast players whose game state minority disconnected removed game known desync another well-known approach called msr-type algorithms used widely computer science control theory solve consensus problem shared-memory system concurrent objects must introduced concurrent object shared object data structure helps concurrent processes communicate reach agreement two main methods design concurrent object traditionally designers use critical section solve problem means one process allowed visit concurrent object time others must wait process exits critical section method straightforward easy implement however systems critical sections face risk crashing process dies inside critical section sleeps intolerably long time another implementation concurrent object called wait-free implementation guarantee consensus finite number steps given kind object powerful enough solve consensus problems maurice herlihy gave impossibility universality hierarchy consensus number hierarchy means maximum number processes system reach consensus given object objects higher consensus number implemented objects lower consensus number according hierarchy read/write registers solve consensus even 2-process-system data structure like stack queue solve consensus two processes ca n't objects solve consensus among processes efficient way prove take advantage bivalence assume output binary state bivalent two outputs possible output reachable state 0/1 state called 0-valent/1-valent basic idea make contradiction executing operations get state 0-valent 1-valent however concurrent objects universal means solve consensus among number processes simulate objects way simulate objects universal objects build operations sequence concurrent object
1-hop neighbor's text information: fault_tolerance.fault tolerance fault tolerance property enables system continue operating properly event failure one faults within components operating quality decreases decrease proportional severity failure compared naively designed system even small failure cause total breakdown fault tolerance particularly sought high-availability life-critical systems ability maintaining functionality portions system break referred graceful degradation fault-tolerant design enables system continue intended operation possibly reduced level rather failing completely part system fails term commonly used describe computer systems designed continue less fully operational perhaps reduction throughput increase response time event partial failure system whole stopped due problems either hardware software example another field motor vehicle designed continue drivable one tires punctured structure able retain integrity presence damage due causes fatigue corrosion manufacturing flaws impact within scope individual system fault tolerance achieved anticipating exceptional conditions building system cope general aiming self-stabilization system converges towards error-free state however consequences system failure catastrophic cost making sufficiently reliable high better solution may use form duplication case consequence system failure catastrophic system must able use reversion fall back safe mode similar roll-back recovery human action humans present loop highly fault-tolerant system might continue level performance even though one components failed example building backup electrical generator provide voltage wall outlets even grid power fails system designed fail safe fail-secure fail gracefully whether functions reduced level fails completely way protects people property data injury damage intrusion disclosure computers program might fail-safe executing graceful exit opposed uncontrolled crash order prevent data corruption experiencing error similar distinction made failing well failing badly fail-deadly opposite strategy used weapon systems designed kill injure targets even part system damaged destroyed system designed experience graceful degradation fail soft used computing similar fail safe operates reduced level performance component failures example building may operate lighting reduced levels elevators reduced speeds grid power fails rather either trapping people dark completely continuing operate full power computing example graceful degradation insufficient network bandwidth available stream online video lower-resolution version might streamed place high-resolution version progressive enhancement example computing web pages available basic functional format older small-screen limited-capability web browsers enhanced version browsers capable handling additional technologies larger display available fault-tolerant computer systems programs considered robust designed continue operation despite error exception invalid input instead crashing completely software brittleness opposite robustness resilient networks continue transmit data despite failure links nodes resilient buildings infrastructure likewise expected prevent complete failure situations like earthquakes floods collisions system high failure transparency alert users component failure occurred even continues operate full performance failure repaired imminent complete failure anticipated likewise fail-fast component designed report first point failure rather allow downstream components fail generate reports allows easier diagnosis underlying problem may prevent improper operation broken state single fault condition situation one means protection hazard defective single fault condition results unavoidably another single fault condition two failures considered one single fault condition source offers following example redundancy provision functional capabilities would unnecessary fault-free environment consist backup components automatically kick one component fails example large cargo trucks lose tire without major consequences many tires one tire critical exception front tires used steer generally carry less load total four 16 less likely fail idea incorporating redundancy order improve reliability system pioneered john von neumann 1950s two kinds redundancy possible space redundancy time redundancy space redundancy provides additional components functions data items unnecessary fault-free operation space redundancy classified hardware software information redundancy depending type redundant resources added system time redundancy computation data transmission repeated result compared stored copy previous result current terminology kind testing referred 'in service fault tolerance testing isftt short providing fault-tolerant design every component normally option associated redundancy brings number penalties increase weight size power consumption cost well time design verify test therefore number choices examined determine components fault tolerant example component passes tests car occupant restraint system normally think primary occupant restraint system gravity vehicle rolls undergoes severe g-forces primary method occupant restraint may fail restraining occupants accident absolutely critical safety pass first test accidents causing occupant ejection quite common seat belts pass second test cost redundant restraint method like seat belts quite low economically terms weight space pass third test therefore adding seat belts vehicles excellent idea supplemental restraint systems airbags expensive pass test smaller margin another excellent long-term example principle put practice braking system whilst actual brake mechanisms critical particularly prone sudden rather progressive failure case necessarily duplicated allow even balanced application brake force wheels would also prohibitively costly double-up main components would add considerable weight however similarly critical systems actuating brakes driver control inherently less robust generally using cable rust stretch jam snap hydraulic fluid leak boil develop bubbles absorb water thus lose effectiveness thus modern cars footbrake hydraulic brake circuit diagonally divided give two smaller points failure loss either reducing brake power 50 causing much dangerous brakeforce imbalance straight front-back left-right split hydraulic circuit fail completely relatively rare occurrence failsafe form cable-actuated parking brake operates otherwise relatively weak rear brakes still bring vehicle safe halt conjunction transmission/engine braking long demands line normal traffic flow cumulatively unlikely combination total foot brake failure need harsh braking emergency likely result collision still one lower speed would otherwise case comparison foot pedal activated service brake parking brake less critical item unless used one-time backup footbrake cause immediate danger found nonfunctional moment application therefore redundancy built per se typically uses cheaper lighter less hardwearing cable actuation system suffice happens hill use footbrake momentarily hold vehicle still driving find flat piece road stop alternatively shallow gradients transmission shifted park reverse first gear transmission lock engine compression used hold stationary need include sophistication first bring halt motorcycles similar level fail-safety provided simpler methods firstly front rear brake systems entirely separate regardless method activation cable rod hydraulic allowing one fail entirely whilst leaving unaffected secondly rear brake relatively strong compared automotive cousin even powerful disc sports models even though usual intent front system provide vast majority braking force overall vehicle weight central rear tyre generally larger grippier rider lean back put weight therefore allowing brake force applied wheel locks cheaper slower utility-class machines even front wheel use hydraulic disc extra brake force easier packaging rear usually primitive somewhat inefficient exceptionally robust rod-actuated drum thanks ease connecting footpedal wheel way importantly near impossibility catastrophic failure even rest machine like lot low-priced bikes first years use point collapse neglected maintenance basic characteristics fault tolerance require addition fault-tolerant systems characterized terms planned service outages unplanned service outages usually measured application level hardware level figure merit called availability expressed percentage example five nines system would statistically provide 99.999 availability fault-tolerant systems typically based concept redundancy spare components address first fundamental characteristic fault tolerance three ways implementations raid redundant array independent disks except raid 0 examples fault-tolerant storage device uses data redundancy lockstep fault-tolerant machine uses replicated elements operating parallel time replications element state inputs provided replication outputs expected outputs replications compared using voting circuit machine two replications element termed dual modular redundant dmr voting circuit detect mismatch recovery relies methods machine three replications element termed triple modular redundant tmr voting circuit determine replication error two-to-one vote observed case voting circuit output correct result discard erroneous version internal state erroneous replication assumed different two voting circuit switch dmr mode model applied larger number replications lockstep fault-tolerant machines easily made fully synchronous gate replication making state transition edge clock clocks replications exactly phase however possible build lockstep systems without requirement bringing replications synchrony requires making internal stored states started fixed initial state reset state alternatively internal state one replica copied another replica one variant dmr pair-and-spare two replicated elements operate lockstep pair voting circuit detects mismatch operations outputs signal indicating error another pair operates exactly way final circuit selects output pair proclaim error pair-and-spare requires four replicas rather three tmr used commercially fault-tolerant design advantages obvious many disadvantages hardware fault tolerance sometimes requires broken parts taken replaced new parts system still operational computing known hot swapping system implemented single backup known single point tolerant represents vast majority fault-tolerant systems systems mean time failures long enough operators time fix broken devices mean time repair backup also fails helps time failures long possible specifically required fault-tolerant system fault tolerance notably successful computer applications tandem computers built entire business machines used single-point tolerance create nonstop systems uptimes measured years fail-safe architectures may encompass also computer software example process replication data formats may also designed degrade gracefully html example designed forward compatible allowing new html entities ignored web browsers understand without causing document unusable difference fault tolerance systems rarely problems instance western electric crossbar systems failure rates two hours per forty years therefore highly fault resistant fault occur still stopped operating completely therefore fault tolerant
1-hop neighbor's text information: paxos_(computer_science).paxos computer science paxos family protocols solving consensus network unreliable processors processors may fail consensus process agreeing one result among group participants problem becomes difficult participants communication medium may experience failures consensus protocols basis state machine replication approach distributed computing suggested leslie lamport surveyed fred schneider state machine replication technique converting algorithm fault-tolerant distributed implementation ad-hoc techniques may leave important cases failures unresolved principled approach proposed lamport et al ensures cases handled safely paxos protocol first published 1989 named fictional legislative consensus system used paxos island greece later published journal article 1998 paxos family protocols includes spectrum trade-offs number processors number message delays learning agreed value activity level individual participants number messages sent types failures although deterministic fault-tolerant consensus protocol guarantee progress asynchronous network result proved paper fischer lynch paterson paxos guarantees safety consistency conditions could prevent making progress difficult provoke paxos usually used durability required example replicate file database amount durable state could large protocol attempts make progress even periods bounded number replicas unresponsive also mechanism drop permanently failed replica add new replica topic predates protocol 1988 lynch dwork stockmeyer demonstrated solvability consensus broad family partially synchronous systems paxos strong similarities protocol used agreement viewstamped replication first published oki liskov 1988 context distributed transactions notwithstanding prior work paxos offered particularly elegant formalism included one earliest proofs safety fault-tolerant distributed consensus protocol reconfigurable state machines strong ties prior work reliable group multicast protocols support dynamic group membership example birman work 1985 1987 virtually synchronous gbcast protocol however noted gbcast unusual supporting durability addressing partitioning failures reliable multicast protocols lack properties required implementations state machine replication model point elaborated paper lamport malkhi zhou paxos protocols members theoretical class solutions problem formalized uniform agreement crash failures lower bounds problem proved keidar shraer derecho c++ software library cloud-scale state machine replication offers paxos protocol integrated self-managed virtually synchronous membership protocol matches keidar shraer optimality bounds maps efficiently modern remote dma rdma datacenter hardware uses tcp rdma available order simplify presentation paxos following assumptions definitions made explicit techniques broaden applicability known literature covered article general consensus algorithm make progress using formula_1 processors despite simultaneous failure formula_2 processors words number non-faulty processes must strictly greater number faulty processes however using reconfiguration protocol may employed survives number total failures long f fail simultaneously paxos describes actions processors roles protocol client acceptor proposer learner leader typical implementations single processor may play one roles time affect correctness protocol—it usual coalesce roles improve latency and/or number messages protocol quorums express safety consistency properties paxos ensuring least surviving processor retains knowledge results quorums defined subsets set acceptors two subsets two quorums share least one member typically quorum majority participating acceptors example given set acceptors b c majority quorum would three acceptors b c c b b c generally arbitrary positive weights assigned acceptors case quorum defined subset acceptors summary weight greater half total weight acceptors attempt define agreed value v performed proposals may may accepted acceptors proposal uniquely numbered given proposer e.g. proposal may form n v n unique identifier proposal v actual proposed value value corresponding numbered proposal computed part running paxos protocol need order guarantee safety also called consistency paxos defines three properties ensures always held regardless pattern failures deployments paxos participating process acts three roles proposer acceptor learner reduces message complexity significantly without sacrificing correctness merging roles protocol collapses efficient client-master-replica style deployment typical database community benefit paxos protocols including implementations merged roles guarantee safety properties typical implementation message flow covered section multi-paxos protocol basic paxos family instance execution basic paxos protocol decides single output value protocol proceeds several rounds successful round 2 phases phase 1 divided parts b phase 2 divided parts b see description phases remember assume asynchronous model e.g processor may one phase another processor may another accept message interpreted request accept proposal please note acceptor accept multiple proposals happen another proposer unaware new value decided starts new round higher identification number n case acceptor promise later accept new proposed value even though accepted another one earlier proposals may even different values presence certain failures however paxos protocol guarantee acceptors ultimately agree single value following diagrams represent several cases/situations application basic paxos protocol cases show basic paxos protocol copes failure certain redundant components distributed system note values returned promise message null first time proposal made since acceptor accepted value round diagram 1 client 1 proposer 3 acceptors i.e quorum size 3 2 learners represented 2 vertical lines diagram represents case first round successful i.e process network fails v last va vb vc simplest error cases failure acceptor quorum acceptors remains alive failure redundant learner cases protocol requires recovery i.e still succeeds additional rounds messages required shown next two diagrams/cases following diagram one acceptors quorum fails quorum size becomes 2 case basic paxos protocol still succeeds following case one redundant learners fails basic paxos protocol still succeeds case proposer fails proposing value agreement reached specifically fails middle accept message one acceptor quorum receives value meanwhile new leader proposer elected shown detail note 2 rounds case rounds proceed vertically top bottom complex case multiple proposers believe leaders instance current leader may fail later recover proposers already re-selected new leader recovered leader learned yet attempts begin one round conflict current leader diagram 4 unsuccessful rounds shown could suggested bottom diagram typical deployment paxos requires continuous stream agreed values acting commands distributed state machine command result single instance basic paxos protocol significant amount overhead would result leader relatively stable phase 1 becomes unnecessary thus possible skip phase 1 future instances protocol leader achieve round number included along value incremented round leader multi-paxos reduces failure-free message delay proposal learning 4 delays 2 delays following diagram one instance execution basic paxos protocol initial leader proposer shown note multi-paxos consists several instances basic paxos protocol v last va vb vc case subsequence instances basic paxos protocol represented i+1 use leader phase 1 subsequent instances basic paxos protocol consist prepare promise sub-phases skipped note leader stable i.e crash change common deployment multi-paxos consists collapsing role proposers acceptors learners servers end clients servers following diagram represents first instance basic paxos protocol roles proposer acceptor learner collapsed single role called server subsequent instances basic paxos protocol leader previous instances basic paxos protocol phase 1 skipped number optimisations performed reduce number exchanged messages improve performance protocol etc optimisations reported cheap paxos extends basic paxos tolerate f failures f+1 main processors f auxiliary processors dynamically reconfiguring failure reduction processor requirements comes expense liveness many main processors fail short time system must halt auxiliary processors reconfigure system stable periods auxiliary processors take part protocol two processors p q one processor distinguish failure processor failure communication medium third processor needed however third processor participate choosing sequence commands must take action case p q fails nothing either p q continues operate system third processor therefore small/slow/cheap one processor primarily devoted tasks example involving three main acceptors one auxiliary acceptor quorum size three showing failure one main processor subsequent reconfiguration fast paxos generalizes basic paxos reduce end-to-end message delays basic paxos message delay client request learning 3 message delays fast paxos allows 2 message delays requires 1 system comprised 3f+ 1 acceptors tolerate f faults instead classic 2f+1 2 client send request multiple destinations intuitively leader value propose client could send accept message acceptors directly acceptors would respond basic paxos sending accepted messages leader every learner achieving two message delays client learner leader detects collision resolves collision sending accept messages new round accepted usual coordinated recovery technique requires four message delays client learner final optimization occurs leader specifies recovery technique advance allowing acceptors perform collision recovery thus uncoordinated collision recovery occur three message delays two message delays learners also acceptors generalized consensus explores relationship operations replicated state machine consensus protocol implements main discovery involves optimizations paxos conflicting proposals could applied order i.e. proposed operations commutative operations state machine cases conflicting operations accepted avoiding delays required resolving conflicts re-proposing rejected operations concept generalized ever-growing sequences commutative operations known stable thus may executed protocol tracks sequences ensuring proposed operations one sequence stabilized allowing operation non-commuting become stable order illustrate generalized paxos example shows message flow two concurrently executing clients replicated state machine implementing read/write operations two distinct registers b note table indicates operations non-commutative possible sequence operations since codice_1 commutes codice_2 codice_3 one possible permutation equivalent previous order following practice commute occurs operations proposed concurrently message flow shows us generalized paxos leverage operation semantics avoid collisions spontaneous ordering network fails allows protocol practice quicker fast paxos however collision occurs generalized paxos needs two additional round trips recover situation illustrated operations writeb readb schema general case round trips unavoidable come fact multiple commands accepted round makes protocol expensive paxos conflicts frequent hopefully two possible refinements generalized paxos possible improve recovery time paxos may also extended support arbitrary failures participants including lying fabrication messages collusion participants selective non-participation etc types failures called byzantine failures solution popularized lamport byzantine paxos introduced castro liskov adds extra message verify acts distribute knowledge verify actions processors fast byzantine paxos introduced martin alvisi removes extra delay since client sends commands directly acceptors note accepted message fast byzantine paxos sent acceptors learners fast paxos sends accepted messages learners failure scenario protocols learner waits receive f+1 identical messages different acceptors occur acceptors also aware since exchanged messages broadcast round correct acceptors re-broadcast agreed value emergence high speed reliable datacenter networks support remote dma rdma substantial interest optimizing paxos leverage hardware offloading network interface card network routers provide reliability network-layer congestion control freeing host cpu tasks derecho c++ paxos library open-source paxos implementation explores option derecho offers classic paxos data durability across full shutdown/restart sequences vertical paxos atomic multicast in-memory replication state-machine synchronization paxos protocols employed derecho needed adapted maximize asynchronous data streaming remove sources delay leader critical path enables derecho sustain full bidirectional rdma data rate contrast although traditional paxos protocols migrated rdma network simply mapping message send operations native rdma operations leaves round-trip delays critical path high-speed rdma networks even small delays large enough prevent utilization full potential bandwidth
Target text information: brooks–iyengar_algorithm.brooks–iyengar algorithm brooks–iyengar algorithm brooks–iyengar hybrid algorithm distributed algorithm improves precision accuracy interval measurements taken distributed sensor network even presence faulty sensors sensor network exchanging measured value accuracy value every node every node computes accuracy range measured value whole network values collected even data sensors faulty sensor network malfunction algorithm fault-tolerant distributed could also used sensor fusion method precision accuracy bound algorithm proved 2016 brooks–iyengar hybrid algorithm distributed control presence noisy data combines byzantine agreement sensor fusion bridges gap sensor fusion byzantine fault tolerance seminal algorithm unified disparate fields first time essentially combines dolev ’ algorithm approximate agreement mahaney schneider ’ fast convergence algorithm fca algorithm assumes n processing elements pes faulty behave maliciously takes input either real values inherent inaccuracy noise unknown real value apriori defined uncertainty interval output algorithm real value explicitly specified accuracy algorithm runs n log n n number pes see big notation possible modify algorithm correspond crusader ’ convergence algorithm cca however bandwidth requirement also increase algorithm applications distributed control software reliability high-performance computing etc brooks–iyengar algorithm executed every processing element pe distributed sensor network pe exchanges measured interval pes network fused measurement weighted average midpoints regions found concrete steps brooks–iyengar algorithm shown section pe performs algorithm separately input measurement sent pe k pe closed interval formula_1 formula_2 output output pe includes point estimate interval estimate example consider example 5 pes pe 5 formula_14 sending wrong values pes exchange values values received formula_15 next table draw weighted region diagram wrd intervals determine formula_16 pe 1 according algorithm formula_17 consists intervals least 4 formula_3 5−1 measurements intersect output pe 1 equal formula_19 interval estimate formula_20 similar could obtain inputs results 5 pes 1982 byzantine problem byzantine general problem extension two generals problem could viewed binary problem 1983 approximate consensus method removes values set consists scalars tolerant faulty inputs 1985 in-exact consensus method also uses scalar input 1996 brooks-iyengar algorithm method based intervals 2013 byzantine vector consensus method uses vectors input 2013 multidimensional agreement method also use vectors input measure distance different could use approximate consensus scalar-based brooks-iyengar algorithm interval-based byzantine vector consensus vector-based deal interval inputs paper proved brooks–iyengar algorithm best brooks–iyengar algorithm seminal work major milestone distributed sensing could used fault tolerant solution many redundancy scenarios also easy implement embed networking systems 1996 algorithm used minix provide accuracy precision leads development first version rt-linux 2000 algorithm also central darpa sensit program ’ distributed tracking program acoustic seismic motion detection readings multiple sensors combined fed distributed tracking system besides used combine heterogeneous sensor feeds application fielded bbn technologies bae systems penn state applied research lab arl usc/isi besides thales group uk defense manufacturer used work global operational analysis laboratory applied raytheon ’ programs many systems need extract reliable data unreliable sensor network exempts increasing investment improving sensor reliability also research developing algorithm results tools used us nav maritime domain awareness software education brooks–iyengar algorithm widely used teaching classes university wisconsin purdue georgia tech clemson university university maryland etc addition area sensor network fields time-triggered architecture safety cyber-physical systems data fusion robot convergence high-performance computing software/hardware reliability ensemble learning artificial intelligence systems could also benefit brooks–iyengar algorithm inventors brooks iyengar algorithm dr brooks dr ss iyengar received prestigious 25 year test time award pioneering research high impact brooks-iyengar algorithm high impact research work influenced numerous us government programs commercial products
I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are:
0: Computational Linguistics
1: Databases
2: Operating Systems
3: Computer Architecture
4: Computer Security
5: Internet Protocols
6: Computer File Systems
7: Distributed Computing Architecture
8: Web Technology
9: Programming Language Topics
Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.
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Computer Security
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wikics
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1-hop neighbor's text information: linux.linux linux family open source unix-like operating systems based linux kernel operating system kernel first released september 17 1991 linus torvalds linux typically packaged linux distribution distributions include linux kernel supporting system software libraries many provided gnu project many linux distributions use word linux name free software foundation uses name gnu/linux emphasize importance gnu software causing controversy popular linux distributions include debian fedora ubuntu commercial distributions include red hat enterprise linux suse linux enterprise server desktop linux distributions include windowing system x11 wayland desktop environment gnome kde plasma 5 distributions intended servers may omit graphics altogether include solution stack lamp linux freely redistributable anyone may create distribution purpose linux originally developed personal computers based intel x86 architecture since ported platforms operating system linux leading operating system servers big iron systems mainframe computers os used top500 supercomputers since november 2017 gradually eliminated competitors used around 2.3 percent desktop computers chromebook runs linux kernel-based chrome os dominates us k–12 education market represents nearly 20 percent sub- 300 notebook sales us linux also runs embedded systems i.e devices whose operating system typically built firmware highly tailored system includes routers automation controls televisions digital video recorders video game consoles smartwatches many smartphones tablet computers run android linux derivatives dominance android smartphones linux largest installed base general-purpose operating systems linux one prominent examples free open-source software collaboration source code may used modified distributed—commercially non-commercially—by anyone terms respective licenses gnu general public license unix operating system conceived implemented 1969 bell laboratories united states ken thompson dennis ritchie douglas mcilroy joe ossanna first released 1971 unix written entirely assembly language common practice time later key pioneering approach 1973 rewritten c programming language dennis ritchie exception hardware i/o routines availability high-level language implementation unix made porting different computer platforms easier due earlier antitrust case forbidding entering computer business required license operating system source code anyone asked result unix grew quickly became widely adopted academic institutions businesses 1984 divested bell labs freed legal obligation requiring free licensing bell labs began selling unix proprietary product users legally allowed modify unix gnu project started 1983 richard stallman goal creating complete unix-compatible software system composed entirely free software work began 1984 later 1985 stallman started free software foundation wrote gnu general public license gnu gpl 1989 early 1990s many programs required operating system libraries compilers text editors unix shell windowing system completed although low-level elements device drivers daemons kernel called gnu/hurd stalled incomplete linus torvalds stated gnu kernel available time 1991 would decided write although released 1992 due legal complications development 386bsd netbsd openbsd freebsd descended predated linux torvalds also stated 386bsd available time probably would created linux minix created andrew s. tanenbaum computer science professor released 1987 minimal unix-like operating system targeted students others wanted learn operating system principles although complete source code minix freely available licensing terms prevented free software licensing changed april 2000 1991 attending university helsinki torvalds became curious operating systems frustrated licensing minix time limited educational use began work operating system kernel eventually became linux kernel torvalds began development linux kernel minix applications written minix also used linux later linux matured linux kernel development took place linux systems gnu applications also replaced minix components advantageous use freely available code gnu project fledgling operating system code licensed gnu gpl reused computer programs long also released compatible license torvalds initiated switch original license prohibited commercial redistribution gnu gpl developers worked integrate gnu components linux kernel making fully functional free operating system linus torvalds wanted call invention freax portmanteau free freak x allusion unix start work system project makefiles included name freax half year torvalds already considered name linux initially dismissed egotistical order facilitate development files uploaded ftp server codice_1 funet september 1991 ari lemmke torvalds coworker helsinki university technology hut one volunteer administrators ftp server time think freax good name named project linux server without consulting torvalds later however torvalds consented linux demonstrate word linux pronounced torvalds included audio guide kernel source code another variant pronunciation adoption linux production environments rather used hobbyists started take first mid-1990s supercomputing community organizations nasa started replace increasingly expensive machines clusters inexpensive commodity computers running linux commercial use began dell ibm followed hewlett-packard started offering linux support escape microsoft monopoly desktop operating system market today linux systems used throughout computing embedded systems virtually supercomputers secured place server installations popular lamp application stack use linux distributions home enterprise desktops growing linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices shipping customized linux distributions installed google releasing chrome os designed netbooks linux greatest success consumer market perhaps mobile device market android one dominant operating systems smartphones popular tablets recently wearables linux gaming also rise valve showing support linux rolling gaming oriented linux distribution linux distributions also gained popularity various local national governments federal government brazil greg kroah-hartman lead maintainer linux kernel guides development stallman heads free software foundation turn supports gnu components finally individuals corporations develop third-party non-gnu components third-party components comprise vast body work may include kernel modules user applications libraries linux vendors communities combine distribute kernel gnu components non-gnu components additional package management software form linux distributions linux-based system modular unix-like operating system deriving much basic design principles established unix 1970s 1980s system uses monolithic kernel linux kernel handles process control networking access peripherals file systems device drivers either integrated directly kernel added modules loaded system running gnu userland key part systems based linux kernel android notable exception project implementation c library functions wrapper system calls linux kernel necessary kernel-userspace interface toolchain broad collection programming tools vital linux development including compilers used build linux kernel coreutils implement many basic unix tools project also develops popular cli shell graphical user interface gui used linux systems built top implementation x window system recently linux community seeks advance wayland new display server protocol place x11 many open-source software projects contribute linux systems installed components linux system include following user interface also known shell either command-line interface cli graphical user interface gui controls attached associated hardware common embedded systems desktop systems default user interface usually graphical although cli commonly available terminal emulator windows separate virtual console cli shells text-based user interfaces use text input output dominant shell used linux bourne-again shell bash originally developed gnu project low-level linux components including various parts userland use cli exclusively cli particularly suited automation repetitive delayed tasks provides simple inter-process communication desktop systems popular user interfaces gui shells packaged together extensive desktop environments kde plasma gnome mate cinnamon unity lxde pantheon xfce though variety additional user interfaces exist popular user interfaces based x window system often simply called x provides network transparency permits graphical application running one system displayed another user may interact application however certain extensions x window system capable working network several x display servers exist reference implementation x.org server popular several types window managers exist x11 including tiling dynamic stacking compositing window managers provide means control placement appearance individual application windows interact x window system simpler x window managers dwm ratpoison i3wm herbstluftwm provide minimalist functionality elaborate window managers fvwm enlightenment window maker provide features built-in taskbar themes still lightweight compared desktop environments desktop environments include window managers part standard installations mutter gnome kwin kde xfwm xfce although users may choose use different window manager preferred wayland display server protocol intended replacement x11 protocol received wider adoption unlike x11 wayland need external window manager compositing manager therefore wayland compositor takes role display server window manager compositing manager weston reference implementation wayland gnome mutter kde kwin ported wayland standalone display servers enlightenment already successfully ported since version 19 linux currently two modern kernel-userspace apis handling video input devices v4l2 api video streams radio dvb api digital tv reception due complexity diversity different devices due large amount formats standards handled apis infrastructure needs evolve better fit devices also good userspace device library key success userspace applications able work formats supported devices primary difference linux many popular contemporary operating systems linux kernel components free open-source software linux operating system although far widely used free open-source software licenses based principle copyleft kind reciprocity work derived copyleft piece software must also copyleft common free software license gnu general public license gpl form copyleft used linux kernel many components gnu project linux-based distributions intended developers interoperability operating systems established computing standards linux systems adhere posix sus lsb iso ansi standards possible although date one linux distribution posix.1 certified linux-ft. free software projects although developed collaboration often produced independently fact software licenses explicitly permit redistribution however provides basis larger scale projects collect software produced stand-alone projects make available form linux distribution many linux distributions manage remote collection system software application software packages available download installation network connection allows users adapt operating system specific needs distributions maintained individuals loose-knit teams volunteer organizations commercial entities distribution responsible default configuration installed linux kernel general system security generally integration different software packages coherent whole distributions typically use package manager apt yum zypper pacman portage install remove update system software one central location distribution largely driven developer user communities vendors develop fund distributions volunteer basis debian well-known example others maintain community version commercial distributions red hat fedora suse opensuse many cities regions local associations known linux user groups lugs seek promote preferred distribution extension free software hold meetings provide free demonstrations training technical support operating system installation new users many internet communities also provide support linux users developers distributions free software open-source projects irc chatrooms newsgroups online forums another means support notable examples linuxquestions.org various distribution specific support community forums ones ubuntu fedora gentoo linux distributions host mailing lists commonly specific topic usage development given list several technology websites linux focus print magazines linux often bundle cover disks carry software even complete linux distributions although linux distributions generally available without charge several large corporations sell support contribute development components system free software analysis linux kernel showed 75 percent code december 2008 january 2010 developed programmers working corporations leaving 18 percent volunteers 7 unclassified major corporations provide contributions include dell ibm hp oracle sun microsystems part oracle nokia number corporations notably red hat canonical suse built significant business around linux distributions free software licenses various software packages distribution built linux kernel based explicitly accommodate encourage commercialization relationship linux distribution whole individual vendors may seen symbiotic one common business model commercial suppliers charging support especially business users number companies also offer specialized business version distribution adds proprietary support packages tools administer higher numbers installations simplify administrative tasks another business model give away software order sell hardware used norm computer industry operating systems cp/m apple dos versions mac os prior 7.6 freely copyable modifiable computer hardware standardized throughout 1980s became difficult hardware manufacturers profit tactic os would run manufacturer computer shared architecture linux distributions support dozens programming languages original development tools used building linux applications operating system programs found within gnu toolchain includes gnu compiler collection gcc gnu build system amongst others gcc provides compilers ada c c++ go fortran many programming languages cross-platform reference implementation supports linux example php perl ruby python java go rust haskell first released 2003 llvm project provides alternative cross-platform open-source compiler many languages proprietary compilers linux include intel c++ compiler sun studio ibm xl c/c++ compiler basic form visual basic supported forms gambas freebasic xbasic terms terminal programming quickbasic turbo basic programming form qb64 common feature unix-like systems linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted scripting text processing system configuration management general linux distributions support shell scripts awk sed make many programs also embedded programming language support configuring programming example regular expressions supported programs like grep locate traditional unix mta sendmail contains turing complete scripting system advanced text editor gnu emacs built around general purpose lisp interpreter distributions also include support php perl ruby python dynamic languages common linux also supports c via mono vala scheme guile scheme acts extension language targeting gnu system utilities seeking make conventionally small static compiled c programs unix design rapidly dynamically extensible via elegant functional high-level scripting system many gnu programs compiled optional guile bindings end number java virtual machines development kits run linux including original sun microsystems jvm hotspot ibm j2se well many open-source projects like kaffe jikesrvm gnome kde popular desktop environments provide framework developing applications projects based gtk+ qt widget toolkits respectively also used independently larger framework support wide variety languages number integrated development environments available including anjuta codelite eclipse geany activestate komodo kdevelop lazarus monodevelop netbeans qt creator long-established editors vim nano emacs remain popular linux kernel widely ported operating system kernel available devices ranging mobile phones supercomputers runs highly diverse range computer architectures including hand-held arm-based ipaq ibm mainframes system z9 system z10 specialized distributions kernel forks exist less mainstream architectures example elks kernel fork run intel 8086 intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors µclinux kernel fork may run systems without memory management unit kernel also runs architectures ever intended use manufacturer-created operating system macintosh computers powerpc intel processors pdas video game consoles portable music players mobile phones several industry associations hardware conferences devoted maintaining improving support diverse hardware linux freedomhec time support different hardware improved linux resulting off-the-shelf purchase good chance compatible besides linux distributions designed general-purpose use desktops servers distributions may specialized different purposes including computer architecture support embedded systems stability security localization specific region language targeting specific user groups support real-time applications commitment given desktop environment furthermore distributions deliberately include free software four hundred linux distributions actively developed dozen distributions popular general-purpose use popularity linux standard desktop computers laptops increasing years modern distributions include graphical user environment two popular environments kde plasma desktop xfce single official linux desktop exists rather desktop environments linux distributions select components pool free open-source software construct gui implementing less strict design guide gnome example human interface guidelines design guide gives human–machine interface important role graphical design also considering people disabilities even focusing security collaborative nature free software development allows distributed teams perform language localization linux distributions use locales localizing proprietary systems would cost-effective example sinhalese language version knoppix distribution became available significantly microsoft translated windows xp sinhalese case lanka linux user group played major part developing localized system combining knowledge university professors linguists local developers performance linux desktop controversial topic example 2007 con kolivas accused linux community favoring performance servers quit linux kernel development frustration lack focus desktop gave tell interview topic since significant amount development focused improving desktop experience projects upstart systemd aim faster boot time wayland mir projects aim replacing x11 enhancing desktop performance security appearance many popular applications available wide variety operating systems example mozilla firefox openoffice.org/libreoffice blender downloadable versions major operating systems furthermore applications initially developed linux pidgin gimp ported operating systems including windows macos due popularity addition growing number proprietary desktop applications also supported linux autodesk maya foundry nuke high-end field animation visual effects see list proprietary software linux details also several companies ported companies games linux linux also supported platform popular steam desura digital-distribution services many types applications available microsoft windows macos also run linux commonly either free software application exist functions application found another operating system application version works linux skype video games like dota 2 team fortress 2 furthermore wine project provides windows compatibility layer run unmodified windows applications linux sponsored commercial interests including codeweavers produces commercial version software since 2009 google also provided funding wine project crossover proprietary solution based open-source wine project supports running windows versions microsoft office intuit applications quicken quickbooks adobe photoshop versions cs2 many popular games world warcraft cases linux port software areas desktop publishing professional audio equivalent software available linux also possible run applications written android versions linux using anbox besides externally visible components x window managers non-obvious quite central role played programs hosted freedesktop.org d-bus pulseaudio major desktop environments gnome kde include offering graphical front-ends written using corresponding toolkit gtk+ qt display server another component longest time communicating x11 display server protocol clients prominent software talking x11 includes x.org server xlib frustration cumbersome x11 core protocol especially numerous extensions led creation new display server protocol wayland installing updating removing software linux typically done use package managers synaptic package manager packagekit yum extender major linux distributions extensive repositories often containing tens thousands packages software run linux available official repositories alternatively users install packages unofficial repositories download pre-compiled packages directly websites compile source code methods come different degrees difficulty compiling source code general considered challenging process new linux users hardly needed modern distributions method specific linux linux distributions also become popular netbook market many devices asus eee pc acer aspire one shipping customized linux distributions installed 2009 google announced chrome os minimal linux-based operating system using chrome browser main user interface chrome os run non-web applications except bundled file manager media player certain level support android applications added later versions netbooks shipped operating system termed chromebooks started appearing market june 2011 linux distributions long used server operating systems risen prominence area netcraft reported september 2006 eight ten two unknown os reliable internet hosting companies ran linux distributions web servers linux top position june 2008 linux distributions represented five top ten freebsd three ten microsoft two ten since february 2010 linux distributions represented six top ten freebsd three ten microsoft one ten linux top position linux distributions cornerstone lamp server-software combination linux apache mariadb/mysql perl/php/python achieved popularity among developers one common platforms website hosting linux distributions become increasingly popular mainframes partly due pricing open-source model december 2009 computer giant ibm reported would predominantly market sell mainframe-based enterprise linux server linuxcon north america 2015 ibm announced linuxone series mainframes specifically designed run linux open-source software linux distributions also dominant operating systems supercomputers november 2017 supercomputers 500 list run variant linux several operating systems smart devices smartphones tablet computers smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment ivi systems based linux major platforms systems include android firefox os mer tizen android become dominant mobile operating system smartphones running 79.3 units sold worldwide second quarter 2013 android also popular operating system tablets android smart tvs in-vehicle infotainment systems also appeared market cellphones pdas running linux open-source platforms became common 2007 examples include nokia n810 openmoko neo1973 motorola rokr e8 continuing trend palm later acquired hp produced new linux-derived operating system webos built line palm pre smartphones nokia maemo one earliest mobile operating systems based debian later merged intel moblin another linux-based operating system form meego project later terminated favor tizen operating system targeted mobile devices well ivi tizen project within linux foundation several samsung products already running tizen samsung gear 2 significant example samsung z smartphones use tizen instead android result meego termination mer project forked meego codebase create basis mobile-oriented operating systems july 2012 jolla announced sailfish os mobile operating system built upon mer technology mozilla firefox os consists linux kernel hardware abstraction layer web-standards-based runtime environment user interface integrated web browser canonical released ubuntu touch aiming bring convergence user experience mobile operating system desktop counterpart ubuntu operating system also provides full ubuntu desktop connected external monitor due low cost ease customization linux often used embedded systems non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector majority customer-premises equipment cpe hardware runs linux-based operating system openwrt community driven example upon many oem firmware releases based example popular tivo digital video recorder also uses customized linux several network firewalls routers makers cisco/linksys korg oasys korg kronos yamaha motif xs/motif xf music workstations yamaha s90xs/s70xs yamaha mox6/mox8 synthesizers yamaha motif-rack xs tone generator module roland rd-700gx digital piano also run linux linux also used stage lighting control systems wholehogiii console past games available linux recent years games released support linux especially indie games exception aaa title games android popular mobile platform uses linux kernel gained much developer interest one main platforms mobile game development along ios operating system apple iphone ipad devices february 14 2013 valve released linux version steam popular game distribution platform pc many steam games ported linux december 13 2013 valve released steamos gaming oriented os based debian beta testing plans ship steam machines gaming entertainment platform valve also developed vogl opengl debugger intended aid video game development well porting source game engine desktop linux result valve effort several prominent games dota 2 team fortress 2 portal portal 2 left 4 dead 2 natively available desktop linux july 31 2013 nvidia released shield attempt use android specialized gaming platform linux users play windows games wine crossover linux 22 august 2018 valve released fork wine called proton aimed gaming features improvements vanilla wine vulkan-based directx 11 12 implementations steam integration better full screen game controller support improved performance multi-threaded games due flexibility customizability free open-source nature linux becomes possible highly tune linux specific purpose two main methods creating specialized linux distribution building scratch general-purpose distribution base distributions often used purpose include debian fedora ubuntu based debian arch linux gentoo slackware contrast linux distributions built scratch general-purpose bases instead focus jeos philosophy including necessary components avoiding resource overhead caused components considered redundant distribution use cases home theater pc htpc pc mainly used entertainment system especially home theater system normally connected television often additional audio system openelec linux distribution incorporates media center software kodi os tuned specifically htpc built ground adhering jeos principle os lightweight suitable confined usage range htpc also special editions linux distributions include mythtv media center software mythbuntu special edition ubuntu kali linux debian-based linux distribution designed digital forensics penetration testing comes preinstalled several software applications penetration testing identifying security exploits ubuntu derivative backbox provides pre-installed security network analysis tools ethical hacking arch-based blackarch includes 2100 tools pentesting security researching many linux distributions created privacy secrecy network anonymity information security mind including tails tin hat linux tinfoil hat linux lightweight portable security distribution based arch linux developed united states department defense tor-ramdisk minimal distribution created solely host network anonymity software tor linux live cd sessions long used tool recovering data broken computer system repairing system building upon idea several linux distributions tailored purpose emerged use gparted partition editor additional data recovery system repair software spacex uses multiple redundant fault-tolerant design falcon 9 rocket merlin engine controlled three voting computers two physical processors per computer constantly check operation linux inherently fault-tolerant operating system function whole system including hardware flight computer software makes purpose flexibility commercial off-the-shelf parts system-wide radiation-tolerant design used instead radiation hardened parts spacex conducted 76 launches falcon 9 since 2010 one successfully delivered primary payloads intended orbit plans use transport astronauts international space station addition windows used operating system non-mission critical systemslaptops used board space station examplebut replaced linux first linux-powered humanoid robot also undergoing in-flight testing jet propulsion laboratory used linux number years help projects relating construction unmanned space flight deep space exploration nasa uses linux robotics mars rover ubuntu linux save data satellites linux distributions created provide hands-on experience coding source code students devices raspberry pi addition producing practical device intention show students things work hood ubuntu derivatives edubuntu linux schools project well debian derivative skolelinux provide education-oriented software packages also include tools administering building school computer labs computer-based classrooms linux terminal server project ltsp instant webkiosk webconverger browser-based linux distributions often used web kiosks digital signage thinstation minimalist distribution designed thin clients rocks cluster distribution tailored high-performance computing clusters general-purpose linux distributions target specific audience users specific language geographical area examples include ubuntu kylin chinese language users blankon targeted indonesians profession-specific distributions include ubuntu studio media creation dnalinux bioinformatics also muslim-oriented distribution name sabily consequently also provides islamic tools certain organizations use slightly specialized linux distributions internally including gendbuntu used french national gendarmerie goobuntu used internally google astra linux developed specifically russian army many quantitative studies free/open-source software focus topics including market share reliability numerous studies specifically examining linux linux market growing rapidly revenue servers desktops packaged software running linux expected exceed 35.7 billion 2008 analysts proponents attribute relative success linux security reliability low cost freedom vendor lock-in linux kernel licensed gnu general public license gpl version 2 gpl requires anyone distributes software based source code license must make originating source code modifications available recipient terms key components typical linux distribution also mainly licensed gpl may use licenses many libraries use gnu lesser general public license lgpl permissive variant gpl x.org implementation x window system uses mit license torvalds states linux kernel move version 2 gpl version 3 specifically dislikes provisions new license prohibit use software digital rights management would also impractical obtain permission copyright holders number thousands 2001 study red hat linux 7.1 found distribution contained 30 million source lines code using constructive cost model study estimated distribution required eight thousand person-years development time according study software developed conventional proprietary means would cost us dollars develop united states source code 71 written c programming language many languages used including c++ lisp assembly language perl python fortran various shell scripting languages slightly half lines code licensed gpl linux kernel 2.4 million lines code 8 total later study analysis performed debian version 4.0 etch released 2007 distribution contained close 283 million source lines code study estimated would required seventy three thousand man-years cost us dollars develop conventional means united states name linux trademark registered linus torvalds initially nobody registered august 15 1994 william r. della croce jr. filed trademark linux demanded royalties linux distributors 1996 torvalds affected organizations sued trademark assigned torvalds 1997 case settled licensing trademark since handled linux mark institute lmi torvalds stated trademarked name prevent someone else using lmi originally charged nominal sublicensing fee use linux name part trademarks later changed favor offering free perpetual worldwide sublicense free software foundation fsf prefers gnu/linux name referring operating system whole considers linux distributions variants gnu operating system initiated 1983 richard stallman president fsf explicitly take issue name android android os also operating system based linux kernel gnu part minority public figures software projects stallman fsf notably debian sponsored fsf 1996 also use gnu/linux referring operating system whole media common usage however refers family operating systems simply linux many large linux distributions example suse linux red hat enterprise linux contrast linux distributions containing free software use gnu/linux simply gnu trisquel gnu/linux parabola gnu/linux-libre blag linux gnu gnewsense 8 13 modern linux distribution made gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu determined counting lines source code making ubuntu natty release meanwhile 6 taken linux kernel increased 9 including direct dependencies
1-hop neighbor's text information: du_(unix).du unix codice_1 abbreviated disk usage standard unix program used estimate file space usage—space used particular directory files file system codice_1 utility first appeared version 1 unix version codice_1 bundled gnu coreutils written torbjorn granlund david mackenzie paul eggert jim meyering default single unix specification sus specifies codice_1 display file space allocated file directory contained current directory links displayed size link file linked size content directories displayed expected codice_1 reports allocation space absolute file space amount space file system shown codice_1 may vary shown codice_7 files deleted blocks yet freed also minfree setting allocates datablocks filesystem super user processes creates discrepancy total blocks sum used available blocks minfree setting usually set 5 total filesystem size info see core utils faq codice_1 takes single argument specifying pathname du work specified current directory used sus mandates du following options unix unix-like operating systems may add extra options example bsd gnu codice_1 specify -h option displaying disk usage format easier read user adding units appropriate si prefix e.g 10 mb sum directories -s kilobytes -k sum directories -s human-readable format -h byte kilobyte megabyte gigabyte terabyte petabyte disk usage subdirectories files including hidden files within current directory sorted filesize disk usage subdirectories files including hidden files within current directory sorted reverse filesize weight size subdirectory current directory -d 1 sum total end -c displayed human-readable format -h du gnu weight size subdirectories root directory -d 1 trailing sum total end -c displayed human-readable format -h without traversing filesystems -x useful /var /tmp directories separate storage root directory du gnu
1-hop neighbor's text information: c_(programming_language).c programming language c letter c general-purpose procedural computer programming language supporting structured programming lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations design c provides constructs map efficiently typical machine instructions found lasting use applications previously coded assembly language applications include operating systems well various application software computers ranging supercomputers embedded systems c originally developed bell labs dennis ritchie 1972 1973 make utilities running unix later applied re-implementing kernel unix operating system 1980s c gradually gained popularity nowadays one widely used programming languages c compilers various vendors available majority existing computer architectures operating systems c standardized ansi since 1989 see ansi c subsequently international organization standardization c imperative procedural language designed compiled using relatively straightforward compiler provide low-level access memory provide language constructs map efficiently machine instructions require minimal runtime support despite low-level capabilities language designed encourage cross-platform programming standards-compliant c program written portability mind compiled wide variety computer platforms operating systems changes source code language become available various platforms embedded microcontrollers supercomputers like procedural languages algol tradition c facilities structured programming allows lexical variable scope recursion static type system prevents unintended operations c executable code contained within subroutines also called functions though strictly sense functional programming function parameters always passed value pass-by-reference simulated c explicitly passing pointer values c program source text free-format using semicolon statement terminator curly braces grouping blocks statements c language also exhibits following characteristics c include certain features found languages object orientation garbage collection implemented emulated often use external libraries e.g. glib object system boehm garbage collector many later languages borrowed directly indirectly c including c++ c unix c shell go java javascript limbo lpc objective-c perl php python rust swift verilog systemverilog hardware description languages languages drawn many control structures basic features c. python dramatic exception also express highly similar syntax c tend combine recognizable expression statement syntax c underlying type systems data models semantics radically different origin c closely tied development unix operating system originally implemented assembly language pdp-7 dennis ritchie ken thompson incorporating several ideas colleagues eventually decided port operating system pdp-11 original pdp-11 version unix developed assembly language thompson needed programming language make utilities first tried make fortran compiler soon gave idea made new language b thompson simplified version bcpl however utilities written b b slow b could take advantage pdp-11 features byte addressability 1972 ritchie started improve b resulted creating new language c. c compiler utilities made included version 2 unix version 4 unix released nov. 1973 unix kernel extensively re-implemented c. time c language acquired powerful features codice_12 types unix one first operating system kernels implemented language assembly earlier instances include multics system written pl/i master control program mcp burroughs b5000 written algol 1961 around 1977 ritchie stephen c. johnson made changes language facilitate portability unix operating system johnson portable c compiler served basis several implementations c new platforms 1978 brian kernighan dennis ritchie published first edition c programming language book known c programmers k r served many years informal specification language version c describes commonly referred k r c second edition book covers later ansi c standard described k r introduced several language features even publication 1989 ansi standard many years k r c still considered lowest common denominator c programmers restricted maximum portability desired since many older compilers still use carefully written k r c code legal standard c well early versions c functions return types codice_30 must declared used function definition functions used without prior declaration presumed return type codice_30 example codice_30 type specifiers commented could omitted k r c required later standards since k r function declarations include information function arguments function parameter type checks performed although compilers would issue warning message local function called wrong number arguments multiple calls external function used different numbers types arguments separate tools unix lint utility developed among things could check consistency function use across multiple source files years following publication k r c several features added language supported compilers particular pcc vendors included large number extensions lack agreement standard library together language popularity fact even unix compilers precisely implemented k r specification led necessity standardization late 1970s 1980s versions c implemented wide variety mainframe computers minicomputers microcomputers including ibm pc popularity began increase significantly 1983 american national standards institute ansi formed committee x3j11 establish standard specification c. x3j11 based c standard unix implementation however non-portable portion unix c library handed ieee working group 1003 become basis 1988 posix standard 1989 c standard ratified ansi x3.159-1989 programming language c version language often referred ansi c standard c sometimes c89 1990 ansi c standard formatting changes adopted international organization standardization iso iso/iec 9899:1990 sometimes called c90 therefore terms c89 c90 refer programming language ansi like national standards bodies longer develops c standard independently defers international c standard maintained working group iso/iec jtc1/sc22/wg14 national adoption update international standard typically occurs within year iso publication one aims c standardization process produce superset k r c incorporating many subsequently introduced unofficial features standards committee also included several additional features function prototypes borrowed c++ codice_15 pointers support international character sets locales preprocessor enhancements although syntax parameter declarations augmented include style used c++ k r interface continued permitted compatibility existing source code c89 supported current c compilers c code written today based program written standard c without hardware-dependent assumptions run correctly platform conforming c implementation within resource limits without precautions programs may compile certain platform particular compiler due example use non-standard libraries gui libraries reliance compiler- platform-specific attributes exact size data types byte endianness cases code must compilable either standard-conforming k r c-based compilers codice_38 macro used split code standard k r sections prevent use k r c-based compiler features available standard c. ansi/iso standardization process c language specification remained relatively static several years 1995 normative amendment 1 1990 c standard iso/iec 9899/amd1:1995 known informally c95 published correct details add extensive support international character sets c standard revised late 1990s leading publication iso/iec 9899:1999 1999 commonly referred c99 since amended three times technical corrigenda c99 introduced several new features including inline functions several new data types including codice_39 codice_40 type represent complex numbers variable-length arrays flexible array members improved support ieee 754 floating point support variadic macros macros variable arity support one-line comments beginning codice_41 bcpl c++ many already implemented extensions several c compilers c99 part backward compatible c90 stricter ways particular declaration lacks type specifier longer codice_30 implicitly assumed standard macro codice_43 defined value codice_44 indicate c99 support available gcc solaris studio c compilers support many new features c99 c compiler microsoft visual c++ however implements c89 standard parts c99 required compatibility c++11 2007 work began another revision c standard informally called c1x official publication 2011-12-08 c standards committee adopted guidelines limit adoption new features tested existing implementations c11 standard adds numerous new features c library including type generic macros anonymous structures improved unicode support atomic operations multi-threading bounds-checked functions also makes portions existing c99 library optional improves compatibility c++ standard macro codice_43 defined codice_46 indicate c11 support available published june 2018 c18 current standard c programming language introduces new language features technical corrections clarifications defects c11 standard macro codice_43 defined codice_48 historically embedded c programming requires nonstandard extensions c language order support exotic features fixed-point arithmetic multiple distinct memory banks basic i/o operations 2008 c standards committee published technical report extending c language address issues providing common standard implementations adhere includes number features available normal c fixed-point arithmetic named address spaces basic i/o hardware addressing c formal grammar specified c standard line endings generally significant c however line boundaries significance preprocessing phase comments may appear either delimiters codice_49 codice_50 since c99 following codice_41 end line comments delimited codice_49 codice_50 nest sequences characters interpreted comment delimiters appear inside string character literals c source files contain declarations function definitions function definitions turn contain declarations statements declarations either define new types using keywords codice_12 codice_35 codice_14 assign types perhaps reserve storage new variables usually writing type followed variable name keywords codice_57 codice_30 specify built-in types sections code enclosed braces codice_59 codice_60 sometimes called curly brackets limit scope declarations act single statement control structures imperative language c uses statements specify actions common statement expression statement consisting expression evaluated followed semicolon side effect evaluation functions may called variables may assigned new values modify normal sequential execution statements c provides several control-flow statements identified reserved keywords structured programming supported codice_61 -codice_62 conditional execution codice_63-codice_4 codice_4 codice_2 iterative execution looping codice_2 statement separate initialization testing reinitialization expressions omitted codice_68 codice_69 used leave innermost enclosing loop statement skip reinitialization also non-structured codice_70 statement branches directly designated label within function codice_5 selects codice_72 executed based value integer expression expressions use variety built-in operators may contain function calls order arguments functions operands operators evaluated unspecified evaluations may even interleaved however side effects including storage variables occur next sequence point sequence points include end expression statement entry return function call sequence points also occur evaluation expressions containing certain operators codice_73 codice_10 codice_75 comma operator permits high degree object code optimization compiler requires c programmers take care obtain reliable results needed programming languages kernighan ritchie say introduction c programming language c like language blemishes operators wrong precedence parts syntax could better c standard attempt correct many blemishes impact changes already existing software basic c source character set includes following characters newline indicates end text line need correspond actual single character although convenience c treats one additional multi-byte encoded characters may used string literals entirely portable latest c standard c11 allows multi-national unicode characters embedded portably within c source text using codice_83 codice_84 encoding codice_85 denotes hexadecimal character although feature yet widely implemented basic c execution character set contains characters along representations alert backspace carriage return run-time support extended character sets increased revision c standard c89 32 reserved words also known keywords words used purposes predefined c99 reserved five words c11 reserved seven words recently reserved words begin underscore followed capital letter identifiers form previously reserved c standard use implementations since existing program source code using identifiers would affected c implementations started supporting extensions programming language standard headers define convenient synonyms underscored identifiers language previously included reserved word called codice_130 seldom implemented removed reserved word c supports rich set operators symbols used within expression specify manipulations performed evaluating expression c operators c uses operator codice_136 used mathematics express equality indicate assignment following precedent fortran pl/i unlike algol derivatives c uses operator codice_156 test equality similarity two operators assignment equality may result accidental use one place many cases mistake produce error message although compilers produce warnings example conditional expression codice_176 might mistakenly written codice_177 evaluated true codice_76 zero assignment c operator precedence always intuitive example operator codice_156 binds tightly executed prior operators codice_9 bitwise codice_149 bitwise expressions codice_182 must written codice_183 coder intent hello world example appeared first edition k r become model introductory program programming textbooks regardless programming language program prints hello world standard output usually terminal screen display original version main standard-conforming hello world program int main void first line program contains preprocessing directive indicated codice_184 causes compiler replace line entire text codice_185 standard header contains declarations standard input output functions codice_186 codice_187 angle brackets surrounding codice_185 indicate codice_185 located using search strategy prefers headers provided compiler headers name opposed double quotes typically include local project-specific header files next line indicates function named codice_190 defined codice_190 function serves special purpose c programs run-time environment calls codice_190 function begin program execution type specifier codice_30 indicates value returned invoker case run-time environment result evaluating codice_190 function integer keyword codice_15 parameter list indicates function takes arguments opening curly brace indicates beginning definition codice_190 function next line calls diverts execution function named codice_186 case supplied system library call codice_186 function passed provided single argument address first character string literal codice_199 string literal unnamed array elements type codice_57 set automatically compiler final 0-valued character mark end array codice_186 needs know codice_202 escape sequence c translates newline character output signifies end current line return value codice_186 function type codice_30 silently discarded since used careful program might test return value determine whether codice_186 function succeeded semicolon codice_206 terminates statement closing curly brace indicates end code codice_190 function according c99 specification newer codice_190 function unlike function implicitly return value codice_80 upon reaching codice_60 terminates function formerly explicit codice_211 statement required interpreted run-time system exit code indicating successful execution type system c static weakly typed makes similar type system algol descendants pascal built-in types integers various sizes signed unsigned floating-point numbers enumerated types codice_14 integer type codice_57 often used single-byte characters c99 added boolean datatype also derived types including arrays pointers records codice_12 unions codice_35 c often used low-level systems programming escapes type system may necessary compiler attempts ensure type correctness expressions programmer override checks various ways either using type cast explicitly convert value one type another using pointers unions reinterpret underlying bits data object way find c declaration syntax unintuitive particularly function pointers ritchie idea declare identifiers contexts resembling use declaration reflects use c usual arithmetic conversions allow efficient code generated sometimes produce unexpected results example comparison signed unsigned integers equal width requires conversion signed value unsigned generate unexpected results signed value negative c supports use pointers type reference records address location object function memory pointers dereferenced access data stored address pointed invoke pointed-to function pointers manipulated using assignment pointer arithmetic run-time representation pointer value typically raw memory address perhaps augmented offset-within-word field since pointer type includes type thing pointed expressions including pointers type-checked compile time pointer arithmetic automatically scaled size pointed-to data type pointers used many purposes c. text strings commonly manipulated using pointers arrays characters dynamic memory allocation performed using pointers many data types trees commonly implemented dynamically allocated codice_12 objects linked together using pointers pointers functions useful passing functions arguments higher-order functions qsort bsearch callbacks invoked event handlers null pointer value explicitly points valid location dereferencing null pointer value undefined often resulting segmentation fault null pointer values useful indicating special cases next pointer final node linked list error indication functions returning pointers appropriate contexts source code assigning pointer variable null pointer constant written codice_80 without explicit casting pointer type codice_218 macro defined several standard headers conditional contexts null pointer values evaluate false pointer values evaluate true void pointers codice_219 point objects unspecified type therefore used generic data pointers since size type pointed-to object known void pointers dereferenced pointer arithmetic allowed although easily many contexts implicitly converted object pointer type careless use pointers potentially dangerous typically unchecked pointer variable made point arbitrary location cause undesirable effects although properly used pointers point safe places made point unsafe places using invalid pointer arithmetic objects point may continue used deallocation dangling pointers may used without initialized wild pointers may directly assigned unsafe value using cast union another corrupt pointer general c permissive allowing manipulation conversion pointer types although compilers typically provide options various levels checking programming languages address problems using restrictive reference types array types c traditionally fixed static size specified compile time recent c99 standard also allows form variable-length arrays however also possible allocate block memory arbitrary size run-time using standard library codice_220 function treat array c unification arrays pointers means declared arrays dynamically allocated simulated arrays virtually interchangeable since arrays always accessed effect via pointers array accesses typically checked underlying array size although compilers may provide bounds checking option array bounds violations therefore possible rather common carelessly written code lead various repercussions including illegal memory accesses corruption data buffer overruns run-time exceptions bounds checking desired must done manually c special provision declaring multi-dimensional arrays rather relies recursion within type system declare arrays arrays effectively accomplishes thing index values resulting multi-dimensional array thought increasing row-major order multi-dimensional arrays commonly used numerical algorithms mainly applied linear algebra store matrices structure c array well suited particular task however since arrays passed merely pointers bounds array must known fixed values else explicitly passed subroutine requires dynamically sized arrays arrays accessed using double indexing workaround allocate array additional row vector pointers columns c99 introduced variable-length arrays address issues ordinary c arrays subscript notation codice_221 codice_222 designates pointer syntactic sugar codice_223 taking advantage compiler knowledge pointer type address codice_224 points base address pointed codice_222 incremented codice_27 bytes rather defined base address incremented codice_27 multiplied size element codice_222 points thus codice_221 designates codice_230th element array furthermore expression contexts notable exception operand codice_108 name array automatically converted pointer array first element implies array never copied whole named argument function rather address first element passed therefore although function calls c use pass-by-value semantics arrays effect passed reference size element determined applying operator codice_108 dereferenced element codice_222 codice_234 codice_235 number elements declared array codice_78 determined codice_237 latter applies array names variables declared subscripts codice_238 due semantics c possible determine entire size arrays pointers arrays created dynamic allocation codice_220 code codice_240 codice_241 designates pointer work since compiler assumes size pointer requested since array name arguments codice_108 converted pointers exhibit ambiguity however arrays created dynamic allocation accessed pointers rather true array variables suffer codice_108 issues array pointers thus despite apparent equivalence array pointer variables still distinction made even though name array expression contexts converted pointer first element pointer occupy storage array name l-value address constant unlike pointer variable consequently array points changed impossible assign new address array name array contents may copied however using codice_244 function accessing individual elements one important functions programming language provide facilities managing memory objects stored memory c provides three distinct ways allocate memory objects three approaches appropriate different situations various trade-offs example static memory allocation little allocation overhead automatic allocation may involve slightly overhead dynamic memory allocation potentially great deal overhead allocation deallocation persistent nature static objects useful maintaining state information across function calls automatic allocation easy use stack space typically much limited transient either static memory heap space dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation objects whose size known run-time c programs make extensive use three possible automatic static allocation usually simplest storage managed compiler freeing programmer potentially error-prone chore manually allocating releasing storage however many data structures change size runtime since static allocations automatic allocations c99 must fixed size compile-time many situations dynamic allocation necessary prior c99 standard variable-sized arrays common example see article codice_220 example dynamically allocated arrays unlike automatic allocation fail run time uncontrolled consequences dynamic allocation functions return indication form null pointer value required storage allocated static allocation large usually detected linker loader program even begin execution unless otherwise specified static objects contain zero null pointer values upon program startup automatically dynamically allocated objects initialized initial value explicitly specified otherwise initially indeterminate values typically whatever bit pattern happens present storage might even represent valid value type program attempts access uninitialized value results undefined many modern compilers try detect warn problem false positives false negatives occur another issue heap memory allocation synchronized actual usage program order reused much possible example pointer heap memory allocation goes scope value overwritten codice_249 called memory recovered later reuse essentially lost program phenomenon known memory leak conversely possible memory freed continue referenced leading unpredictable results typically symptoms appear portion program far removed actual error making difficult track problem issues ameliorated languages automatic garbage collection c programming language uses libraries primary method extension c library set functions contained within single archive file library typically header file contains prototypes functions contained within library may used program declarations special data types macro symbols used functions order program use library must include library header file library must linked program many cases requires compiler flags e.g. codice_250 shorthand link math library common c library c standard library specified iso ansi c standards comes every c implementation implementations target limited environments embedded systems may provide subset standard library library supports stream input output memory allocation mathematics character strings time values several separate standard headers example codice_185 specify interfaces standard library facilities another common set c library functions used applications specifically targeted unix unix-like systems especially functions provide interface kernel functions detailed various standards posix single unix specification since many programs written c wide variety libraries available libraries often written c c compilers generate efficient object code programmers create interfaces library routines used higher-level languages like java perl python file input output i/o part c language instead handled libraries c standard library associated header files e.g codice_185 file handling generally implemented high-level i/o works streams stream perspective data flow independent devices file concrete device high level i/o done association stream file c standard library buffer memory area queue temporarily used store data sent final destination reduces time spent waiting slower devices example hard drive solid state drive low-level i/o functions part standard c library generally part bare metal programming programming independent operating system embedded programming exceptions implementations include low-level i/o number tools developed help c programmers find fix statements undefined behavior possibly erroneous expressions greater rigor provided compiler tool lint first leading many others automated source code checking auditing beneficial language c many tools exist lint common practice use lint detect questionable code program first written program passes lint compiled using c compiler also many compilers optionally warn syntactically valid constructs likely actually errors misra c proprietary set guidelines avoid questionable code developed embedded systems also compilers libraries operating system level mechanisms performing actions standard part c bounds checking arrays detection buffer overflow serialization dynamic memory tracking automatic garbage collection tools purify valgrind linking libraries containing special versions memory allocation functions help uncover runtime errors memory usage c widely used systems programming implementing operating systems embedded system applications c code written portability used purposes yet needed system-specific code used access specific hardware addresses perform type punning match externally imposed interface requirements low run-time demand system resources c also used website programming using cgi gateway information web application server browser c often chosen interpreted languages speed stability near-universal availability one consequence c wide availability efficiency compilers libraries interpreters programming languages often implemented c. reference implementations python perl php example written c. layer abstraction thin overhead low c enables programmers create efficient implementations algorithms data structures useful computationally intense programs example gnu multiple precision arithmetic library gnu scientific library mathematica matlab completely partially written c. c sometimes used intermediate language implementations languages approach may used portability convenience using c intermediate language additional machine-specific code generators necessary c features line-number preprocessor directives optional superfluous commas end initializer lists support compilation generated code however c shortcomings prompted development c-based languages specifically designed use intermediate languages c -- c also widely used implement end-user applications however applications also written newer higher-level languages c directly indirectly influenced many later languages c go java javascript limbo lpc perl php python unix c shell pervasive influence syntactical languages mentioned combine statement less recognizably expression syntax c type systems data models and/or large-scale program structures differ c sometimes radically several c near-c interpreters exist including ch cint also used scripting object-oriented languages became popular c++ objective-c two different extensions c provided object-oriented capabilities languages originally implemented source-to-source compilers source code translated c compiled c compiler c++ programming language devised bjarne stroustrup approach providing object-oriented functionality c-like syntax c++ adds greater typing strength scoping tools useful object-oriented programming permits generic programming via templates nearly superset c c++ supports c exceptions objective-c originally thin layer top c remains strict superset c permits object-oriented programming using hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm objective-c derives syntax c smalltalk syntax involves preprocessing expressions function declarations function calls inherited c syntax object-oriented features originally taken smalltalk addition c++ objective-c ch cilk unified parallel c nearly supersets c
Target text information: ncdu.ncdu ncdu ncurses disk usage disk utility unix systems name refers similar purpose du utility ncdu uses text-based user interface n curses programming library users navigate list using arrow keys delete files taking much space pressing 'd key version 1.09 later export file listing json format ncdu developed yoran heling learn c serve disk usage analyzer remote systems ssh
I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are:
0: Computational Linguistics
1: Databases
2: Operating Systems
3: Computer Architecture
4: Computer Security
5: Internet Protocols
6: Computer File Systems
7: Distributed Computing Architecture
8: Web Technology
9: Programming Language Topics
Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.
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6
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Computer File Systems
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wikics
| 10,025
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val
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1-hop neighbor's text information: clip_os.clip os clip os linux-based operating system created anssi national cybersecurity agency france aim produce hardened operating system secure sensitive information meets needs french administration clip os development since 2008 september 2018 anssi released two version clip os public stable version 4 in-development version 5 clip os based hardened gentoo variant gentoo linux developers noted whilst similar aims qubes os environment isolation mechanism different administrators clip os system able access user data unlike qubes-based system
1-hop neighbor's text information: comparison_of_open-source_wireless_drivers.comparison open-source wireless drivers wireless network cards computers require control software make function firmware device drivers list status open-source drivers 802.11 wireless network cards following incomplete list supported wireless devices
1-hop neighbor's text information: gnu/linux_naming_controversy.gnu/linux naming controversy gnu/linux naming controversy dispute members free software community open-source software community whether refer computer operating systems use combination gnu software linux kernel gnu/linux linux proponents term linux argue far commonly used public media serves generic term systems combine kernel software multiple sources proponents term gnu/linux note gnu alone would good name gnu variants combine gnu operating system software software sources gnu/linux term promoted free software foundation fsf founder richard stallman proponents call correction extended term grounds n't give credit major contributor associated free software philosophy gnu longstanding project begun 1984 develop free operating system argued linux kernel independently created 1991 merely provided substantial missing piece several distributions employ fsf-endorsed name debian trisquel parabola gnu/linux-libre 1983 richard stallman founder free software foundation set forth plans complete unix-like operating system called gnu composed entirely free software september year stallman published manifesto dr. dobb journal detailing new project publicly outlining vision free software software development work began january 1984 1991 gnu mid-level portions operating system almost complete upper level could supplied x window system lower level kernel device drivers system-level utilities daemons still mostly lacking gnu kernel called gnu hurd hurd followed ambitious design proved unexpectedly difficult implement marginally usable independently 1991 linus torvalds released first version linux kernel early linux developers ported gnu code including gnu c compiler run linux free software community adopted use linux kernel missing kernel gnu operating system work filled remaining gaps providing completely free operating system next years several suggestions arose naming operating systems using linux kernel gnu components 1992 yggdrasil linux distribution adopted name linux/gnu/x usenet mailing-list discussions one find usages gnu/linux early 1992 gnu+linux early 1993 debian project one time sponsored free software foundation switched calling product debian gnu/linux early 1994 change followed request richard stallman initially proposed lignux suggested gnu/linux instead hearing complaints awkwardness former term gnu june 1994 bulletin describes linux free unix system 386 machines many utilities libraries gnu january 1995 bulletin switched term gnu/linux instead stallman fsf efforts include gnu name started around 1994 reportedly mostly via private communications above-mentioned request debian 1996 may 1996 stallman released emacs 19.31 autoconf system target linux changed lignux shortly thereafter changed linux-gnu emacs 19.32 included essay linux gnu system suggesting people use terms linux-based gnu system gnu/linux system lignux short later used gnu/linux exclusively essay superseded stallman 1997 essay linux gnu project modern free software open-source software systems composed software many different authors including linux kernel developers gnu project vendors behind x window system desktop- server-based distributions use gnu components gnu c library glibc gnu core utilities coreutils bash 2002 analysis source code red hat linux 7.1 typical linux distribution total size packages gnu project found much larger linux kernel later 2011 analysis ubuntu natty release popular linux distribution main repository found 8 13 consisted gnu components range depending whether gnome considered part gnu 6 taken linux kernel 9 including direct dependencies determining exactly constitutes operating system per se matter continuing debate hand embedded systems handheld devices smartphones like google android residential gateways routers voice ip devices engineered space efficiency mind use linux kernel components gnu system running μclinux likely substitute uclibc glibc busybox coreutils google linux-based android operating system use gnu components libraries replacing glibc google bsd-based bionic c library fsf agrees gnu/linux appropriate name systems also systems use gnu userspace and/or c library top non-linux kernel example debian gnu/hurd gnu userland gnu kernel debian gnu/kfreebsd uses gnu coreutils c library kernel freebsd fsf justifies name gnu/linux primarily grounds gnu project specifically developing complete system argue linux kernel filled one final gaps large number gnu components gnu source code used systems secondary argument addition fsf also argues gnu/linux recognizes role idealism played building community helps public recognize practical importance ideals contrast focus technical advantage rather freedom linux kernel developers case linux kernel notable recurring examples focus technical advantage freedom come long-time inclusion linux kernel many non-free firmware files files non-free license terms ordinary understanding operating system includes kernel—the specific subsystem directly interfaces hardware—and userland software employed user application software control computer moreover name gnu name linux intentionally related name unix unix always conceptually included c library userland tools well kernel 1991 release notes versions 0.01 0.11 linux kernel released gnu general public license version 0.12 torvalds wrote torvalds also wrote 1992 tanenbaum-torvalds debate tanenbaum criticized torvalds developing linux monolithic kernel considered obsolete inferior microkernels mach believed linux would rejected favor gnu hurd microkernel stalled development years use word linux refer kernel operating system entire distributions often leads confusion distinctions among three many gnu packages key part almost every linux distribution particularly gnu toolchain present distros unless android included media sources sometimes make erroneous statements well claiming entire operating system rather simply kernel written torvalds confusion legal threats public relations campaigns apparently directed kernel launched sco group alexis de tocqueville institution adti misinterpreted many commentators assume whole operating system targeted sco adti even accused deliberately exploiting confusion regarding suggestions renaming efforts stem egotism personal pique stallman responded interest giving credit gnu project people think want ego fed course 'm asking call 'stallmanix stallman admitted irritation although believes justified response seeing idealistic project stymied made ineffective people n't usually give credit done concluding 're idealist like ruin whole decade response another common argument see fsf acknowledges many people contributed system short name credit argues justify calling system linux continuing speak subject 2010 stallman stated naming simply matter giving equal mention gnu project system widely referred linux people tend think linux started mr. torvalds 1991 think comes vision life really bad problem linux far widespread name eric s. raymond writes linux entry jargon file linus torvalds asked documentary revolution os whether name gnu/linux justified replied earlier comment torvalds naming controversy name gnu/linux particularly using stallman preferred pronunciation see criticized perceived clumsiness verbosity factor torvalds cited downfall operating systems 386bsd linux journal speculated stallman advocacy combined name stems frustration linus got glory stallman wanted others suggested regardless merits stallman persistence sometimes seems lost cause makes gnu look bad example larry mcvoy author bitkeeper used manage linux kernel development opined claiming credit makes one look foolish greedy many users vendors prefer name linux jim gettys one original developers x window system point inclusion non-gnu non-kernel tools kde libreoffice firefox end-user operating systems based linux kernel although gnu/linux often pronounced without slash stallman recommends explicitly saying word slash plus i.e gnu+linux order avoid mistaken suggestion linux kernel gnu package case gnu linux-libre
Target text information: grsecurity.grsecurity grsecurity set patches linux kernel emphasize security enhancements patches typically used computer systems accept remote connections untrusted locations web servers systems offering shell access users grsecurity provides collection security features linux kernel including address space protection enhanced auditing process control grsecurity produced open source security inc. headquartered pennsylvania since april 2017 patches available paying customers major component bundled grsecurity pax among features patch flags data memory stack example non-executable program memory non-writable aim prevent memory overwritten help prevent many types security vulnerabilities buffer overflows pax also provides address space layout randomization aslr randomizes important memory addresses reduce probability attacks rely easily predicted memory addresses another notable component grsecurity provides full role-based access control rbac system rbac intended restrict access system normally provided unix access control lists aim creating fully least-privilege system users processes absolute minimum privileges work correctly nothing way system compromised ability attacker damage gain sensitive information system drastically reduced rbac works collection roles role individual restrictions roles restrictions form access policy amended needed list rbac features grsecurity restricts chroot variety ways prevent various vulnerabilities privilege escalation attacks well add additional checks among things configured audit specific group users mounting/unmounting devices changes system time date codice_14 logging audit types allow administrator also log denied resource attempts failed codice_15 attempts ipc creation removal codice_16 logging together arguments trusted path execution another optional feature used prevent users executing binaries owned root user world-writable binaries useful prevent users executing malicious binaries accidentally executing world-writable system binaries could modified malicious user grsecurity also hardens way chroot jails work chroot jail used isolate particular process rest system used minimise potential damage service compromised ways break chroot jail grsecurity attempts prevent also features increase security prevent users gaining unnecessary knowledge system restricting codice_17 codice_18 commands root user list additional features security improvements grsecurity patches never submitted inclusion mainline linux kernel following reasons access grsecurity stable patches restricted bruce perens speculated blog post using patches obtained oss inc. stable patch access agreement according perens adds term gpl prohibiting distribution creating penalty distribution may expose clients legal risk copyright infringement brad spengler open source security inc. sued defamation lost district court directed pay bruce perens legal team almost 260,000 presently case process appeal
I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are:
0: Computational Linguistics
1: Databases
2: Operating Systems
3: Computer Architecture
4: Computer Security
5: Internet Protocols
6: Computer File Systems
7: Distributed Computing Architecture
8: Web Technology
9: Programming Language Topics
Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.
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Operating Systems
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1-hop neighbor's text information: floating-point_unit.floating-point unit floating-point unit fpu colloquially math coprocessor part computer system specially designed carry operations floating point numbers typical operations addition subtraction multiplication division square root bitshifting systems particularly older microcode-based architectures also perform various transcendental functions exponential trigonometric calculations though modern processors done software library routines general purpose computer architectures one fpus may integrated execution units within central processing unit however many embedded processors hardware support floating-point operations increasingly standard least 32-bit ones cpu executing program calls floating-point operation three ways carry historically systems implemented floating point via coprocessor rather integrated unit addition cpu e.g gpus coprocessors always built cpu fpus rule first generations gpus n't could single integrated circuit entire circuit board cabinet floating-point calculation hardware provided floating point calculations done software takes processor time avoids cost extra hardware particular computer architecture floating point unit instructions may emulated library software functions may permit object code run systems without floating point hardware emulation implemented several levels cpu microcode common practice operating system function user space code integer functionality available cordic floating point emulation methods commonly used modern computer architectures division floating-point operations integer operations division varies significantly architecture like intel x86 dedicated floating-point registers take far independent clocking schemes cordic routines implemented intel 8087 80287 80387 80486 coprocessor series well motorola 68881 68882 kinds floating-point instructions mainly way reduce gate counts complexity fpu sub-system floating-point operations often pipelined earlier superscalar architectures without general out-of-order execution floating-point operations sometimes pipelined separately integer operations since early 1990s many microprocessors desktops servers one fpu modular architecture bulldozer microarchitecture uses special fpu named flexfpu uses simultaneous multithreading physical integer core two per module single threaded contrast intel hyperthreading two virtual simultaneous threads share resources single physical core floating-point hardware supports simplest operations addition subtraction multiplication even complex floating-point hardware finite number operations support example none directly support arbitrary-precision arithmetic cpu executing program calls floating-point operation directly supported hardware cpu uses series simpler floating-point operations systems without floating-point hardware cpu emulates using series simpler fixed-point arithmetic operations run integer arithmetic logic unit software lists necessary series operations emulate floating-point operations often packaged floating-point library cases fpus may specialized divided simpler floating-point operations mainly addition multiplication complicated operations like division cases simple operations may implemented hardware microcode complex operations implemented software current architectures fpu functionality combined units perform simd computation example augmentation x87 instructions set sse instruction set x86-64 architecture used newer intel amd processors 1980s common ibm pc/compatible microcomputers fpu entirely separate cpu typically sold optional add-on would purchased needed speed enable math-intensive programs ibm pc xt compatibles based 8088 8086 socket optional 8087 coprocessor 80286-based systems generally socketed 80287 80386/80386sx based machines 80387 80387sx respectively although early ones socketed 80287 since 80387 exist yet companies manufactured co-processors intel x86 series included cyrix weitek coprocessors available motorola 68000 family 68881 68882 common motorola 68020/68030-based workstations like sun 3 series also commonly added higher-end models apple macintosh commodore amiga series unlike ibm pc-compatible systems sockets adding coprocessor common lower end systems also add-on fpus coprocessor units microcontroller units mcus/µcs /single-board computer sbcs serve provide floating-point arithmetic capability add-on fpus host-processor-independent possess programming requirements operations instruction sets etc often provided integrated development environments ides
1-hop neighbor's text information: microarchitecture.microarchitecture computer engineering microarchitecture also called computer organization sometimes abbreviated µarch uarch way given instruction set architecture isa implemented particular processor given isa may implemented different microarchitectures implementations may vary due different goals given design due shifts technology computer architecture combination microarchitecture instruction set architecture isa roughly programming model processor seen assembly language programmer compiler writer isa includes execution model processor registers address data formats among things microarchitecture includes constituent parts processor interconnect interoperate implement isa microarchitecture machine usually represented less detailed diagrams describe interconnections various microarchitectural elements machine may anything single gates registers complete arithmetic logic units alus even larger elements diagrams generally separate datapath data placed control path said steer data person designing system usually draws specific microarchitecture kind data flow diagram like block diagram microarchitecture diagram shows microarchitectural elements arithmetic logic unit register file single schematic symbol typically diagram connects elements arrows thick lines thin lines distinguish three-state buses require three-state buffer device drives bus unidirectional buses always driven single source way address bus simpler computers always driven memory address register individual control lines simple computers single data bus organization single three-state bus diagram complex computers usually shows multiple three-state buses help machine operations simultaneously microarchitectural element turn represented schematic describing interconnections logic gates used implement logic gate turn represented circuit diagram describing connections transistors used implement particular logic family machines different microarchitectures may instruction set architecture thus capable executing programs new microarchitectures and/or circuitry solutions along advances semiconductor manufacturing allows newer generations processors achieve higher performance using isa principle single microarchitecture could execute several different isas minor changes microcode pipelined datapath commonly used datapath design microarchitecture today technique used modern microprocessors microcontrollers dsps pipelined architecture allows multiple instructions overlap execution much like assembly line pipeline includes several different stages fundamental microarchitecture designs stages include instruction fetch instruction decode execute write back architectures include stages memory access design pipelines one central microarchitectural tasks execution units also essential microarchitecture execution units include arithmetic logic units alu floating point units fpu load/store units branch prediction simd units perform operations calculations processor choice number execution units latency throughput central microarchitectural design task size latency throughput connectivity memories within system also microarchitectural decisions system-level design decisions whether include peripherals memory controllers considered part microarchitectural design process includes decisions performance-level connectivity peripherals unlike architectural design achieving specific performance level main goal microarchitectural design pays closer attention constraints since microarchitecture design decisions directly affect goes system attention must paid issues chip area/cost power consumption logic complexity ease connectivity manufacturability ease debugging testability general cpus single-chip microprocessors multi-chip implementations run programs performing following steps instruction cycle repeated continuously power turned historically earliest computers multicycle designs smallest least-expensive computers often still use technique multicycle architectures often use least total number logic elements reasonable amounts power designed deterministic timing high reliability particular pipeline stall taking conditional branches interrupts however microarchitectures often perform instructions per unit time using logic family discussing improved performance improvement often relative multicycle design multicycle computer computer four steps sequence several cycles clock designs perform sequence two clock cycles completing successive stages alternate clock edges possibly longer operations occurring outside main cycle example stage one rising edge first cycle stage two falling edge first cycle etc control logic combination cycle counter cycle state high low bits instruction decode register determine exactly part computer design control logic one create table bits describing control signals part computer cycle instruction logic table tested software simulation running test code logic table placed memory used actually run real computer called microprogram computer designs logic table optimized form combinational logic made logic gates usually using computer program optimizes logic early computers used ad-hoc logic design control maurice wilkes invented tabular approach called microprogramming complicating simple-looking series steps fact memory hierarchy includes caching main memory non-volatile storage like hard disks program instructions data reside always slower processor step 2 often introduces lengthy cpu terms delay data arrives computer bus considerable amount research put designs avoid delays much possible years central goal execute instructions parallel thus increasing effective execution speed program efforts introduced complicated logic circuit structures initially techniques could implemented expensive mainframes supercomputers due amount circuitry needed techniques semiconductor manufacturing progressed techniques could implemented single semiconductor chip see moore law instruction sets shifted years originally simple sometimes complex various respects recent years load-store architectures vliw epic types fashion architectures dealing data parallelism include simd vectors labels used denote classes cpu architectures particularly descriptive especially cisc label many early designs retroactively denoted cisc fact significantly simpler modern risc processors several respects however choice instruction set architecture may greatly affect complexity implementing high-performance devices prominent strategy used develop first risc processors simplify instructions minimum individual semantic complexity combined high encoding regularity simplicity uniform instructions easily fetched decoded executed pipelined fashion simple strategy reduce number logic levels order reach high operating frequencies instruction cache-memories compensated higher operating frequency inherently low code density large register sets used factor much slow memory accesses possible one first powerful techniques improve performance use instruction pipelining early processor designs would carry steps one instruction moving onto next large portions circuitry left idle one step instance instruction decoding circuitry would idle execution pipelining improves performance allowing number instructions work way processor time basic example processor would start decode step 1 new instruction last one waiting results would allow four instructions flight one time making processor look four times fast although one instruction takes long complete still four steps cpu whole retires instructions much faster risc makes pipelines smaller much easier construct cleanly separating stage instruction process making take amount time—one cycle processor whole operates assembly line fashion instructions coming one side results due reduced complexity classic risc pipeline pipelined core instruction cache could placed size die would otherwise fit core alone cisc design real reason risc faster early designs like sparc mips often ran 10 times fast intel motorola cisc solutions clock speed price pipelines means limited risc designs 1986 top-of-the-line vax implementation vax 8800 heavily pipelined design slightly predating first commercial mips sparc designs modern cpus even embedded cpus pipelined microcoded cpus pipelining seen area-constrained embedded processors large cisc machines vax 8800 modern pentium 4 athlon implemented microcode pipelines improvements pipelining caching two major microarchitectural advances enabled processor performance keep pace circuit technology based long improvements chip manufacturing allowed even circuitry placed die designers started looking ways use one common add ever-increasing amount cache memory on-die cache simply fast memory accessed cycles opposed many needed talk main memory cpu includes cache controller automates reading writing cache data already cache simply appears whereas processor stalled cache controller reads risc designs started adding cache mid-to-late 1980s often 4 kb total number grew time typical cpus least 512 kb powerful cpus come 1 2 even 4 6 8 12 mb organized multiple levels memory hierarchy generally speaking cache means performance due reduced stalling caches pipelines perfect match previously n't make much sense build pipeline could run faster access latency off-chip memory using on-chip cache memory instead meant pipeline could run speed cache access latency much smaller length time allowed operating frequencies processors increase much faster rate off-chip memory one barrier achieving higher performance instruction-level parallelism stems pipeline stalls flushes due branches normally whether conditional branch taken n't known late pipeline conditional branches depend results coming register time processor instruction decoder figured encountered conditional branch instruction time deciding register value read pipeline needs stalled several cycles branch taken pipeline needs flushed clock speeds increase depth pipeline increases modern processors may 20 stages average every fifth instruction executed branch without intervention high amount stalling techniques branch prediction speculative execution used lessen branch penalties branch prediction hardware makes educated guesses whether particular branch taken reality one side branch called much often modern designs rather complex statistical prediction systems watch results past branches predict future greater accuracy guess allows hardware prefetch instructions without waiting register read speculative execution enhancement code along predicted path prefetched also executed known whether branch taken yield better performance guess good risk huge penalty guess bad instructions need undone even added complexity gates needed support concepts outlined improvements semiconductor manufacturing soon allowed even logic gates used outline processor processes parts single instruction time computer programs could executed faster multiple instructions processed simultaneously superscalar processors achieve replicating functional units alus replication functional units made possible die area single-issue processor longer stretched limits could reliably manufactured late 1980s superscalar designs started enter market place modern designs common find two load units one store many instructions results store two integer math units two floating point units often simd unit sort instruction issue logic grows complexity reading huge list instructions memory handing different execution units idle point results collected re-ordered end addition caches reduces frequency duration stalls due waiting data fetched memory hierarchy get rid stalls entirely early designs cache miss would force cache controller stall processor wait course may instruction program whose data available cache point out-of-order execution allows ready instruction processed older instruction waits cache re-orders results make appear everything happened programmed order technique also used avoid operand dependency stalls instruction awaiting result long latency floating-point operation multi-cycle operations register renaming refers technique used avoid unnecessary serialized execution program instructions reuse registers instructions suppose two groups instruction use register one set instructions executed first leave register set set assigned different similar register sets instructions executed parallel series computer architects become stymied growing mismatch cpu operating frequencies dram access times none techniques exploited instruction-level parallelism ilp within one program could make long stalls occurred data fetched main memory additionally large transistor counts high operating frequencies needed advanced ilp techniques required power dissipation levels could longer cheaply cooled reasons newer generations computers started exploit higher levels parallelism exist outside single program program thread trend sometimes known throughput computing idea originated mainframe market online transaction processing emphasized execution speed one transaction capacity deal massive numbers transactions transaction-based applications network routing web-site serving greatly increasing last decade computer industry re-emphasized capacity throughput issues one technique parallelism achieved multiprocessing systems computer systems multiple cpus reserved high-end mainframes supercomputers small-scale 2–8 multiprocessors servers become commonplace small business market large corporations large scale 16–256 multiprocessors common even personal computers multiple cpus appeared since 1990s transistor size reductions made available semiconductor technology advances multi-core cpus appeared multiple cpus implemented silicon chip initially used chips targeting embedded markets simpler smaller cpus would allow multiple instantiations fit one piece silicon 2005 semiconductor technology allowed dual high-end desktop cpus cmp chips manufactured volume designs sun microsystems ultrasparc t1 reverted simpler scalar in-order designs order fit processors one piece silicon another technique become popular recently multithreading multithreading processor fetch data slow system memory instead stalling data arrive processor switches another program program thread ready execute though speed particular program/thread increases overall system throughput reducing time cpu idle conceptually multithreading equivalent context switch operating system level difference multithreaded cpu thread switch one cpu cycle instead hundreds thousands cpu cycles context switch normally requires achieved replicating state hardware register file program counter active thread enhancement simultaneous multithreading technique allows superscalar cpus execute instructions different programs/threads simultaneously cycle
1-hop neighbor's text information: register_memory_architecture.register memory architecture computer engineering register–memory architecture instruction set architecture allows operations performed memory well registers architecture allows operands memory registers combinations called register plus memory architecture register–memory approach one operands add operation may memory register differs load/store architecture used risc designs mips operands add operation must registers add examples register memory architecture ibm system/360 successors intel x86 examples register plus memory architecture vax motorola 68000 family
Target text information: cycles_per_instruction.cycles per instruction computer architecture cycles per instruction aka clock cycles per instruction clocks per instruction cpi one aspect processor performance average number clock cycles per instruction program program fragment multiplicative inverse instructions per cycle average cycles per instruction given process defined following formula_1 formula_2 number instructions given instruction type formula_3 formula_4 clock-cycles instruction type formula_5 total instruction count summation sums instruction types given benchmarking process let us assume classic risc pipeline following five stages stage requires one clock cycle instruction passes stages sequentially without pipelining new instruction fetched stage 1 previous instruction finishes stage 5 therefore number clock cycles takes execute instruction five cpi 5 1 case processor said subscalar pipelining new instruction fetched every clock cycle exploiting instruction-level parallelism therefore since one could theoretically five instructions five pipeline stages one instruction per stage different instruction would complete stage 5 every clock cycle average number clock cycles takes execute instruction 1 cpi 1 case processor said scalar single-execution-unit processor best cpi attainable 1 however multiple-execution-unit processor one may achieve even better cpi values cpi 1 case processor said superscalar get better cpi values without pipelining number execution units must greater number stages example six executions units six new instructions fetched stage 1 six previous instructions finish stage 5 therefore average number clock cycles takes execute instruction 5/6 cpi 5/6 1 get better cpi values pipelining must least two execution units example two executions units two new instructions fetched every clock cycle exploiting instruction-level parallelism therefore two different instructions would complete stage 5 every clock cycle average number clock cycles takes execute instruction 1/2 cpi 1/2 1 multi-cycle mips five types instructions program cpi formula_6 433mhz processor used execute benchmark program following instruction mix clock cycle count determine effective cpi mips millions instructions per second rate execution time program formula_7 formula_8 since formula_9 formula_10 formula_11 therefore formula_12
I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are:
0: Computational Linguistics
1: Databases
2: Operating Systems
3: Computer Architecture
4: Computer Security
5: Internet Protocols
6: Computer File Systems
7: Distributed Computing Architecture
8: Web Technology
9: Programming Language Topics
Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.
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Computer Architecture
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1-hop neighbor's text information: xop_instruction_set.xop instruction set xop extended operations instruction set announced amd may 1 2009 extension 128-bit sse core instructions x86 amd64 instruction set bulldozer processor core released october 12 2011 however amd removed support xop zen microarchitecture onward xop instruction set contains several different types vector instructions since originally intended major upgrade sse instructions integer instructions also contains floating point permutation floating point fraction extraction instructions see index list instruction types xop revised subset originally intended sse5 changed similar overlapping avx parts overlapped avx removed moved separate standards fma4 floating-point vector multiply–accumulate cvt16 half-precision floating-point conversion implemented f16c intel sse5 instructions equivalent similar instructions avx fma4 instruction sets announced intel changed use coding proposed intel integer instructions without equivalents avx classified xop extension xop instructions opcode byte 8f hexadecimal otherwise almost identical coding scheme avx 3-byte vex prefix commentators seen evidence intel allowed amd use part large vex coding space amd forced use different codes order avoid using code combination intel might possibly using development pipeline something else xop coding scheme close vex scheme technically possible without risking amd codes overlap future intel codes inference speculative since public information available negotiations two companies issue use 8f byte requires m-bits see vex coding scheme value larger equal 8 order avoid overlap existing instructions c4 byte used vex scheme restriction may prevent use m-bits purposes future xop scheme vex scheme another possible problem pp bits value 00 xop scheme value 01 vex scheme instructions legacy equivalent may complicate use pp bits purposes future similar compatibility issue difference fma3 fma4 instruction sets intel initially proposed fma4 avx/fma specification version 3 supersede 3-operand fma proposed amd sse5 amd adopted fma4 intel canceled fma4 support reverted fma3 avx/fma specification version 5 see fma history march 2015 amd explicitly revealed description patch gnu binutils package zen third-generation x86-64 architecture first iteration znver1 – zen version 1 support tbm fma4 xop lwp instructions developed specifically bulldozer family micro-architectures integer version fma instruction set four operand instructions similar fma4 operate signed integers horizontal addition instructions adds adjacent values input vector output size instructions describes wide horizontal addition performed instance horizontal byte word adds two bytes time returns result vector words byte quadword adds eight bytes together time returns result vector quadwords six additional horizontal addition subtraction instructions found ssse3 operate two input vectors two two operations set vector compare instructions take immediate extra argument immediate controls kind comparison performed eight comparison possible instruction vectors compared comparisons evaluate true set corresponding bits destination 1 false comparisons sets bits 0 result used directly vpcmov instruction vectorized conditional move vpcmov works bitwise variant blend instructions sse4 bit selector 1 selects bit first source 0 selects second source used together xop vector comparison instructions used implement vectorized ternary move second input destination conditional move cmov shift instructions differ sse2 shift unit different amount using vector register interpreted packed signed integers sign indicates direction shift rotate positive values causing left shift negative right shift intel specified different incompatible set variable vector shift instructions avx2 vpperm single instruction combines ssse3 instruction palignr pshufb adds compare altivec instruction vperm takes three registers input first two source registers third selector register byte selector selects one bytes one two input registers output selector also apply effects selected bytes setting 0 reverse bit order repeating signicating bit effects input addition inverted vpermil2pd vpermil2ps instructions two source versions vpermilpd vpermilps instructions avx means like vpperm select output fields two inputs instructions extracts fractional part floating point part would lost conversion integer
1-hop neighbor's text information: heterogeneous_system_architecture.heterogeneous system architecture heterogeneous system architecture hsa cross-vendor set specifications allow integration central processing units graphics processors bus shared memory tasks hsa developed hsa foundation includes among many others amd arm platform stated aim reduce communication latency cpus gpus compute devices make various devices compatible programmer perspective relieving programmer task planning moving data devices disjoint memories must currently done opencl cuda cuda opencl well fairly advanced programming languages use hsa increase execution performance heterogeneous computing widely used system-on-chip devices tablets smartphones mobile devices video game consoles hsa allows programs use graphics processor floating point calculations without separate memory scheduling rationale behind hsa ease burden programmers offloading calculations gpu originally driven solely amd called fsa idea extended encompass processing units gpus manufacturers dsps well modern gpus well suited perform single instruction multiple data simd single instruction multiple threads simt modern cpus still optimized branching etc originally introduced embedded systems cell broadband engine sharing system memory directly multiple system actors makes heterogeneous computing mainstream heterogeneous computing refers systems contain multiple processing units central processing units cpus graphics processing units gpus digital signal processors dsps type application-specific integrated circuits asics system architecture allows accelerator instance graphics processor operate processing level system cpu among main features hsa defines unified virtual address space compute devices gpus traditionally memory separate main cpu memory hsa requires devices share page tables devices exchange data sharing pointers supported custom memory management units render interoperability possible also ease various aspects programming hsa intended isa-agnostic cpus accelerators support high-level programming languages far hsa specifications cover hsa intermediate layer hsail virtual instruction set parallel programs mobile devices one hsa application areas yields improved power efficiency block diagrams provide high-level illustrations hsa operates compares traditional architectures hsa-specific features implemented hardware need supported operating system kernel specific device drivers example support amd radeon amd firepro graphics cards apus based graphics core next gcn merged version 3.19 linux kernel mainline released 8 february 2015 programs interact directly queue jobs utilizing hsa runtime first implementation known focuses berlin apus works alongside existing radeon kernel graphics driver additionally supports heterogeneous queuing hq aims simplify distribution computational jobs among multiple cpus gpus programmer perspective support heterogeneous memory management hmm suited graphics hardware featuring version 2 amd iommu accepted linux kernel mainline version 4.14 integrated support hsa platforms announced sumatra release openjdk due 2015 amd app sdk amd proprietary software development kit targeting parallel computing available microsoft windows linux bolt c++ template library optimized heterogeneous computing gpuopen comprehends couple software tools related hsa codexl version 2.0 includes hsa profiler amd kaveri a-series apus cf kaveri desktop processors kaveri mobile processors sony playstation 4 allowed integrated gpu access memory via version 2 amd iommu earlier apus trinity richland included version 2 iommu functionality use external gpu connected via pci express post-2015 carrizo bristol ridge apus also include version 2 iommu functionality integrated gpu arm bifrost microarchitecture implemented mali-g71 fully compliant hsa 1.1 hardware specifications arm announced software support would use hardware feature
1-hop neighbor's text information: list_of_linux-supported_computer_architectures.list linux-supported computer architectures basic components linux family operating systems based linux kernel gnu c library busybox forks thereof like μclinux uclibc programmed certain level abstraction mind also distinct code paths assembly language c source code support certain hardware therefore source code successfully compiled onor cross-compiled fora great number computer architectures furthermore required free open-source software also developed interface linux hardware linux executed example compilers available e.g gnu compiler collection gcc llvm/clang cross-compilation number complete toolchains available like gnu toolchain openwrt buildroot openembedded yocto project targeted embedded use cases portability section linux kernel article contains information references technical details note components like display server programs like blender present absent fundamentally software ported i.e specifically adapted kind hardware supposed executed level abstraction kept mind programming software first place dictates necessary effort relevant term porting target computer architecture comprises instruction set microarchitecture processor least cpu target also comprises system design entire system supercomputer desktop computer soc e.g case unique bus used former times memory controller part chipset motherboard cpu-die although support specific instruction set task compiler software must written certain level abstraction mind make portability possible code written assembly language specific instruction set support specific microarchitecture includes optimizations cpu cache hierarchy tlb etc additional processors particularly freescale 68000 coldfire supported mmu-less μclinux variant
Target text information: pa-risc.pa-risc pa-risc instruction set architecture isa developed hewlett-packard name implies reduced instruction set computer risc architecture pa stands precision architecture design also referred hp/pa hewlett packard precision architecture architecture introduced 26 february 1986 hp 3000 series 930 hp 9000 model 840 computers launched featuring first implementation ts1 pa-risc succeeded itanium originally ia-64 isa jointly developed hp intel hp stopped selling pa-risc-based hp 9000 systems end 2008 supported servers running pa-risc chips 2013 late 1980s hp building four series computers based cisc cpus one line ibm pc compatible intel i286-based vectra series started 1986 others non-intel systems one hp series 300 motorola 68000-based workstations another series 200 line technical workstations based custom silicon sapphire sos chip design sos based 16-bit hp 3000 classic series finally hp 9000 series 500 minicomputers based 16 32-bit focus microprocessor precision architecture result known inside hewlett-packard spectrum program hp planned use spectrum move non-pc compatible machines single risc cpu family first processors introduced 1986 thirty-two 32-bit integer registers sixteen 64-bit floating-point registers number floating-point registers doubled 1.1 version 32 became apparent 16 inadequate restricted performance architects included allen baum hans jeans michael j. mahon ruby bei-loh lee russel kao steve muchnick terrence c. miller david fotland william s. worley first implementation ts1 central processing unit built discrete transistor–transistor logic 74f ttl devices later implementations multi-chip vlsi designs fabricated nmos processes ns1 ns2 cmos cs1 pcx first used new series hp 3000 machines late 1980s – 930 950 commonly known time spectrum systems name given development labs machines ran mpe-xl hp 9000 machines soon upgraded pa-risc processor well running hp-ux version unix operating systems ported pa-risc architecture include linux openbsd netbsd nextstep interesting aspect pa-risc line generations level 2 cache instead large level 1 caches used formerly separate chips connected bus integrated on-chip pa-7100lc pa-7300lc l2 caches another innovation pa-risc addition vectorized instructions simd form max first introduced pa-7100lc precision risc organization industry group led hp founded 1992 promote pa-risc architecture members included convex hitachi hughes aircraft mitsubishi nec oki prime stratus yokogawa red brick software allegro consultants inc.. isa extended 1996 64 bits revision named pa-risc 2.0 pa-risc 2.0 also added fused multiply–add instructions help certain floating-point intensive algorithms max-2 simd extension provides instructions accelerating multimedia applications first pa-risc 2.0 implementation pa-8000 introduced january 1996
I provide the content of the target node and its neighbors' information. The relation between the target node and its 1-hop neighbors is 'hyperlink'. The 10 categories are:
0: Computational Linguistics
1: Databases
2: Operating Systems
3: Computer Architecture
4: Computer Security
5: Internet Protocols
6: Computer File Systems
7: Distributed Computing Architecture
8: Web Technology
9: Programming Language Topics
Question: Based on the content of the target and neighbors' Wikipedia pages, predict the category ID (0 to 9) for the target node.
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3
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Computer Architecture
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wikics
| 8,944
|
test
|
"1-hop neighbor's text information: tcl.tcl tcl pronounced tickle tee cee ell high-level general-pur(...TRUNCATED)
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1
|
Databases
|
wikics
| 2,727
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none
|
"1-hop neighbor's text information: unix_system_v.unix system v unix system v pronounced system five(...TRUNCATED)
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2
|
Operating Systems
|
wikics
| 1,595
|
none
|
"1-hop neighbor's text information: sun_microsystems.sun microsystems sun microsystems inc. american(...TRUNCATED)
|
3
|
Computer Architecture
|
wikics
| 3,247
|
test
|
"1-hop neighbor's text information: compiler-compiler.compiler-compiler computer science compiler-co(...TRUNCATED)
|
9
|
Programming Language Topics
|
wikics
| 2,751
|
test
|
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